IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO.

1, JANUARY 2007

201

Studies to Utilize Loading Guides and ANN

for Oil-Immersed Distribution Transformer
Condition Monitoring
Jouni K. Pylvninen, Kirsi Nousiainen, and Pekka Verho

AbstractThere are plenty of proper monitoring methods

to evaluate the condition and possible incipient failures of a
power transformer. For distribution transformer monitoring,
the methods are usually too expensive and/or time consuming to
use. However, cost-efficient methods for distribution transformer
monitoring are needed and one possibility for this is to utilize
loading and temperature information measured from the network.
The monitoring methods presented in the paper are based on the
existing IEC and IEEE standards and neural-network analysis.
The methods are used to calculate the top-oil and hot-spot temperature as well as the loss of life of a transformer. The calculated
results are verified with measured top-oil temperature values.
The possibilities to utilize studied methods in a larger scale for
distribution transformer monitoring are also discussed in this
paper.

Fig. 1. Transformer temperature behavior based on [1].

Index TermsCondition monitoring, current harmonics, distribution transformer, temperature calculation.

II. METHODS FOR CONDITION MONITORING OF OIL-IMMERSED

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
I. INTRODUCTION

N A distribution network, the transformer is one of the most

critical components based on the inconvenience caused
by a failure. Accurate monitoring methods (e.g., gas-in-oil
analysis and recovery voltage measurements) are suitable for
power transformers. However, for distribution transformers,
the methods are not usually adequate because of the high
costs of the measurements and demanding test arrangements.
Due to the lack of inexpensive monitoring techniques, the
temperature values as well as the accurate degree of utilization
of distribution transformers are seldom known. To be on the
safe side, distribution transformers are often overrated. On
the other hand, due to the lack of continuous monitoring,
there may also be loading circumstances when the hot-spot
temperature rises above the critical value and could lead to
component failures. One possibility for better and cost-efficient
distribution transformer monitoring is to utilize the information
given by the existing distribution network measurements and
automation systems. Based on the collected data, calculational
determination of the condition of distribution transformers is
possible if proper methods are used.

Manuscript received August 25, 2005; revised March 8, 2006. Paper no.
TPWRD-00503-2005.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Tampere
University of Technology, Tampere 33101, Finland (e-mail: jouni.pylvanainen@tut.fi; kirsi.nousiainen@tut.fi; pekka.verho@tut.fi).
Color version of Figs. 36 are available online at http://ieeexplore.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2006.877075

The most important factor limiting the loading capacity

and the technical life of an oil-paper-insulated distribution
transformer is the highest temperature in the winding area,
the so-called hot-spot area. This is because the principal
factor determining the aging of a transformer is the thermally
activated chemical process deteriorating the insulation in the
winding hot-spot area.
A. Loading Guides for Transformers
The work to define calculational methods for the hot-spot
temperature and the loss of life evaluation has been carried out
for decades both with IEEE and IEC. Both organizations have
published standards for the calculational hot spot and loss of
life evaluation for dry-type and oil-immersed transformers. The
standards provide a good basis for algorithm development for
distribution transformer monitoring. In the studies made at the
Tampere University of Technology (TUT), IEC 60354 and IEEE
C57.91 loading guides for oil-immersed transformers have been
studied [1], [2]. Calculation models presented in standards [1]
and [2] can be used to evaluate the temperature behavior of the
oil-immersed transformer. In the standards, simplistic calculational temperature approximation is based on the linear temperature behavior depicted in Fig. 1.
Both standards contain simple equations to define the
hot-spot temperature and loss of life of a transformer and also
give some overloading limitations based on the overloading
time and the magnitude of the overload. However, studies
presented, for example, in [3][6] have shown that the simple
calculation methods described in [1] and [2] are not always

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valid. In the IEEE publication C57.91 annex G [2], an improved

method for the hot spot and aging calculation for oil-immersed
transformers has been presented. The improved method takes
into account with, for instance, the type of insulation liquid,
cooling mode, winding duct oil temperature rise, resistance,
and viscosity changes as, for example, depicted in [5] and
[7]. The disadvantage of the method presented in standard [2]
annex G is the amount of information needed of the transformer for the calculation to be valid. The exact information
(e.g., from winding eddy losses) is, in many cases, difficult to
obtain. However, the initial information for the more complex
calculation presented in [2] annex G can be adapted from the
nameplate information similar to the simple calculation model,
but in this case, some conservative assumptions have to be
made. The assumptions may sometimes affect the accuracy of
the calculated temperature values.

