UNIT 1

Discuss the evolution process towards the modern day powered

heavier than air manned aircraft
The first basic principle of flight heavier than air was first expressed
by Sir George cayley of u.k in 1809 as follows:
The solution of the flight heavier than air lies on
application of power to overcome the resistance of air and fly at higher
speeds .it also requires a wing surface which would allow to create a
lift force more than weight of the aircraft, by virtue of its forward
speed.
STEAM ENGINES:
Subsequently attempts to fly the aircraft with steam engines were
attempted , notable among them are
Du temple in France 1858
Mozhaski in Russia 1884
Ader in france 1890
The flight with steam engine was then realised to be impossible due to
weight and efficiency.
PISTON ENGINE:
The development of 4 stroke petrol internal
combustion engine by otto of Germany was the first important
milestone which is now termed as piston engine. By the beginning of
20th century improved piston engine of lighter weight and increased
[power were developed by BENZ AND DAILMER of germany,
Manly and wright brothers of USA and le varasseur of france. This

type of engine were used for all powered flight till 1940, hence jet
engine development took the role of powering.
FIRST UNSUCCESSFUL FLIGHT:
The monoplane designed by professor Langley of Smithsonian
insitution over a considerable distance before it failed due to wing
failure in torsion over river potamac in 1903. It was a monoplane.
FIRST SUCCESSFUL FLIGHT FLYER 1:
The wright brothers, who were bi cycle manufactures, took
considerable interest in developing a flying machine .after reviewing
the work done by previous pioneers of aviation attempted to design a
powered aircraft, with engine and propellers. The biplane made a first
successful flight for 12 seconds covering a distance of 120 feet
After the success of flyer I aircraft, Wright brother attempted several
improvements and flew continuously for 2 hours at an average speed
of 53 kmph
1) Early development in aerodynamics:
Atmosphere:
The compelling reason for study of atmosphere above the earth is to
evaluate flight performance of a solid object when it moves through
atmosphere air conditions .basically aerodynamics may be defined as
atmospheric interaction with a object, when there is a relative motion
between object and surrounding air.
When a body moves in air and when relative velocity between them,
an aerodynamic force develops which can alter the flight path of a
rigid body. to evaluate these aerodynamic forces and hence flight path
performance it is essential to understand.
Variation of pressure and density at different altitutde

Aerodynamic forces that develop on the body based on

Mass is conserved continuity equation
Newtons second law
Energy is conserved
When the above fundamental physics law is applied to aerodynamic
flow, certain equations result, which for the basics for aerodynamics.
Further since air is compressible, compressible of air is accounted
while using above equations
Incompressible flow:
Density of fluid flow is constant at every point in the flow region. In
subsonic flow, it is assumed that fluid is incompressible which only
means compressibility effect is low.
Compressible flow:
Density of air is not a constant but variable from point to point in the
flow region. It is accounted while dealing with subsonic flow,
supersonic flow, rocket engines
2) Development n material technology in aerospace industry:
The early aircraft of 1910-1920 were maximum speeds which were
low and their strength requirement was not high. Consequently they
were using wood, bamboos, plywood and fabrics.
Wood was the main preferred material for early generation of aircrafts
for load carrying members such as spars, ribs, fuselage, frames, and
propellers. For this purpose spruce and balsa are used. Fabrics doped
with water repellent treatment were used foreskin
Thin plies of wood glued together were used for external skins to
make torsional boxes, webs, ribs as the speed requirements of aircraft

grew, the required mechanical properties also increased both fro

mechanical strength as well as stiffness requirements. Further to keep
the weight of aircraft low, the density requirement were also
stringent .hence the objective of the designer is to achieve structural
integrity at minimum cost and weight. The mechanical properties
which are needed to achieve this are
Strength and rigidity
Specific properties ( w r t mass)
Fatigue properties
Toughness and rate of crack propagation
Stress corrosion
Cost of working
The second generation of aircraft from material point of view used
aluminium alloys for load carrying members , the weight penalty of
using materials instead of cloth were compensates by the advance in
propulsion. As the speed of the aircraft grew, the loads proportional to
speed increases phenomenally, hence major joints such as
wing/fuselage attachment requires use of steel alloys.
Aluminium alloys used in aircraft industry comes in various shapes
for raw material such as sheets, plates, billets, extrusions, tubes ,
casting and forging which are machined to required size .currently the
trend is t make by integral milling
With the speed of mach greater than one , very high skin temperatures
are reached . Hence in order to have high mechanical, properties at
elevated temperatures such as engines, titanium alloys are used.

Further to have strength tailored to meet the need were developed in

the form of composites. Composites are combination of 2 materials
which are insoluble with each other.
3)Development in structures:
The structures at the earliest stage of aircraft design, during 1905-1920
were flying for very short distances at very low speed. Consequently
the structures were made of wood, fabric, glue , some steel wires and
fittings
They were mainly truss type of work. The wing was not consisting of
any aerofoil section but was single surface cambered aerofoils. The
wings were braced by the pratt truss system. As such there was not
any fuselage. The pilot lay prone on the upper surface of the lower
wing by the side of engines. The aircraft had a pair of movable
surfaces in the horizontal plane mounted ahead of wing. Similarly
another pair of movable surfaces in the vertical plane. There was no
aileron, and for rolling wing wrap was used. Wing warp of helical
twist of wing using steel wires such that incidence of one wing is
increased and incidence f one wing decreased
Subsequently the wings were made single unlike earlier bi plane sand
the wing section was adapted to an aerofoil shape. The covering of
skin was using thin aluminium sheets which were capable of giving
torsional rigidity.
Subsequent to the first two world wars, armed with knowledge gained
in designing aircraft, modern aircraft as we see today were developed.
Important features compared to earlier aircraft are listed below

Monoplane configuration with all metal construction

Use of stressed skin, retractable landing gear

Engines with variable pitch propellers and jet engines

Full range of instruments, navigational aids, auto pilot systems t
reduce pilot work load
Hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical systems t operate various
utilities such as landing gear, wheels, brakes, control surfaces etc
Heating, ventilations cabin furnishings

4)Development in propulsion over years

Since the beginning of powered flight , the evolution of both the aero
vehicle and propulsion systems are strongly inter related and are
governed by a few major thrust namely
Demand for improving reliability
Endurance and life time
Improvement i n flight performance
Under theses thrust the technology of aero vehicle and propulsion
advanced continuously
The advancement in propulsion technology has occurred in the
following type of engine
1.
2.
3.
4.

Reciprocating engine
Turbojet
Turbofan
Turboprop

The development of these four types of engine is historical and

chronological thread. Beginning with propeller driven aircrafts, which
powered earlier type of aircraft as the speed requirements were low.
The need for higher thrust was met by the invention of jet engine in

1930. This jet engine makes powered flight in transonic and

supersonic region. Even though propulsion technology has enabled the
gradual growth of above four types of engine, they continue to be used
even today. This anomaly is while designing the aircraft, a trade of
study between thrust and efficiently have to be made, which make the
requirement of engines to be anyone of the above.
In between these engines, even attempts were made to fly the aircraft
with steam engines, but later on realised to be impossible due to
weight and efficiently

Biplane ,helicopter, mono plane

UNIT 2

 Conventional Flight Control

Aircraft flight control systems are classified as primary and secondary.

The primary control systems consist of those that are required to
safely control an airplane during flight. These include the ailerons,
elevator (or stabilator), and rudder. Secondary control systems
improve the performance characteristics of the airplane, or relieve the
pilot of excessive control forces. Examples of secondary control
systems are wing flaps and trim systems. The axis system has been
given below.
An airplane moves in three dimensions called roll, pitch, and yaw.
Roll is rotation about the longitudinal axis that goes down the center
of the fuselage. The ailerons control rotation about the roll axis. Pitch
is rotation about the lateral axis of rotation, which is an axis parallel to
the long dimension of the wings. The elevators control the pitch of the
airplane. By controlling the pitch of the airplane, the elevators also
control the angle of attack of the wing. To increase the angle of attack,
the entire airplane is rotated up. As we will see, this control or the
angle of attack is key in the adjustment of the lift of the wings.

Finally, yaw, which is controlled by the rudder, is rotation about the

vertical axis,
which is a line that goes vertically through the center of the wing. It is
important to note that all three axes go through the center of gravity
(often abbreviated c.g.) of the airplane. The center of gravity is the
balance point of the airplane. Or, equivalently, all of the weight of the
airplane can be considered to be at that one point.
Primary Control Surfaces (question :functions of control surface)
Ailerons:
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are
attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing and move in the
opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are connected by cables,
bellcranks, pulleys or push-pull tubes to each other and to the control
wheel.
Moving the control wheel to the right causes the right aileron to
deflect upward and the left aileron to deflect downward. The upward
deflection of the right aileron decreases the camber resulting in
decreased lift on the right wing. The corresponding downward
deflection of the left aileron increases the camber resulting in
increased lift on the left wing. Thus, the increased lift on the left wing
and the decreased lift on the right wing causes the airplane to roll to
the right.

Elevator:
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the ailerons on
small airplanes, the elevator is connected to the control column in the
cockpit by a series of mechanical linkages. Aft movement of the
control column deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up.
This is usually referred to as up elevator. Moving the control column
forward has the opposite effect. In this case, elevator camber
increases, creating more lift (less tail-down force) on the horizontal
stabilizer/elevator. This moves the tail upward and pitches the nose
down.
Rudder:
The Rudder controls movement of the airplane about its vertical axis.
This motion is called yaw. Like the other primary control surfaces, the
rudder is a movable surface hinged to a fixed surface, in this case, to
the vertical stabilizer, or fin. Moving the left or right rudder pedal
controls the rudder. When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, a
horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction.
Secondary control surfaces:
Flaps:

Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on practically all
airplanes. These surfaces, which are attached to the trailing edge of the
wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given angle of attack.
Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed and low
landing speed, because they may be extended when needed, and
retracted into the wings structure when not needed.
Leading edge flaps, like trailing edge flaps, are used to increase both
Cl and the camber of the wings. There are four common types of flaps:
plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps.

Slats and Slots:

High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of the airfoil.
The most common types are fixed slots, movable slats, and leading
edge flaps. Fixed slots direct airflow to the upper wing surface and
delay airflow separation at higher angles of attack. Movable slats
consist of leading edge segments, which move on tracks. Opening a
slat allows the air below the wing to flow over the wings upper
surface, delaying airflow separation.

Spoilers:
On some airplanes, high-drag devices called spoilers are deployed
from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and
increasing drag. Spoilers are used for roll control on some aircraft, one
of the advantages being the elimination of adverse yaw.

Trim Tabs:
The most common installation on small airplanes is a single trim tab
attached to the trailing edge of the elevator. Most trim tabs are
manually operated by a small, vertically mounted control wheel.
However, a trim crank may be found in some airplanes. The cockpit
control includes a tab position indicator.
Anti servo Tabs:
In addition to decreasing the sensitivity of the stabilator, an antiservo
tab also functions as a trim device to relieve control pressure and
maintain the stabilator in the desired position. The fixed end of the
linkage is on the opposite side of the surface from the horn on the tab,
and when the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, the linkage
forces the trailing edge of the tab up. When the stabilator moves down,
the tab also moves down. This is different than trim tabs on elevators,
which move opposite of the control surface.
Balance Tabs:

The control forces may be excessively high in some airplanes, and in

order to decrease them, the manufacturer may use balance tabs. They
look like trim tabs and are hinged in approximately the same places as
trim tabs. The essential difference between the two is that the
balancing tab is
coupled to the control surface rod so that when the primary control
surface is moved in any direction, the tab automatically moves in the
opposite direction.
Ground Adjustable Tabs:
Many small airplanes have a non-moveable metal trim tab on the
rudder. This tab is bent in one direction or the other while on the
ground to apply a trim force to the rudder. it is motor driven. The
trimming effect and cockpit indications for an adjustable stabilizer are
similar to those of a trim tab.

Plan form of conventional wings:

Wing plan form - the shape of the wing as viewed from directly above
- deals with airflow in three dimensions, and is very important to
understanding wing performance and airplane flight characteristics.
Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are factors in plan form
design that are very important to the overall aerodynamic
characteristic of a wing
Types of planform:
The shape of a wing greatly influences the performance of an airplane.
The speed of an airplane, its maneuverability and its handling qualities
are all very dependent on the shape of the wings. There are four basic

wing shapes that are used on modern airplanes: straight, sweep

(forward and back), delta and swing-wing.

The straight wing is found mostly on small, low-speed airplanes.

General Aviation airplanes often have straight wings. These wings
provide good lift at low speeds, but are not suited to high speeds.
Since the wing is perpendicular to the airflow it has a tendency to
create appreciable drag. However, the straight wing provides good,
stable flight. It is cheaper and can be made lighter, too.

The sweepback wing is the wing of choice for most high-speed

airplanes made today. Sweep wings create less drag, but are somewhat
more unstable at low speeds. The high-sweep wing delays the
formation of shock waves on the airplane as it nears the speed of
sound. The amount of sweep of the wing depends on the purpose of
the airplane. A commercial airliner has a moderate sweep. This results
in less drag while maintaining stability at lower speeds. High speed
airplanes (like fighters) have greater sweep. These airplanes are not
very stable at low speeds. They take off and descend for landing at a
high rate of speed.

The forward-sweep wing is a wing design that has yet to make it into
mass production. An airplane (like the X-29) is highly maneuverable,
but it is also highly unstable. A computer-based control system must
be used in the X-29 to help the pilot fly.

Simple Delta Wing and Complex Delta Wing

A delta wing looks like a large triangle from above. Because of the
high sweep, airplanes with this wing can reach high speeds - many
supersonic airplanes have delta wings. Because of the high sweep, the
landing speeds of airplanes with delta wings are very fast. This wing

shape

is

found

on

the

supersonic

transport

Concorde.

