B-2011 - 2012 - EG - Shear Strength PDF

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOTECHNICS
Shear Strength of Sands and Clays
Prof. Ing.
g Marco Favaretti
Universit di Padova
Facolt di Ingegneria
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Idraulica, Marittima, Ambientale e Geotecnica (I.M.A.GE.)

Via Ognissanti, 39 35129 Italia
Tel: +39.049.827.7901
Fax: +39.049.827.7988
E-Mail: marco.favaretti@unipd.it
@ p
1
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS AND CLAYS

The shear strength of soils is a most important aspect of geotechnical
engineering.
The bearing capacity of shallow or deep foundations, slope stability,
retaining wall design are all affected by the shear strength of the soil in a
slope, behind a retaining wail, or supporting a foundation or pavement.
Structures and slopes must be stable and secure against total collapse
when subjected to maximum applied loads.
Thus limiting equilibrium methods of analysis are conventionally used for
their design, and these methods require determination of the ultimate or
limiting shear strength of the soil.
2
SHEARSTRENGTHOFSANDSANDCLAYS
We define the shear strength of a soil as the ultimate or maximum shear stress
the soil can withstand.
Sometimesthelimitingvalueofshearstresswasbasedonamaximumallowable
strainordeformation.
Thisallowabledeformationactuallyoftencontrolsthedesignofastructure
becausewiththelargesafetyfactorsweuse,theactualshearstressesinthesoil
producedbytheappliedloadsaremuchlessthanthestressescausingcollapseor
failure.
Shearstrengthcanbedeterminedinseveraldifferentways;thenwedescribed
someofthemorecommonlaboratoryandfieldtests.
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS AND CLAYS
I situ
In
it methods
th d such
h as the
th vane shear
h
t t or penetrometers
test
t
t
avoid
id
some of the problems of disturbance associated with the extraction of soil
samples from the ground.
ground
These methods only determine the shear strength indirectly through
correlations with laboratory results or back-calculated
back calculated from actual failures.
failures
Laboratory tests, on the other hand, yield the shear strength directly.
In addition, valuable information about the stress-strain behaviour and the
development of pore pressures during shear can often be obtained.
We shall illustrate the fundamental stress-deformation and shear strength
response of soils with the results of laboratory tests for typical soils.
10
11
ANGLE OF REPOSE OF SANDS

If we were to deposit a granular soil by pouring it from a single point
above the ground, it would form a conical pile.
As more and more granular material was deposited on the pile, the slope
for a short period of time might appear to be steeper, but then the soil
particles
ti l would
ld slip
li and
d slide
lid down
d
th slope
the
l
t the
to
th angle
l off repose.
This angle of the slope with respect to the horizontal plane would remain
constant at some minimum value.
Since this angle is the steepest stable slope for very loosely packed
sand, the angle of repose represents the angle of internal friction of the
granular material at its loosest state.
Sand dunes are an example from nature of the angle of repose.
12
Fi
Figure
shows
h
h
how
b th a
both
stationary dune (SD) as
well as a migrating dune
(MD) are formed. On the
leeward side ((LS),
) the
slope of the dune will
have an angle (of repose)
which varies from 30 to
35.
If the slope on the leeward side becomes steeper than 30 to 35, then the
slope is unstable and sand grains will roll down the slope until the angle of
repose is reached.
reached
An unstable condition is shown on the slope at the far right-hand side of
Fi
Figure;
eventually
t ll a smooth
th slope
l
att the
th angle
l off repose will
ill form.
f
13
The angle of repose depends on the

type of materials and other factors,
and
d it represents
t the
th
angle
l
off
internal
friction
or
shearing
resistance at its loosest state.

state
Recall that the terms loose or
d
dense
are only
l relative
l ti
t
terms,
especially
with
respect
to
their
behaviour in shear.
shear
As we shall soon see, the stressstrain and volume change response
depends on the confining pressure
as well as on the relative density.
14
BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS DURING DRAINED SHEAR

DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Purpose:
This test is p
performed to determine
the
consolidated-drained
shear
strength of a sandy to silty soil.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 3080 - Standard Test
Method for Direct Shear Test of
Soils Under Consolidated Drained
C
Conditions
15
BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS

DURING DRAINED SHEAR
To illustrate the behaviour of sands
during shear,
shear let
lets
s start by taking two
samples of sand: (1) loose at a very
high void ratio; (2) dense at a very low
void ratio.
We could perform direct shear tests,
tests but
to better measure the volume changes
we shall use the triaxial apparatus.
pp
We
shall
run
two
tests
under
consolidated drained (CD) conditions,

which means we will allow water to
freely enter or leave the sample during
shear.
16
If we have a saturated sample, we can

easily monitor the amount of water that
enters or leaves the sample and equate
this to the volume change and thus the
void ratio change in the sample.
Water leaving the sample during shear
indicates a volume decrease, and vice
versa. In both out tests the confining
g
pressure, c equals 3, is held constant
and the axial stress is increased until
failure occurs.
17
Failure may be defined as:

1. maximum principal stress difference (1 3)max;
2. maximum principal effective stress ratio (1/ 3)max;
3. = ((1 3))/2 at a p
prescribed strain
We will often define failure as the maximum principal stress
difference, equal to the compressive strength of the specimen.
Typical stress-strain curves for loose and dense sand are shown in
Figure. When the loose sand is sheared, the principal stress difference
gradually increases to a maximum or ultimate value (1 -3).
Concurrently, as the stress is increased the void ratio decreases from el
(e-loose) down to ecl (ec-loose), which is very close to the critical void
ratio ecrit.
18
Casagrande called the ultimate void

ratio at which continuous deformation
occurs with no change in principal
stress difference critical void ratio.
When
the
dense
sheared,
the
difference
reaches
specimen
principal
a
is
stress
peak
p
or
maximum, after which it decreases to

a value very close to
(1 - 3)ult for
the loose sand.

The void ratio-stress curve shows
that the dense sand decreases in
volume slightly at first, then expands
or dilates up to ecd (ec- dense).
19
N ti
Notice
th t the
that
th void
id ratio
ti att failure
f il
ecd
is
very
close
to
ecl.
Theoretically they both should be

Theoretically,
equal to ecrit critical void ratio.
Similarly the values of ((1 - 3) for
Similarly,
both tests should be the same. The
differences are usually attributed to
difficulties in precise measurement
of ultimate void ratios as well as
non uniform stress distributions in
the test specimens.
Evidence of this latter phenomenon
is illustrated by the different ways in
which the samples usually fail.
20
Th loose
The
l
sample
l just
j t bulges,
b l
while
hil
the dense sample often fails along a
distinct
plane
oriented
approximately (45 + /2) from the

horizontal (
( is the effective angle
g
of shearing resistance of the dense
sand).
Note that it is at least theoretically
possible to set up a sample at an
initial void ratio such that the
volume change at failure would be
zero.
This void ratio would, of course, be
the critical void ratio ecrit.
21
EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE
I describing
In
d
ibi the
th behaviour
b h i
off the
th ttwo d
drained
i d ttriaxial
i i l ttests
t on lloose and
d
dense sands, we have mentioned the following physical quantities:
principal stress difference
strain volume change
critical void ratio ecrit and, indirectly,
relative density
We have purposely avoided defining the terms loose and dense
b
because
th
the volume
l
change
h
b
behaviour
h i
d
during
i shear
h
d
depends
d nott only
l
on the initial void ratio and relative density but also on the confining
pressure.
pressure
Now we shall consider the effect of confining pressure on the stressstrain and volume change characteristics of sands in drained shear
shear.
22
W can assess the

