Larry Yenko

student number: 0860258

Research Paper no. 2 outline.
Geopolymer Concrete.
Abstract

Geopolymer concrete is a material similar to Portland cement. The difference

between Portland cement and geopolymer cement is both the binder and the
chemical reaction that changes the binding material into a paste consolidating the
aggregate. Portland cement uses lime in the process requiring a large amount of
energy to produce the cement binder. Geopolymer cement its created from an
inorganic naturally occurring material (kaolinite clay), industrial byproducts (fly ash,
furnace slag, etc.) or even agricultural byproducts (rice husk ash). The cementious
process for geoploymer concrete is polymerization rather than hydration, a
chemical reaction that converts fly ash into a binder paste using an alkali catalyst. A
geoploymer exhibits structural strength and durability equal to or greater than
Portland cement concrete. It resists heat and attack. While geopolymer cement has
many advantages, limitations include the need for additional heat for activation of
the chemical process and strength of the concrete. Safety is a concern with the use
of alkali solutions need to for activation.

1.1 History
1.1.1 Ancient History-Modified hydraulic and non-hydraulic cement has been
used in construction as far back in the history as the Egyptian pyramids. Other
types of cement were used by the Romans such as a hydraulic pozzolanic material
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naturally found near Rome (Davidovites 2011). The blocks of limestone needed to
build the pyramid have long been a subject of controversy. How did the Egyptians,
given their state of technology, move huge blocks of limestone? Prof. Davidovites
has claimed that the blocks of stone used to build the pyramids are really
geopolymer " fake stone", cast in place using crumbled limestone and a binder.
Davidovits substantiates such a claim by relying on state-of-the-art electronic
testing (Davidovits 2008).
1.1.2 Modern History
In 1957 a Ukrainian scientist, Victor Glukhovsky, was first to create a modern day
geopolymer, he called it "soil cement" (Krivenko October 2010). Davidovits was the
first person to use the word geopolymer (1978) (Davidovits 2008). Most recently,
the major focus of geopolymer concrete had been in the construction industry.
Geopolymer concrete, the focus of this paper, is mostly made from low calcium fly
ash (class F.) or blast furnace slag activated by alkali solutions. Over the last
decade, many experiments and studies have been conducted establishing the
process to create a geopolymer and the chemical and structural nature of the
material (Tempest and al. 2009).
3.1 Materials.
There are many different materials that can be used to produce, the general term,
gelpolymer concrete. Geopolymer concrete is used as structural concrete, prefab
concrete, encasement concrete, etc., and it's properties are contingent upon the
initial aluminosilicate material used as the basis of the binder. Again, the focus of
this paper is fly ash and most of discussion will be directed toward fly ash. In

