Frequency Design

Control Theory
Frequency domain design
Germn Andrs Ramos, PhD.

Design based on the system frequency response (bode
plot, nyquist plot)
System robustness can be defined using the gain and
phase margins
Nyquist stability criterion can be applied also to establish
gain and phase margins
System error constants can be read directly from the low
frequency asimptote in the magnitude plot
System speed response is proportional to the crossover
frequency

In continuous time
The bode plots are easily plotted and interpreted (by
hand)
Corrections to the frequency response can be easily
made using the controller poles and zeros
Gs(j!) is a rational function of j! then plot bode plots is
simple
In discrete time
Computer tools
Gz(ej!) is an irational function of !

Principio del argumento
F(s)
From [1]
C1
F(s)
closed curve in the s-plane

rational function of s (no pole nor zero on C1)
Z, P
numbers of zeros and poles of F(s) encircled by C1
C2
maping of C1 by F(s) into the F-plane
C2 will encircle the

origin of the F-plane
(Z-P) times in the
same direction as C1
Hp(z)
ymSP
H (z)
H (z)
H (z)
Frequency domain
design
c
Nyquist stability criterion
ym
Making compact
GL(z)
(s)
G
l l(z)
R(s)
ym SP
C(s)
Hc (z)
G(s)
Hp (z)
Yym(s)
MakingGcompact
l (s)
Closed-loop transfer function:
Go (s)
=
1+yGl (s)
y mSP
m
L(s)
Closed-loop characteristic equation:
(s) = 1+ Gl (s)
Loop transfer function:
Gl (s)
Figure 31: Converting an extracted part of the detailed block diagram in Figure 30
into a compact block diagram. L(z) is the loop transfer function.

Nyquist plot
Gl (s)
Gl (s)
From [5]

Nyquist plot
Gl (s)
From [1]
s +1
Gl (s) = 2
s (s 2)
F(s) = 1+ Gl (s)

Nyquist plot polar plot
3.5
Gl (s)
Frequency R
Im G(i )
Ultimate point
Re G(i )
a
From [6]
Figure 3.8
Polar plot
The Nyquist plot of a transfer function G (i ).
L( s )
that number. What about determining the angular change of the vector
1 + L(z)? Figure 34 shows how the vector (or complex number) 1 + L(z)
appears in a Nyquist diagram for a typical plot of L(z). A Nyquist diagram is
simply a Cartesian diagram of the complex plane in which L is plotted.
1 + L(z) is the vector from the point ( 1, 0j), which is denoted the critical
point, to the Nyquist curve of L(z).

Nyquist plot
Curve A2
is mapped
to here
The
critical
point
Negative
Im G
L(z)
l (s)
Curve B
is mapped
to origo
1
0
Distance of the
Nyquist curve
to the critical point
(-1,0):
1+ Gl (s)
Gl (s)
Re L(z)
Gl (s)
1 + L(z)
Nyquist
curve of
G
L(z)
l (s)
Decreasing
Positive
Curve A1
is mapped
to here
Figure 34: Typical Nyquist curve of L(z). The vector 1 + L(z) is drawn.
From [7]
PCL =
arg [1 + L(z)]
+ POL
360
(306)
If PCL = 0, the closed loop system is asymptotically stable.

Let us take a closer look at the terms on the right side of (306): POL are the
number of the roots of dL (z), and there should not be any problem calculating
Curve A2
is mapped
to here
Theorem:
Go(s) is stable if and only if the
Nyquist plot of Gl(s) does not pass
through critical point (-1,0) and the
number of counterclockwise
encirclements of (-1,0) equals the
number of open right-half-plane
poles of Gl(s)
The
critical
point
Negative
Im G
L(z)
l (s)
Curve B
is mapped
to origo
1
0
Gl (s)
Re L(z)
Gl (s)
1 + L(z)
Nyquist
curve of
G
L(z)
l (s)
Curve A1
is mapped
to here
Decreasing
Positive
From [7]
More about the Nyquist curve of L(z) Let us take a more detailed look
PCL =
arg [1 + L(z)]
+ POL
360
(306)
If PCL = 0, the closed loop system is asymptotically stable.