We
th effects
ff t off 3 (in
(i a d
drained
i d ttestt 3 = 3 as the
th excess
pore water pressure u = 0) by preparing several samples at the same
void ratio and testing them at different confining pressures
pressures.
We would find that the shear strength increases with 3.
A convenient way to plot the principal stress difference versus strain
data is to normalize the principal stress ratio 1/3 versus strain.
For a drained test 1/3 = 1/3
At failure the ratio (
(1/
/3)max
'
1 + sen'
'
2
1
=
= tan 45 +
'

2
3 max 1 sen'
23
where
h
iis th
the effective
ff ti angle
l off iinternal
t
l ffriction.
i ti
The principal stress difference is related to principal stress ratio by:
'
' 1
1
1 3 = 3
'
At failure the relationship is:
'
(1 3 )f = '3f '1 1
3
max
24
EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING

PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE
Lets look first at the behaviour

of loose sand.
Typical drained triaxial test
results are shown for a loose
sand in Figure.
The principal stress ratio is
plotted versus axial strain for
different effective
consolidation
lid ti
pressures 3c.
Note that none of the curves has
a distinct peak, and they have a
shape similar to the loose curve
shown in slides n
n.10/12.
10/12
25
EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING

PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE
The volume change data is

also normalized by dividing
the volume change V by
the original volume V0 to
obtain
bt i th
the volumetric
l
t i strain:
t i
4
V
volumetric strain (%) =
x100
V0
26
T better
To
b tt appreciate
i t what
h t is
i
going on in Figure (a) let us
compute the principal stress
difference (1 - 3) at a strain
of 5% for 3c = 3.9 MPa and
3c = = 0.1 MPa.
The principal stress ratios
for these conditions are 2.0
and 3.5, respectively.
Utilizing Eq. 2, we obtain the
following
g results:
1 3 = '3
'
1
'
27
It is
i interesting
i t
ti tto look
l k att the
th shapes
h
off the
th
volumetric strain versus axial strain curves
in Figure
Figure.
As the strain increases, the volumetric
strain decreases for the most part.
part
This is consistent with the behaviour of a
loose sand.
At low confining pressures (0.1 MPa -0.2
MPa) the volumetric strain is positive or
DILATION is taking place
Even an initially loose sand behaves like a dense sand; that is
dilates if 3c is low enough.
g
28
Behaviour of dense sand

sand.
The result of several drained triaxial
t t on dense
tests
d
sand
d are presented.
t d
Results seem to be similar in
appearance to the previous Figure.
Definite peaks are in the (1/3) strain
curves - typical of dense sands.
Large increases of volumetric strain
(dilation) are observed.
At higher confining pressures, dense
sand exhibits the behaviour of loose
sand by showing a decrease in volume
or compression with strain.
29
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS

Since sand is a frictional material we would expect those factors
that increase the frictional resistance of sand to lead to increases in the
angle of internal friction.
First, let us summarize the factors that influence :
1. Void ratio or relative density
2. Particle shape
p
3. Grain size distribution
4. Particle surface roughness
5. Water
6. Intermediate principal stress
7 P
7.
Particle
ti l size
i
8. Overconsolidation or prestress
30
Void ratio, related to the density of

the sand, is perhaps the most
important single parameter that
affects the strength of sands.
Generally speaking, for drained tests
either in the direct shear or triaxial
test apparatus, the lower the void
ratio (higher density or higher relative
density) the higher the shear
density),
strength.
Th Mohr
The
M h circles
i l ffor th
the ttriaxial
i i l ttestt
data presented earlier are shown in
Figure for various confining pressures
and four void ratios.
31
A th
As
the void
id ratio
ti d
decreases, or th
the
density increases, the angle of
internal friction or angle of shearing
resistance increases.
Mohr failure envelopes in Figure are
curved; that is, is not a constant if
the range in confining pressures is
large.
We usually speak of
as if it were a
constant, but we understand that the
Mohr failure envelope
p really
y is
curved.
32
Th effects
The
ff t off relative
l ti
density or void ratio, grain
shape grain size
shape,
distribution, and particle
size on are summarized
in Table.
Values were determined
by TX tests on saturated
samples at moderate
confining pressures.
Generally
y speaking,
p
g, with
all else constant,
increases with increasing
angularity.
33
If two
t
sands
d have
h
the
th same relative
l ti d
density,
it th
the soilil th
thatt iis better
b tt graded
d d
(for example, an SW soil as opposed to an SP soil) has a larger .
Two sands, at the same void ratio, may not necessarily have the same
relative density.
Particle size, at constant void ratio, does not seem to influence
significantly. Thus a fine sand and a coarse sand, at the same void ratio,
will probably have about the same .
Another parameter (not included in Table) is surface roughness, which is
very difficult to measure. It will, however, have an effect on .
Generally, the greater the surface roughness, the greater will be .
It has also been found that wet soils show a 1 to 2 lower than if the
y
sands were dry.
34
Th final
The
fi l ffactor,
t overconsolidation
lid ti
or prestress
t
off sands,
d has
h b
been
found to not significantly affect , but it strongly affects the compression
modulus of granular materials
materials.
All the factors are summarized in Table.
35
S
Some
correlations
l ti
b
between
t
and
dd
dry d
density,
it relative
l ti d
density,
it and
d soilil
classification are shown in Figure.
36
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

What happens when shear stresses are applied to saturated cohesive
soils?
First, lets briefly review what happens when saturated sands are sheared.
You know that volume changes can take place in a drained test
test, and that
the direction of the volume changes, whether dilation or compression,
depends
p
on the relative density
y as well as the confining
gp
pressure.
If shear takes place undrained, then the volume change tendencies
produce pore pressures in the sand
sand.
Basically, the same things happen when clay soils are sheared.
37
I drained
In
d i d shear,
h
whether
h th th
the volume
l
changes
h
are dil
dilation
ti or compression
i
depends not only on the density and the confining pressure but also on the
stress history of the soil
soil.
Similarly, in undrained shear, the developed pore pressures depend
greatly on whether the soil is normally consolidated or
overconsolidated.
Typically, engineering loads are applied much faster than the water can
escape from the pores of a clay soil, and consequently excess hydrostatic
or pore pressures are produced
produced.
If the loading is such that failure does not occur, then the pore pressures
di i t and
dissipate
d volume
l
changes
h
develop
d
l b
by th
the process we callll
consolidation.
38
Oedometric Test
e=
water volume Vw
solid volume Vs
e
initial
loading
Consolidation
stress, p
higher vertical stress which

