Facades and interfaces

Faade systems comprise the structural elements that provide lateral and vertical resistance to wind and
other actions, and the building envelope elements that provide the weather resistance and thermal,
acoustic and fire resisting properties. The types of faade system that are used depends on the type and
scale of the building and on local planning requirements that may affect the buildings appearance in
relation to its neighbours. For example, brickwork is often specified as the external faade material, but
the modern way of constructing the inner leaf consists of light steel wall elements (called infill walling)
that have effectively replaced more traditional block-work.
Other types of faade materials may be attached to light steel walling, such as insulated render, large
boards, metallic panels and terracotta tiles. A wide variety of facade treatments and shapes may be
created using light steel wall including large ribbon windows, curved and inclined walls, and with
projections such as solar shading or balconies. Faade materials may be mixed to enhance the
aesthetics of the building. It is also possible to pre-fabricate light steel wall panels with their cladding
pre-attached.
In multi-storey buildings, unitised curtain walling systems have been developed that are attached to the
floors or edge beams of the primary steel structure. Steel and glass are also widely used in faade and
roofing systems, and the local attachments are in the form of stainless steel brackets.
Other interfaces that affect the design of the faade include the attachment of brickwork to steel edge
beams, the design of projecting balconies, solar shading and attachments of parapets.

Installation of a unitised curtain walling system

(Image courtesy of Arup Facades)

Installation of lightweight facade system attached to a

modular building through a mast climbing system.
(Image courtesy of Futureform)

Contents
[hide]

1 Types of faade systems

o 1.1 Benefits of steel faade systems
o 1.2 Design requirements
2 Solutions using light steel infill walls
o 2.1 Benefits of light steel infill walls
o 2.2 Design of infill walls
o 2.3 Thermal performance
o 2.4 Construction process
3 Curtain walling
o 3.1 Building performance
o 3.2 Unitised curtain walling
o 3.3 Support conditions
4 Support to brickwork
o 4.1 Stainless steel support systems
o 4.2 Brick slip systems
o 4.3 Facade retention in building renovation
5 Steel and glass facades

5.1 Building performance

5.1.1 Double faade systems
5.1.2 Solar shading systems
o 5.2 Glazing support systems
o 5.3 Steel in atria and canopies
6 Interfaces
o 6.1 Curtain walling support details
o 6.2 External steelwork
o 6.3 Louvres and canopies
7 References
8 Resources
9 See also

[top] Types of faade systems

A wide variety of faade systems may be used in modern multi-storey buildings, which are:

Brickwork and stonework (masonry)

Precast concrete panels with various types of finishes
Insulated render
Metallic cladding
Tiles and stone veneer panels
Large boards consisting of an aesthetic and weather tight veneer
Glass and steel faade systems

Large colour coated steel cassette panels supported on vertical rails

The choice of facade system is dependent on the scale and use of the multi-storey building, and on its
local environment and neighbours. A variety of steel components may be used in modern facade
systems, such as:

Steel profiled sheets and composite (sandwich) panels

Flat and rigidised cassette panels with folded edges
Light steel infill walls using C sections
Hollow steel sections (often circular) for facades and roofs, particularly used for visual effect
in atria and in entrance areas
Stainless steel glazing support systems
Metallic elements in unitised curtain walling

Light steel infill walls have largely replaced the block-work inner leaf in both steel and concrete
framed buildings. A variety of facade systems may be attached to the infill walls. Some examples are
illustrated below.

Large colour coated steel cassette panels supported on vertical rails

[top] Benefits of steel faade systems

The benefits of steel faade systems may be presented in terms of their functional and aesthetic
requirements, as follows:

A variety of colours and surface textures is possible

Lightweight facades minimise the loads on the supporting structure
Light steel infill walls using C sections can be used to support a wide range of cladding
systems
Facades can be highly pre-fabricated for speed of installation
Steel glazing systems can be used for visual effect in tall entrance areas and atria
Steel is non-combustible and robust to damage in faade panels
A high level of thermal and acoustic insulation can be provided.