addition to the aluminosilicate material, strong alkalis, water and plasticizers may
be used in the mix design for geopolymers.
3.1.1 Aluminosilicates. There are several inorganic materials used as the basis of
geopolymer cement. Kaolite, a naturally occurring clay, is high in alumina and
silicate, however, the resultant geopolymer does not exhibit the strength of fly ash
(P. Duxson 2007). Fly ash, the most extensively used source of aluminosilicates,
exhibits high strength and durability (P. Duxson 2007), however, class F fly ash is
preferable over class C fly ash as class C is high in calcium, which tends to interfere
with the all right, that's great. Thank you polymerization process (Reddy3 2010).
The extensive use of fly ash, especially in recently developing countries such as
China and India, is both environmentally friendly and practical as Portland cement is
both energy intensive and a diminishing resource (D. Hardjito 2005). Other
inorganic binders include blast furnace slag, red mud etc. and an organic source,
rice husk ash, are recognized as a source of alumina and silica, however, the
properties of the geopolymer paste are different than that of fly ash (Anuar K.A
2011).
3.1.2 Aggregates-Geopolymer cement has most of the qualities of Portland
cement. Geopolymer concrete is mixed similar to Portland cement using the same
mixing equipment (B. Tempest 2009). Though the binder and catalyst are different,
geopolymer concrete mix design is similar to Portland cement, i.e. both cements
used similar mixtures of coarse and fine aggregate. The aggregate to binder is 75 to
80%, identical to Portland cement mix designs (Naik 2010)
3.1 .3 Alkaline Catalysts-Portland cement hardens by a process of hydration
which is catalyzed by water. Geopolymer concrete is hardened by a process of
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polymerization. The binder is mixed with sodium hydroxide (usually in flake or pellet
form), potassium hydroxide (usually in liquid form), sodium silicate (sodium oxide
16.7 %, silcate oxide 29.4% and water 55.9%) or a combination of the three. Water
is added to dissolve the sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate, but has no catalytic
effect on the polymerization process (P. Duxson 2007).
3.1.4 Superplasticizer- Superplasticizer, naphthalene or melamine, can also be
added to the geopolymer design mix to increase the workability of the paste (B.
Tempest 2009).
4.1 Polymerization-Polymerization in the context of geopolymer concrete is a
chemical reaction in which an alumina and silica rich binder material, in our case, fly
ash, is mixed with a catalyst, a highly alkaline material , aggregate, a filler, and in
most cases, heat. The resulting compound has been referred to as geopolymer
cement, low temperature aluminosilicate glass, alkali activated cement, geocement,
alkali-bonded ceramic, inorganic polymer concrete and Hydro cement. All names
referred to geopolymer cement. Additives may be introduced to slow the chemical
process or make the material more workable.
4.1.1 Polymerization Reaction-This process has been described as "a complex
system of coupled alkali mediated dissolution and precipitation reactions in an
aqueous reaction substrate" (P. Duxson 2007). As discussed earlier, Glukhovsky
proposed the general process for the alkali activation of a alumina silicate material
as (a) destruction-coagulation (b) coagulation-condensation (c) condensationcrystallization (P. Duxson 2007). This process has been more recently defined as a
zeolite synthesis.

Conceptual model of geopolymerization (P. Duxson 2007)