acted on the cohesive layer
Virgin consolidation
y
line of clay
cc =
reloading
unloading
loading
e
log
e
H = Ho
1 + e0
log
'
Oedometric Test
overconsolidation
lid ti ratio
ti OCR =
'p
'v
existing pressure,
pressure
v
NC normally consolidated
v = p
OCR = 1
consolidation
stress, p
OC - overconsolidated
v < p
OCR >1
log
Soil NC OC
e
OC
water volume Vw
e=
solid volume Vs
NC
NC
NC
NC
z
OC
= (or sat ) z
' = ( sat w ) z = 'z
41
Th primary
The
i
difference
diff
in
i behaviour
b h i
between
b t
sands
d and
d clays
l
is
i in
i the
th ti
time
it takes for these volume changes to occur.
The time aspect strictly depends on, or is a function of the difference in
permeability between sands and clays.
Since cohesive soils have a much lower permeability than sands and
gravels, it takes much longer for the water to flow in or out of a cohesive
soil mass.
What happens when the loading is such that a shear failure is
imminent?
Since (by definition) the pore water cannot carry any shear stress, all the
applied shear stress must be resisted by the soil structure.
42
P t another
Put
th way, the
th shear
h
strength
t
th off the
th soil
il depends
d
d only
l on the
th
effective stresses and not on the pore water pressures.
This does not mean that the pore pressures induced in the soil are
unimportant.
On the contrary, as the total stresses are changed because of some
engineering loading, the pore water pressures also change, and until
equilibrium of effective stresses occurs instability is possible.
These observations lead to two fundamentally different approaches to the
solution of stability problems in geotechnical engineering:
(1) the total stress approach
(2) the effective stress approach.
43
I the
In
th total
t t l stress
t
approach
h we allow
ll
no d
drainage
i
tto ttake
k place
l
d
during
i th
the
shear test, and we make the assumption, admittedly a big one, that the
pore water pressure and therefore the effective stresses in the test
specimen are identical to those in the field.
The method of stability analysis is called the total stress analysis
analysis, and it
utilizes the total or the undrained shear strength f of the soil.
The undrained strength can be determined by either laboratory or field
tests.
If field tests such as the vane shear, Dutch cone penetrometer, or
pressuremeter test are used, then they must be conducted rapidly enough
so that
th t undrained
d i d conditions
diti
prevailil in
i situ.
it
44
Th second
The
d approach
h to
t calculate
l l t the
th stability
t bilit off ffoundations,
d ti
embankments, slopes, etc., uses the shear strength in terms of effective
stresses.
stresses
In this approach, we have to measure or estimate the excess hydrostatic
pressure both in the laboratory and in the field
pressure,
field.
Then, if we know or can estimate the initial and applied total stresses,
we may calculate the effective stresses acting in the soil.
Since we believe that shear strength and stress-deformation behaviour of
soils is really controlled or determined by the effective stresses, this second
approach is philosophically more satisfying.
But, it does have its practical problems. For example, estimating or
measuring pore pressures, especially in situ, is not easy to do.
45
Th method
The
th d off stability
t bilit analysis
l i is
i called
ll d the
th effective
ff ti stress
t
analysis,
l i and
d
it utilizes drained shear strength or shear strength in terms of effective
stresses The drained shear strength is ordinarily only determined by
stresses.
laboratory tests.
You probably recall that there are limiting conditions of drainage in the test
which model real field situations.
We mentioned that you could have three different conditions:
consolidated-drained (CD)
consolidated-undrained (CU)
unconsolidated-undrained (UU).
(UU)
It is also convenient to describe the behaviour of cohesive soils at these
limiting drainage conditions
conditions.
46
It iis nott diffi

difficultlt to
t translate
t
l t these
th
test
t t conditions
diti
into
i t specific
ifi field
fi ld situations
it ti
with similar drainage conditions.
We mentioned that the unconsolidated-drained test (UD) is not a
meaningful test.
First, it models no real engineering design situation.
Second, the test cannot be interpreted
p
because drainage
g would occur
during shear, and you could not separate the effects of the confining
pressure and the shear stress.
As we did with sands, we shall discuss the shear behaviour of cohesive
soils with reference to their behaviour during triaxial shear tests.
47
Y can think
You
thi k off the
th sample
l in
i the
th ttriaxial
i i l cellll as representing
ti a ttypical
i l soilil
element in the field under different drainage conditions and undergoing
different stress paths
paths.
In this manner, we hope you will gain some insight into how cohesive soils
behave in shear
shear, both in the laboratory and in the field
field.
Keep in mind that the following discussion is somewhat simplified, and that
real soil behaviour is much more complicated.
48
CONSOLIDATED-DRAINED (CD) TEST BEHAVIOUR
Th procedure
The
d
is
i to
t consolidate
lid t th
the ttestt specimen
i
under
d some state
t t off
stress appropriate to the field or design situation.
The consolidation stresses can either be hydrostatic (equal in all
directions, sometimes called isotropic) or non-hydrostatic (different in
different directions,
directions sometimes called anisotropic).
anisotropic)
Another way of looking at this second case is that a stress difference or
(from the Mohr circles) a shear stress is applied to the soil.
When consolidation is over, the C part of the CD test is complete.
During the D part, the drainage valves remain open and the stress
difference is applied very slowly so that essentially no excess pore water
pressure develops during the test.
g
termed this test the S-test ((for slow test).
)
Professor A. Casagrande
49
CD TEST BEHAVIOUR
50
I Figure
In
Fi
total,
t t l neutral,
t l and
d effective
ff ti stress
t
conditions
diti
in
i an axial
i l
compression CD test at the end of consolidation, during application of axial
load and at failure are shown
load,
shown.
The subscripts v and h refer to vertical and horizontal, respectively while c
means consolidation.
consolidation
For conventional axial compression tests, the initial consolidation stresses
are hydrostatic.
Thus v = h = 3c cell pressure, which is usually held constant during the
application of the axial stress .
In the axial compression test = 1 3 adn at failure f = (1 3)f.
51
Th axial
The
i l stress
t
can be
b applied
li d either
ith b
by iincreasing
i th
the lload
d on th
the piston
i t
incrementally (stress controlled loading) or through a motor-jack system
which deforms the sample at a constant rate (called a constant rate of
strain test).
During the CD test pore water pressure is essentially zero.
zero
This means that the total stresses in the drained test are always equal to
the effective stresses.
Thus 3c = 3c = 3f = 3f and 1f = 1f = 3f + f
If isotropic consolidation stresses were applied to the specimen, then 1f
=1f would be equal to a 1c + f.
52
T i l stress-strain
Typical
t
t i curves and
d volume
l
change versus strain curves for a remolded
or compacted clay are shown in Fig
Fig. 24
Even though the two samples were tested at
the same confining pressure,
pressure OC specimen
has a greater strength than the NC clay.
It has a higher modulus and failure [
maximum = (1 3)f for TX test ] occurs at
Figura 24
a much lower strain than for NC specimen

specimen.
Note analogy to drained behaviour of sands.
OC clay expands during shear while the
NC clay compresses or consolidates
during shear.
53
Figura 24
Thi is
This
i analogous
l
to
t the
th behaviour
b h i
described earlier for sands: N.C.
clays behave similarly to loose
sands, whereas O.C. clays behave
like dense sands.
The Mohr failure envelopes for CD
tests of typical clay soils are shown
in Figures 24.
The envelope for a remolded clay as
Figura
g
25
well as a N.C. undisturbed clay is

shown in Figure
g
25.
54
E
Even
though
th
h only
l one M
Mohr
h circle
i l
(representing the stress conditions at failure)
is shown
shown, the results of 3 or more CD tests on
identical specimens, at different consolidation
pressures,, would ordinarilyy be required
p
q
to p
plot
Figura 25
the complete Mohr failure envelope.