Use of composite (sandwich)panels to support

tiles.
(Image courtesy of Kingspan Panels and
Profiles)

Use of large metallic panles in over-cladding of an

existing office building.
(Image courtesy of Tata Steel Panels and Profiles)

[top] Design requirements

Planning requirements are likely to define the overall building form and its external appearance,
including the cladding materials that may be used. In many medium rise office buildings in suburban
locations, brickwork is the preferred cladding system, whereas for city centre offices, modern curtain
walling systems are often used. The principal design requirements for the faade system are its ability
to:

Resistance wind loading and high local wind pressures on the corners of the building, which
are a function of the building height and the proximity of adjacent buildings.
Support a variety of external finishes, including masonry
Permit relative movement where the deflection of the primary frame would impair the
performance of the cladding
Be sufficiently stiff that there is no risk of damage to the glazing or cladding in long windows
or in tall walls
Provide the required level of thermal insulation and air-tightness
Provide weather-tightness, including during construction
In some cases, provide acoustic attenuation to external noise sources.

[top] Solutions using light steel infill walls

Typical light steel infill walls in a steel framed building

Light steel walls may be of two types:

Light steel infill walls that span between the floors or between the floor and edge beam
Panelised systems that are placed outside the slab edge and are attached at discrete locations.

Light steel infill walls are more widely used because of the simplicity of the installation process and
the ability to deliver cut-to-length C sections for the particular as-built dimensions of the project. The
development of light steel infill walls has been one of the major innovations in the last 10 years. Light
steel infill walls consists of C sections that span 2.4 to 5m between floors, and are designed to resist the
wind pressures applied to the building faade and also to support the weight of the particular type of
cladding system that is attached to them.

[top] Benefits of light steel infill walls

The benefits of light steel infill walls are:

Rapid construction system with an installation rate of over 50m per day
Less materials handling on site than for brick and block-work
Tall walls up to 5m and high wind pressures up to 2kN/m
Ability to create large windows without wind posts
Minimum material use (less than 5kg/m of steel in the faade)
No onsite waste when C sections are delivered cut to length
Light weight, which reduces the loads on the supporting structure
Can be used for a wide range of cladding systems
Can be dismantled in building extensions etc. and re-used

[top] Design of infill walls

Metsecs SFS system used on the external infill walls to a 4-storey composite frame at Colchester
Hospital.
(Image courtesy of Metsec)
The design of light steel infill walls is dependent on the wall height and wind pressures acting on the
faade. Normally the C sections are 100 to 150mm deep with steel thicknesses of 1.2 to 1.6mm. The C
sections are placed at 400 or 600mm centres, which is compatible with the attachments to the internal
plasterboard and external cladding.
Large openings can be created by placing pairs of C sections vertically next to the openings, and
sometimes pairs of C sections above and below the openings. The steel thickness can also be varied
across the faade without changing the section size. For example, wind pressures are higher at the
corners of the buildings and also increase with height. The deflection limits that are specified in design
depend on the types of cladding that is attached.

[top] Thermal performance

Thermal insulation is attached externally to the wall and mineral wool is often placed between the C
sections to achieve the required thermal insulation (U-value). For insulated render or rain screen
cladding systems, an external sheathing board is often used to provide local support to the external
cladding.

A U-value of 0.15 W/mK can be achieved by approximately 100mm of closed cell insulation board
fixed to the C sections or sheathing board supplemented by 100mm of mineral wool between the Cs.
The same wall build-up may be used for all types of cladding systems.
Air-tightness is also important in modern building design, and it can be improved by use of a sheathing
board fixed to the C sections.

[top] Construction process

Light steel infill walls are generally installed as individual C sections that are cut to length and are
placed between the floors or edge beams. The C sections are attached to a U shaped bottom track
which is attached to the floor slab. At the top of the wall, the C sections slide in a U shaped top track
that is fixed to the underside of the edge beam or floor slab permits relative movement without
compressing the wall. The general guidance is to provide a minimum of 20mm relative movement in a
concrete framed building and 10mm in a steel framed building.
Pairs of C sections are often placed either side of window or door openings to resist the loads
transferred across the window. The U tracks are connected to the concrete floor slab using powder
actuated pins.
The construction process is very rapid and does not require external scaffolding until the faade is
attached externally. Alternatively, the walls may be prefabricated and installed as large panels, often
with the cladding pre-attached - see photograph below. In this case, the cladding panel is placed outside
the edge of the primary structure, and supports the cladding fascia. The cladding around the edges of
the panel is then attached on-site.

Installing light steel infill walls.

(Image courtesy of Metsec)

[top] Curtain walling

Lightweight prefabricated panel attached to a steel

framed building
(Image courtesy of Kingspan Panels and profiles)

Curtain walling system attached to a steel framed building in Spinningfileds, Manchester

Curtain walling is the generic name given to metallic lightweight cladding or glazed cladding systems
that are directly supported by a structural frame. In some cases, a stone veneer or large tiled fascia may
be attached to give the appearance of a more monolithic cladding system.