BALLOON:
In aeronautics, a balloon is an unpowered aerostat, which remains
aloft or floats due to its buoyancy. A balloon may be free, moving with
the wind, or tethered to a fixed point. It is distinct from an airship,
which is a powered aerostat that can propel itself through the air in a
controlled manner.
Principle: A balloon is conceptually the simplest of all flying
machines. The balloon is a fabric envelope filled with a gas that is
lighter than the surrounding atmosphere. As the entire balloon is less
dense than its surroundings, it rises, taking along with it a basket,
attached underneath, which carries passengers or payload. Although a

balloon has no propulsion system, a degree of directional control is

possible through making the balloon rise or sink in altitude to find
favourable wind directions.
There are three main types of balloon:

The hot air balloon or Montgolfire obtains its buoyancy by heating

the air inside the balloon. It has become the most common type.
The gas balloon or Charlire is inflated with a gas of lower
molecular weight than the ambient atmosphere. Most gas balloons
operate with the internal pressure of the gas the same as the pressure
of the surrounding atmosphere. A superpressure balloon can operate
with the lifting gas at pressure that exceeds that of the surrounding air,
with the objective of limiting or eliminating the loss of gas from daytime heating. Gas balloons are filled with gases such as:
hydrogen originally used extensively but since the Hindenburg
disaster is now seldom used due to its high flammability.
Coal gas - Although giving around half the lift of hydrodgen,[1]
extensively used during the nineteenth and early twentieth century
since it was cheaper than hydrogen and readily available.
helium used today for all airships and most manned gas
balloons.

Hot air balloon parts:

Envelope
Modern hot air balloons are usually made of materials such as ripstop
nylon or dacron (a polyester).

A hot air balloon is inflated partially with cold air from a gas-powered
fan, before the propane burners are used for final inflation.
During the manufacturing process, the material is cut into panels and
sewn together, along with structural load tapes that carry the weight of
the gondola or basket. The individual sections, which extend from the
throat to the crown (top) of the envelope, are known as gores or gore
sections

Vents
The parachute vent at the top of an envelope, as seen from below
through the mouth.
The top of the balloon usually has a vent of some sort, enabling the
pilot to release hot air to slow an ascent, start a descent, or increase the
rate of descent, usually for landing. Some hot air balloons have
turning vents, which are side vents that, when opened, cause the
balloon to rotate. Such vents are particularly useful for balloons with
rectangular baskets, to facilitate aligning the wider side of the basket
for landing.
Basket
Baskets are commonly made of woven wicker or rattan. These
materials have proven to be sufficiently light, strong, and durable for
balloon flight. Such baskets are usually rectangular or triangular in
shape. They vary in size from just big enough for two people to large
enough to carry thirty. Larger baskets often have internal partitions for
structural bracing and to compartmentalize the passengers. Small
holes may be woven into the side of the basket to act as foot holds for
passengers climbing in or out.

Baskets may also be made of aluminium, especially a collapsible

aluminium frame with a fabric skin, to reduce weight or increase
portability
BURNER:
The burner unit gasifies liquid propane, mixes it with air, ignites the
mixture, and directs the flame and exhaust into the mouth of the
envelope. Burners vary in power output; each will generally produce 2
to 3 MW of heat (7 to 10 million BTUs per hour), with double, triple,
or quadruple burner configurations installed where more power is
needed.The pilot actuates a burner by opening a propane valve, known
as a blast valve.
Fuel tanks
Propane fuel tanks are usually cylindrical pressure vessels made from
aluminium, stainless steel, or titanium with a valve at one end to feed
the burner and to refuel. They may have a fuel gauge and a pressure
gauge.

 Geometric properties of airfoil:

Chord:The chord of an airfoil is an imaginary straight line drawn

through the airfoil from its leading edge to its trailing edge
Wing tips: The ends of the wing are called the wing tips
Span: The distance from one wing tip to the other is called the span.
Wing area: The wing area, is the projected area of the plan form and
is bounded by the leading and trailing edges and the wing tips.The
wing area is not the total surface area of the wing. The total surface
area includes both upper and lower surfaces. The wing area is a
projected area and is almost half of the total surface area.
Angle of attack: it is the angle between the relative wind and the
chord line and is generally represented by a symbol
Camber: The maximum distance between the two lines is called the
camber, which is a measure of the curvature of the airfoil.
Camber is the measure of the curvature of an airfoil as evaluated by
the height of the mean camber line above or below the chord line.

Center of pressure: center of pressure is a point on the chord of an

airfoil through which all the aerodynamic forces act.
The viscosity is an important fluid property when analyzing liquid
behavior and fluid motion near solid boundaries. Viscosity of a fluid is
a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or
tensile stress. The shear resistance in a fluid is caused by
intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluid attempt to slide by
one another.

viscosity is the measure of a fluid's resistance to flow

molasses is highly viscous

water is medium viscous
gas is low viscous

dynamic viscosity
Absolute viscosity - coefficient of absolute viscosity - is a measure of
internal resistance. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force
per unit area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to an
other plane - at an unit velocity - when maintaining an unit distance
apart in the fluid
= dc / dyNewtons Law of Friction.

compressible
When a fluid flow is compressible, the fluid density varies with its
pressure. Compressible flows are usually high speed flows with Mach
numbers greater than about 0.3.
Incompressible flows do not have such a variation of density. The key
differentiation between compressible and incompressible is the
velocity of the flow. A fluid such as air that is moving slower than
Mach 0.3 is considered incompressible, even though it is a gas. A gas
that is run through a compressor is not truly considered compressible
(in the thermodynamic sense) unless its velocity exceeds Mach 0.3
Chord line: chord line is a straight line between the leading edge and
the trailing edge of an airfoil.
Mean camber line: mean camber line is the line described by points
which are equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil.
Maximum thickness: The maximum distance between the upper and
lower surfaces is called the maximum thickness.
Aerodynamic center: it is the point on the chord of an airfoil about
which the moment coefficient is practically constant for all angles of
attack.
Reynolds number is used to check whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent. It is denoted by Re. This number got by comparing inertial
force with Viscous force.
SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL AND UNSYMMETRICAL
AEROFOIL:
The aerofoil for which loci of mid point of distance between upper
and lower surface coincides with the chord is symmetrical aerofoil

The loci of mid point of distance between upper and lower surface
does not coincide with chord.
Stagnation point:
Any point on the flow where v is zero is called stagnation point
Mean camber line: it is the locus of midway between upper and lower
surface of a unsymmetrical aerofoil.
Centre of pressure of an aerofoil:
Chord wise location of a point about which pitching moment is zero is
called center of pressure.
Mean aerodynamic chord:
The chord of an imaginary regular aerofoil having the same force
vector , under all conditions and throughout the flight range as those
of an actual wing.
Fuselage reference line:
The straight line used as reference from which basic dimensions are
laid out and major components are located.
Biplane terms:
Decalgae:
Angular difference between upper and lower wings of a biplne.
The decalage is said to be positive when the upper wing has a higher
angle of incidence than lower positive declage results in greater lift
from the upper wing to lower wing.
In monoplanes:

Aerodynamic decalage is the angular difference between wing mean

aerodynamic zerolift line and horizontal surface mean aerodynamic
zero lift line
Geometric decalage:
It is the angular difference between wing chord (mac) and horizontal
(mac) lines.
Gap-chord ratio:
The difference between upper and lower wing is the gap. Ratio of gap
to chord greatly influences the lift decalage.

Stagger:
The distance between leading edge of top and bottom wing. When the
top surface is staggered forward, it can result in a small increase in lift

AIRFOIL: Cross section shape obtained by the intersection of wing

with the plane perpendicular is called airfoil
The amount of lift produced by an airfoil depends upon many factors:

angle of attack
the lift devices used (like flaps)
the density of the air
the area of the wing
the shape of the wing
the speed at which the wing is traveling
Dihedral angle: The angle that the wing makes with the local
horizontal is called the dihedral angle. A negative dihedral angle is
called anhedral.

ASPECT RATIO:Aspect ratio is a measure of how long and

slender a wing is from tip to tip. The Aspect Ratio of a wing is
defined to be the square of the span divided by the wing
area.High aspect ratio wings have long spans (like high
performance gliders), while low aspect ratio wings have either
short spans (like the F-16 fighter) or thick chords (like the Space
Shuttle). There is a component of the drag of an aircraft called

induced drag which depends inversely on the aspect ratio. A

higher aspect ratio wing has a lower drag and a slightly higher
lift than a lower aspect ratio wing

Cl vs Cd for various value of aspect ratio

Cl vs angle of attack for various aspect ratio values

FIGURES
ARE
TAKEN
FROM
FLIGHT(RICHARD VON MISES)

THEORY

OF

There are several reasons why not all aircraft have high aspect wings:

Structural: A long wing has higher bending stress for a given load
than a short one and therefore requires higher structural-design
(architectural and/or material) specifications. Also, longer wings may
have some torsion for a given load, and in some applications this
torsion is undesirable (e.g. if the warped wing interferes with aileron
effect).

Maneuverability: a low aspect-ratio wing will have a higher roll

angular acceleration than one of high aspect ratio, because a highaspect-ratio wing has a higher moment of inertia to overcome. In a
steady roll, the longer wing gives a higher roll moment because of the
longer moment arm of the aileron. Low aspect ratio wings are usually
used on fighter aircraft, not only for the higher roll rates, but
especially for longer chord and thinner airfoils involved in supersonic
flight.

Parasitic drag: While high aspect wings create less induced drag,
they have greater parasitic drag, (drag due to shape, frontal area, and
surface friction). This is because, for an equal wing area, the average
chord (length in the direction of wind travel over the wing) is smaller.
Due to the effects of Reynolds number, the value of the section drag
coefficient is an inverse logarithmic function of the characteristic
length of the surface, which means that, even if two wings of the same
area are flying at equal speeds and equal angles of attack, the section
drag coefficient is slightly higher on the wing with the smaller chord.
However, this variation is very small when compared to the variation
in induced drag with changing wingspan.

Practicality: low aspect ratios have a greater useful internal volume,

since the maximum thickness is greater, which can be used to house
the fuel tanks, retractable landing gear and other systems.

Typical ARs
High Performance Glider: 25 (long, thin)
Prop Driven Trainer: 6 to 8
Jet Fighter 3.5 (short, stubby)

b = span
s = wing area
Nomenclature of airfoil:
NACA Four-Digit Series:
The first family of airfoils designed using this approach became
known as the NACA Four-DigitSeries. The first digit specifies the
maximum camber (m) in percentage of the chord (airfoil length),the
second indicates the position of the maximum camber (p) in tenths of
chord, and the last twonumbers provide the maximum thickness (t) of
the airfoil in percentage of chord. For example, theNACA 2415 airfoil
has a maximum thickness of 15% with a camber of 2% located 40%

back

fromthe

airfoil

leading

edge

(or

0.4c).

NACA Five-Digit Series:

The NACA Five-Digit Series uses the same thickness forms as the
Four-Digit Series but the meancamber line is defined differently and
the naming convention is a bit more complex. The first digit,when
multiplied by 3/2, yields the design lift coefficient (cl) in tenths. The
next two digits, whendivided by 2, give the position of the maximum
camber (p) in tenths of chord. The final two digitsagain indicate the
maximum thickness (t) in percentage of chord. For example, the
NACA 23012nhas a maximum thickness of 12%, a design lift
coefficient of 0.3, and a maximum camber located15% back from the
leading
edge.

NACA 1-Series or 16-Series:

Unlike those airfoil families discussed so far, the 1-Series was
developed based on airfoil theoryrather than on geometrical
relationships. By the time these airfoils were designed during the
late1930s, many advances had been made in inverse airfoil design
methods. The basic concept behindthis design approach is to specify

the desired pressure distribution over the airfoil (this

distributiondictates the lift characteristics of the shape) and then derive
the geometrical shape that producesthis pressure distribution. As a
result, these airfoils were not generated using some set of
analyticalexpressions like the Four- or Five-Digit Series. The 1-Series
airfoils are identified by five digits, asexemplified by the NACA 16212. The first digit, 1, indicates the series (this series was designed
forairfoils with regions of barely supersonic flow). The 6 specifies the
location of minimum pressure intenths of chord, i.e. 60% back from
the leading edge in this case. Following a dash, the first digitindicates
the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.2) and the final two digits
specify the maximumthickness in tenths of chord (12%).

NACA 6-Series:
Although NACA experimented with approximate theoretical methods
that produced the 2-Seriesthrough the 5-Series, none of these
approaches was found to accurately produce the desired
airfoilbehavior. The 6-Series was derived using an improved
theoretical method that, like the 1-Series,relied on specifying the
desired pressure distribution and employed advanced mathematics
toderive the required geometrical shape. The goal of this approach was
to design airfoils thatmaximized the region over which the airflow
remains laminar. In so doing, the drag over a smallrange of lift
coefficients can be substantially reduced. The naming convention of
the 6-Series is byfar the most confusing of any of the families
discussed thus far, especially since many differentvariations exist. One
of the more common examples is the NACA 641-212, a=0.6.In this
example, 6 denote the series and indicates that this family is designed
for greater laminarflow than the Four- or Five-Digit Series. The
second digit, 4, is the location of the minimum pressurein tenths of

chord (0.4c). The subscript 1 indicates that low drag is maintained at

lift coefficients 0.1above and below the design lift coefficient (0.2)
specified by the first digit after the dash in tenths.The final two digits
specify the thickness in percentage of chord, 12%.

NACA 7-Series:
The 7-Series was a further attempt to maximize the regions of laminar
flow over an airfoildifferentiating the locations of the minimum
pressure on the upper and lower surfaces. An exampleis the NACA
747A315. The 7 denotes the series, the 4 provides the location of the
minimumpressure on the upper surface in tenths of chord (40%), and
the 7 provides the location of theminimum pressure on the lower
surface in tenths of chord (70%). The fourth character, a
letter,indicates the thickness distribution and mean line forms used. A
series of standardized formsderived from earlier families are
designated by different letters. Again, the fifth digit incidates
thedesign lift coefficient in tenths (0.3) and the final two integers are
the airfoil thickness in perecentageof chord (15%).
NACA 8-Series:
A final variation on the 6- and 7-Series methodology was the NACA
8-Series designed for flight atsupercritical speeds. Like the earlier
airfoils, the goal was to maximize the extent of laminar flow onthe
upper and lower surfaces independently. The naming convention is

very similar to the 7-Series,an example being the NACA 835A216.

The 8 designates the series, 3 is the location of minimumpressure on
the upper surface in tenths of chord (0.3c), 5 is the location of
minimum pressure onthe lower surface in tenths of chord (50%), the
letter A distinguishes airfoils having different camberor thickness
forms, 2 denotes the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.2), and 16
provides the airfoilthickness in percentage of chord (16%).