If the consolidation stress range is large or
the specimens do not have exactly the same
initial water content, density, and stress
history, then the 3 failure circles will not
exactly define a straight lime, and an average
best-fit lime by eye is drawn.
The slope of the line determines the Mohr-Coulomb strength parameter ,
off course, in
i terms
t
off effective
ff ti stresses.
t
55
Wh the
When
th failure
f il
envelope
l
iis extrapolated
t
l t d tto
the shear axis, it will show a surprisingly
small intercept
intercept.
It is usually assumed that the c
parameter for N
N.C.
C clays is essentially
zero for all practical purposes.
For O.C. clays the c parameter is greater
than zero, as indicated by Figure 26.
The O.C. portion of the strength envelope
(DEC) lies above the N.C. envelope (ABCF).
Figura 26
This portion (DEC) of the Mohr failure

envelope is called the preconsolidation
hump.
56
Th explanation
The
l
ti for
f this
thi b
behaviour
h i
iis shown
h
in e vs. curve. We begin consolidation of
a sedimentary clay at a very high water
content and high void ratio. As we continue
to increase the vertical stress we reach point
p
A on the virgin compression curve and
conduct a CD TX test.
The strength of the sample consolidated to
point A on the virgin curve would correspond
to point A on the N.C. Mohr failure envelope.
Figura 26
If we consolidate and test another otherwise identical specimen which is

loaded to point B, then we would obtain the strength, again N.C., at point B
on the failure envelope in Figure 26
57
If we repeat the process to point C (p the

preconsolidation stress), then rebound the
specimen to point D
D, then reload it to point E
and shear, we would obtain the strength
shown at point E in the lower figure
figure.
Note that the shear strength of specimen E
is greater than specimen B
B, even though
they are tested at exactly the same effective
consolidation stresses.
The reason for the greater strength of E
Figura 26
than B is suggested by the fact that E is at a

lower water content, has a lower void ratio,
and thus is denser than B.
58
If another
th specimen
i
were loaded
l d d tto C
C,
rebounded to D, reloaded back past E and
C and on to F
F, it would have the strength as
shown in the figure at point F.
Note that it is now back on the virgin
compression curve and the N.C. failure
envelope.
envelope
The effects of the rebounding and
reconsolidation have been in effect erased
by the increased loading to point F.
Figura 26
O
Once
th
the soilil h
has b
been lloaded
d d wellll pastt th
the
preconsolidation pressure p,, it no longer
remembers its stress history
history.
remembers
59
TYPICAL VALUES OF DRAINED STRENGTH PARAMETERS
Average values of for undisturbed clays range from around 20 for N.C.
highly plastic clays up to 30 or more for silty and sandy clays.
The value of for compacted clays is typically 25 or 30 and
occasionally as high as 35.
The value of c for N.C. non-cemented clays is very small and can be
neglected for practical work.
If the soil is O.C. then would be less, and the c intercept greater than
for the N.C. part of the failure envelope.
For natural O.C. non-cemented clays with a preconsolidation stress of
less than 500 to 1000 kPa,, c will probably
p
y be less than 5 to 10 kPa at low
stresses.
60
TYPICAL VALUES OF DRAINED STRENGTH PARAMETERS
For compacted clays at low stresses, c will be much greater due to the
prestress caused by compaction.
For stability analyses, the Mohr-Coulomb effective stress parameters
and c are determined over the range of effective normal stresses likely to
be encountered in the field.
f
It has been observed that there is not much difference between
determined on undisturbed or remolded samples at the same water
content.
Apparently, the development of the maximum value of requires so much
strain that the soil structure is broken down and almost remolded in the
region of the failure plane.
61
USE OF CD STRENGTH IN
ENGINEERING PRACTICE
Figura 28
Where do we use the

strengths determined from
the CD test?
The limiting drainage
conditions modeled in the TX
test refer to real field
situations CD conditions are
situations.
the most critical for the longterm steady
y seepage
p g case
for embankment dams and
the long-term stability of
excavations or slopes in both
soft and stiff clays.
Examples of CD analysis
62
USE OF CD STRENGTH IN ENGINEERING PRACTICE
You should be aware that,

that practically speaking
speaking, it is not easy to actually
conduct a CD test on a clay in the laboratory. To ensure that no pore
pressure is really induced in the specimen during shear for materials with
very low permeability, the rate of loading must be very slow. The time
required to fail the specimen ranges from a day to several weeks.
Such a long time leads to practical problems in the laboratory such
as leakage
g of valves,, seals,, and the membrane surrounding
g the
sample.
Consequently, since it is possible to measure the induced pore pressures
in a consolidated-undrained (CU) test and thereby calculate the effective
stresses in the specimen, CU tests are more practical for obtaining the
effective stress strength parameters.
yp
popular
p
in most soils laboratories.
CD triaxial tests are not very
63
CONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED (CU) TEST BEHAVIOUR
Test specimen is first consolidated (drainage valves open) under the

desired consolidation stresses. These can either be hydrostatic or nonhydrostatic consolidation stresses.
After consolidation is complete, drainage valves are closed, and the
specimen is loaded to failure in undrained shear.
shear
Pore water pressures developed during shear are measured and both
total and effective stresses may be calculated during shear and at failure
failure.
This test can either be a total or an effective stress test.
Total, neutral, and effective stress conditions in the specimen during the
several phases of the CU test are shown in Fig. 29.
64
CU TEST BEHAVIOUR
Figura 29
65
CU TEST BEHAVIOUR
Figura 29
66
The general case of unequal consolidation is shown

shown, but typically for
routine testing the specimen is consolidated hydrostatically under a cell
pressure which remains constant during shear. Thus:
'
cell = vc = hc = 1c
'
= 3c
= 3 f
'
3 f
f (1 3 )f
Like the CD test, the axial test stress can be increased incrementally or at
a constant rate of strain up to failure.
67
Excess pore water pressure u developed during shear can either be

positive (increase) or negative (decrease). This happens because the
sample tries to either contract or expand during shear.
We are not allowing any volume change (an undrained test) and therefore
no water can flow in or out of the specimen during shear
shear.
Because volume changes are prevented, the tendency towards volume
change induces a pressure in the pore water
water.
If the specimen tends to contract or consolidate during shear, then
th induced
the
i d
d pore water
t pressure is
i positive.
iti
It wants to contract and squeeze water out of the pores, but cannot;
thus the induced pore water pressure is positive.
68
Positive pore pressures occur in N