[top] Building performance

The curtain walling system is designed to provide the necessary functions of weather-tightness, natural
lighting and shading, and thermal insulation. The joints between the elements of the curtain walling are
therefore very important to these functions. In unitised systems, the panels are manufactured so that
they are highly sealed and insulated, and the joints between the large panels are made by rubber gaskets
and silicone sealants.
The fascia may be designed to act as a rain screen by creating a cavity behind the fascia material and
providing wider joints around the perimeter of the cladding panels. Therefore, under the wind action,
pressure equalisation occurs between the cavity and external air so that wind driven rain is not forced
into the cavity, thereby reducing the risk of water ingress through the joints.
In highly glazed curtain walling systems, triple glazing is often provided in which the gap between two
of the glazed sheets can incorporate shading devices. Generally windows are sealed in modern offices
and therefore control of ventilation by other means is important. A high level of acoustic attenuation
can be achieved which is important in city centre buildings.

[top] Unitised curtain walling

Fully glazed curtain walling system used in a multi-storey steel structure

Modern curtain walling often consists of unitised systems that provide all the building physics and
structural functions and also forms the external and internal faces of the facade. The size of the unitised
panels is dictated by the floor to floor height and a sensible width for transportation and installation and
should be compatible with the planning dimensions of the faade (normally a multiple of 300mm).
Panels up to 1.5m wide and 4.2m high are typical. There are relatively few suppliers of unitised curtain
walling systems in Europe and most have dedicated design teams who can provide detailed design and
detailing for particular projects.

[top] Support conditions

Curtain walling systems are generally supported vertically and laterally on the floor below and are
laterally supported by the edge beam above. The support details should permit relative vertical
movement between the upper beam and the cladding system, depending on the length and hence
potential deflection of the beam. For this reason, the edge beams should be sufficiently stiff to prevent
any damage to the cladding system, particularly if it is highly glazed.
The span of a steel edge beam is typically 5 to 8m (6m and 7.5m are common dimensions), and the
span of a concrete edge beam or slab is typically 5 to 6m. A total deflection limit of span/500 under
imposed loading is normally specified for the edge beams for more brittle cladding systems. The
installation of the panels should also allow for dimensional tolerances at the slab edge by use of
packers or levelling devices.
Some curtain walling systems are designed with steel strong backs so that they can span directly
between the perimeter columns and therefore do not require vertical support from the slab edge
although they may require lateral support to resist wind action on the panel. The ability to transport and
lift these large panels is the critical design consideration.
Strongback cladding system

[top] Support to brickwork

Brick slips used for the upper levels of a building.

(Image courtesy of Unite Modular Solutions)
Brickwork can be attached to a steel framed building by one of two methods:

It can be supported on the ground or an intermediate structure and laterally supported by the
steel framework and infill wall. This approach is permitted for walls up to about 3 storeys
high
It is supported every floor or in some cases, alternate floors by stainless steel support angles
that are attached to the edge beams of the primary steel structure or to the edge of the floor
slab.

Brick tiles or brick slips have also been developed which give an external appearance of brickwork but
which are bonded to a sheathing board of supported on horizontal rails or sheeting. A good example of
this is shown on the right.
The method of fixing brickwork to steel frames

[top] Stainless steel support systems

Stainless steel support angles may be used to support brickwork at floor levels. The key design
parameters are the wall height and the eccentricity of the brickwork from the supporting structure. The
Stainless steel angles are typically 10mm thick so that they can be placed in the horizontal brick
courses, and their position is adjustable to allow for geometric deviations in level of the coursing by
attachment to stainless steel support brackets.
Two generic support systems for the stainless steel brackets may be used:

Connection to the steel edge beams, which are generally made through steel plates that are
welded to the flange tips of the beams to which the support brackets are attached. These plates
are attached in 200 to 300mm lengths and allow the brackets to be bolted to them every 400 or
600mm. An example of this type of detail is shown in the figure below.
Connection to the slab edge generally though a pre-formed steel edge trim to the floor slab,
which has horizontal dovetail slots in which the connecting bolts are placed. This form of
attachment is made every floor as it is not capable of supporting such heavy loads as the
above system. An example of this type of detail is shown in the figure below.

Generic support systems for stainless steel brackets

Brickwork support system at a steel edge beam.