ROLLING MOMENT, YAWING MOMENT, PITCHING

MOMENT
In flight, the control surfaces of an aircraft produce aerodynamic
forces. These forces are applied at the center of pressure of the control
surfaces which are some distance from the aircraft cg and produce
torques (or moments) about the principal axes.
The torques cause the aircraft to rotate. The elevators produce a
pitching moment, the rudder produces a yawing moment, and the
ailerons produce a rolling moment. The ability to vary the amount of
the force and the moment allows the pilot to maneuver or to trim the
aircraft.
Draw the variation of pressure distribution over an airfoil with
change in angle of attack?
From experiments conducted on wind tunnel models and on full size
airplanes, it has been determined that as air flows along the surface of
a wing at different angles of attack there are regions along the surface
where the pressure is negative, or less than atmospheric, and regions
where the pressure is positive, or greater than atmospheric. This
negative pressure on the upper surface creates a relatively larger force

on the wing than is caused by the positive pressure resulting from the
air striking the lower wing surface. Figure 17-7 shows the pressure
distribution along an airfoil at three different angles of attack. In
general, at high angles of attack the center of pressure moves forward,
while at low angles of attack the center of pressure moves aft. In the
design of wing structures this center of pressure travel is very
important, since it affects the position of the airloads imposed on the
wing structure in low angle of attack conditions and high angle of
attack conditions. The airplane's aerodynamic balance and
controllability are governed by changes in the center of pressure.

The center of pressure is determined through calculation and wind

tunnel tests by varying the airfoil's angle of attack through normal
operating extremes. As the angle of attack is changed, so are the
various pressure distribution characteristics (Fig. 17-7). Positive (+)
and negative (-) pressure forces are totaled for each angle of attack and
the resultant force is obtained. The total resultant pressure is
represented by the resultant force vector shown in Fig. 17-8. The point
of application of this force vector is termed the "center of pressure"
(CP). For any given angle of attack, the center of pressure is the point
where the resultant force crosses the chord line. This point is
expressed as a percentage of the chord of the airfoil.

In the airplane's normal range of flight attitudes, if the

angle of attack is increased, the center of pressure moves forward; and
if decreased, it moves rearward. Since the center of gravity is fixed at
one point, it is evident that as the angle of attack increases, the center
of lift (CP) moves ahead of the center of gravity, creating a force
which tends to raise the nose of the airplane or tends to increase the

angle of attack still more. On the other hand, if the angle of attack is
decreased, the center of lift (CP) moves aft and tends to decrease the
angle a greater amount. It is seen then, that the ordinary airfoil is
inherently unstable, and that an auxiliary device, such as the horizontal
tail surface, must be added to make the airplane balance
longitudinally.

Unit -3
(refer J.D ANDERSON INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT for clear
understanding of the derivation) WHICH INCLUDES
HYDROSTATIC EQUATIONS.

Relations between height, pressure, density and temperature

g = Gravitational acceleration at a certain altitude

(g0 = 9.81m/s2) (m/s2) ,r = Earth radius (6378km)
hg = Height above the ground (Geometric height) (m)
ha = Height above the center of the earth
(ha = hg + r) (m) h = Geopotential
altitude (Geopotential height)
(m)
2
p = Pressure (Pa = N/m
)
= Air density (kg/m3)
=

= Specific volume (m3/kg)

T = Temperature (K)
R = 287.05J/(kgK) = Gas constant
Ps = 1.01325 105N/m2 = Pressure at sea level
s = 1.225kg/m3 = Air density at sea level
Ts = 288.15K = Temperature at sea level

dT
dh

a=
= Temperature gradient (a = -0.0065K/m in the troposphere
(lowest part) of the earth atmosphere) (K/m)
2 Relation between geopotential height and geometric height
Newtons gravitational law implicates:
g= g0(r/ha)2= g0(r/r+hg)2
The hydrostatic equation is:
dp = gdhg
However, g is variable here for dierent heights. Since a variable
gravitational acceleration is dicult to work with, the geopotential
height h has been introduced such that:

So this means that:

dp = g0dh

dh= (g/go )dhg = r2/(r+hg)2 dhg

And integration gives the general relationship between
geopotential height and geometric height:
h= (r/r+hg) hg

(2.1
)

Relations between pressure, density and height

The famous equation of state is:
p = RT

(3.1)

Dividing the hydrostatic equation (2.1) by the equation of state (3.1)

gives as results:
dp/p =-g0dh/RT =-(go/RT)dh
If we assume an isothermal environment (the temperature stays the
same), then integration gives:
p2

dp
g
p1 p RT0 h1 dh

Solving this gives the

following equation:

p2
e
p1

g0
h2 h1
RT

And combining this with the equation of state gives the following
equation:
g0

)h
2 p2 RT p2
(

e RT 2h1
1 p1 RT
p1

4 Relations between pressure, density and temperature

expression for pressure and density variation in gradient layer
(stratosphere)
We now again divide the hydrostatic equation (2.1) by the equation of
state (3.1), but this time we dont assume an isothermal environment,

but we substitute dh =

dT
a

g 0 dh
g dT

0
p
RT
aR T

dp

in it, to get:

Integration gives:
p2 T2

p1 T1

g0
aR

Which is a nice formula. But by using the equation of state, we can

also derive the following:

2 p2T1 R p2 T2

1 p1T2 R p1 T1

T
2
T1

g0

aR

T2

T1

T
2
T1

g0
1
aR

All those relations can be written in a simpler way:

p2 2

p1 1

g0
g0 aR

T
2
T1

g0

aR

These relations are the standard atmospheric relations in gradient

layers.

MACH NUMBER:

The speed of sound is the speed of transmission of a

small disturbance through a medium.As an aircraft moves through the
air, the air molecules near the aircraft are disturbed and move around
the aircraft. If the aircraft passes at a low speed, typically less than
250 mph, the density of the air remains constant. But for higher
speeds, some of the energy of the aircraft goes into compressing the
air and locally changing the density of the air. This compressibility
effect alters the amount of resulting force on the aircraft. Thus if a
vehicle moves faster than the speed of sound ,the air ahead of it
cannot move away there is no way for it to know the approaching
object. This leads to the formation of shock waves ahead of the
object,that affects both the lift and drag of an aircraft.
The ratio of the speed of the aircraft to the speed of sound in the
gas determines the magnitude of many of the compressibility
effects. Because of the importance of this speed ratio,
aerodynamicists have designated it with a special parameter
called the Mach number(definition of mach number) in honour
of Ernst Mach, a late 19th century physicist who studied gas
dynamics. The Mach number M allows us to define flight regimes in
which compressibility effects vary.
If the mach number is <0.8, the flow speed is lower than the
speed of sound - and the speed is subsonic.
If the mach number is between 0.81.2, the flow speed is
approximately like the speed of sound - and the speed
is transonic.
(Wave drag concept )At transonic speeds, the flow field around the
object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic
period begins when first zones of M > 1 flow appear around the

object. In case of an airfoil (such as an aircraft's wing), this

typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate
back to subsonic only in a normal shock; this typically happens
before the trailing edge
critical Mach number (Mcr) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach
number at which the airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches
the speed of sound, but does not exceed it.

If the mach number is between 1.25.0, the flow speed is higher

than the speed of sound - and the speed is supersonic.
As the speed increases, the zone of M > 1 flow increases towards
both leading and trailing edges. As M = 1 is reached and passed,
the normal shock reaches the trailing edge and becomes a weak
oblique shock: the flow decelerates over the shock, but remains
supersonic. A normal shock is created ahead of the object, and the
only subsonic zone in the flow field is a small area around the
object's leading edge

If the mach number is between 5.010.0, the flow speed is much

higher than the speed of sound - and the speed is hypersonic.

As the Mach number increases, so does the strength of the shock

wave and the Mach cone becomes increasingly narrow. As the fluid
flow crosses the shock wave, its speed is reduced and temperature,
pressure, and density increase. The stronger the shock, the greater
the changes. At high enough Mach numbers the temperature
increases so much over the shock that ionization and dissociation
of gas molecules behind the shock wave begin.
Such flows are called hypersonic.
International Standard Atmosphere:
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric
model of how the pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity of the
Earth's atmosphere change over a wide range of altitudes or
elevations. It has been established to provide a common reference for
temperature and pressure and consists of tables of values at various
altitudes, plus some formulas by which those values were derived.

Altitudes:
Three distinct kinds of "altitude" are commonly used when discussing
the vertical heights of objects in the atmosphere above the Earth's
surface.
The first is simple geometric altitude, which is what would be
measured by an ordinary tape measure. However, for many purposes
we are more interested in the pressure altitude, which is actually an
indication of the ambient pressure, expressed in terms of the altitude
at which that pressure would exist on a "standard day". Finally, there
is the so-called geopotential altitude, which is really a measure of
the specific potential energy at the given height (relative to the Earth's
surface), converted into a distance using the somewhat peculiar

assumption that the acceleration of gravity is constant, equal to the

value it has at the Earth's surface.

Indicated altitude is the reading on the altimeter when the

altimeter is set to the local barometric pressure at Mean Sea
Level.We use indicated altitude for 2 things, maintaining
terrain/obstacle clearance and maintaining vertical separation
between planes that pass over each other. For terrain/obstacle
clearance, we're using indicated altitude as a substitute for true
altitude, which we're usually not equipped to measure in our plane.
Absolute altitude is the height of the aircraft above the terrain
over which it is flying
True altitude is the actual elevation above mean sea level. It is
Indicated Altitude corrected for non-standard temperature and
pressure.This is your height above "mean sea level", a mostly
arbitrary reference point. (By "mean" we mean "average", because
sea levels do vary with the tides, and the wind causes waves, so
mean sea level averages out all these effects to a single "mean" sea
level). You're primarily interested in this because terrain and
obstacles are charted with reference to MSL altitudes, and you
want to make sure you're well above these when flying over them.
Pressure altitude is the elevation above a standard datum airpressure plane (typically, 1013.25 millibars or 29.92" Hg). Pressure
altitude and indicated altitude are the same when the altimeter
setting is 29.92" Hg or 1013.25 millibars.
Density altitude is the altitude corrected for non-ISA International
Standard Atmosphere atmospheric conditions. Aircraft
performance depends on density altitude, which is affected by
barometric pressure, humidity and temperature. On a very hot day,

density altitude at an airport (especially one at a high elevation)

may be so high as to preclude takeoff, particularly for helicopters
or a heavily loaded aircraft.Density altitude is a yardstick by which
we can reference the "density" of air. Air density is a measure of
the number of gas molecules (nitrogen, oxygen, etc., whatever
we've got in our atmosphere) within a given volume of space. We
care about the density of air because our wings and prop use these
air molecules to generate lift and thrust, and because our engine
needs oxygen for combustion. As density decreases (i.e. density
altitude increases), our engines generate less power because they
have less oxygen to mix with fuel and burn, and our wings and
prop generate less lift, so we accelerate slower and have higher
stall speeds. This means longer takeoff and landing runs, and
slower climbs.

2) Relation between temperature, pressure and temperature:

a) Influence of temperature, pressure and density on aircraft:
The effects of temperature changes:
When air is warmer than average the airplane will be higher than the
altimeter indicates
When air is colder than average the airplane will be lower than the
altimeter indicates

When temperature lowers en route, the airplane is lower than the

altimeter indicates
When temperature rises en route, the airplane is higher than the
altimeter indicates
The effects of pressure changes :
Pilots can determine the correct pressure altitude from the on-board
altimeter by setting the altimeter at the standard altitude reading of
29.92 inches (of mercury at sea level). The altimeter will then indicate
the pressure altitude at which the aircraft is flying
Flying from a high pressure area to a low pressure area without
adjusting the altimeter while maintaining a constant indicated altitude
would result in a loss of true altitude
Flying from a low pressure area to a high pressure area without
adjusting the altimeter while maintaining a constant indicated altitude
would result in a gain of true altitude.
The effects of density changes :
Density altitude is perhaps the most critical to an airplane's
performance during takeoff and landing. Results can be disastrous if
the density altitude is incorrectly computed. Density altitude is a
comparison between the air density at your aircraft's current altitude
to the standard atmosphere where the air density is the same.
Temperature, pressure and humidity determine air density. Pilots
differentiate between high-density altitude and low-density altitude in
terms of the performance of an airplane. Let's say that at an airplane's
present flight location the day is hot. That means that the air has
become thinner (fewer molecules in the air). When that hot location is
compared to the standard atmosphere its density is the same as if the
aircraft were located at a much higher altitude. That means that the
airplane at its current location will act as if it is flying through air that

is at a higher altitude. That means the airplane is flying in highdensity altitude conditions.
Now let's say that the present aircraft location is in very cold air. The
air has now become heavier than before (more molecules in the air).
When that cold location is compared to the standard atmosphere its
density is the same as if the aircraft were located at a much lower
altitude. That means that the airplane at its current flight location will
act as if it is flying through air that is at a lower altitude or lowdensity altitude conditions. It is crucial for a pilot to know the density
altitude of the airport at which takeoff and landings are
planned.Knowing the performance specifications of one's airplane is
also important. After computing all the necessary altitudes, the pilot
needs to know if the airplane can perform safely under all these
condition
Effects of density changes on an aircraft's performance:
Flight
Conditions

Altitude
Condition
s

Aircraft
Characteristics
performance

High
elevations, low
atmospheric
pressure, high
temperatures,
high humidity,

High
Reduction
density
in aircraft
altitude
performance
conditions

- Engine taking in less air

so power is reduced;
- Propellers and jet
engines have less air to
move so thrust is
reduced;
- Less molecules in the
air, less force on the
wings results in reduced
lift;
- Reduced thrust and lift
means more takeoff
runway length needed

and more clearance area

at the runways end
needed because of a
reduced climb rate.

Lower
elevations, high
atmospheric
pressure, low
temperatures,
and
low
humidity
are
more indicative
of low density
altitude

LowIncrease in
density
aircraft
altitude
performance
conditions

- Greater thrust than

normal due to a greater
number of molecules in
the air with which
propellers and jet engines
can interact;
- Greater lift force as
heavier air exerts more
force on the wings;
- Faster speed and faster
climb rate as thrust and
lift are increased.

Stability and control

Generally the stability of an aircraft is defined as the aircrafts ability

to sustain a specific, prescribed flight condition. The concept of
stability is closely related to the equilibrium of the aircraft. If the net
forces and moments exerted on the aircraft is zero, the aircraft is in

equilibrium, in that flight condition; i.e. the lift equals the weight, the
thrust equals the drag, and no moment of force acting on the aircraft.
Stability:
It is the study of how an aircraft responds to small disturbance in
flight and how it can designed so that it remains at a fixed incidence
and speed without overworking the pilot
Control:
It refers to the ability to initiate and sustain changes in angle of attack.