N.C.
C clays
clays.
If the specimen tends to expand or swell during shear, the induced pore
water
t pressure is
i negative.
ti
It wants to expand and draw water into the pores, but cannot; thus the
pore water pressure decreases and may even go negative (that is, below
zero gage pressure).
Negative pore pressures occur in O.C. clays.
Thus, as noted in Fig.29, the direction of the induced pore water pressure
u is important since it directly affects the magnitudes of the effective
stresses.
Also you might note that in actual testing the initial pore water pressure
typically is greater than zero.
69
In order to ensure full saturation,

saturation a backpressure u0 is usually applied to
the test specimen (Fig.29).
Wh a back
When
b k pressure is
i applied
li d to
t a sample,
l the
th cell
ll pressure mustt
also be increased by an amount equal to the back pressure so that
the effective consolidation stresses will remain the same.
same
Since the effective stress in the specimen does not change, the strength
of the specimen is not supposed to be changed by the use of back
pressure.
I practice
In
ti this
thi may nott be
b exactly
tl ttrue, b
butt th
the advantage
d
t
off having
h i
100% saturation for accurate measurement of induced pore water
pressures far outweighs any disadvantages of the use of back pressure
pressure.
Typical stress-strain, u, and 1/3 curves for CU tests are shown in
Fig 30 for both N
Fig.30,
N.C.
C and O
O.C.
C cla
clays.
s
70
1' / '3
Figura 30
vert
vert
vert
71
Also shown for comparison is a

stress-strain curve for an O.C. clay
at low effective consolidation
stress.
Note the peak
peak, then the drop-off of
stress as strain increases (worksoftening
g material).
)
The pore pressure versus strain
curves illustrate what happens to
the pore pressures during shear.
The N.C.
N C specimen develops
positive pore pressure.
Figura 30
72
In O
O.C.
C specimen after a slight initial
increase, the pore pressure goes
negative
negative in this case, negative with
respect to the back pressure u0.
Another quantity that is useful for
analyzing test results is the principal
((effective)) stress ratio 1/3
Note how this ratio peaks early, just
like the stress difference curve, for the
O.C. clay.
Similar test specimens having similar
Figura 30
behaviour on an effective stress basis

y shaped
p 1/3
will have similarly
curves.
73
They are simply a way of

normalizing the stress behaviour
with respect to the effective minor
principal stress during the test.
Sometimes too,
Sometimes,
too the maximum of
this ratio is used as a criterion of
failure.
However we will continue to
assume failure occurs at the
maximum principal stress difference
(compressive strength).
Figura 30
What do the Mohr failure

p look like for CU tests?
envelopes
74
Since we can get both the total and

effective stress circles at failure for a
CU test when we measure the
induced pore water pressures, it is
possible to define the Mohr failure
envelopes in terms of both total and
Figura 31
effective stresses from a series of

triaxial tests conducted over a range
of stresses, as illustrated in Fig. 31
for a N
N.C.
C clay
clay. Only one set of Mohr
circles is shown.
Eff ti stress
Effective
t
circle
i l iis di
displaced
l
d to
t the
th left,
l ft ttowards
d th
the origin,
i i ffor th
the
N.C. case, because the specimens develop positive pore pressure
during shear and
= - u.
u
75
Both circles have the same diameter

because of our definition of failure at
maximum (1 3) = (
(1
3)
You should verify that this equation is true.
Once the two failure envelopes are drawn,
the Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters
Figura 31
are readily definable in terms of both total

(c, or sometimes cT, T) and effective
stresses (c,
(c ,
).
).
As with the CD test, the envelope for N.C. clay passes essentially through
the origin,
g , and thus for p
pratical p
purposes
p
c can be taken to be zero,, which
is also true for the total stress c parameter.
Note that T is less than
and often it is about one-half
one half of
.
76
Figura 30
Things are different if the clay is O

O.C..
C
Since an O.C. specimen tends to expand
d i shear,
during
h
th
the pore water
t pressure
decreases or even goes negative, as
shown in Fig.30.
Fig 30
Because 3f = 3f (uf) or 1f = 3f (uf)
the effective stresses are greater than
the total stresses, and the effective stress
circle at failure is shifted to the right of the
total stress circle (Fig. 11.32).
The shift of the effective stress circle at
failure to the right sometimes means that
is less than T.
the
Figura 32
77
Complete Mohr failure envelopes are

determined by tests on several
specimens consolidated over the
working stress range of the field
problem. Figure 33 shows Mohr
Figura 32
failure envelopes over a wide range

of stresses spanning the
preconsolidation stress.
Thus some of the specimens are
O.C. and others are N.C..
You should note that the break in
the total stress envelope (point z)
occurs roughly about twice the p for
typical clays.
Figura 33
78
The two sets of Mohr circles at

failure (Fig.33) correspond to tests
shown in Fig.30 for N.C. specimen
and specimen O.C. at low hc.
You may have noticed that an angle
Figura 32
1 was indicated on effective stress

Mohr circles of Figs.
g 31, 32, and 33.
Do you recall the Mohr failure
hypothesis wherein the point of
tangency of the failure envelope
with the Mohr circle at failure
defined the angle of the failure
plane in the specimen?
Figura 33
79
Figura 32
Since we believe that the shear

strength is controlled by the
effective stresses in the specimen
at failure, Mohr failure hypothesis
i valid
is
lid iin tterms off effective
ff ti
stresses only.
Figura 33
80
TYPICAL VALUES OF THE UNDRAINED STRENGTH PARAMETERS
Earlier we gave some typical values for c