(Image courtesy of Halfen Deha)

Brickwork support system at a s

(Image courtesy of Halfen Deha

The eccentricity of the brickwork from its support is important because it determines the bending effect
on the attachment points. The eccentricity is also dependent on the thickness of the insulation in the
cavity space between the brickwork and the internal light steel walling. This maximum value is 120 to
150mm depending on the wall height. The brickwork is laterally supported by wall ties that attached to
the infill walls at a density of about 4.4 ties per m of the facade area.

[top] Brick slip systems

Modern brickwork can be manufactured in the form of brick slips that are attached to a supporting steel
sheet or composite panel. The advantage of this system is that it is lightweight and can be installed
rapidly as mortar is not necessarily required. Brick slips can also be stacked vertically, and ribbon or
unusual shaped windows can be created for architectural effect. Examples are shown in the photograph
below.
In this system, the brick slips are not considered to be weather-tight, and so the wind and weather
resistance is provided by the backing material. Composite (or sandwich) panels provide both excellent
structural and thermal characteristics for use as the backing system.
Use of brick slips attached to steel backing system, such as a composite panel

Corium
(Image courtesy of Wienerberger)

(Image courtesy of Kingspan Panels and profiles)

[top] Facade retention in building renovation

Existing brickwork supported by a temporary steel structure

In many building renovation projects, the existing brick or stone faade is preserved and is supported
temporarily by a steel structure, whilst the rest of the building is demolished. A new steel permanent
structure is constructed behind the existing faade which is then integrated into the new building. In
this way, the appearance of the building is not changed but its functional use is much improved. A
good example of the support to an existing brick faade by an external temporary steel structure is
shown below. The framework at ground level allows for pedestrian access.

[top] Steel and glass facades

Steel and glass are synergistic materials and are often used in facades and roofs of multi-storey
buildings. The glass panels are generally supported by separate vertical steel elements to the main
structural frame of the building that may be internal or external to the building. Stainless steel and
hollow steel sections are often used in combination with glass.
Fixing of glazed facade systems to steel frames

[top] Building performance

Solar shading with bonded photovoltaic cells attached to a curtain walling system
The glazed walling system is designed to provide the necessary functions of weather-tightness, natural
lighting and shading, and thermal insulation. The silicone joints between the glazing panels are
therefore very important to these functions.
The main issue in the design of glazing systems is the avoidance of high solar gain, particularly on
south facing facades, and also the heat loss due to the relatively high U-value of double or even triple
glazing systems that adds to heat loss. A modern argon filled double glazing system (combined with
low emssivity glass) has a U-value of 1.6 to 1.8 W/m, and this can reduce to 0.8 to 0.9 W/m for high
quality triple glazing systems.
Large glazing panels are usually supported by vertical rails or in some cases, glass fins. The glass is
designed to accommodate the movement of its support system due to the wind and other forces acting
on it. Typical deflection limits under the design wind loads are defined by the Institution of Structural
Engineers[1]
Because of these requirements and for safety in cleaning, double skin glazing systems have been
developed. The glass elements may also be combined with louvres and bonded photovoltaic panels, as
shown.

[top] Double faade systems

Double faade systems comprise an internal glazed faade which provides the thermal and air tightness
functions and an external glazed facade separated by a zone that provides a thermal buffer and also
incorporates devices such as solar shading. These systems are often used where the double facade
extends outside the building line at the lower levels and often provides a canopy at street level. The
space between the double facades can also be accessed for maintenance. The benefit of double facades
is mainly on south facing walls where solar gain is highest. The space between the double facades can
be ventilated in hot conditions or can be enclosed in colder conditions. A good example of a double
faade system is shown below.

Double faade steel glazing system used in a multi-storey steel framed office building, 1 Angel Square,
Manchester
(Image courtesy of Fisher Engineering Ltd.)

[top] Solar shading systems

Solar shading using projecting roof with external tubular columns, Heelis building, Swindon
(Image courtesy of Simon Doling/Feilden Clegg Bradley Architects. Copyright Simon Doling/Feilden
Clegg Bradley Architects)
There is a wide variety of solar shading systems that may be used and incorporated as part of the
building faade. There are:

Oval shaped horizontal steel elements that span horizontally between external columns and
their size and spacing is designed to reduce the intensity of solar gain.
Projecting roof or canopy , often supported by an external steel structure as shown.
Glazed or metallic louvres.
Metallic perforated screens that allow natural light to penetrate but also provide a high degree
of shading.