What is Static Stability?

When an aircraft undergoes some turbulence (or some form of static

imbalance) when in equilibrium flight, the nose tilts slightly up or
down (an increase or decrease in the angle of attack), or there will be
a slight change in flight attitude. There are additional forces acting on
the aircraft, and it is no longer in the equilibrium condition.

If the aircraft continues to increase the orientation after disturbance,

the aircraft is said to be statically unstable.
If there are no further changes in flight attitude and if the aircraft
retains the position, which means there are no net forces or moments
acting on the aircraft in the new orientation too, then the aircraft is
said to be statically neutral.
If forces are generated on the aircraft in a way such that forces
causing the disturbance are countered, and the aircraft attains its
original position, then the aircraft is said to be statically stable.

In aircrafts, three types of dimensional stabilities are considered.

Those are the longitudinal stability that concerns the pitching
motion, the directional stability that concerns the yawing motion, and
the lateral stability that concerns the rolling motion. Often the
longitudinal stability and directional stability are closely interrelated.

What is Dynamic Stability?

If an aircraft is statically stable, it may undergo three types of

oscillatory motion during flight. When imbalance occurs the airplane
attempts to retain its position, and it reaches the equilibrium position
through a series of decaying oscillations, and the aircraft is said to be
dynamically stable.
If the aircraft continues the oscillatory motion without decay in the
magnitude, then the aircraft is said to be on dynamically neutral.
If the magnitude oscillatory motion increases and the aircraft
orientation start to change rapidly, then the aircraft is said to be
dynamically unstable.

An aircraft that is both statically and dynamically stable can be flown

hands off, unless the pilot desires to change the equilibrium condition
of the aircraft.

What is the difference between Dynamic and Static Stability

(of Aircrafts)?

Static stability of an aircraft describes the tendency of and aircraft to

retain its original position when subjected to unbalanced forces or
moments acting on the aircraft.

Dynamic stability describes the form of motion an aircraft in static

stability undergoes when it tries to return to its original position.
Lift and drag
Drag is a component of the aerodynamic force, namely the
projection onto the direction parallel to the relative wind.
Lift is another component of the aerodynamic force, namely the
projection onto the two directions perpendicular to the relative wind.

Weight is the force of gravity. It is equal to the mass of the airplane

times the local gravitational acceleration, i.e. the local gravitational
field. You can measure the acceleration of gravity by observing the
motion relative to your chosen reference frame of a freely falling
object. This defines what we mean by downward. For present
purposes, it is convenient to choose a reference frame attached to a
nearby point on the earths surface, in which case the downward
direction points approximately toward the center of the earth.
Thrust is the force produced by the engine. It is directed forward
along the axis of the engine.
THEORY OF LIFT BY FUNDAMENTAL THEORIES:
When a gas flows over an object, or when an object moves through a
gas, the molecules of the gas are free to move about the object; they
are not closely bound to one another as in a solid. Because the
molecules move, there is a velocity associated with the gas. Within
the gas, the velocity can have very different values at different places
near the object. Bernoulli's equation, which was named for Daniel
Bernoulli, relates the pressure in a gas to the local velocity; so as the
velocity changes around the object, the pressure changes as well.
Adding up (integrating) the pressure variation times the area around
the entire body determines the aerodynamic force on the body. The lift
is the component of the aerodynamic force which is perpendicular to
the original flow direction of the gas. The drag is the component of
the aerodynamic force which is parallel to the original flow direction
of the gas. Now adding up the velocity variation around the object
instead of the pressure variation also determines the aerodynamic
force. The integrated velocity variation around the object produces a
net turning of the gas flow. From Newton's third law of motion, a
turning action of the flow will result in a re-action (aerodynamic
force) on the object.. Integrating the effects of either the pressure or
the velocity determines the aerodynamic force on an object. We can

use equations developed by each of them to determine the magnitude

and direction of the aerodynamic force.
FURTHUR WE CAN EXPALIN LIFT WITH THE HELP OF
EULER EQUATIONS
Calculate the pressure temperature ,density, mach number of an
aircraft flying at an altitude of 15000m height? flying with
velocity 150m/s
Model:

RT
=a

1.4

T=287
M=150/a

UNIT -5 STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS:

MATERIALS:
Broad classification of materials:
(list of nonmetals and metals are given in page number 8 )
There are thousands of materials available for use in engineering
applications. Most materials fall into one of three classes that are
based on the atomic bonding forces of a particular material.
These three classifications are metallic, ceramic and polymeric.
Additionally, different materials can be combined to create a
composite material. Within each of these classifications, materials
are often further organized into groups based on their chemical
composition or certain physical or mechanical properties.
Composite materials are often grouped by the types of materials
combined or the way the materials are arranged together. Below is a
list of some of the commonly classification of materials within
these four general groups of materials.
Metals
Ferrous metals and
alloys (irons, carbon
steels, alloy steels,
stainless steels, tool
and die steels)
Nonferrous metals and
alloys (aluminum,
copper, magnesium,
nickel, titanium,
precious metals,
refractory metals,
superalloys)

Polymeric
Thermoplastics
plastics
Thermoset plastics
Elastomers

Ceramics
Glasses
Glass ceramics
Graphite
Diamond

Composites
Reinforced
plastics
Metal-matrix
composites
Ceramic-matrix
composites
Sandwich
structures
Concrete

Metals
Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about
24% of the mass of the planet. Metals have useful properties
including strength, ductility, high melting points, thermal and
electrical conductivity, and toughness. From the periodic table, it
can be seen that a large number of the elements are classified as
being a metal. A few of the common metals and their typical uses
are presented below.
Common Metallic Materials
Iron/Steel - Steel alloys are used for strength critical
applications
Aluminum - Aluminum and its alloys are used because they are
easy to form, readily available, inexpensive, and recyclable.
Copper - Copper and copper alloys have a number of properties
that make them useful, including high electrical and thermal
conductivity, high ductility, and good corrosion resistance.
Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher
temperature (~1000 F) application, when component weight is
a concern, or when good corrosion resistance is required
Nickel - Nickel alloys are used for still higher temperatures
(~1500-2000 F) applications or when good corrosion resistance
is required.

 Refractory materials are used for the highest temperature (>

2000 F) applications.
The key feature that distinguishes metals from non-metals is their
bonding. Metallic materials have free electrons that are free to move
easily from one atom to the next. The existence of these free electrons
has a number of profound consequences for the properties of metallic
materials. For example, metallic materials tend to be good electrical
conductors because the free electrons can move around within the
metal so freely. More on the structure of metals will be discussed
later.
Ceramics
A ceramic has traditionally been defined as an inorganic,
nonmetallic solid that is prepared from powdered materials, is
fabricated into products through the application of heat, and
displays such characteristic properties as hardness, strength, low
electrical conductivity, and brittleness." The word ceramic comes
the from Greek word "keramikos", which means "pottery." They
are typically crystalline in nature and are compounds formed
between metallic and nonmetallic elements such as aluminum and
oxygen (alumina-Al2O3), calcium and oxygen (calcia - CaO), and
silicon and nitrogen (silicon nitride-Si3N4).
Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or
lightweight. Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and
hardness properties; however, they are often brittle in nature.
Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically conductive
materials or insulators. Some ceramics, like superconductors, also
display magnetic properties. They are also more resistant to high
temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. Due
to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are used for a
multitude of applications.
The broad categories or segments that make up the ceramic industry
can be classified as:
Structural clay products (brick, sewer pipe, roofing and wall tile,
flue linings, etc.)
Whitewares (dinnerware, floor and wall tile, electrical porcelain,
etc.)

 Refractories (brick and monolithic products used in metal, glass,

cements, ceramics, energy conversion, petroleum, and chemicals
industries)
Glasses (flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed
and blown glass (dinnerware), glass fibers (home insulation),
and advanced/specialty glass (optical fibers))
Abrasives (natural (garnet, diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon
carbide, diamond, fused alumina, etc.) abrasives are used for
grinding, cutting, polishing, lapping, or pressure blasting of
materials)
Cements (for roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and etc.)
Advanced ceramics
o Structural (wear parts, bioceramics, cutting tools, and
engine components)
o Electrical (capacitors, insulators, substrates, integrated
circuit packages, piezoelectrics, magnets and
superconductors)
o Coatings (engine components, cutting tools, and industrial
wear parts)
o Chemical and environmental (filters, membranes,
catalysts, and catalyst supports)
The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond
which will be discussed a bit later. Briefly though, the two most
common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are covalent and ionic.
Covalent and ionic bonds are much stronger than in metallic bonds
and, generally speaking, this is why ceramics are brittle and metals
are ductile.
POLYMER:
A polymeric solid can be thought of as a material that contains
many chemically bonded parts or units which themselves are
bonded together to form a solid. The word polymer literally
means "many parts." Two industrially important polymeric
materials are plastics and elastomers. Plastics are a large and
varied group of synthetic materials which are processed by
forming or molding into shape. Just as there are many types of

metals such as aluminum and copper, there are many types of

plastics, such as polyethylene and nylon. Elastomers or rubbers
can be elastically deformed a large amount when a force is
applied to them and can return to their original shape (or almost)
when the force is released.
COMPOSITES(study entire thing)
A composite is commonly defined as a combination of two or more
distinct materials, each of which retains its own distinctive properties,
to create a new material with properties that cannot be achieved by
any of the components acting alone. Using this definition, it can be
determined that a wide range of engineering materials fall into this
category
Composite materials are said to have two phases. The reinforcing
phase is the fibers, sheets, or particles that are embedded in the matrix
phase. The reinforcing material and the matrix material can be metal,
ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with
low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material.
Some of the common classifications of composites are:
Reinforced plastics
Metal-matrix composites
Ceramic-matrix composites
Sandwich structures
Concrete
Composite materials can take many forms but they can be separated
into three categories based on the strengthening mechanism. These
categories are dispersion strengthened, particle reinforced and fiber
reinforced. Dispersion strengthened composites have a fine
distribution of secondary particles in the matrix of the material. These
particles impede the mechanisms that allow a material to deform.
(These mechanisms include dislocation movement and slip, which
will be discussed later). Many metal-matrix composites would fall
into the dispersion strengthened composite category. Particle
reinforced composites have a large volume fraction of particle
dispersed in the matrix and the load is shared by the particles and the
matrix. Most commercial ceramics and many filled polymers are
particle-reinforced composites. In fiber-reinforced composites, the

fiber is the primary load-bearing component. Fiberglass and carbon

fiber composites are examples of fiber-reinforced composites.
If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the
strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to
achieve a combination of desirable properties not available in any
single conventional material. Some composites also offer the
advantage of being tailorable so that properties, such as strength and
stiffness, can easily be changed by changing amount or orientation of
the reinforcement material. The downside is that such composites are
often more expensive than conventional materials
What are the desirable characteristics considered in the choice
material for aircraft use?
Weight,strength, reliability are most important in selecting a
material.
Good strength to weight ratio
Reliability (it should eliminate any possibility of dangerous)
So, designer should have better knowledge in materials to
determine the best material for any application.
Things to be considered for selecting the best material
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION:
STRENGHT
STRENGTH TO WEIGHT TO
RATIO
CORROSION RESISTENT
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION:
AVAILABILTIY
COST
SHOP EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

 STANDARDIZATION OF
MATERIALS
SUPPLEMENTARY OPERATION
REQUIRED
Mechanical parameters required in selecting a material :( just
write basic things, dont write everything)
Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths, limitations, and
other characteristics of structural material s is vital to properly
construct and maintain any equipment, especially airframes.
Hardness:
Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resist abrasion,
penetration, cutting action, or permanent distortion.
Strength:
Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation. Strength is
also the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking
Density:
Density is an important consideration when choosing a material to be
used in the design of a part in order to maintain the proper weight and
balance of the aircraft.
Malleability:
A metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressedinto various
shapes without cracking, breaking, orleaving some other detrimental
effect, is said to bemalleable. This property is necessary in sheet metal
that is worked into curved shapes, such as cowlings, fairings, or
wingtips. Copper is an example of a malleable metal.
Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it to be permanently
drawn, bent, or twisted into various shapes without breaking. This
property is essential for metals used in making wire and tubing.
Ductile metals are greatly preferred for aircraft use because of their
ease of forming and resistance to failure under shock loads. For this
reason, aluminum alloys are used for cowl rings, fuselage and wing
skin, and formed or extruded parts, such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads.
Chrome molybdenum steel is also easily formed into desired shapes.
Ductility is similar to malleability.

Elasticity
Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original
size and shape when the force which causes the change of shape is
removed.In aircraft construction, members and parts are so designed
thatthe maximum loads to which they are subjected will not stress
them beyond their elastic limits.
Toughness
A material which possesses toughness will withstand tearing or
shearing and may be stretched or otherwise deformed without
breaking. Toughness is a desirable property in aircraft metals
Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal which allows little bending or
deformation without shattering. A brittle metal is apt to break or crack
without change of shape. Because structural metals are often
subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a very desirable property.
Cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are examples of brittle
metals.
Titanium alloy:
Better strength to weight ratio than aluminum and retains its strength
at higher temperatures.
Hard to form and manufacturing and expensive. 5 to 10 times
expensive than aluminum.
MATERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT:
Wood was used on most early airplanes and is now mainly used on
homebuilt airplanes. Wood is lightweight and strong, but it also
splinters and requires a lot of maintenance.
Aluminum (blended with small quantities of other metals) is used on
most types of aircraft because it is lightweight and strong. Aluminum
alloys dont corrode as readily as steel. But because they lose their
strength at high temperatures, they cannot be used for skin surfaces
that become very hot on airplanes that fly faster than twice the speed
of sound.
Steel can be up to four times stronger and three times stiffer than
aluminum, but it is also three times heavier. It is used for certain
components like landing gear, where strength and hardness are
especially important. It has also been used for the skin of some high-

speed airplanes, because it holds its strength at higher temperatures

better than aluminum.
Graphite-epoxy is one of several types of composite materials that
are becoming widely used for many aircraft structures and
components. These materials typically consist of strong fibers
embedded in a resin (in this case, graphite fibers embedded in epoxy).
Thin sheets of the material can be stacked in various ways to meet
specific strength or stiffness needs. Graphite-epoxy is about as strong
as aluminum and weighs about half as much.
TITANIUM (VERY IMPORTANT)
Titanium is about as strong as steel and weighs less, though it is not
as light as aluminum. It holds its strength at high temperatures and
resists corrosion better than steel or aluminum. Though titanium is
expensive, these characteristics have led to its greater use in modern
aircraft.
Aircraft construction requires the use of materials that can withstand
the severe pressures of flight at high altitudes, as well as constant
exposure to the elements. Traditionally, aircraft were constructed of
steel, but lighter, more durable materials are now used to extend the
life of aircraft and make them more energy efficient.