Earlier,
c and
determined by CD triaxial
tests.
Th range off values
The
l
indicated
i di t d is
i typical
t i l for
f effective
ff ti stress
t
strengths
t
th
determined in CU tests with pore pressure measurements, with the
following reservation.
reservation
We have tacitly assumed that Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters in
terms of effective stresses determined by CU tests with pore pressure
measurements would be the same as those determined by CD tests.
W used
We
d th
the same symbols,
b l c and
d ,
ffor th
the parameters
t
determined
d t
i db
both
th
ways. This assumption is not strictly correct. The problem is complicated by
alternative definitions of failure
failure.
81
We have used the maximum principal stress

difference (1 3)max to define failure
throughout this chapter, but often in the
literature and sometimes in practice you will
find failure defined in terms of the maximum
principal effective stress ratio (1/3)max
which is the same as the maximum obliquity.
Bjerrum and Simons (1960) studied this
problem in some detail, and their results are
Figura 36
summmarized in Fig.36.
Here, as defined at (1/3)max and
(1 3)max are plotted versus d, the
effective stress parameter determined in
drained tests.
82
Note that
from the maximum principal
effective stress ratio (the dots) is from 0 to 3
greater than d.
Also note that at maximum principal stress
difference (the squares) is less than both
d
and at the maximum principal effective
stress ratio.
In one case the difference is about 7.
Figura 36
Th point
The
i t iis th
thatt you should
h ld b
be careful
f l when
h
studying published data or engineering test
reports to determine exactly how the strength
tests were conducted, how failure was
p
Mohr-Coulomb
defined,, and how anyy reported
parameters were determined.
83
Note that
from the maximum principal effective stress ratio (the dots) is
from 0 to 3 greater than d.
Al note
Also
t that
th t att maximum
i
principal
i i l stress
t
diff
difference (th
(the squares)) iis
less than both d and at the maximum principal effective stress ratio.
In one case the difference is about 7.
The point is that you should be careful when studying published data or
engineering test reports to determine exactly how the strength tests were
conducted, how failure was defined, and how any reported MohrC l b parameters
Coulomb
t
were determined.
d t
i d
For the Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters in terms of total stresses, the
problem of definition of failure doesnt come up.
Failure is defined at the maximum compressive strength (1 - 3).
84
For N.C.
N C clays,
clays seems to be about half of
;; thus values of 10
10 to 15
15 or
more are typical.
Th ttotal
The
t l stress
t
c is
i very close
l
tto zero.
For O.C. and compacted clays, may decrease and c will often be
significant.
When the failure envelope straddles the preconsolidation stress, proper
interpretation of the strength parameters in terms of total stresses is
difficult.
This is especially true for undisturbed samples which may have some
variation in water content and void ratio, even within the same geologic
stratum.
85
USE OF CU STRENGTH IN ENGINEERING PRACTICE
Where do we use the CU strength in engineering practice?

As mentioned before, this test, with pore pressures measured, is
commonly
l used
d tto d
determine
t
i th
the shear
h
strength
t
th parameters
t
iin tterms off
both total and effective stresses.
CU strengths are used for stability problems where the soils have first
become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with the existing stress
system.
system
Then, for some reason, additional stresses are applied quickly, with no
d i
drainage
occurring.
i
Practical examples include rapid drawdown of embankment dams and the
slopes of reservoirs and canals.
86
Also in terms of effective stresses

Also,
stresses, CU test results are applied to the field
situations mentioned in the earlier discussion of CD tests.
S
Some
off these
th
practical
ti l examples
l are ill
illustrated
t t d iin Fi
Fig. 37.
37 Just
J t as with
ith
CD tests, there are some problems with CU tests on clay.
For proper measurement of the pore pressures induced during shear,
special care must be taken to see that the sample is fully saturated, that
no leaks occur during testing
testing, and that the rate of loading (or rate of strain)
is sufficiently slow so that the pore pressures measured at the ends of the
specimen are the same as those occurring in the vicinity of the failure
plane.
Use of back pressure is common to assure 100% saturation
saturation.
The effects of the other two factors can be minimized by proper testing
techniq es which
techniques,
hich are described at length b
by Bishop and Henkel (1962).
(1962)
87
Fi
Figura
37
88
Another problem,
problem not often mentioned
mentioned, results from trying to determine the
long-term or effective stress strength parameters and the short-term or
CU-total
CU
total stress strength parameters from the same test series.
The rates of loading or strain required for correct effective stress strength
determination may not be appropriate for the short-term or undrained
loading situation.
The stress-deformation
stress deformation and strength response of clay soils is rate
ratedependent; that is, usually the faster you load a clay, the stronger it
becomes.
89
In the short
short-term
term case
case, the rate of loading in the field may be quite rapid
rapid,
and therefore for correct modeling of the field situation, the rates of
loading in the laboratory sample should be comparable.
Thus the two objective to do, though rarely done in practice, would be
have two sets of tests
tests, one set tested CD modeling the long-term situation
and the other CU set modeling the short-term undrained loading.
90
UNCONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED (UU) TEST BEHAVIOUR
In this test
test, the specimen is placed in the triaxial cell with the drainage
valves closed from the beginning.
Th
Thus,
even when
h a confining
fi i pressure iis applied,
li d no consolidation
lid ti can
occur if the sample is 100% saturated. Then, as with the CU test, the
specimen is sheared undrained.
undrained
The sample is loaded to failure in about 10 to 20 min; usually pore water
pressures are not measured in this test.
test
This test is a total stress test and it yields the strength in terms of total
stresses.
t
Total, neutral, and effective stress conditions in the specimen during the
several phases of the UU test are shown in Fig. 38.
91
Figura 38
92
The test illustrated in Fig.38

Fig 38 is quite conventional in that hydrostatic cell
pressure is usually applied, and the specimen is failed by increasing the
axial Ioad, usually at a constant rate of strain.
The principal stress difference at failure is (1 3)max.
Note that initially for undisturbed samples, the pore pressure is negative,
and it is called the residual pore pressure -ur which results from stress
release during sampling
sampling.
Since the effective stresses initially must be greater than zero (otherwise
th specimen
the
i
would
ld simply
i l di
disintegrate)
i t
t ) and
d th
the ttotal
t l stresses
t
are zero
(atmospheric pressure = zero gage pressure), the pore pressure must be
negative.
negative
93
When the cell pressure is applied with the drainage valves closed
closed, a
positive pore pressure uc is induced in the specimen, which is exactly
equal to the applied cell pressure c.
All the increase in hydrostatic stress is carried by the pore water because
(1) the soil is 100% saturated
saturated, (2) the compressibility of the water and
individual soil grains is small compared to the compressibility of the soil
structure, and ((3)) there is a unique
q relationship
p between the effective
hydrostatic stress and the void ratio.
Number 1 is obvious. Number 2 means that no volume change can occur
unless water is allowed to flow out of (or into) the sample, and we are
preventing that from occurring. Number 3 means basically that no
secondary compression (volume change at constant effective stress)
takes place.
94
You may recall from the discussion of the assumptions of the Terzaghi
theory of consolidation that the same assumption was required; that is,
that the void ratio and effective stress were uniquely related.
Thus there can be no change in void ratio without a change in effective
stress.
stress
Since we prevent any change in water content, the void ratio and effective
stress remain the same
same.
Stress conditions during axial loading and at failure are similar to those for
th CU ttestt (Fi
the
(Fig.29).
29)
They may appear to be complex, but if you study Fig.38 you will see that
the UU case is as readily understandable as the CU case.
95
Typically stress-strain
Typically,
stress strain curves for UU
tests are not particularly different from
CU or CD stress
stress-strain
strain curves for the
same soils.
For undisturbed samples
samples, especially
the initial portions of the curve (initial
tangent
g
modulus),
) are strongly
gy
dependent on the quality of the
undisturbed samples.
The maximum stress difference often
Figura 39
occurs at very low strains, usually

less than 0.5%.
yp
UU stress-strain curves
Some typical
are shown in Fig.39.
96
The Mohr failure envelopes for UU tests are shown in Fig.40

