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Abstract
Since historical memory is a vital element of national unity and identity in oppressed nations that
challenges the legitimacy of an occupying power, an important goal of the oppressors becomes
the distortion of this memory. The Soviet authorities put a massive effort into the legitimization
of their power by creating official versions of histories of the nations they occupied to prove that
their incorporation into the Soviet Union was a voluntary act. The article demonstrates how in
Estonia, the so-called June Myth was created to justify the Soviet take-over on 21st June 1940 and
the consequent annexation of Estonia. Discourse analysis of 25 articles from the leading
Communist Party daily Rahva Hl/ The Peoples Voice demonstrates how argumentation strategies,
us them polarization and three types of antagonisms were used for constructing the June Myth.1
Introduction
Studies on nationalism clearly point out the central role of history a common
(glorious) past in the formation of the ideologies of nationalism, and in the nation
building processes (cf. Gellner 1983; Hroch 1996; Pearson 1999). They also emphasize
the practice of (re)construction of the past in nations whose pasts are either lacking or
hidden from view by subsequent accretions (Smith 1989, 178). As Smith argues, such
histories, usually elaborated by nationalist intellectuals, are in most cases combinations
of existing elements, myths and motifs, but they can also contain bits of pure
fabrication. These nationalist histories serve the purpose of developing common
identity with the help of giving people a common past as an integral element of
national consciousness and solidarity. Occupying totalitarian regimes also use
constructed histories for influencing peoples collective memory, but for a different
purpose. The oppressed are subjected to a fabricated and distorted picture of their
historical past that aims at justifying the occupying regime (cf. Scherrer 2002). In order
to govern the present and future, one also has to govern the past the ways that the
preceding regimes, processes and events are remembered, interpreted and assessed.
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Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture 2007 (University of Westminster, London), Vol. 4(4):
42-64. ISSN 1744-6708 (Print); 1744-6716 (Online)
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The fact that the ways of understanding and interpreting the past have an influence
on peoples understanding and interpretation of the present makes history writing
an important tool for political purposes. The Soviet authorities put a great deal of
effort into rewriting the histories of occupied nations, including those of the Baltic
States. Ideologically correct official versions of the historical past were created
that allowed neither deviations nor alternative interpretations. Soviet history
writing followed only those ideological canons and dogmas that supported
Marxist-Leninist-Stalinist historical interpretations and ignored anything that might
have questioned them.
Such official constructions of history generally
contradicted not only the pre-Soviet national history interpretations that existed as
a component of collective memory, but also individual remembrance of the events
of the recent past. The difficulties in reshaping collective memory by mediating
constructed history interpretations are reflected in the emergence of quite
powerful, quasi-institutionalized forms of unofficial histories as resistance to the
official histories (Wertsch 1998, 143). During the Soviet regime, two parallel
interpretations of history existed in Estonia as well an official one that was
taught in schools which people were forced to accept and publicly recognize, and
another that consisted of elements of both history and collective remembrance
43
These keywords also became the cornerstones of the so-called June Myth. As the
power supporting myths played an important role in Soviet ideology and
propaganda, it has become quite common in the post-Soviet Estonian
historiography to describe Soviet society as mythologized. The June Myth, thus,
47
The definition of the June events as the beginning of the Socialist revolution was
frequently used on later occasions, until historians finally gave it up as late as 1969.
(2) Irreversible turn
The events of 21st June 1940 were presented as a turning point, completely
changing the contemporary and especially the future development of Estonia. It
was repeatedly stressed that the Soviet regime liberated the Estonian people from
exploitation, that the gloomy days of bourgeois oppression ended with the 21st June and
would never return, that the working people have become the masters of their destiny,
and that from this day onwards they could decide about their lives by themselves.
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(2) Concretization
While the positive picture of us was rarely illustrated with facts, negative pictures
of them were frequently decorated with colourful details. The economic, political
and cultural environment of Estonian society before the Soviet period was
described as corrupt, repressive, poor, underdeveloped and unfair, abundantly using
statistics and examples. The sources of the statistics and examples were, however,
never mentioned.
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The role of the public texts was to monopolize the word and in this way, help the
Soviet regime to take control over the language, and consequently over the
peoples minds; or as Francoise Thom (1989, 13) summarized No other regime
knows better how to take control of language and use it for its own ends.
Linguists and psychologists have demonstrated how strongly language influences
the formation of peoples attitudes and deliberate adoption of preferred models of
behaviour (cf. Harr 1985, van Dijk 1993, 1996). Van Dijk (1993, 1996) has also
demonstrated how the lack of alternative discourses contributes to the adoption by
the audience of models persuasively presented by the authorities through the mass
media. By the 1960s, within a context where the public word was manipulated and
strictly controlled by the authorities, and the alternative sources were eliminated,
the efforts of the Soviet authorities to distort Estonians historical memory
gradually started taking effect and formed a foundation for further Sovietization.
Generations born after World War Two did not, naturally, have either experiences
or memories from life in the Independent Estonian Republic, or of the events of
June 1940, which were effectively its end. Their picture of the real historical past
was deficient and full of gaps. At the same time, the Soviet education system and
mass media suggested a systematic and complete official version of history, where
the events of the 21st June had a crucial importance at odds with the historical
memory. Aarelaid-Tart (2006) has demonstrated how for the pre-War, post-War
and the 1950s generations, a transformation of double thinking took place. While
for the pre-War generation the opposition of own and alien was complete, for
the 1950s generation own and alien had changed places. As Wertsch emphasizes,
despite the existence of unofficial histories as a mixture of the historical facts and
experiences of older generations, the official history was always present as a
second speaker (Wertsch 1998). Wertsch also noticed that important elements of
Soviet historiography (as for example schematic narrative templates) continue to
appear in the post-Soviet history texts (Wertsch 2002, 176).
However, Soviet newspeak (Thom 1989), its exaggerations, obvious lies and
hollow rhetoric alien to Estonian language, made it difficult to persistently infiltrate
the ideology that this rhetoric carried. Double thinking gained new impetus in
connection with strengthening ideological pressure after the events of 1968 in
Czechoslovakia; with a silent opposition surfacing in literature, theatre and the
cultural media. Unofficial history remained a component of this silent opposition,
since it supported the national self-consciousness and identity of Estonians. This
also largely explains the relative failure of widespread Soviet propaganda among
Estonians.
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Notes
The authors are grateful to their colleague Dr. Ene Kresaar for her critical reading and
remarks, and to the anonymous reviewer for helpful comments.
2 All translations are the responsibility of the authors.
1
References
Aarelaid, A. (2000) Topeltmtlemise kujunemine kahel esimesel nukogulikul
aastakmnel Akadeemia 4: 755-774.
Aarelaid, A. (2006) Cultural Trauma and Life Stories. Helsinki: Kikimora Publications.
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