Facts About Titanium

Titanium is a classified as a metal with chemical element symbol
of Ti and an atomic number of 22.Titanium has the highest
weight-to-strength ratio of any metal, which makes it useful for a
variety of industries in which parts must have superior strength but
not add to the overall weight of the product. Titanium is as strong as
steel but 45 percent lighter. It is also corrosion resistant, which
makes it a preferred metal for a number of outdoor uses. Titanium can
be made into an alloy with a number of metals, such as iron,
aluminium, molybdenum and vanadium. Titanium was discovered in
1791 by Reverend William Gregor. It was named by Martin Heinrich
Kaproth after the Titans of Greek mythology. Titanium can be found
in abundance in the earth. It is always found bonded to other elements

in its natural form. It must be extracted and purified through a number

of processes.
Titanium Advantages
Titanium can withstand long periods of exposure to salt water in
marine atmospheres, as well, which makes it of particular value in
coastal regions. It is also a very ductile material that can be
worked into many shapes. Titaniums melting point is very high,
at 3000 degrees Fahrenheit, which makes it able to bear high-heat
environments. It is also nonmagnetic and does not conduct heat or
electricity well. All of these qualities make it an especially good
choice for aircraft parts. Welding of titanium requires special
treatment to avoid intrusion of impurities into the weld, which can
cause cracking and failure. Machining of titanium must also be done
using specific processes to avoid softening and galling of the metal.
Use in Aircraft Construction
Titanium is used in a variety of parts in aircraft construction, both on
the exterior framework and in the engine. Titanium can be found
on parts for landing gear, internal components of wings,
propellers and other components. It can also be found within the
aircraft engine, such as the housing, fan blades, pumps, screens and
components that may be exposed to high temperatures. Steel and steel
alloys are still used extensively in many aircraft because of cost
considerations. Titanium is not only an expensive material, the
costs involved in properly machining the metal often make it less
feasible for widespread use throughout the aircraft. Titanium alloys
are common in aircraft construction with complex compounds used to
provide specific qualities for particular parts, such as with aluminium
for hydraulic tubing and with tin and chromium for frames and
engines.
Titanium is a desirable option for many aircraft parts because of its
intrinsic qualities. As this metal becomes more widely used, the cost
per unit is expected to drop, making it the metal of choice for the
industry.

CATEGORIES OF METAL:
BASE METALA base metal may be distinguished by oxidizing or
corroding relatively easily and reacting variably with diluted
hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form hydrogen. Examples include iron,
nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is also considered a base metal because
it oxidizes relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl.
In mining and economics, the term base metals refers to industrial
non-ferrous metals excluding precious metals. These include copper,
lead, nickel and zinc.
The U.S. Customs and Border Protection is more inclusive in its
definition. It includes, in addition to the four above, iron and steel,
aluminum, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, cobalt, bismuth,
cadmium, titanium, zirconium, antimony, manganese, beryllium,
chromium, germanium, vanadium, gallium, hafnium, indium,
niobium, rhenium and thallium.
FERROUS METAL
Mild Steel Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7
99.9%. Used for engineering purposes and in general, none
specialised metal products.
Carbon steel Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and Iron content of
98.6 to 99.4 %. Used to make cutting tools such as drill bits.
Stainless Steel Made up of Iron, nickel and chromium. Resists
staining and corrosion and is therefore used for the likes of cutlery
and surgical instrumentation. See our infographic celebrating 100
years of stainless steel usage in buildings or the different types of
stainless steel.
Cast Iron carbon 2 6% and Iron at 94 to 98%. Very strong but
brittle. Used to manufacture items such as engine blocks and manhole
covers.
Wrought Iron Composed of almost 100% iron. Used to make items
such as ornamental gates and fencing. Has fallen out of use
somewhat.
NON FERROUS METAL
Aluminium An alloy of aluminium, copper and manganese. Very
lightweight and easily worked. Used in aircraft manufacture, window
frames and some kitchen ware.

Copper Copper is a natural occurring substance. The fact that it

conducts heat and electricity means that it is used for wiring, tubing
and pipe work.
Brass A combination of copper and zinc, usually in the
proportions of 65% to 35% respectively. Is used for ornamental
purposes and within electrical fittings.
Silver Mainly a natural substance, but mixing with copper creates
sterling silver. Used for decorative impact in jewellery and ornaments,
and also to solder different metals together.
Lead Lead is a naturally occurring substance. It is heavy and very
soft and is often used in roofing, in batteries and to make pipes
NOBLE METALHere is a list of noble metals, which are metals that
resist oxidation and corrosion.
ruthenium
rhodium
palladium
silver
osmium
iridium
platinum
gold
NON METALS:
The nonmetal elements occupy the upper righthand corner of the
periodic table. These elements have similar chemical properties that
differ from the elements considered metals.
The nonmetal element group is a subset of these elements. The
nonmetal element group consists of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and selenium.
Hydrogen acts as a nonmetal at normal temperatures and pressure and
is generally accepted to be part of the nonmetal group.
Properties of nonmetals include:
dull, not shiny
poor conductor of heat
poor conductor of electricity
high ionization energies
high electronegativity

not malleable or ductile, usually brittle

lower density (when compared to metals)
lower melting point and boiling points (when compared to metals)
gains electrons in reactions
This is a list of the nonmetal elements in order of increasing atomic
number.
NUMBER
SYMBOLELEMENT
1
H
Hydrogen
2
He Helium
6
C
Carbon
7
N
Nitrogen
8
O
Oxygen
9
F
Fluorine
10 Ne Neon
15 P
Phosphorus
16 S
Sulfur
17 Cl Chlorine
18 Ar Argon
34 Se Selenium
35 Br Bromine
36 Kr Krypton
53 I
Iodine
54 Xe Xenon
85 At Astatine
86 Rn Radon
117 Uus Ununseptium
118 Uuo Ununoctium

Draw stress-strain diagram pertaining to a typical metallic

material used in aircraft structural build and mark important
and regions. Compare it with that of a composite material
Aluminium is used here for our study , you can also explain steels
strain stress graph also(19)

The region starts from origin to yield point or yield strength is termed
as elastic region.
The region starts from yield strength to ultimate tensile strength is
termed as plastic region.
Further we have strain hardening(strengthening of a metal by plastic
deformation) and necking(Necking (engineering), the process by
which a ductile material deforms under tension forming a thin neck)

Stress-strain graph for composites

Fiber composite
When compared with the strain stress graph of conventional metal,
composites have both the ductile property of resins and brittle
property of fiber. So, if we employ fiber alone, it may give you high
ultimate strength, but it will fail after (fracture) and if we employ
material similar to the any ductile material (in here resin), then its
ultimate strength will be less. So when combine both, both ductility
and brittle properties are attained.

When compared with aluminum stress strain graph , aluminum

ultimate strength is 150-300 mpa ( includes alloys) and fiber has
some high values( compare with the above table). But both have good
duclity.
DIFFERENCES WITH OTHER MATERIALS
The basic difference of composite materials with by examples
metals is that they have a An-Isotropic behavior, which means
that the habits of the composite material or formed laminate are
directional depended. Metals have in general an Isotropic
behavior, which means that their habits are in all directions the
same. Some other differences are:

End material is formed during production process, in most cases

in the end form of the end product.

Materials habits are also determined by production/curing

process

Fibrous composites are more versatile than metals and can be

tailored to meet performance needs and complex design
requirements.

Higher specific strength (material strength/density material).

Aramide and Carbon Fiber reinforced epoxies have approx. 4 to
6 times higher spec. tensile strength than steel or aluminum

 Great fatigue endurance especially for aramide and carbon

reinforced epoxies, compared with metals.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES
Very high specific strength. Which means very high strength and
low weight

Great freedom of shape. Double curved and complex parts can

be simple produced.

High degree of integration possible. Which means simple

integration of stiffeners, inserts, cores*, and production of selfsupporting structures in one or two production cycles.

Material can be tailored. Which means fit for the loads /

performance the end product has to perform during its lifetime

Excellent fatigue endurance concerning number of load cycles

(many times higher than with metals) and residual fatigue
strength (aramide and carbon epoxy laminates retain more than
60% of their residual static strength, which is far more higher
than is possible with metals.)

Excellent chemical resistance against acids, chemicals etc.

 Excellent weather/water resistance. Material has almost no

corrosion, takes on little water which leads to low maintenance
cost especially on the long run.

Composites have excellent RAM features (Radar absorbing

materials). It's also possible to make special laminates which are
radar and sonar transparent.

Excellent impact habits

Excellent electrical habits, concerning isolation but also

conduction, dielectric habits, EMS shielding etc. Structures can
be tailored on RF transparency but can also be made RF
reflecting. Great for telecom especially UMTS frequencies.

Great thermal isolation habits, fire retardancy habits, and high

temperature performance.
TYPES OF COMPOSITES
The most known type of composites are the fiber reinforced
plastics. However there are more types of composites, in which
also metals are used !.
Types of composites are:
Fiber reinforced plastics
Fiber reinforced thermo set plastics (like polyester, vinlyester,
epoxy, BMI/Polyimide, phenol, etc.)

 Fiber reinforced thermoplastics (like PPS, PEEK, PEI, PAI, etc.)

Sandwich structures
FRP facings, aluminum facings, steel facings and foam (PUR,
PIR, PVC etc.) and/or honeycomb (nomex, aluminum, carbon,
etc.) core's
Fiber metal laminates (FML's like ARALL and GLARE)
Metal Matrix Composites (MMC's)
Glass matrix composites
Ceramic Matrix Composites
Ceramic Ceramic Composites
Carbon Carbon Composites
etc.
HIGH STRENGTH FIBERS (most known)
glass fiber (E-glass, S-glass, C-glass)
quartz fiber
organic fibers
aramide (Twaron / Kevlar)
zylon
polyethylene fiber (Dyneema / Spectra)

 M5 fiber (under development at Magellan)

http://www.m5fiber.com/
carbon fiber (HT and HM)
boron fiber
ceramic fibers, alumina, carbide and nitride fibers
MATRICES (most known)
Thermo set resins like:
polyester (ortho, isothr, bisphenol)
vinlyester
epoxy
phenol
BMI and Polyimide
etc.
Thermoplastics like
PPS
PEEK
PEI
PAI

etc.
Metals (aluminum, titanium etc.)
Glass
Ceramics
carbonized phenol (carbon/carbon applications)
PRODUCTION METHODS (most known)

TOP

hand lay-up (thermo sets and prepregs)

spray up (thermo sets)
cold press (thermo sets)
GMT and BMT (SMC and BMC)
injection molding (thermoplastics)
vacuum infusion and vacuum injection (VI-RTM)
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM of thermo sets and ceramics,
fiber preforms 3D woven and braiding )
compression molding (prepregs and thermoplastics, glass,
ceramics and metals)
pultrusion (thermo set and thermoplastics)
filament winding (thermo set, thermoplastics and ceramics)
vacuum bagging (prepregs lay-up and cure in oven)

 autoclave (cure under pressure and high temp, thermoplastic,

thermo set, ceramics, MMC's, FML's)
or you can study the stress strain graph for mild steel
Stress strain curve is a behavior of material when it is subjected
to load. In this diagram stresses are plotted along the vertical
axis and as a result of these stresses, corresponding strains are
plotted along the horizontal axis. As shown below in the stress
strain curve.
Stress Strain Curve

From the diagram one can see the different mark points on the
curve. It is because, when a ductile material like mild steel is
subjected to tensile test, then it passes various stages before
fracture.
These stages are;
Proportional Limit
Elastic Limit
Yield Point
Ultimate Stress Point
Breaking Point

Proportional Limit
Proportional limit is point on the curve up to which the value of
stress and strain remains proportional. From the diagram point P
is the called the proportional limit point or it can also be known
as limit of proportionality. The stress up to this point can be also
be known as proportional limit stress.
Hooks law of proportionality from diagram can be defined
between point OP. It is so, because OP is a straight line which
shows that Hooks law of stress strain is followed up to point P.
Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the limiting value of stress up to which the
material is perfectly elastic. From the curve, point E is the
elastic limit point. Material will return back to its original
position, If it is unloaded before the crossing of point E. This is
so, because material is perfectly elastic up to point E.
Yield Stress Point
Yield stress is defined as the stress after which material
extension takes place more quickly with no or little increase in
load. Point Y is the yield point on the graph and stress associated
with this point is known as yield stress.
Ultimate Stress Point
Ultimate stress point is the maximum strength that material have
to bear stress before breaking. It can also be defined as the
ultimate stress corresponding to the peak point on the stress
strain graph. On the graph point U is the ultimate stress point.

After point U material have very minute or zero strength to face

further stress.
Breaking Stress (Point of Rupture)
Breaking point or breaking stress is point where strength of
material breaks. The stress associates with this point known as
breaking strength or rupture strength. On the stress strain curve,
point B is the breaking stress point.