B. Current Harmonics
The temperature evaluation methods presented in [1] and [2]
are suitable in loading situations, where no current harmonics
are involved. However, in some loading circumstances, the content of the current harmonics can be quite high. In the case, the
hot- spot temperature calculated with the conventional methods
adapted from loading guides [1] and [2] can differ quite greatly
from the real hot-spot temperature. Guidance to take into
account the harmonic losses with simple equations in loading
calculations can be found (e.g., in CENELEC harmonization
document 428.4 [8]). For similar purposes, equations from
valid IEEE standard C57.110 [9] and IEC standard 61378-1
[10] could be adapted.
1) Effects of the Harmonics: There are usually both current
and voltage harmonics occurring at the same time in the network, but in the studies only the effects of the current harmonics
are evaluated. This is because the effects of the increase of the
no-load losses due to harmonics in voltage are usually negligible
compared to the load losses, in general, or losses generated by
the current harmonics. The harmonics in the load current noticeably increase the losses of an ordinary delta-star-connected
transformer.
One way to take care of the generated extra losses due to current harmonics is to utilize -rated transformers. -rated transformers are designed with bearing the harmonic load in mind
and, in this way, better endure the effects of harmonics. However, these special transformers are quite expensive and a more
common solution is to derate a standard transformer designed
for sinusoidal loads. In this case, the amplitude and frequency
of the predominant current harmonics should be known to define the derating factor of the transformer. Guidance for the simplified calculation of the derating factor due to the current harmonics is in the studies adapted from CENELEC publication
HD 428.4 S1-1994 [8]. The utilized equations are depicted more
precisely in the following sections.
The extra losses caused by the harmonics are mainly due to
increased eddy current losses in the windings and connections
and due to stray losses in the conducting structural parts of the
transformer [3]. According to [8], the effects of the harmonics

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 1, JANUARY 2007

can be taken into account with the derating factor (factor

given in (1)

(1)
are the eddy current losses at the fundamental frewhere
quency divided by the loss due to dc current equal to the root
mean square (rms) value of the sinusoidal current (both at reference temperature), is the harmonic order, and is an exponential constant which is dependent on the type of winding and
frequency. It should be noted that the presented parameter is
not the same as that used in standards [9] and [10], where a parameter is presented with two different values (one for eddy current losses inside the windings and one for stray losses outside
the windings). Another thing, which needs to be recognized, is
that the defined factor is not the same -factor, which is discussed, for example, in [3]. In (1), the used parameter is given
by (2)
(2)
is the magnitude of the th harmonic and
is the
where
magnitude of the fundamental current. The calculated factor
can easily be utilized in temperature and loss of life calculations
of a transformer.
C. Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)
The ANNs can also be utilized in many ways for monitoring
purposes in distribution networks [11]. An ANN has been used,
for example, for thermal modeling of the energy cables [12].
The results presented in [12] have proven that ANNs can emulate thermal behavior of the network cables quite accurately
and the ANN models can be used for similar types of modeling
problems.
In the studies, ANN has been used to emulate hot-spot and
top-oil temperature behavior of the oil-immersed transformer
studied. The selected input parameters for the ANN are the same
as the input quantities used with calculation equations adapted
from the standards [1] and [2]. The selected ANN model is a dynamic two-layer perceptron neural network structure. To train
the network, a GaussNewton recursive prediction error algorithm is utilized. More information about the algorithms used is
available (e.g., in [13]).
The structure of the ANN has been optimized by testing different multilayer perceptron network structures and selecting
the optimal combination of hidden layer neurons. An example
of a schematic ANN structure, which has been divided into several layers, is shown as a blackbox model in Fig. 2. The first
level is the input layer, which consists of five different input vectors. The vectors are the measured ambient temperature
and three-phase currents , , , as well as one past output
of the ANN. The second layer is the hidden layer
value
with five hidden neurons and nonlinear activation functions. The
third layer specifies the output layer structure, which gives the
calculated temperature values as an output.

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203

Fig. 2. Blackbox model of the ANN structure, which has been used in emulating the thermal behavior of the distribution transformers.
Fig. 3. Modeling results calculated with different calculation algorithms.