As you can see from the animation, the original aluminosilicate and alkali medium is
dissolved in water, but as the reaction proceeds, water is expelled and is contained
within the pores of the gel. It is important that, even at elevated temperatures to
accelerate curing, loss of water should be minimized (D. Hardjito 2005). To the
extent that the solution should contain just enough water to complete the process,
excess water can weaken the geopolymer concrete. Though the illustration include
many steps, the reaction time starts instantaneously and is concluded within 48
hours (complete polymerization).
5.1 Curing-Curing temperatures are increased by means of an oven or steam
driven heater. The heat activates the solutions and has an effect on the strength of
the geoploymer. The curing process must be matched to the aluminosilicate, the
alkali solution and the optimum curing time.
5.1.1 Aging Time-Aging time is the time between pouring the geoploymer into a
mold and the time the concrete (in the mold) is placed in a heating environment.
Consensus of experiments varying the time of aging from 0 to 2 days found that the
full two days resulted in higher strength (B. Tempest 2009).
5.1.2 Curing Time/Temperature-Curing time generally improve the strength of
the geoploymer concrete though it has been documented that curing can be
attained at room temperature (B. Tempest 2009). It is believed that the application
of heat speeds the polymerization process (B. Tempest 2009). This may be
explained by heat improving the dissolution process by increasing the solubility of
silica (B. Tempest 2009). It should also be noted that increasing the alkalinity of the
activator improves the strength which may be due to the increased number of
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hydroxy ions (B. Tempest 2009). Geoploymer gel reaches a crystalline tetrahedral
structure via the polymerization process in a short period of time (P. Duxson 2007)
The ultimate result and scientific explanation of the increased strength of
geopolymer concrete is the final crystalline structure of the geoploymer concrete.
5.1 Properties-Geopolymer concrete products have shown to rapidly develop
strength, produce superior strength, develop dimensional stability (due to the
crystalline lattice), be resistant to fire, resist acids and adhere to aggregates and
reinforcement rod very well (P. Duxson 2007). With the addition of Superplasticizers,
geopolymer concrete exhibits properties similar to Portland cement concrete, i.e.
workability. In addition, geoploymer concrete has a mix design similar to Portland
cement concrete and the same equipment its used to mix geopolymer concrete as
Portland cement concrete.
6.1 Applications-Considering the properties of geopolymer concrete and the
similar process of mixing the concrete, a wide variety of products, especially in
construction, have been made from geoploymer concrete.
6.1.1 Precast Products-Generally speaking, most all precast concrete products
made from Portland cement concrete can be made with geopolymer concrete. Such
products as brick, ceramic tile, roof tile, acoustic panels, prestressed housing
panels, precast commercial building panels, sewer pipe and concrete patch can be
easily made using the geoploymer process (P. Duxson 2007). What makes precast
products most appropriate for geoploymer concrete is that the products are small
enough to be transported into and heated in several different types of ovens to
maximize the strength of the concrete as described above. An additional advantage
to all applications of geoploymer concrete, but especially to precast materials is the
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low shrinkage and low creep (Hardjito, et al., 2004). Research has been done on
precast geoploymer concrete beams (S. Foster 2010). Stress testing showed that
the geoploymer concrete beam met or exceeded stress and shear tests of Portland
cement concrete beams. The load carrying capacity is up to 20% greater than
Portland concrete cement, the ductility factor is marginally less than Portland
concrete cement due to the increased stiffness of geopolymer concrete
(Administration 2010).
There has been research into the production of geopolymer concrete precast
columns. The result of such research confirmed the viability of precast columns. The
experimental beams met Australian Standard AS3600 and American Concrete
Institute Building Code ACI 318-02 and were made with no additional specialized
equipment (D. M. J. Sumajouw 2006).
An interesting precast product is geopolymer piles. Geoploymer piles are well-suited
for such a use because of their strength and their resistance to Acid Sulfate soil
attack (B. Munn, et al. 2011).
6.1.2 Repair Mortar-The performance of geoploymeric repair mortar is superior to
Portland cement concrete. The binding characteristics of fly ash based gelpolymer
has better adhesion than Portland cement concrete and slag based geopolymer
concrete repair mortar has significantly abrasion resistance (Shuguang Hu 2008).
6.1.3 Waste Stabilization-Geoploymer concrete can be used to render toxic
waste innocuous by either incorporation or encapsulation. Incorporation is achieved
because of the final tetrahedra structure of the cement. The waste material is mixed
with the geopolymer material using conventional concrete mixing equipment. The
mixture can be poured into containers (barrels), solidified (within minutes) and
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transported to a toxic waste dump where the waste is permanently encapsulated.