STRUCTURES (CONSTRUCTIONS):
METTALIC WING AND FUNCTION OF ITS PARTS:
(OR REFER PDF IN UR MAIL)

S
Wings develop the major portion of the lift of aheavier-than-air
aircraft.Wing structures carry some ofthe heavier loads found in the
aircraft structure. The particular design of a wing depends on many
factors, such as the size, weight, speed, rate of climb, and use of the
aircraft. The wing must be constructed so that it holds its

aerodynamics shape under the extreme stresses of combat maneuvers

or wing loading. Wing construction is similar in most modern aircraft.
In its simplest form, the wing is a framework made up of spars and
ribs and covered with metal. The construction of an aircraft wing is
shown in figure 4-8. Spars are the main structural members of the
wing. They extend from the fuselage to the tip of the wing. All the
load carried by the wing is taken up by the spars. The spars are
designed to have great bending strength. Ribs give the wing section
its shape, and they transmit the air load from the wing covering to the
spars. Ribs extend from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the
wing.
In addition to the main spars, some wings have a false spar to
support the ailerons and flaps. Most aircraft wings have a removable
tip, which streamlines the outer end of the wing. Most Navy aircraft
are designed with a wing referred to as a wet wing. This term
describes the wing that is constructed so it can be used as a fuel cell.
The wet wing is sealed with a fuel-resistant compound as it is built.
The wing holds fuel without the usual rubber cells or tanks. The
wings of most naval aircraft are of all metal, full cantilever
construction. Often, they may be folded for carrier use. A full
cantilever wing structure is very strong. The wing can be fastened to
the fuselage without the use of external bracing, such as wires or
struts. A complete wing assembly consists of the surface providing lift
for the support of the aircraft. It also provides the necessary flight
control surfaces.
Construction of wings:( for brief description plz refer aircraft
structure lalith gupta)
Mass boom
Box beam
Multi spar
Mass boom:

Advantage and disadvantage of mass boom

Box Beam:

MULTI SPAR :

fig 5

fig 6

Fig 7

Continuation in next page.

Fuselage construction:
There are two general types of fuselage constructionwelded steel
truss and monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in
smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some helicopters.
The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or
covering, to carry various loads.The monocoque design may be
divided into three classesmonocoque, semimonocoque, and
reinforced
Shell.
The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and
bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the
primary stresses. Since no bracing members are present, the skin must
be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest problem in
monocoque construction is

maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within limits.

Semimonocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem
of monocoque construction.. In addition to having formers, frame
assemblies, and bulkheads, the semimonocoque construction has the
skin reinforced by longitudinal members.
The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework
of structural members. Different portions of the same fuselage may
belong to any one of the three classes. Most are considered to be of
semimonocoque-type construction.
The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminum
alloy, although steel and titanium are found in high-temperature areas.
Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually
extend across several points of support. The longerons are
supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers.
Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons.
The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames,
and formers. The heavier vertical
members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated loads.
These members are also found at
points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings
and stabilizers. The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons
and serve as fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for
giving shape and for attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons
hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the
stringers. All of these join together to form a rigid fuselage
framework. Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression
stresses from bending the
fuselage.
The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural
members and carries part of the
load. The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load carried and the
stresses sustained at particular location.

There are a number of advantages in using the semimonocoque

fuselage.
_ The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longeron said in the design and
construction of a streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and
rigidity of the structure.
_ The main advantage of the semimonocoque construction is that it
depends on many structural members for strength and rigidity.
Because of its stressed skin construction, a semimonocoque fuselage
can withstand damage and still be strong enough to hold together.

Truss or frame work:

This consists of light gauge steel tubes which form a frame triangular
shape to give the most rigid of geometric forms. Each tube carries a
specific load, the magnitude of which depends on whether the aircraft
is airborne or on the ground.
This type of fuselage is commonly found on the first few generations
of aircraft. They are strong, moderately easy to manufacture, but did
not necessarily implement the concept of aerodynamic.

Geodesic construction:
A geodesic (or geodetic) airframe is a type of construction for
the airframes of aircraft developed by British aeronautical
engineer Barnes Wallis in the 1930s. It makes use of a space

frame formed from a spirally crossing basket-weave of load-bearing

members The principle is that two geodesic arcs can be drawn to
intersect on a curving surface (the fuselage) in a manner that
the torsional load on each cancels out that on the other.

Unit 7,8
GYROSCOPE:
Gyroscopic Principles
In aircraft instruments gyros are used in attitude, compass and turn
coordinators. These instruments contain a wheel or rotor rotating at
a high RPM which gives it two important properties: rigidity and
precession. The rotor or gyro can be electrically, vacuum or
pressure driven.
Construction wise the gyro is fixed in the instrument by rings or
gimbals and these give the gyro certain motions of freedom. It is
these motions or movement in a plane which allow for the
characteristics used in these instruments.
VFR flying pilots will normally only fly on these instrument when
getting out of IMC situations. Keep in mind that to be proficient in

flying on instruments you will need regular training with a safety

pilot, aka flying under the hood.
Without being current on instruments, most if not all VFR pilots,
will crash when attempting to do this.
Rigidity & Precession
These two properties are unique to a rotating mass. Below an
explanation of how they work and their application in aircraft
instruments.
Rigidity
Whilst small, the rotor of a gyroscopic instrument rotates at a very
high RPM. Giving them inertia, also called rigidity and they
maintain this alignment to a fixed point in space. This basically
happens to every rotating object: wheel, propeller etc.. For
example: this rigidity gives the moving bicycle its stability
preventing it from falling over.
A number of factors have their influence on rigidity: the mass of
the rotor, its RPM or angular velocity and finally the distance of
the mass to the axis of rotation. The larger the distance the greater
the rigidity with equal rotational speed.
Precession
When you apply a force to a point around the spinning rim of the
gyro, the rotor will tilt as if the force was 90 further in the
direction of motion as shown in the image. This displacement of
the force is called precession.
The amount of precession depends on the following factors:
strength and direction of the force applied, the amount of inertia of

the gyro (mass concentration on the rim) and the RPM or rotational
velocity of the gyro.
To conclude: the rate of precession in a free gyro is directly
proportional to strength of the force and inversely proportional to
the RPM and the moment of inertia. Thus the more mass and RPM
a gyro has the more stable it is and
maintain its position to a fixed point in
space.
Gimbal rings
The gyro rotor is held in place by rings
or better known as gimbal rings. These
allow for freedom of motion three
dimensional planes as required by the
instruments of the aircraft. Not all instruments will need all the
planes of movement at the same time, this depends on their
function, see the next pages.
Planes of movement
There are three possible motions for a gyroscope: the plane of
rotation of the gyro; the plane of applied force and as a result: the
plane of precession. Refer to the image above.
Turn Indicators
There are two types of turn indicators in aircraft. These are: the
Turn and Bank Indicator (T/B) and the Turn Coordinator (T/C).
Both are gyro driven and indicate the rate of turn but the turn
coordinator can also indicate rate of roll. The T/B has a needle
indicator where the T/C has an aircraft picture on the face of the
instrument.

Neither of these instrument give an direct indication of bank angle.

For that you will need the speed of the aircraft and rate of turn to
calculate the bank angle, or have an attitude indicator.
Also note that these indicators are part of the basic six instruments
in an aircraft the pilot needs for legal instrument flying. Nowadays
you see more and more EFIS panels where the original T/C and
T/B are used as standby and backup in case of failure.
Rate Gyro
Turn indicators use a rate gyro (see image) to detect how fast the
aircraft is changing direction. The T/B has a vertical needle and a
slip ball; note that the Turn Coodinator has an aircraft picture. Both
indicate a two minute turn, thus a 360 turn is completed in two
minutes or put differently: three degrees/second (3/s,
not that famous group) which is a rate one turn.
The coordination ball indicates the direction of
the g-forces and its the pilots job to keep the
ball centered by 'stepping on the ball' with the
rudder. Thus: ball to the right -> apply right
rudder or trim (and less left rudder) and vice
versa.
Rate gyro operation
This gyro has only one plane of freedom where it can move (not
the plane of rotation). The tilting of the vertical axis though the
aircraft causes precession and this is used to indicate the rate of
turn about that axis. The amount of tilt (linear with the rate of turn)
is balanced against a restraining spring.

T/B or T/C
In a T/B the gyro is mounted in such a way
that the rotation (or turn) axis is from wingtip
to wingtip. In the T/C the turn axis gimbal is
mounted on a 30 angle upward from the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft, and this gives it the ability to sense
rate of roll.
Springs
The springs used in the rate gyro give proper indication of rate of
turn by being able to adjust the spring tension against the
precession force of the gyro, without the springs the gyro would
just bounce around. This is then indicated on the face place.
Damping
Due to air turbulence and aircraft movement by the pilot there will
always be a force on the gyro causing precession and thus needle
movement. To stabilize the indication the gyro has internal
damping devices limiting these movements and presenting a stable
indication.
Mechanical stops
The gimbal ring reaches a mechanical stop when the aircraft turns
about 20/second. And with only one gimbal ring the gyro will not
topple as with the attitude and heading gyro's.
Instrument Errors
These are the result of mechanical design and limits due to
contruction. Indication due to turbulence is not really an error by
instrument design but it will cause erratic movement only.

Indication
When the gyro rotor speed is not within limits the indication will
suffer and be much slower. When the rotor speed is too high it will
result in an excessive rate of turn as the precession forces will be
greater than the preset tension of the calibrated springs. The
instrument will look very much alive in this situation
Yaw
Another error occurs when the aircraft subjected to a yaw
movement together with positive g-forces, the indicator will then
overread. Most noticeable when pulling out of a dive with the
aircraft out of balance or with an unbalanced steep turn.

Hydraulic systems:
Hydraulic systems in aircraft provide a means for the operation of
aircraft components. The operation of landing gear, flaps, flight
control surfaces, and brakes is largely accomplished with hydraulic
power systems. Hydraulic system complexity varies from small
aircraft that require fluid only for manual operation of the wheel
brakes to large transport aircraft where the systems are large and
complex. To achieve the necessary redundancy and reliability, the
system may consist of several subsystems. Each subsystem has a
power generating device (pump) reservoir, accumulator, heat
exchanger, filtering system, etc. System operating pressure may vary
from a couple hundred pounds per square inch (psi) in small aircraft
and rotorcraft to 5,000 psi in large transports
Things important in selecting a fluid
Viscosity

Chemical stabiiltiy
Flash point
Fire point
The three principal categories of hydraulic fluids are:
1. Minerals
2. Polyalphaolefins
3. Phosphate esters

Basic hydraulic system

Regardless of its function and design, every hydraulic system has a
minimum number of basic components in addition to a means through
which the fluid is transmitted. A basic system consists of a pump,
reservoir, directional valve, check valve, pressure relieve valve,
selector valve, actuator, and filter
Open Center Hydraulic Systems

An open center system is one having fluid flow, but no pressure in the
system when the actuating mechanisms are idle. The pump circulates
the fluid from the reservoir, through the selector valves, and back to
the reservoir. The open center system may employ any number of
subsystems, with a selector valve for each subsystem. Unlike the
closed center system, the selector valves of the open center system are
always connected in series with each other. In this arrangement, the
system pressure line goes through each selector valve. Fluid is always
allowed free passage through each selector valve and back to the
reservoir until one of the selector valves is positioned to operate a
mechanism. When one of the selector valves is positioned to operate
an actuating device, fluid is directed from the pump through oneof the
working lines to the actuator. With the selector valve in this position,
the flow of fluid through the valve to the reservoir is blocked. The
pressure builds up in the system to overcome the resistance and
moves the piston of the actuating cylinder; fluid from the opposite end
of the actuator returns to the selector valve and flows back to the
reservoir. Operation of the system following actuation of
thecomponent depends on the type of selector valve being used.
Several types of selector valves are used in conjunction with the open
center system. One type is both manually engaged and manually
disengaged. First, the valve is manually moved to an operating
position. Then, the actuating mechanism reaches the end of its
operating cycle, and the pump output continues until the system relief
valve relieves the pressure. The relief valve unseats and allows the
fluid to flow back to the reservoir. The system pressure remains at the
relief valve set pressure until the selector valve is manually returned
to the neutral position. This action reopens the open center flow and
allows the system pressure to drop to line resistance pressure.

Closed-Center Hydraulic Systems

In the closed-center system, the fluid is under pressure the power
pump is operating. The three actuators are arranged in parallel and
actuating units B and C are operating

at the same time, while actuating unit A is not operating. This system
differs from the open-center system in that the selector or directional
control valves are arranged in parallel and not in series. The means of
controlling pump pressure varies in the closed-center system. If a
constant delivery pump is used, the system pressure is regulated by a
pressure regulator. A relief valve acts as a backup safety device in
case the regulator fails. If a variable displacement pump is used,
system pressure is controlled by the pumps integral pressure
mechanism compensator. The compensator automatically varies the
volume output. When pressure approaches normal system pressure,
the compensator begins to reduce the flow output of the pump. The
pump is fully compensated (near zero flow) when normal system
pressure is attained. When the pump is in this fully compensated
condition, its internal bypass mechanism provides fluid circulation
through the pump for cooling and lubrication. A relief valve is
installed in the system as a safety backup. An advantage of the opencenter system over the closed-center system is that the continuous
pressurization of the system is eliminated. Since the pressure is built
up gradually after the selector valve is moved to an operating
position, there is very little shock from pressure surges. This action
provides a smoother operation of the actuating mechanisms. The
operation is slower than the closed-center system, in which the
pressure is available the moment the selector valve is positioned.
Since most aircraft applications require instantaneous operation,
closed-center systems are the most widely used

Hydraulic System Components

As with all systems working with fluids they, at least, will have a
reservoir, pump and filter and some valves / actuators and a pressure
gauge to monitor the working pressure. We will describe these parts
and their function below.
Reservoir
This must contain enough fluid so that all actuators can operate at the
same time. There must be some amount of reserve in case of a leak so
that the system can operate for a period of time.
The reservoir functions as an expansion chamber (when the fluids
heats up) and traps air bubbles should they enter the system
somewhere. It can be pressurized for aircraft flying at high altitudes.

Returning fluid must enter the reservoir without causing foaming and
bubbles.
Pump
The main pump is driven by the engine or by an electric motor.
Pressure is held in a accumulator. With hydraulic landing gear aircraft
you will find a hand operated backup pump in case the gear fails to
extend by the main pump. This will require a large
number of manual pumps from the pilot at a time where
stress is higher than normal.
These pumps are available in different types depending
on the volume and pressure requirements: vane, spur gear and the
fixed angle piston type.
Vane and spur gear
This is a constant displacement low pressure/high volume pump
(vane) or medium volume/pressure (gear) pumps. Both require a
pressure relief to prevent damage to the system due to increased RPM
of the pump.
Fixed angle
Some are constant displacement types but others are a variable
displacement/constant pressure pumps and the latter obviously will
not need a pressure regulator. They are capable of very high pressures
up to 3000 - 3500 psi but with low volumes.
Pressure regulator
To prevent damage we need to keep the pressure within the design
limits of the system. Normally if a pump moves fluid and there is no
restriction, there will be no pressure. The fluid just moves around. But
when there is a restriction (such as in a closed circuit) the pressure
will build up until the regulator kicks in.