[top] Glazing support systems

Modern glazing support systems are based on attachments to 2 or 4 separate glass panels using
stainless steel brackets, also known as spiders because of their multiple legs. The attachments to the
glass panels are generally made by stainless steel brackets with neoprene gaskets through the glass, as
shown below. These attachments permit articulation due to thermal and structural movements so that
local stresses on the glass are minimised.
Glazing support structures can be of various forms:

External or internal tubular columns that may be inclined

Horizontal tubular or lattice members that span between widely spaced columns.
Cable tied systems, as shown below, using stainless steel external couplers, arms and struts.
External glazing support system using stainless steel connectors

Corning Musem of Art, Corning, New York

(Images courtesy of TMR Consulting)

The Manchester Justice Centre shown below is a good example of the vertical and horizontal support
by an internal tubular steel structure to a fully glazed faade over 8 storeys. Cable tied systems can be
external or internal and use the cables to resist tension forces due to wind action on the faade and the
tubular sections to resist compression. For minimum visual impact, the tubes should be of small
diameter.

Mixed use of glazed faade system and weathering steel at the Manchester Justice centre

[top] Steel in atria and canopies

Use of curved tubular steelwork to support an atrium roof

Modern multi-storey buildings often contain atria which can be supported by tubular steelwork for
architectural effect. An example of curved tubular steelwork with inclined arms to support the glazed
roof on a regular grid is shown below. The same techniques may be used for vertically supported glass
in multi-storey entrance areas and for canopies, as shown below. Loads include wind pressure, snow
and access loads. These systems are designed to minimise movement of the supported glazing.

[top] Interfaces
Interfaces between steel frames and cladding systems may take various forms as follows:

Brickwork support systems by Stainless steel angles and brackets.

Attachment to curtain walling systems for both vertical and lateral support by the structure or
the edge of the floor slab
Attachment of steel hollow sections and cables in glazed cladding systems
Projections for louvres or canopies, etc.
Support to external steelwork
Support to the atrium or featured steelwork.

These interface details are designed to take account of:

Forces in the vertical and horizontal directions often combined with bending effects when
used in louvers, etc.
Allowance for relative movement with the support structure
Allowance for installation tolerances in the alignment of the faade.

[top] Curtain walling support details

Curtain walling is generally placed outside the line of the building structure and is supported on the
floor slab or sometimes from the beams above. Therefore the attachments to the floor slab are designed
to resist both horizontal loads due to wind action on the faade and tension and compression effect due
to the eccentric vertical loads of the weight of the faced panel. Depending on the eccentricity of the
panel to the edge of the building, the brackets can be quite large, and are also designed so that the
panels can be carefully aligned by fine adjustments.
The attachment of the panel to the floor above is designed to resist only horizontal loads and to allow
for relative movement with respect to the edge beam.

[top] External steelwork

An external steel structure can be designed to be part of the primary structure or to support canopies or
bracing. Often the external steelwork can be designed as unprotected against fire by considering the
intensity and direction of potential fire plume emanating from the faade. Also, the external steelwork
is designed to be part of the architectural concept, as shown below in Exchange Square, which
straddles the railway lines to Liverpool station. In this project, the beams projected outside the faade
line, and so penetrated the faade. To avoid cold bridging, the beams in the floor zone were insulated
over a length of about 1.5m on the inside of the building.

[top] Louvres and canopies

Louvres and canopies are generally attached to the primary steel structure. To avoid cold bridging
through the steel members passing through the insulation, special thermal break details have been
developed, as shown below.
Canopies are often highly glazed as shown below and can be supported by a separate structure or
suspended from the internal structure. Curved steel members (particularly hollow sections) are often
used in canopies for visual effect.
Steel interface details

External steelwork used in

Exchange Square, Broadgate,
London

Attachment points for external

canopies using thermal break
bolted details

Use of glass canopy supported by

curved steelwork

[top] References
1.

^ Structural use of glass in buildings (1999). Institution of Structural Engineers

[top] Resources

SCI P101 Interfaces: Curtain wall connections to steel frames

SCI P102 Interfaces: Connections between steel and other materials
SCI P103 Interfaces: Electrical lift installations in steel framed buildings
SCI P166 Interfaces: Design of steel framed buildings for service integration
SCI P193 Steel supported glazing systems
SCI P298 Stainless steel masonry support systems- best practice information sheet for
specifiers
SCI P396 New Beijing Poly Plaza Cable-Net Wall
SCI IE P2 Services coordination with structural beams; Guidance on defect free interface

[top] See also

Infill walling
Design codes and standards
Acoustics
Fire and steel construction
Steel construction products

Category: Multi-storey office buildings