Fig 40 for 100%
saturated clays.
All ttestt specimens
i
ffor ffully
ll saturated
t t d clays
l
are presumably
bl att th
the same
water content (and void ratio), and consequently they will have the same
shear strength since there is no consolidation allowed
allowed.
Figura 40
97
All Mohr circles at failure will have the same diameter and Mohr failure
envelope will be a horizontal straight lime.
If you dont
d t understand
d t d itit, refer
f again
i tto Fig.38
Fi 38 to
t see that
th t in
i the
th UU ttestt
effective consolidation stress is the same throughout the test.
If all the samples are at the same water content and density (void
ratio), then they will have the same strength.
UU test gives the shear strength in terms of total stresses, and the slope
T of the UU Mohr failure envelope is equal to zero.
The intercept of this envelope on the -axis defines the total stress
strength parameter c, or f = c, where f is undrained shear strength.
98
The intercept of this envelope on the -axis

axis defines the total stress
strength parameter c, or f = c, where f is undrained shear strength.
F partially
For
ti ll saturated
t t d soils,
il a series
i off UU tests
t t will
ill define
d fi an initially
i iti ll
curved failure envelope (Fig. 11 .40b) until the clay becomes essentially
100% saturated due simply to the cell pressure alone
alone.
Even though the drainage valves are closed, the confining pressure will
compress the air in the voids and decrease the void ratio
ratio.
As the cell pressure is increased, more and more compression occurs and
eventually,
t ll when
h sufficient
ffi i t pressure is
i applied,
li d essentially
ti ll 100%
saturation is achieved.
99
Then as with the case for initially 100% saturated clays

Then,
clays, the Mohr failure
envelope becomes horizontal, as shown on the right side of Fig. 11.40b.
A th way off looking
Another
l ki att the
th compression
i off partially
ti ll saturated
t t d clays
l
iis
shown in Fig. 11.41.
Figura 41
100
As the cell pressure is increased incrementally

incrementally, the measured increment of
pore pressure increases gradually until at some point for every increment
of cell pressure added, an equal increment of pore water pressure is
observed.
At this point
point, the soil is 100% saturated and the solid (experimental) curve
becomes parallel to the 45 line shown in the figure.
In principle
principle, it is possible to measure the induced pore water pressures in
a series of UU tests although it is not commonly done.
Si
Since
the
th effective
ff ti stresses
t
att failure
f il
are independent
i d
d t off th
the ttotal
t l cellll
pressures applied to the several specimens of a test series, there is only
one UU effective stress Mohr circle at failure
failure.
This point is illustrated in Fig.42.
101
Note that no matter what the confining pressure

pressure, there is only one effective
stress Mohr circle at failure.
Th minor
The
i
effective
ff ti principal
i i l stress
t
att ffailure
il
((hf) iis th
the same ffor allll ttotal
t l
stress circles shown in the figure.
Since we have only one effective circle at failure, strictly speaking, we
need to know both and c in advance in order to draw the Mohr failure
envelope in terms of effective stresses for the UU test
test.
We could perhaps measure the angle of the failure plane in the failed UU
specimens
i
and
d iinvoke
k th
the M
Mohr
h ffailure
il
h
hypothesis
th i b
butt th
there are practical
ti l
problems with this approach.
Angle of inclination of the failure plane f shown in Fig. 42 is defined by
the effective stress envelope.
Otherwise (Fig. 10.9c and Eq. 10-10) theory would predict f to be 45.
102
Since the strength ultimately is controlled or governed by the effective

stresses, we believe that the physical conditions controlling the formation
of a failure plane in the test specimen must in some fashion be controlled
by the effective stresses acting in the specimen at failure.
Thus Eq.
Eq 10-10 should be in terms of
instead of T.
Figura 42
103
TYPICAL VALUES OF UU STRENGTH
Undrained strength of clays varies widely

widely.
Of course, T is zero, but the magnitude of f can vary from almost zero for
extremely
t
l soft
ft sediments
di
t to
t severall MPa
MP for
f very stiff
tiff soils
il and
d soft
ft rocks.
k
Often, the undrained shear strength at a site is normalized with respect to
the vertical effective overburden stress v0, at each sampling point.
Then the f/v0 ratios are analyzed and compared with other data.
This point is covered in more detail later in this chapter.
104
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST
We can,
can theoretically at least
least, conduct an unconfined compression test
and obtain the UU-total stress strength.
Thi test
This
t t is
i a special
i l case off the
th UU test
t t with
ith the
th confining
fi i or cellll pressure
equal to zero (atmospheric pressure).
The stress conditions in the unconfined compression test specimen are
similar to those of Fig.38 for the UU test, except that is equal to zero, as
shown in Fig.44.
Fig 44
If you compare these two figures, you will see that the effective stress
conditions
diti
att failure
f il
are identical
id ti l for
f both
b th tests.
t t
And if the effective stress conditions are the same in both tests, then the
strengths will be the same!
105
Figura 44
106
Practically speaking
speaking, for the unconfined compression test to yield the
same strength as the UU test, several assumptions must be satisfied.
Th
These
are as ffollows:
ll
1. The specimen must be 100% saturated; otherwise compression of the
air in the voids will occur and cause a decrease in void ratio and an
increase in strength.
2. The specimen
p
must not contain any
y fissures, silt seams, valves, or
other defects; this means that the specimen must be intact, homogeneous
clay. Rarely are O.C. clays intact, and often even N.C. clays have some
fissures.
107
3 The soil must be very fine grained; the initial effective confining stress
3.
as indicated in Fig.44 is the residual capillary stress which is a function of
the residual pore pressure -u
ur; this usually means that only clay soils are
suitable for testing in unconfined compression.
4. The specimen must be sheared rapidly to failure; it is a total stress test
and the conditions must be undrained throughout the test. If the time to
failure is too long, evaporation and surface drying will increase the
confining pressure and too high a strength will result. Typical time to
failure is 5 to 15 mm. Be sure to distinguish unconfined compressive
strength (1 3)f and the undrained shear strength which is:
1
f = (1 3 )f
2
108
109
110
111
EFFECTIVE STRESS (Karl Terzaghi, 1936)

The stresses in any point of a section through a mass of soil can be
computed from the total principal stresses 1, 2, 3 which act at this
point.
If the voids of the soil are filled with water under a stress u, the total
principal stresses consist of two parts.
One part, u, acts in the water and in the solid in every
y direction with equal
intensity. It is called the neutral stress (or the pore water pressure).
The balance [
[ 1 = 1 u], [
[2 = 2 u], [
[3 = 3 u] represents an excess
over the neutral stress u and it has its seat exclusively in the solid phase of
the soil.
112
EFFECTIVE STRESS (Karl Terzaghi, 1936)
This fraction of the total principal stresses will be called the effective
principal stresses....
A change in the neutral stress u produces practically no volume change
and has practically no influence on the stress conditions for failure....
Porous materials (such as sand, clay and concrete) react to a change of u
as if they
y were incompressible and as if their internal friction were equal to
zero.
All the measurable effects of a change of stress, such as compression,
distortion and a change of shearing resistance are exclusively due to
changes in the effective stresses 1, 2, 3 .
Hence every investigation of the stability of a saturated body of soil
requires
q
the knowledge
g of both the total and the neutral stresses.
113
THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE STRESS