Accumulator
A two part pressure vessel in which the sections are divided by a
bladder. One parts contains a gas (air or nitrogen) and the other half
contains the working fluid. The gas is pressurized to half
the working pressure of the system.
Constructed this way the gas will act as a damping device
and levels out pressure fluctuations and it also serves as
backup pressure should the pump fail.
Valves
There are three types of valves used: check, pressure relief and
selector. The check valve is a non-return type, basically a hydraulic
form of the electronic diode. The pressure relief valve limits the
amount of pressure if it exceeds a preset level. And the selector valve
is operated by the pilot to initiate the movement of an actuator.
Actuators and filters
Actuators are the main moving parts, they convert pressure into a
mechanical movement to do useful work. They come in different sizes
and shapes, this depends largely on the object it needs to move.
Filters keep the operating fluid clean from contamination as
microscopic particles can ruin valves, pumps resulting in a leak and
possibly worse. Some filters have a bypass should the filter material
become clogged.
Sources of Pneumatic Power:
1. Engine bleed air
2. Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
3. Ground source

1.It is tapped from the appropriate stage of a high pressure

compressor. A pre-cooler system controls the engine bleed air
temperature.
2. The APU supplies bleed air to the pneumatic manifold
3. pneumatic manifold system gets bleed air from ground source too.

High pressure systems

An engine driven compressor feeds air via an unloading valve tot
the system keeping the pressure around 3000 psi, but this may vary
from aircraft manufacturer to another. There will usually also be a
ground valve on the aircraft to enable the system to be pressurized
when the main engines are not running.
You will also find a moisture separator, dryer (desiccant) and filter
to keep the air clean and free from water before it is stored in the
high pressure bottles.
Pressurized air at 3000 psi is reduced before it is routed to valves
and actuators, this reduced pressure is monitored by gauges.
Actuators can be a single acting device where air moves them one
way and a strong spring inside pushes the piston actuator back, or
can they be double acting. These are sometimes used with flap
extension systems.

Low pressure system:

These are pressurized up to about 1000 psi and use an engine

driven vane type pump and they are used to drive the aircon, door
seals, de-icer boots, mainly small low power applications.
Pneumatic system components:
1. Air filter
2. Check valve
3. Desiccant / Chemical Dryer
4. Moisture Separator
5. Bleed air isolation valve
6. Pressure reducing valve
7. Relief valve
8. Shuttle valve
Air filter:
Used in system lines to remove any foreign matter. It have micronic
type paper element, which must be replace periodically.
Check valve

Using flap type, which are one directional flow control valves
Desiccant/ Chemical Dryer
Purpose is to absorb the moisture. It contains replaceable
cartridge (blue color). Change in color says the cartridge is
contaminated with moisture and need to replace
Bleed air isolation valve
It separates the pneumatic manifold into right and left sides, also it
connects the right and left sides of pneumatic manifold for cross
bleed operation
Pressure reducing valve
It reduces the air pressure in cylinder to a workable pressure
required for operation of certain components
Relief Valve
It protects the system from over pressurization and acts as a
pressure limiting unit. At normal pressure, the valve remain closed,
but under high pressure it opens and vent excess air

Shuttle Valve

It allows the pneumatic system to operate from the ground source.

When pressure from external source is higher then isolates the
compressor. It also used for emergency backup for landing gears.

Aircraft instruments:
1. Classified according to function in following categories:
Flight and navigation instruments provide information on
flight speed, altitude, a/c condition, heading, R/C or descent
etc.
Power plant instruments provide information on operation of
engine, its rpm, EGT, pressure ratio, etc.
System instruments provide specific information relevant to
various a/c systems
2 Classified according to the principles used in giving the
desired information:
Pressure type instruments
Gyro instruments
Mechanical type instruments
Direct indicating instruments

 Electronic instruments
Pressure type instruments
P can be measured by applying the fluid force to a moveable
bellow / by converting the P energy into an electrical signal (P
transducer)
Different ways to measure P are:
1. Absolute P
2. Gauge P
3. Differential Pressure
Absolute P The measurement of P relative to the total
vacuum (P = 0). It is used on the a/c in comparison to other P
through a device called aneroid capsule. It measure the
difference in P b/w the vacuum inside the sealed chamber and
the ambient P around it. The difference in these two values
gives the absolute P.
Gauge P it is the difference b/w the atmospheric P and the P
being measured. The absolute P is applied on one side of the
bellow and atmospheric P on the other side of the bellow, the
resulting force is indicated by the gauge P.
Differential P it is the comparison b/w two different P. Most
commonly used differential P gauge is the air speed indicator.
It measures the difference b/w ram air or pitot P and the static /

ambient P. most useful type differential P instrument is the

differential bellow type, have 2 bellows, each filled with the
associated P to be measured.
Pitot - static system
This a/c system measures the total P by the forward motion of
the a/c and the static P surrounding the atmosphere. These P
are used to calculate flight parameters such as airspeed and
altitude.
The system connected to the 3 primary flight instruments 1.
airspeed indicator,
2. altimeter and 3. vertical speed
indicator.
Altimeter all the altimeters have P sensing elements made up of 3
aneroid capsules staked together to increase the sensitivity of the
instrument. The altimeter measures the Pressure altitude.

Air speed indicator it measures the difference in pitot P and

static P. The P sensing element is the metallic capsule. The

speed indicated on the airspeed indicator is referred to as the

indicated airspeed (IAS). The error in airspeed indication
caused by the change in P is referred as position error.
Indicated speed corrected for position error is called the
calibrated airspeed (CAS). True airspeed (TAS) is derived
from the calibrated airspeed when it is corrected for nonstandard P and T.

TAS is not used for controlling the a/c during the taxiing, T/O,
climb, descent, approach or landing; for these purpose the IAS is
used
Vertical speed indicator- it is also known as the R/C indicator
designed to indicate the rate of altitude change from the
change of static P alone. It is a type of differential P gauge. It
measures only change in P. When the a/c flies at constant
altitude, the air P doesnt change. As the a/c climbs air
becomes less dense and the P changes, so the indicating needle
deflection shows R/C.

AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION SYSTEMS INCLUDE

VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT
(DME)
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDERS (ADF)
DOPPLER NAVIGATION SYSTEM
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) is a type of shortrange radio navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a
receiving unit to determine their position and stay on course by
receiving radio signals transmitted by a network of fixed ground
radio beacons.

Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a transponder-based

radio navigation technology that measures slant range distance by
timing the propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals.

A course deviation indicator (CDI) is an avionics instrument

used in aircraft navigation to determine an aircraft's lateral position
in relation to a course. If the location of the aircraft is to the left of
course, the needle deflects to the right, and vice versa.

A radio direction finder (RDF) is a device for finding the

direction, or bearing, to a radio source. The act of measuring the
direction is known as radio direction finding or sometimes simply
direction finding (DF). Using two or more measurements from
different locations, the location of an unknown transmitter can be
determined; alternately, using two or more measurements of known
transmitters, the location of a vehicle can be determined. RDF is
widely used as a radio navigation system, especially with boats and
aircraft.
An automatic direction finder (ADF) is a marine or aircraft
radio-navigation instrument that automatically and continuously
displays the relative bearing from the ship or aircraft to a suitable

radio station.[10][11] ADF receivers are normally tuned to aviation or

marine NDBs operating in the LW band between 190 535 kHz.
Like RDF units, most ADF receivers can also receive medium
wave (AM) broadcast stations, though as mentioned, these are less
reliable for navigational purposes

An instrument landing system (ILS) is a ground-based

instrument approach system that provides precision lateral and
vertical guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a
runway, using a combination of radio signals and, in many cases,
high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings
or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow.

An inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation aid that uses

a computer, motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors

(gyroscopes) to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the

position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of
movement) of a moving object without the need for external
references
Aircraft fuel systems:
Aircraft fuel systems are highly used to supply proper amount of
fuel to the engine to have a proper combustion .
To prevent progress of fire from any part of the airplane through
fuel pipes to the fuel tank due to some fire accident.
An aircraft fuel system allows the crew to pump, manage, and
deliver fuel to the propulsion system and Auxilary Power Unit
(APU) of an aircraft.
To prevent engine from fuel starvation.
Each fuel system for a multiengine airplane must be arranged so that,
in at least one system configuration, the failure of any one component
(other than a fuel tank) does not result in the loss of power of more
than one engine or require immediate action by the pilot to prevent
the loss of power of more than one engine.

Small Single-Engine Aircraft Fuel Systems

Small single-engine aircraft fuel systems vary depending on factors,
such as tank location and method of metering fuel to the engine. A
high-wing aircraft fuel system can be

designed differently from one on a low-wing aircraft. An aircraft

engine with a carburetor has a different fuel system than one with fuel
injection.
Gravity Feed Systems
High-wing aircraft with a fuel tank in each wing are common. With
the tanks above the engine, gravity is used to deliver the fuel. A
simple gravity feed fuel system is shown in
Figure 14-13. The space above the liquid fuel is vented to maintain
atmospheric pressure on the fuel as the tank empties. The two tanks
are also vented to each other to ensure equal pressure when both tanks
feed the engine. A single screened outlet on each tank feeds lines that
connect to either a fuel shutoff valve or multiposition selector valve.
The shutoff valve has two positions: fuel ON and fuel OFF. If
installedthe selector valve provides four options: fuel shutoff to the
engine; fuel feed from the right wing tank only; fuel feed from the left
fuel tank only; fuel feed to the engine from bothtanks simultaneously.
Downstream of the shutoff valve or selector valve, the fuel passes
through a main system strainer. This often has a drain function to
remove sediment and water. From there, it flows to the carburetor or
to the primer pump for engine starting. Having no fuel pump, the
gravity feed system is the simplest aircraft fuel system.
Pump Feed Systems
Low- and mid-wing single reciprocating engine aircraft cannot utilize
gravity-feed fuel systems because the fuel tanks are not located above
the engine. Instead, one or more pumps are used to move the fuel
from the tanks to the engine. A common fuel system of this type is
shown in Figure 14-14. Each tank has a line from the screened outlet
to a selector
valve. However, fuel cannot be drawn from both tanks
simultaneously; if the fuel is depleted in one tank, the pump would
draw air from that tank instead of fuel from the full
tank. Since fuel is not drawn from both tanks at the same time, there
is no need to connect the tank vent spaces together. From the selector
valve (LEFT, RIGHT, or OFF), fuel

flows through the main strainer where it can supply the engine primer.
Then, it flows downstream to the fuel pumps. Typically, one electric
and one engine-driven fuel pump are
arranged in parallel. They draw the fuel from the tank(s) and deliver it
to the carburetor. The two pumps provide redundancy. The enginedriven fuel pump acts as the primary pump. The electric pump can
supply fuel should the other fail. The electric pump also supplies fuel
pressure while starting and is used to prevent vapor lock during flight
at high altitude
propeller
Flight control systems
primary control surfaces:
Generally, the primary cockpit flight controls are arranged as follow

a control yoke (also known as a control column), centre

stick or side-stick (the latter two also colloquially known as a
control or joystick), governs the aircraft's roll and pitch by moving
the ailerons (or activating wing warping on some very early
aircraft designs) when turned or deflected left and right, and moves
the elevators when moved backwards or forwards

rudder pedals, or the earlier, pre-1919 "rudder bar", to

control yaw, which move the rudder; left foot forward will move
the rudder left for instance.

throttle controls to control engine speed or thrust for powered

aircraft.

The control yokes also vary greatly amongst aircraft. There are yokes
where roll is controlled by rotating the yoke
clockwise/counterclockwise (like steering a car) and pitch is
controlled by tilting the control column towards you or away from
you, but in others the pitch is controlled by sliding the yoke into and
out of the instrument panel (like most Cessnas, such as the 152 and
172), and in some the roll is controlled by sliding the whole yoke to

the left and right (like the Cessna 162). Centre sticks also vary
between aircraft. Some are directly connected to the control surfaces
using cables,others (fly-by-wire airplanes) have a computer in
between which then controls the electrical actuators.
secondary control surfaces:
In addition to the primary flight controls for roll, pitch, and yaw, there
are often secondary controls available to give the pilot finer control
over flight or to ease the workload. The most commonly available
control is a wheel or other device to control elevator trim, so that the
pilot does not have to maintain constant backward or forward pressure
to hold a specific pitch attitude ,(other types of trim,
for rudder and ailerons, are common on larger aircraft but may also
appear on smaller ones). Many aircraft have wing flaps, controlled by
a switch or a mechanical lever or in some cases are fully automatic by
computer control, which alter the shape of the wing for improved
control at the slower speeds used for takeoff and landing. Other
secondary flight control systems may be available,
including slats, spoilers, air brakes and variable-sweep wings.

Fly By Wire

Fly-By-Wire In the 70s the fly-by-wire architecture was developed,

starting as an analogue technique and later on, in most cases,
transformed into digital. It was first developed for military aviation,
where it is now a common solution; the supersonic Concorde can be
considered a first and isolated civil aircraft equipped with a
(analogue) fly-by-wire system, but in the 80s the digital technique
was imported from military into civil aviation by Airbus, first with the
A320, then followed by A319, A321, A330, A340, Boeing 777 and
A380 (scheduled for 2005). This architecture is based on computer
signal processing and is schematically shown in fig. 6.5: the pilots
demand is first of all transduced into electrical signal in the cabin and
sent to a group of independent computers (Airbus architecture
substitute the cabin control column with a side stick); the computers
sample also data concerning the flight conditions and servo-valves
and actuators positions; the pilots demand is then processed and sent
to the actuator, properly tailored to the actual flight status. The flight

data used by the system mainly depend on the aircraft category; in

general the following data are sampled and processed

angle of attack and sideslip; airspeed/mach number, pressure

altitude and radio altimeter indications; stick and pedal demands;
other cabin commands such as landing gear condition, thrust lever
position, etc.

The full system has high redundancy to restore the level of reliability
of a mechanical or hydraulic system, in the form of multiple (triplex
or quadruplex) parallel and independent lanes to generate and transmit
the signals, and independent computers that process them; in many
cases both hardware and software are different, to make the
generation of a common error extremely remote, increase fault
tolerance and isolation; in some cases the multiplexing of the digital
computing and signal transmission is supported with an analogue or
mechanical back-up system, to achieve adequate system reliability.