III. EXAMPLE STUDIES

A. Data Utilization
The data used in the temperature calculations have been measured from several different types of oil-immersed transformers
located both indoors and outdoors. For each transformer, the following quantities were measured:
three-phase loading values (current);
ambient temperature;
top-oil temperature.
The measured information from the current harmonics has
been obtained by using an Electrix Digital Active (P) and
Reactive (Q) (EDPQ) power meter, which is a commercial
power-quality analyzer. Current harmonic information is available from some transformers studied.
Since proper software calculates temperature values based on
[1][3] and has not been commercially available, a pilot application has been developed. The application is programmed to
calculate the top-oil and hot-spot temperatures and the cumulative aging of the distribution transformer based on the measured
information. The measured data have been used both as an input
of the pilot application and for algorithm evaluation.
The measured data have also been used to train and
evaluate the results achieved with the multilayer perceptron-type ANN. The ANN has been programmed by using the
NNSYSIDtoolbox included in MATLABsoftware [13]. In
this case, the top-oil temperature is selected as an output value
of the network because the hot-spot temperature has not been
measured.
B. Studies With Oil-Immersed Transformer Loading Guides
Before calculations, some of the calculation parameters
adapted from [1] and [2] have been adjusted to better correspond with the transformer studied. The example results
achieved with calculational temperature approximation are
depicted in Fig. 3. In the example case, the studied 1000-kVA
transformer supplies urban residential customers. The loading
values were measured in this case every 10 min.
As can be seen from Fig. 3, the calculated top-oil temperature values follow quite accurately the measured values and
for long-term monitoring, the results are adequate. However, in
some cases, the calculated top-oil temperature can rise occasionally more quickly than the measured temperature values. This

is the case, for instance, during the rapid load changes. It can
also be seen that sometimes the oil-temperature values calculated with [1] do not follow the measured values as accurately
as the values calculated with [2]. However, adjusting the calculation parameters again with the measured data could decrease
the error.
In general, it can be evaluated that both methods adapted from
[1] and [2] follow the measured top-oil temperature values accurately enough for the loss of life approximation. The error between the measured and calculated temperature values are in the
worst case below 4 and the difference has remained by only a
few moments. However, when the methods are utilized for accurate temperature evaluation, for example, when the methods are
used to define dynamically maximum loading limits, the calculation parameters should be adjusted properly according to the
transformer studied.
The achieved results are similar to the ones presented in other
studies related to this topic even if the other publications concentrate on power transformers [3], [10]. In conclusion, it can be
stated that the calculation methods described in standards IEC
60354 and IEEE C57.91 annex G can be utilized to determine
the condition of a transformer to some extent.
C. Results With Trained ANN
In order to study the accuracy of the trained ANN, the
measured and calculated top-oil temperatures have been compared. Fig. 4 presents an example of the ANN modeling with a
proper training set. Also, the results achieved with conventional
methods from [1] and [2] are shown in Fig. 4.
As can be seen from Fig. 4, the top-oil temperature modeled
with a properly trained ANN accurately follows the actual measured values. In the case of the proper training set, there is only a
negligible difference between the measured and the calculated
values. Also when utilizing simplistic equations adapted from
the standards, the results are, in the depicted case, quite accurate even if the modeling accuracy is not as precise all the time
as with a well-trained ANN.
However, the modeling results are not always as accurate
as shown in Fig. 4. The results achieved with ANN can differ
greatly from the measured values as depicted later in this paper.
The ANN could give misleading modeling results when the

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Fig. 4. Results achieved with a properly trained ANN and equations adapted
from [1] and [2] compared to measured top-oil temperature values. The sampling period in the study is 10 min.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 1, JANUARY 2007

Fig. 6. Measured and calculated top-oil temperature with and without taking
into account current harmonics for a period of 6 weeks during which the changes
in compensation of harmonics took place.

between the measured and modeled values is generally greater

than in the case when the ANN is trained and tested with the
data measured from the same transformer. The accuracy is, in
this case, almost the same level than the modeled temperature
behavior with equations adapted from [1]. However, there is a
need to note that the accuracy of the ANN depends remarkably
on the training data, which have been carefully chosen in the
example case. If the training data do not include all possible
inputoutput combinations, the results could differ greatly from
the measured temperature values.
D. Effects of the Current Harmonics
Fig. 5. Results achieved with ANN trained with a transformer. The evaluation
of the ANN is done with another similar transformer. Also, the accuracy of the
modeling adapted from [1] is depicted.