Let us take a closer look at the terms on the right side of (306): POL are the
number of the roots of dL (z), and there should not be any problem calculating
Curve A2
is mapped
to here
Corollary:
If Gl(s) has no open right-half-plane
poles, then Go(s) is stable if and only
if the Nyquist plot of Gl(s) does not
encircle nor pass through critical
point (-1,0)
The
critical
point
Negative
Im G
L(z)
l (s)
Curve B
is mapped
to origo
1
0
Gl (s)
Re L(z)
Gl (s)
1 + L(z)
Nyquist
curve of
G
L(z)
l (s)
Curve A1
is mapped
to here
Decreasing
Positive
From [7]
More about the Nyquist curve of L(z) Let us take a more detailed look

Design criteria
Gain and phase margins:
From [1]

Design criteria
From [6]

Design criteria
From [6]

Design criteria
From [1]

Gain and phase margins (OL) transient response (CL)
For a second order continuous time system:
2
Go (s) = 2
s + 2 s + 2
Go ( j )
cutoff frequency
bandwidth
Resonant peak
overshoot
Mp = e
#
1
%
M r = $ 2 1 2
%
1
&
From [5]
< 0.707
0.707

From [5]
overshoot
Mp = e
1 2
2
Go (s) = 2
s + 2 s + 2
Resonant peak
#
1
%
M r = $ 2 1 2
%
1
&
From [1]
< 0.707
0.707

2
Go (s) = 2
s + 2 s + 2
Gain margin > 10 dB, Phase margin > 45
Mr 1.3
Gain margin > 12 dB, Phase margin > 60
Mr 1.0

For the second order continuous time system:
2
G(s) = 2
s + 2 s
closed-loop
Go (s) =
G(s)
1+ G(s)
Phase margin (G(s)) and Mp (Go(s)) are directly related:

"
$
1
m = tan $
$
#
%
'
2
1 '
4
2 2'
4 +1 2
&
Which is usually approximated by:
m = 100

m = 100
Discrete proportional
feedback of
1
G(s) = 2
s +s
Open loop
phase margin and
closed-loop damping
ratio as the feedback
gain was varied
From [6]

The resonant peak (CL) increases as the frequency
response (OL) appoaches the point -1
Larger resonance
time domain
CL
small stability margins

frequency domain
CL

Sensitivity to parameter variation: is in general reduced
increasing the open loop gain
Disturbance rejection can be improved using hign loop
gain, provided that this gain is not in the direct path
between the disturbance input and system output
Control effort: constraints on the control action need to
be considered. High loop gain can cause system
saturation

Low frequency gains (OL) steady state error (CL)
Position error constant:
K p = lim C(s)G(s)
s0
Velocity error constant:
K v = lim sC(z)G(z)
s0

Given the closed loop transfer function: E(s) =
- For a step reference:
E(z) =
R(s) =
1
R(s)
1+ G(s)C(s)
1
s
1
1
1+ G(s)C(s) s
1
1
1
ess = lim sE(s) = lim s
= lim
s0
s0
1+ G(s)C(s) s s0 1+ G(s)C(s)
Obtaining
ep =
1
1+ K p
where
K p = lim C(s)G(s)
s0

Given the closed loop transfer function: E(s) =
- For a step reference:
E(z) =
R(s) =
1
R(s)
1+ G(s)C(s)
1
s2
1
1
1+ G(s)C(s) s 2
1
1
1
ess = lim sE(s) = lim s
= lim
2
s0
s0
s0 s + sG(s)C(s)
1+ G(s)C(s) s
Obtaining
ev =
1
Kv
where
K v = lim sC(z)G(z)
s0

Syteady state error vs system type
System
Type \ Error
constant
Kp
Kv
Ka
II
System
Type \ Error
ep
ev
ea
II

Syteady state error in bode plot
From [1]

Specifications of control systems

Lag phase network
1+ aT1s
C(s) =
1+ T1s
0 < a <1
From [1]

Design procedure:
Compute the error constant from steady state error
specification
Plot bode plot
gain and phase margins
Determine the frequency at which the bode plot has the
required phase margin plus 6. This is the new gain
crossover frequency !g'
Measure the attenuation needed to bring the gain plot
down to !g'
= 20 log(a)
Compute T1 from:
1 !g
=
aT1 10

Lead phase network
1+ bT2 s
C2 (s) =
1+ T2 s
b >1
1+ sin m
b=
1 sin m
From [1]

Design procedure:
Compute the error constant from steady state error
specification
Plot bode plot
gain margin, phase margin 1,
gain crossover frequency !g and phase crossover frequency !p
Calculate
Compute
= required 1 +
1+ sin
b=
1 sin
Draw a horizontal line with gain
10 log(b)
The intersection with the bode plot will be the new gain
crossover frequency !g'
Measure the resulting phase margin