The principle of effective stress was stated by Bishop (1959) in terms of
two simple hypotheses:
Volume change and deformation in soils depends on difference between
the total stress and the pressure set up in the fluid in the pore space, not
on the total stress applied
applied. This leads to the expression = u
Shear strength depends on the effective stress, not on the total normal
stress on the plane considered. This may be expressed by the equation
f = c + tan
The principle of effective stress
stress, as expressed above
above, has proved to be vital
in the solution of practical problems in soil mechanics.
114
RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH direct shear test

The residual strength of an OC
clay is usually performed on a
test specimen cut from an
undisturbed sample. The
specimen is first sheared to
failure at a constant rate of
strain to measure the peak
strength.
g The two halves of the
shear box are then returned to
the starting point by using a
faster rate of strain or hand
cranking The test is repeated
cranking.
(2 cycle).
115
RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH
Multiple cycles are made until the

maximum shear stress is
unchanged from the previous
cycle, thus indicating that the
residual strength has been
reached An example of a 5
reached.
5-cycle
cycle
test is shown on Figure.
A minimum
i i
off th
three undisturbed
di t b d
specimens are tested at three
different normal stresses to obtain
Mohr envelopes of peak and
residual strengths.
116
RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH RING SHEAR TEST
An annulus of soil is sheared by torque

torque. The
relative motion, and development of a slip plane,
occurs att the
th mid-height
id h i ht off th
the specimen.
i
A
An
advantage of the test (compared to the shear
box) is that shear movement is continuous,
without reversals, to residual condition.
The concept of performing torsion tests on soils
in the laboratory goes back to the 1930s, but the
impetus to use the test can be attributed to the
work of Bishop (1971).
The only commercial unit currently available is
the Bromhead apparatus..
pp
117
B
Bromhead
h d ring
i shear
h
The test specimen is a
thin, annular ring of soil
with the following
dimensions: outside
diameter (100 mm);
inside diameter (70
mm) and thickness (5
mm).Thus, the annular
width of the specimen
p
is (15 mm).
118
Th specimen
The
i
is
i sett up within
ithi an annular
l groove on the
th b
base plate.
l t
A loading platen and torque arm assembly is centered over the top of the
base plate so that the annular porous stone in the loading platen is aligned
over the specimen. Water is added to the perspex bowl to prevent the soil
from drying out during the test. A normal stress is applied by loading the
soil through a loading yoke and lever load arm.
In the shear test, the base plate containing the soil specimen is steadily
rotated by a multispeed motor located below it. This rotation is resisted by
the soil specimen and the shear stress is determined by loads measured
on two p
proving
g rings.
g A failure p
plane develops
p jjust below the loading
g
platen/soil contact. The gearbox has a choice of 25 constant speeds
ranging from 60
60 per minute to 0
0.024
024 per minute.
minute
119
R id l Strength
Residual
St
th Measurements
M
t in
i the
th Ring
Ri
Shear
Sh
Test
T t
The test specimen is usually prepared from remoulded soil, which is placed
in the annular groove of the specimen container. It is kneaded into place
using a wood dowel or similar implement, and the upper surface is made
smooth and level. The loading yoke and torque arm assembly is placed
over the specimen and it is consolidated under the selected normal load.
The specimen is very thin and in double drainage, dissipation of excess
pore pressures will occur relatively quickly in all soil types.
Bromhead (1986) recommends a multistage test procedure. After applying
the 1st normal load,, the specimen
p
is strained until the residual strength
g
appears to have been reached, then the next higher normal load is applied.
120
The ring shear test shares a problem with the shear box test.
test As the
shearing continues, small amounts of soil squeeze out or slough from the
t t specimen
test
i
into
i t the
th surrounding
di water-filled
t fill d b
bowl.
l
Therefore, in a multistage test, the specimen becomes progressively
thinner. In the case of the ring shear, this loss of soil during shear, plus
earlier consolidation, causes the upper porous stone to move into the
annular groove. According to Stark and Vettel (1992), the wall friction
increases the measured residual strength. They recommend that
settlement from both sources be limited to 0.75 mm (15% of the original
height).
This can be accomplished by adding soil and reconsolidating as needed.
121
The reliable measurement of peak strength of undisturbed samples in the

ring shear apparatus presents a difficulty because the stresses developed
across the
th ttestt specimen,
i
from
f
the
th inner
i
tto the
th outer
t radius,
di
are
nonuniform. (For residual strength, there is no problemthe entire shear
surface is at the same stress.) Bishop et al. (1971) investigated this issue
in some detail. However the assumption that the normal stress and shear
stress are uniformly distributed across the plane of relative rotary motion
provides a reasonable interpretation of both the peak and residual
strengths.
122
The relevant formulas are:
n'
r22
r12
3 M
2 r23 r13
W = vertical load on specimen

M = torque
r1, r2 = inner, outer radius respectively
F1, F2 = loads on the two proving rings
L = distance along torque arm between proving ring contacts
123
124
125
126

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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOTECHNICS

Shear Strength of Sands and Clays

Dipartimento di Ingegneria Idraulica, Marittima, Ambientale e Geotecnica (I.M.A.GE.)

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS AND CLAYS

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS AND CLAYS

ANGLE OF REPOSE OF SANDS

ANGLE OF REPOSE OF SANDS

ANGLE OF REPOSE OF SANDS

The angle of repose depends on the

resistance at its loosest state.

BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS DURING DRAINED SHEAR

strength of a sandy to silty soil.

BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS

consolidated drained (CD) conditions,

BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS DURING DRAINED SHEAR

If we have a saturated sample, we can

BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS DURING DRAINED SHEAR

Failure may be defined as:

BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS DURING DRAINED SHEAR

Casagrande called the ultimate void

maximum, after which it decreases to

the loose sand.

BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS DURING DRAINED SHEAR

Theoretically they both should be

BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED SANDS DURING DRAINED SHEAR

approximately (45 + /2) from the

EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE

EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE

W can assess the

EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE

At failure the relationship is:

EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING

Lets look first at the behaviour

EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING

The volume change data is

EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE

EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE

EFFECT OF VOID RATIO AND CONFINING PRESSURE ON VOLUME CHANGE

Behaviour of dense sand

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS

Void ratio, related to the density of

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

higher vertical stress which

' = ( sat w ) z = 'z

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

It iis nott diffi

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS

CONSOLIDATED-DRAINED (CD) TEST BEHAVIOUR

CONSOLIDATED-DRAINED (CD) TEST BEHAVIOUR

CONSOLIDATED-DRAINED (CD) TEST BEHAVIOUR