training data used do not cover all of the input and output combinations which are possible for the process studied. Another
situation, when the ANN does not give accurate results, is in the
case when the process has changed after the training data for
ANN have been measured. If an ANN is not properly trained, the
use of ANN in continuous monitoring may lead, for example, to
false loading-level assumptions.
Measured information from the transformer is not always
available for ANN training in which case, the data measured
from other similar transformers could be utilized. In this case,
the ANN could be trained with one transformer data and the
trained ANN could be used, for example, to evaluate the temperature behavior of the other transformer on site, where data
cannot be measured. In Fig. 5, a case is depicted, where the ANN
is trained with one transformer data and the evaluation of the
ANN is done with other similarly transformer data. Generally,
the transformers studied can be considered to be similar even
if there is a slight difference in transformer losses. The nameplate loading value for the transformers studied is 1000 kVA.
The measurement period of 1 h is the same in both cases.
As can be seen from Fig. 5, also in this case, the ANN could
give quite accurate results. However, in this case, the difference

When evaluating the effects of harmonics, the results

achieved with conventional methods adapted from [1] and [2]
are not as accurate as they should be for loss of life calculations.
The case is demonstrated in Fig. 6, where the measured top-oil
temperature and the theoretical top-oil temperature obtained
with the calculation method described in IEC standard 60354
are shown. In this case, calculation equations adapted from
C57.91 annex G have not been studied.
In the example case, the measurements are done on a
3150-kVA transformer supplying an industrial customer with
temporary problems with harmonics. Fig. 6 covers the time
period in the industrial process accompanied with changes in
the compensation of harmonics. In the studied case, a new line
of machines was installed on January 15, which apparently
caused serious harmonics. The harmonics caused an excessive
temperature rise in the supply transformer, and the top-oil
temperature reached a much higher level than earlier with the
same relative loads and similar ambient conditions. The top-oil
temperature values, calculated with simplistic equations, follow
the measured temperature values relatively accurately before
the new installations and after February 15. On February 15, an
automatic detuned filter capacitor bank was installed for power
factor correction which evidently removed the excess heat of
the transformer. There were no measurements of the actual
harmonic content of the load, but a sophisticated approximation
can be made from the content of the harmonics due to new
machinery.

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TABLE I
CONTENT OF HARMONICS IN THE EXAMPLE CASE

During the unchanged network situation, the ratio of the harmonics amplitude compared to the amplitude of the fundamental frequency and is predicted to be constant. The approximated values of harmonics during the presence of the serious
current harmonics are given in Table I.
By combining simple calculation methods described in [1]
and [3], the heating effects of harmonic currents in a transformer can be taken into account with the calculated factor .
The effects of the current harmonics can be clearly seen when
comparing the curves in Fig. 6. It can be seen that by utilizing
temperature calculations taking into account the effects of harmonics, the results are more accurate than without. However, it
can be seen that sometimes the results still differ greatly from
the measured values and more studies should be made for adequate thermal behavior modeling with nonsinusoidal loads.
The accuracy of the trained ANN has also been studied with
the same case and the results are also shown in Fig. 6. As can be
seen in this case, the output of the ANN does not follow accurately the measured temperature values after the load structure
has changed. This occurs because the ANN has been trained
with data recorded before the new installation. The input and
output correlation has changed after the measurement period
used in training.
E. Evaluation of the Results
The results calculated with equations adapted from loading
guides [1] and [2] are indicative, but it can be seen that with the
studied calculation algorithms, network utilities can achieve important temperature and aging information of their distribution
transformers. When a transformer is supplying nonsinusoidal
loads, rough estimates for the temperature behavior of the transformer can be achieved with equations adapted from standard
[3].
If the results achieved with a trained ANN are compared to the
results achieved with calculation models adapted from loading
guides [1] and [2], a well-trained ANN generally gives somewhat more accurate results. When proper training information
is used, there is only a negligible difference between the top-oil
temperature values achieved with trained ANN and the measured top-oil temperature. However, the error between the measured temperature value and the values calculated with methods
adapted from [1] and [2] can be minimized by measuring the
hot-spot or top-oil temperature from an adequate time period
from the studied transformer and by adjusting the calculation
parameters used with the information attained.
The studies with ANN have indicated that also neural networks can be an option when implementing an application for
temperature monitoring of oil-immersed transformers. It has
been shown that an ANN trained with a proper set of information