Ejemplo:
1
G(s) =
s(s + 2)
Velocity error ep<10 %

Phase margin > 60
Gain margin > 12dB

Ejemplo:
1
G(s) =
s(s + 2)
Velocity error ep<10 %

Phase margin > 60
Gain margin > 12dB
Hp(z)
ymSP
Hc (z)
Hu(z)
Hs(z)

Sensitivity function:
E(s)
R(s)
ym SP
ym
Making compact
GL(z)
(s)
G
l l(z)
C(s)
Hc (z)
G(s)
Hp (z)
Yym(s)
Making compact
The error is given by
1
1
y mSP
E(s) =
R(s)y=m
R(s)
L(s)
1+ C(s)G(s)
1+ Gl (s)
The sensitivity function is defined as
1
Converting an extracted part1+
of G
thel (s)
detailed block diagram in Figure 30
S(s) =
Figure 31:
into a compact block diagram. L(z) is the loop transfer function.
where nL (z) and dL (z) are the numerator and denominator polynomials of

In the frequency domain
S( j ) =
The following can be defined
1
1+ Gl ( j )
S5.4
= max S( j
)
= S(s)
Disturbance
Attenuation
10
S
! S(i )!
10
10
10
10
10
sc ms
10
10
From [2]

Feedback Fundamentals
11
Distance of the Nyquist curve
to the critical point (-1,0):
1
1+ Gl (s) =
S(s)
1
1+ Gl (s)
1/ S
Ms
All points inside the

dashed circle have
sensitivities greater
than 1
ms
sc
Minimum distance:
1
S(s)
For a larger S the
Nyquist plot comes
closer to the point of
instability
From [2]
Nyquist curve of loop transfer function showing graphical interpre-

Im Gl (s)
From [6]
Distance of the Nyquist curve

to the critical point (-1,0):
1
1+ Gl (s) =
S(s)
Minimum distance:
1+ Gl (s)
ReGl (s)
1
S(s)
For a larger Sthe
Nyquist plot comes
closer to the point of
instability
Vector gain margin (VGM):
VGM =
S
S 1
Sensitivity function plant variations

dback Fundamentals
From [2]
If the process is changed from G(s) to G(s)+G(s)
the loop transfer function changes from

C(s)G(s) to C(s)G(s)+C(s) G(s)
The Nyquist curve will not reach the

critical point 1 provided that
1+
Gl L
(s)
1+
C(s)G(s)
C P
C(s)G(s) < 1+ Gl (s)

This condition can be re-written as
T (s) =
Gl (s)
= Go (s)
1+ Gl (s)
G( j )
1
<
G( j )
T ( j )
yquist curve of a nominal loop transfer function and its uncertainty

ss variations P.

dback Fundamentals
the variations can be large for those frequencies
where T is small and that smaller variations are
allowed for frequencies where T is large. A
conservative estimate of permissible process
variations that will not cause instability is given by
G( j ) 1
<
G( j )
T
1+
Gl L
(s)
1+
C(s)G(s)
C P
From [2]
where
T = T (s) = max T ( j )
If T = 2 gain variations of 50% and phase

variations of 30o are permitted without making
the closed loop system unstable
yquist curve of a nominal loop transfer function and its uncertainty

ss variations P.

We have also seen from Equations (5.6) and (5.13) that it is advantageous to
have a small value of the sensitivity function and it follows from (5.10) that a
small value of the complementary sensitivity allows large process uncertainty.
since
Gl (s)
T (s) =
1+ Gl (s)
then
T (s) + S(s) = 1
1
S(s) =
1+ Gl (s)
This means that S and T cannot be made small simultaneously. The