Geopolymer concrete can also be used to encapsulate toxic material. Contaminated
soil can be evacuated and the resulting vault is lined with low permeable
geopolymer concrete. The contaminated soil is treated with dry geoploymer mix
making a soil with minimal leachate properties. The contaminated soil is transferred
to the vault and then capped with geopolymer cement (Douglas C. Comrie n.d.).
6.1.4 Railroad Sleepers-Railroad sleepers (concrete ties) are an ideal application
of geoploymer concrete. There are over 3 billion sleepers, of which 400 million are
concrete, in use today. There is a demand for approximately 20 million sleepers per
year. 50% of that demand is for concrete sleepers. Obviously, if wood sleepers can
be replaced with an environmentally friendly substitute, millions of trees can be
saved. For a substitute to be viable, it has to be durability, equal to or greater in
strength than the sleepers being replaced. High-strength sleepers made with a
process that strengthens in a short time and exhibits good long-term durability are
properties that make geoploymer concrete sleepers a viable alternative.
Manufactured prestressed sleepers made of geoploymer concrete have been used
in Spain. The Spanish have found that these sleepers ensure better track geometry
(high-speed rail). They are more resistant to lateral stress and they have a more
uniform behavior (A. Palomo 2007). These sleepers exhibit excellent performance in
all types of weather including the freeze thaw cycle. As mentioned before, they
perform well in acid environments and are resistant to sulfate attacks.
7.1 Environmental Advantages-Geopolymer concrete is environmentally friendly
in many ways. Geoploymer concrete is a product that is commercially viable and is
produced from high-volume waste products such as fly ash. Man has been looking
for the perfect recyclable product, fly ash may be it. It is a material that is acquired
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from the burning of coal for the generation of electricity. It is a waste product
requiring permanent disposal (usually in landfills). Recycling fly ash will reduce the
need to permanently dispose of fly ash (usually in landfills). The production of
geopolymer cement, using fly ash, requires a fraction of the energy as it does to
produce Portland cement, the second major advantage of geopolymer cement.
Finally, another advantage of geopolymer is access that the third world has to the
most widely used construction material (concrete).
7.1.1 Statistics-Concrete is the most widely used construction product in the world
and it's usage is second only to water as a consumption of natural resources (G.
Habert1 2010). It requires 1.5 tons of raw material to produce 1 ton of Portland
cement. Production of Portland cement requires a large amount of energy,
producing a great amount of CO2 emissions. It is estimated that as much as 10% of
the world CO2 emissions comes from the production of Portland cement (G. Habert1
2010). Geopolymer cement ( the focus of this paper) does require additional energy
to produce and therefore a reduction in energy and CO2 emissions is not a one to
one mitigation of Portland cement in energy use and emissions. Consideration must
be made for the production of the alkali activation solutions, more specifically,
sodium silicate, which has other environmental impact beyond the use of energy
and CO2 emissions (G. Habert1 2010). In addition to the energy used in fly ash
transportation (even though the quantity is small), other considerations need to be
factored into the reduction of energy used in geopolymer concrete as it mitigates of
the amount of energy in Portland cement. Fly ash can be incorporated into Portland
cement concrete (up to 60%), which is a mitigating factor of total energy used
(Graham 2005). Of higher impact is the energy expended in the production of
materials requiring higher activation temperatures, though curing at room
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temperature had been shown to yield high compression strength (Graham 2005).
Still, these savings environmentally are estimated at 60% above the environmental
impact of Portland cement (G. Habert1 2010).
I believe of great interest is the recycling of not only fly ash, but concrete
aggregate. A study has been done incorporating recycled concrete aggregate into
geopolymer concrete. The recycled concrete was crushed and grated using sieves
to separate the fine and coarse and then added as aggregate to a Waste Paper
Sludge Ash binder material and activated by sodium hydroxide, both 8 and 14
molar. This solution was compared to results from fly ash. The end result was highstrength geopolymer concrete cured at a ambient temperature. The study found
that strength was increased with a higher concentration of sodium hydroxide, which
appears to be equal to adding heat to the process. The study recommended further
investigation into varying the percentage of recycled concrete aggregate has a
green solution to geopolymer concrete (R. A. Anuar K.A 2011).
8.1 Conclusion.
Fly ash-based geoploymer cement is an alternative to Portland cement. The
chemical process by which geoploymer cement converts aggregate and cement
into a hardened construction material is polymerization as opposed to hydration
(the hardening process by which Portland cement concrete hardens). Fly ash, a
waste material, can mitigate the energy used to produce Portland cement with an
end result of approximately 60% energy and CO2 savings. Geopolymer concrete has
numerous uses in construction. The polymerization process is currently being
researched and full polymerization at room temperature may be viable in the near
future.
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An interesting PowerPoint presentation concerning geopolymer can be found at:

http://www.aces.upatras.gr/userfiles/file/2nd_Workshop/ACES_workshop_Oct_2010_F
oster.pdf

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