Fig. 7. Examples of different possibilities to utilize the method of calculating

the hot-spot temperature and the cumulative life consumption.

gives accurate estimates for the top-oil temperature of a transformer. However, the ANN should be used only when the accurate data from loading values, ambient, and top-oil/hot-spot
temperatures of the transformer is available for a proper time
period covering all possible loading situations. Also, if the load
characteristics have been changed and there is a possibility, for
instance, to current harmonics occurrence, ANN should be retrained with measured temperature values.
IV. ALGORITHM UTILIZATION WITH EXISTING NETWORK DATA
The studies have shown that different methods for distribution
transformer temperature and loss of life calculations are available. In most cases, the accuracy of the results is adequate, when
parameters for the methods adapted from [1] and [2] are selected
carefully or a proper training set is utilized with ANN. The results, of course, are also depending on the accuracy of the input
data used. In this chapter, some possibilities to utilize methods
also in a larger scale for condition monitoring purposes are depicted.
Fig. 7 shows some possibilities to implement the algorithms
in the existing information system. It can be seen that the calculational algorithms are possible to be implemented as an independent application or by integrating the algorithms into the existing supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)/distribution-management system (DMS) system. In these cases, data
have to be collected and stored widely from the network. The
other possibility is to implement algorithms as part of the relay
functionality, in which case data transfer is seldom needed and
monitoring can be done locally. More information of the pilot
implementations done during the research work is depicted in
[14]. All of the depicted options have both upsides and downsides and the implementation strategy should be selected according to the availability of the data and data-transfer possibilities.
The input information for temperature calculations (loading
values, ambient temperature, harmonics, etc.) can be adapted
from several different information sources as also depicted in
Fig. 7. The most accurate information for loss of life evaluation

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 1, JANUARY 2007

can be achieved straightly from measured hot-spot or top-oil

temperature values. However, the temperature values are seldom
available and in most of the cases, only loading data information can be used as a basis for temperature calculations and loss
of life evaluations. The loading data can be measured, for example, with transformer metering unit, which gives a short-time
period (10 min or less) average loading information, and, in
the best case, also the content of current harmonics supplied by
the transformer. Another possibility is to approximate the transformer loading level based on customer energy information (if
it is available), which is collected usually on an hourly basis.
The customer information can also be used by summing up the
total load of the transformer. Finally, if no measurement information is available, the loading of the distribution transformer
can be evaluated based on load estimates. This can be done with
the information of the number of customers and the customer
group loading curves related to the transformer. The maximum
loading value of the transformer could also be used to adjust the
approximated maximum loading to the correct level. Based on
the curve information, loading estimates can be formed to serve
as the basis for temperature calculations.
The information of ambient temperature is also needed for
temperature evaluations. In the cases when the ambient temperature values are not measured, those can, for example, be defined with information from various weather services or defined
by using averaged weather information.
By utilizing all available information for calculational temperature and loss of life evaluation, a condition estimate can
be formed for each transformer. Depending on the modeling
accuracy requirements, the measurement device and applicable
evaluation method should be identified. In most cases, methods
adapted from [1] and [2] could be used to give adequate results
without measured temperature information. However, sometimes more accurate information of the temperature behavior
of the transformer is needed. If measured information of the
temperature behavior is available from an adequate measurement period of the transformer studied, both the methods
adapted from [1] and [2] and ANN could be used for accurate
temperature modeling. If ANN is selected, it should be noted
that enough information of the transformer studied or at least of
a similar type of a transformer supplying similar load should be
available for proper training. Of course, when measured temperature information from a particular transformer is needed
as a basis for calculational temperature evaluation, the continuous temperature measurements should be considered as an
option for loss of life evaluation. In this case, the calculational
methods could be used (e.g., to reveal the occurrence of current
harmonics). This could be noticed if, for example, the difference between the measured and calculated temperature values
increases after network modifications or new installations.