loop transfer function L is typically large for small values of s and it goes
to zero as s goes to infinity. This means that S is typically small for small
s and close to 1 for large. The complementary sensitivity function is
close to 1 for small s and it goes to 0 as s goes to infinity.
tivity can be made arbitrary small for any finite frequency by making k
sufficiently large.
The system in Example 5.6 is unfortunately an exception. The key feature
of the system is that the Nyquist curve of the process lies in the fourth
quadrant. Systems whose Nyquist curves are in the first and fourth quadrant are called positive real. For such systems the Nyquist curve never
enters the
region shown
in Figure
5.11 where the sensitivity is greater
Sensitivity
function
plant
variations
than one.
For typical control systems there are unfortunately severe constraints
Bodeonhas
that iffunction.
the loop transfer
has
polesthat
pk inif the
planehas
theshown
sensitivity
Bode has
shown
the right
loop half
transfer
and ifpoles
it goes
fasterhalf
thanplane
1/s for
large
the sensitivity
function
pk to
in zero
the right
and
if its goes
to zero faster
than 1/ s for
satisfies
following
integral
largethe
s the
sensitivity
function satisfies the following integral
log ! S(i )! d =
"
1
log
d =
Re pk
!1 + L(i )!
(5.18)
equation
shows
if the
sensitivity
function
is made
smallerfor
for
This This
equation
shows
thatthat
if the
sensitivity
function
is made
smaller
frequencies
it must
increaseatatother
otherfrequencies.
frequencies. This
somesome
frequencies
it must
increase
Thismeans
meansthat
if disturbance attenuation is improved in one frequency range it will be
that ifworse
disturbance
attenuation is improved in one frequency range it
in other. This has been been called the water bed effect.
will be worse
in other.
This has
been
been
called the water
bed effect.
Equation
(5.18) implies
that
there
are fundamental
limitations
to what
can be achieved by control and that control design can be viewed as a

redistribution of disturbance attenuation over different frequencies.
For a loop transfer function without poles in the right half plane (5.18)
reduces to
!
log ! S(i )!d = 0
0
This formula can be given a nice geometric interpretation as shown in
!1 + L(i )!
This equation shows that if the sensitivity function is made smaller for
some frequencies it must increase at other frequencies. This means that
if disturbance attenuation is improved in one frequency range it will be
worse in other. This has been been called the water bed effect.
Equation (5.18) implies that there are fundamental limitations to what
plant
variations
can beSensitivity
achieved byfunction
control and
that control
design can be viewed as a
redistribution of disturbance attenuation over different frequencies.
a loop
transfer
functionwithout
without poles
right
halfhalf
plane
(5.18)
For For
a loop
transfer
function
polesininthe
the
right
plane
(5.18)
reduces to
reduces to
!
log ! S(i )!d = 0
This formula
can be
a nice
shown
This formula
cangiven
be given
a nicegeometric
geometric interpretation
interpretation as as
shown
in in
5.17 which
shows
a functionof
of. .The
The area
area over
Figure Figure
5.17 which
shows
log ! Slog|S(j)|
(i )! as as
a function
over the
theChapter
horizontal
betoequal
the under
area under
the axis.
5. axis
Feedback
Fundamentals
horizontal
axis must
be must
equal
the to
area
the axis.
1
Derivation of Bodes Formula*

log ! S(i )!
0
This is a technical
section which requires some knowledge of the theory
of complex variables,
in particular contour integration. Assume that the
1
loop transfer function has distinct poles at s = pk in the right half plane
and that L(s) 2
goes to zero faster than 1/ s for large values of s. Consider
+ [2]
the integral of3 the logarithm of the sensitivity function S(s) = 1/(1 From
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
L(s)) over the contour
shown in
Figure
5.18. The contour encloses the
right half plane except the points s = pk where the loop transfer function
has poles
and the
sensitivity
function
S(s)(5.18
has
L(s) = P(s) C (s)Figure
5.17 Geometric
interpretation
of Bodes
integral formula
). zeros. The
n laws. They
grated value
functionis
otal amount
zero for stao some fixed
y magnitude,
sitivities less
alues are bad
open loop).
ensitivity imuency is exoration. For
because the
e
,
Log Magnitude
10

Sensitivity functions
10
1.0
0.1
0.0
0.5
average deterioration is always larger than the

improvement. This applies to every controller,
no matter
how it was designed. Sensitivity
imSerious
Design
s.g
provements in one frequency range must be paid
for with sensitivity deteriorations in another frequency range, and the price is higher if the plant
is open-loop unstable.
It is curious, somehow, that our field has not
adopted a name for this quantity being conserved (i.e., the integrated log of sensitivity
magnitude), to put it on a par with some of the
great quantities of physics such as mass, momentum, or energy. But since it has not, we are
free to choose a name right now. Let me propose
that we simply call it dirt. It is stuff we would
rather not have around; the less we have, the
better. I want to choose this name because it
lets me liken the job of a serious control designer
in
1.0to that of a ditch
1.5 digger, as illustrated
2.0
Figure
3.
He
moves
dirt
from
one
place
to
anFrequency
other, using appropriate tools, but he never gets
rid of any of it. For every ditch dug somewhere,
Figure 3. Sensitivity reduction at low frequency unavoidably