V. CONCLUSION
Methods described in [1] and [2] can be used to evaluate the
temperature and aging of distribution transformers with some
accuracy. The input information could be adapted from different
data sources. The precision of the evaluation depends on the

input data and the calculation method utilized. To evaluate temperature values for a transformer supplying loads with severe
harmonics, the effects of current harmonics could be taken into
account. This could be done, for example, by using the equations presented in [8], [9], or [10]. In the selected approach, the
methods adapted from [8] have been used. In the case of harmonics, the information of the amplitudes of predominant current harmonics must be available in order to evaluate the excess
losses caused by the harmonics. For the transformer monitoring
purposes, also the ANN can be utilized when the ANN is properly trained. This requires measured data from the studied or
same type of transformer supplying similar loading. When utilized correctly, the ANN could give accurate temperature values
for loss of life calculations.
The analyzing methods studied can be utilized for large-scale
condition monitoring purposes. The utilized method should be
selected carefully, if accurate information is needed of the transformer. However, the methods could also be used with approximated loading information to give rough condition estimates of
the transformers for asset-management purposes. In the field, a
lot of research work has been conducted at TUT, and during the
recent work, the possibilities to utilize other relevant information for transformer condition monitoring purposes are studied.
REFERENCES
[1] IEC Guide for Loading Guide for Oil Immersed Transformers, CEI/IEC
Std. 60354, Sep. 1991.
[2] IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers, IEEE
Std. C57.91-1995, Jun. 1995.
[3] L. W. Pierce, Transformer design and application considerations for
nonsinusoidal load currents, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 32, no. 3, pp.
170178, May/Jun. 1996.
[4] E. Simonson, Transformer ratings and transformer life, in , Inst.
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[5] L. W. Pierce, Predicting liquid filled transformer loading capability,
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 170178, Jan./Feb. 1994.
[6] H. Nordman and M. Lahtinen, Thermal overload tests on a 400-MVA
power transformer with a special 2.5-p.u. short time loading capability, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 107112, Jan. 2003.
[7] D. Susa, M. Lehtonen, and H. Nordman, Dynamic thermal modeling
of distribution transformer, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 20, no. 3, pp.
19191929, Jul. 2005.
[8] Three-Phase Oil-Immersed Distribution Transformers 50 Hz, From 50
to 2500 kVA, With Highest Voltage for Equipment Not Exceeding 36 kV.
Part 4: Determination of the Power Rating of a Transformer Loaded
With Non-Sinusoidal Currents, CENELEC HD 428.4 S1:1994 Std.,
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[9] IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Capability
When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents, IEEE Std. C57.110-98,
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[10] Convertor TransformersPart 1: Transformers for Industrial Applications, CEI/IEC Std. 61378-1, Sep. 1997.
[11] K. P. Wong, Artificial intelligence and neural network applications in
power systems, in Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., 2nd Int. Conf. Advances in
Power System Control, Operation and Management Conference, Hong
Kong, China, Dec. 1993, vol. 1, pp. 3746.
[12] G. Wolff, H. Haubrich, and T. Seitz, Evaluation of non steady
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[13] M. Norgard, Neural Network Based System Identification Toolbox,
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PYLVNINEN et al.: STUDIES TO UTILIZE LOADING GUIDES

Jouni K. Pylvninen was born in Pieksmki, Finland, on August 7, 1978. He received the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland, in 2002, where
he is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree.
He has been conducting research work at the Institute of Power Engineering, Tampere University of
Technology, since 2003. The focus of his research
work is currently in distribution network component
condition modeling and asset management.

Kirsi Nousiainen received the M.Sc (Eng.) and the

Licenciate of Technology degrees from Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland, in 1982 and
1986, respectively.
Currently, she is a Lecturer at Tampere University
of Technology, where she has been since 1991. Her
research interests are in high-voltage engineering, especially the diagnostics of high-voltage equipment.

207

Pekka Verho was born in Hauho, Finland, in February 1966. He received the M.Sc. and Dr. of Engineering degrees in electrical engineering from Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland, in
1991 and 1997, respectively.
From 1990 to 1997, he was a Research Engineer
with Tampere University of Technology. Currently,
he is a Research Manager with ABB, working in
ABB distribution automation. He is also a Part-Time
Professor with Tampere University of Technology.
His research interest is information system applications for electricity distribution.