leads to sensitivity increase at higher frequencies.
August 2003
1.0
0.1
0.0
0.5
1.0
Frequency
1.5
Figure 3. Sensitivity reduction at low frequency unavoidably

leads to sensitivity increase at higher frequencies.
s.g
Formal Synthesis
Machine
1.0
0.1
0.0
0.5
1.0
Frequency
1.5
Form: Stein, G., "Respect the unstable," Control Systems, IEEE , vol.23, no.4, pp.
12,25, Aug. 2003
s.g
2.0
Figure 4. Sensitivity shaping automated by modern control tools.
IEEE Control Systems Magazine
Formal Design
2.0
Formal Design
Log Magnitude
ntil 1983, in a
on Decision
es, someone
a version of
s for a long
the value of
t should not
out the diffi-
A Bode Integral Interpretation
I like
to think
of Bodes integrals
as conservation
laws. They
ademic control designer with
more
abstract
tools such
as
state precisely that a certain quantitythe integrated value
linear quadratic Gaussian (LQG),
H , convex optimization,
of the logof the magnitude of the sensitivity functionis
and the like, at his disposal. This
designer
a of
powerful
conserved
under guides
the action
feedback. The total amount
of
this
quantity
is
always
the
same.
It is of
equal to zero for staditch-digging machine by remote control from the safety
ble plant/compensator pairs, and it is equal to some fixed
his workstation (Figure 4). Hepositive
sets parameters
(weights) at
amount for unstable ones.
his station to adjust the contours
machines
Sinceof
wethe
are talking
about thedigging
log of sensitivity magnitude,
it
follows
that
negative
values
are
good (i.e., sensitivities less
blades to get just the right shape for the sensitivity function.
than unity, better than open loop) and positive values are bad
He then lets the machine dig(i.e.,
down
as fargreater
as it than
can,unity,
andworse
he than open loop).
sensitivities
So for open-loop
average sensitivity imsaves the resulting compensator.
Next, hestable
firessystems,
up histhe
autoprovement a feedback loop achieves over frequency is exmatic code generator to write the implementation code for
actly offset by its average sensitivity deterioration. For
the compensator, ready to runopen-loop
on his target
unstablemicroprocessor.
systems, things are worse because the
Log Magnitude
red as a permatic Control
15
Bibliography
[1] ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN. Chi-Tsong
Chen, Saunders College Publishing
[2] CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN LECTURE NOTES FOR ME 155A.
Karl Johan strm. University of California. 2002.
[3] FEEDBACK SYSTEMS. AN INTRODUCTION FOR SCIENTISTS
AND ENGINEERS. Karl Johan strm and Richard M. Murray.
Princeton University Press 2008.
[4] FEEDBACK CONTROL OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS. Gene F.
Franklin, J. David Powell. Abbas Emani-Naieini. Addison Wesley
[5] DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN. C. L.
Phillips and H. T. Nagle, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, 1990
[6] DIGITAL CONTROL OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS. Franklin, Gene F.,
J. David Powell, and Michael L. Workman. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997

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Frequency Design

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Control Theory

Frequency domain design

Germn Andrs Ramos, PhD.

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

closed curve in the s-plane

numbers of zeros and poles of F(s) encircled by C1

maping of C1 by F(s) into the F-plane

C2 will encircle the

Nyquist stability criterion

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

The Nyquist plot of a transfer function G (i ).

Frequency domain design

If PCL = 0, the closed loop system is asymptotically stable.

Frequency domain design

If PCL = 0, the closed loop system is asymptotically stable.

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Gain margin > 12 dB, Phase margin > 60

Frequency domain design

Phase margin (G(s)) and Mp (Go(s)) are directly related:

Which is usually approximated by:

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

small stability margins

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Velocity error constant:

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Frequency domain design

Draw a horizontal line with gain

Frequency domain design

Velocity error ep<10 %

Frequency domain design

Velocity error ep<10 %

Frequency domain design

The error is given by

The sensitivity function is defined as

Frequency domain design

The following can be defined

Frequency domain design

All points inside the

Nyquist curve of loop transfer function showing graphical interpre-

Frequency domain design

Distance of the Nyquist curve

Vector gain margin (VGM):

Frequency domain design

Sensitivity function plant variations