For civil fly-by-wire aircraft in normal operation the flight control

changes according to the flight mode: ground, take-off, flight and
flare. Transition between modes is smooth and the pilot is not affected
in its ability to control the aircraft: in ground mode the pilot has
control on the nose wheel steering as a function of speed, after lift-off
the envelope protection is gradually introduced and in flight mode the
aircraft is fully protected by exceeding the maximum negative and
positive load factors (with and without high lift devices extracted),
angle of attack, stall, airspeed/Mach number, pitch attitude, roll rate,
bank angle etc; finally, when the aircraft approaches to ground the
control is gradually switched to flare mode, where automatic trim is
deactivated and modified flight laws are used for pitch control.

Autopilot

Autopilot is an automatic flight control system that keeps an aircraft

in level flight or on a set course. It can be directed by the pilot, or it
may be coupled to a radio navigation signal. Autopilot reduces the
physical and mental demands on a pilot and increases safety. The
common features available on an autopilot are altitude and heading
hold. The simplest systems use gyroscopic attitude indicators and
magnetic compasses to control servos connected to the flight control
system. [Figure 5-24] The number and location of these servos
depends on the complexity of the system. For example, a single-axis
autopilot controls the aircraft about the longitudinal axis and a servo
actuates the ailerons. A threeaxis autopilot controls the aircraft about
the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes. Three different servos
actuate ailerons, elevator, and rudder. More advanced systems often
include a vertical speed and/or indicated airspeed hold mode.
Advanced autopilot systems are coupled to navigational aids through
a flight director.

The autopilot system also incorporates a disconnect safety feature to

disengage the system automatically or manually. These autopilots
work with inertial navigation systems, global positioning systems
(GPS), and flight computers to control the aircraft. In fly-by-wire
systems, the autopilot is an integrated component. Additionally,
autopilots can be manually overridden

Fly by light

A type of flight-control system where input command signals are sent

to the actuators through the medium of optical-fiber lines. The
feedback from the control surfaces and other systems is routed in a
similar way. The inputs from the control column, aircraft control
surfaces, and other data, such as static and dynamic pressure and
angle of attack, are fed into a computer connected to fiber-optic lines.
The computer then provides data for movement of the aircraft control
surfaces through these cables.

Air cycle and vapour cycle systems:

Oxygen systems:

Unit 6 :
Basic Propeller Principles
The airplane propeller consists of two or more blades and a central
hub to which the blades are attached. Each blade of an airplane
propeller is essentially a rotating wing. As a result of their
construction, the propeller blades are like airfoils and produce forces
that create the thrust to pull, or push, the airplane through the air.
The power needed to rotate the propeller blades is furnished by the
engine. The engine rotates the airfoils of the blades through the air at
high speeds, and the propeller transforms the rotary power of the
engine into forward thrust.
An airplane moving
through the air creates a
drag force opposing its
forward motion.
Consequently, if an
airplane is to fly, there
must be a force applied
to it that is equal to the
drag, but acting forward.
This force, as we know,
is called "thrust."
A cross section of a
typical propeller blade is
shown in Fig 17-38. This
section or blade element
is an airfoil comparable
to a cross section of an
airplane wing. One
surface of the blade is
cambered or curved,
similar to the upper
surface of an airplane

wing, while the other

surface is flat like the
bottom surface of a wing.
The chord line is an
imaginary line drawn
through the blade from
its leading edge to its
trailing edge. As in a
wing, the leading edge is
the thick edge of the
blade that meets the air
as the propeller rotates.
Blade angle, usually measured in degrees, is the angle between the
chord of the blade and the plane of rotation (Fig. 17-39) and is
measured at a specific point along the length of the blade. Because
most propellers have a flat blade "face," the chord line is often drawn
along the face of the propeller blade. Pitch is not the same as blade
angle, but because pitch is largely determined by blade angle, the two
terms are often used interchangeably. An increase or decrease in one
is usually associated with an increase or decrease in the other.

Jet propulsion is thrust produced by passing a jet of matter (typically

air or water) in the opposite direction to the direction of motion. By
Newton's third law, the moving body is propelled in the opposite
direction to the jet. It is most commonly used in the jet engine,
A jet engine is an air-breathing internal combustion engine often used
to propel high-speed aircraft. Jet engines, like rocket engines, use the
reaction principle in that they accelerate a mass in one direction and,
from Newton's third law of motion, experience thrust in the opposite
direction. However, jet engines use air to burn fuel while rocket
engines use stored oxidizer. Air-breathing provides higher
performance in terms of thrust per unit of propellant and allows the
highest endurance.

Rocket propulsion:
A rocket is a machine that develops thrust by the rapid expulsion of
matter. The major components of a chemical rocket assembly are a
rocket motor or engine, propellant consisting of fuel and an oxidizer, a
frame to hold the components, control systems and a cargo such as a
satellite. A rocket differs from other engines in that it carries its fuel
and oxidizer internally, therefore it will burn in the vacuum of space
as well as within the Earth's atmosphere. The cargo is commonly
referred to as the payload. A rocket is called a launch vehicle when it
is used to launch a satellite or other payload into space. A rocket
becomes a missile when the payload is a warhead and it is used as a

weapon. At present, rockets are the only means capable of achieving

the altitude and velocity necessary to put a payload into orbit.
Thrust is the force generated, measured in pounds or kilograms.
Thrust generated by the first stage must be greater than the
weight of the complete launch vehicle while standing on the
launch pad in order to get it moving. Once moving upward,
thrust must continue to be generated to accelerate the launch
vehicle against the force of the Earth's gravity. To place a
satellite into orbit around the Earth, thrust must continue until
the minimum altitude and orbital velocity have been attained or
the launch vehicle will fall back to the Earth. Minimum altitude
is rarely desirable, therefore thrust must continue to be
generated to gain additional orbital altitude.
The impulse, sometimes called total impulse, is the product of
thrust and the effective firing duration. A shoulder fired rocket
such as the LAW has an average thrust of 600 lbs and a firing
duration of 0.2 seconds for an impulse of 120 lbsec. The Saturn
V rocket, used during the Apollo program, not only generated
much more thrust but also for a much longer time. It had an
impulse of 1.15 billion lbsec.
The efficiency of a rocket engine is measured by its specific
impulse (Isp). Specific impulse is defined as the thrust divided by
the mass of propellant consumed per second. The result is
expressed in seconds. The specific impulse can be thought of as
the number of seconds that one pound of propellant will produce
one pound of thrust. If thrust is expressed in pounds, a specific
impulse of 300 seconds is considered good. Higher values are
better.
A rocket's mass ratio is defined as the total mass at liftoff
divided by the mass remaining after all the propellant has been
consumed. A high mass ratio means that more propellant is
pushing less launch vehicle and payload mass, resulting in
higher velocity. A high mass ratio is necessary to achieve the
high velocities needed to put a payload into orbit.

There are several types of rocket propulsion systems:

Type

Uses

Advantages

Disadvantages

Solid fuel chemical

propulsion

main booster

simple, reliable, few moving

parts, lots of thrust

not restartable

Liquid fuel chemical

propulsion

main booster, small restartable, controllable, lots of

control
thrust

complex

Cold-gas chemical
propulsion

small control

restartable, controllable

low thrust

Ion

in space booster

restartable, controllable, high

specific impulse

complex

The solid motor is used mainly as a booster for launch vehicles. Solid motors are
almost never used in space because they are not controllable. The boosters are lit
and then they fire until all the propellant has burned. Their main benefits are
simplicity, a shelf life which can extend to years as in the case of missiles, and high
reliability.
Liquid motors come in many shapes and sizes: Most of them are controllable (can
be throttled up and down), restartable, are often used as control and maneuvering
thrusters. Liquid thrusters can be broken into three main types: monopropellant,
bipropellant, and cryogenic thrusters. Monopropellants only use one propellant
such as hydrazine. Bipropellants use a fuel and an oxidizer such as RP-1 and H 2O2.
Cryogenic systems use liquefied gases such as LiH and LOX (liquid hydrogen and
liquid oxygen). Cryogenic means super-cooled. You would have to super-cool
hydrogen and oxygen to make them liquids. With each step from monopropellant
to bipropellant to cryogenic the thruster complexity goes up but the performance
also goes up.
Cold-gas motors have controllability similar to liquids but are the simpler and
lighter. They are basically a high pressure tank with switches which flip between
the open and shut state. They function a little like spray paint, with the contents
under pressure inside, and when the valve is opened, they stream out.
Ion engines are vastly different from chemical (solid, liquid) engines in that they
are low thrust engines which can run for extended periods of time. The length of
use of chemical engines is usually from seconds to days while the length of use of
ion engines can be anywhere from days to months.

 PRINCIPLES OF PROPELLER PROPULSION:

The airplane propeller consists of two or more blades and a central hub to which
the blades are attached. Each blade of an airplane propeller is essentially a rotating
wing. As a result of their construction, the propeller blades are like airfoils and
produce forces that create the thrust to pull, or push, the airplane through the air.
The power needed to rotate the propeller blades is furnished by the engine. The
engine rotates the airfoils of the blades through the air at high speeds, and the
propeller transforms the rotary power of the engine into forward thrust.
An airplane moving through the air creates a drag force opposing its forward motion.
Consequently, if an airplane is to fly, there must be a force applied to it that is equal to the
drag, but acting forward. This force, as we know, is called "thrust."
To understand the
action of a propeller,
consider first its
motion, which is
both rotational and
forward. Thus, as
shown by the
vectors of propeller
forces in Fig. 17-39,
each section of a
propeller blade
moves downward
and forward.

The angle at which this air (relative wind) Strikes the propeller blade is its angle of

attack. The air deflection produced by this angle causes the dynamic pressure at the
engine side of the propeller blade to be greater than atmospheric, thus creating
thrust.
The shape of the blade also creates thrust, because it is cambered like the airfoil
shape of a wing. Consequently, as the air flows past the propeller, the pressure on
one side is less than that on the other. As in a wing, this produces a reaction force
in the direction of the lesser pressure. In the case of a wing, the air flow over the
wing has less pressure, and the force (lift) is upward. In the case of the propeller,
which is mounted in a vertical instead of a horizontal plane, the area of decreased

pressure is in front of the propeller, and the force (thrust) is in a forward direction.
Aerodynamically, then, thrust is the result of the propeller shape and the angle of
attack of the blade.
Importance of blade angle:
Another way to consider thrust is in terms of the mass of air handled by the
propeller. In these terms, thrust is equal to the mass of air handled, times the
slipstream velocity, minus the velocity of the airplane. The power expended in
producing thrust depends on the rate of air mass movement. On the average, thrust
constitutes approximately 80% of the torque (total horsepower absorbed by the
propeller). The other 20% is lost in friction and slippage. For any speed of rotation,
the horsepower absorbed by the propeller balances the horsepower delivered by the
engine. For any single revolution of the propeller, the amount of air handled
depends on the blade angle, which determines how big a "bite" of air the propeller
takes. Thus, the blade angle is an excellent means of adjusting the load on the
propeller to control the engine RPM.
2) COMPARE OF THRUST OF PROPELLER WITH JET ENGINE:
For jet engines:
A jet engine is a machine for turning fuel into thrust (forward motion). The thrust is
produced by action and reactiona piece of physics also known as Newton's
third law of motion. The force (action) of the exhaust gases pushing backward
produces an equal and opposite force (reaction) called thrust that powers the
vehicle forward.

Newtons Third Law of Motion is often given as an explanation for the

generation of thrust. But it explains the effect of thrust, not the cause of thrust.
Pressure and shear stress are the only two ways nature exerts an aerodynamic
force on an object. Pressure is the basic source of thrust produced by a propeller,
jet engine, or rocket engine.
A piston engine cannot produce thrust on its own. It provides power to a
spinning propeller, which produces thrust by creating a pressure difference
between the front and back of the propeller, resulting in a forward force. Jets or
rocket engines produce thrust by increasing the pressure inside the engine. This
increased pressure in the jet or rocket engine exerts more force in the forward
direction than the rear direction.

The exhaust gases produced by a propeller, jet or rocket, due to Newtons Third
Law, are feeling a force opposite and equal to the thrust, and therefore are
moved in the direction opposite to the thrust of the engine. Hence, the exhaust is
the effect of thrust.
For propeller:
The angle at which this air (relative wind) Strikes the propeller blade is its angle of

attack. The air deflection produced by this angle causes the dynamic pressure at the
engine side of the propeller blade to be greater than atmospheric, thus creating
thrust.
The shape of the blade also creates thrust, because it is cambered like the airfoil
shape of a wing. Consequently, as the air flows past the propeller, the pressure on
one side is less than that on the other. As in a wing, this produces a reaction force
in the direction of the lesser pressure. In the case of a wing, the air flow over the
wing has less pressure, and the force (lift) is upward. In the case of the propeller,
which is mounted in a vertical instead of a horizontal plane, the area of decreased
pressure is in front of the propeller, and the force (thrust) is in a forward direction.
Aerodynamically, then, thrust is the result of the propeller shape and the angle of
attack of the blade.

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type

of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream
rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and
a combustion chamber in between.
The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of
the steam power plant except that air is used instead of water.
Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it
to higher pressure. Energy is then added by spraying fuel into
the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a hightemperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas
enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust
pressure, producing a shaft work output in the process. The
turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other
devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the

shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in
the exhaust gases, so these have either a high temperature or a
high velocity.
An aircraft turbine engine is the most widely used propulsion
system in the aviation industry. Turbine engines come in several
types, each with its own requirements for maintenance and
aircraft engine overhaul. Thats why it is important to choose the
right company when performing repairs and maintenance on
your aircraft turbine engine.
Turbojet

A turbojet is the simplest of all aircraft turbine engines,

consisting of four sections: compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine section and exhaust. Turbojets were developed in
Germany and England before World War II. In this type of
engine, air is passed at a high rate of speed into the combustion
chamber where the fuel inlet and igniter is located. The turbine,
driven by expanding air, causes thrust from accelerated exhaust
gases. Covington Aircraft has extensive experience in aircraft
engine overhaul, as well as routine maintenance for these types
of engines.

Turboprop

Turboprop engines drive propellers through a reduction gear,

which provides optimum propeller performance at slower rpm
speeds. That translates to greater fuel efficiency and
performance at slower airspeeds, which is why turboprops are
popular aircraft turbine engines for small, commuter aircraft,
cargo planes and agricultural use. The propellers are less
efficient as the aircraft speed increases, making them better for
planes that do not have travel at higher speeds. Because
agricultural pilots rely on the consistency of their aircraft,
Covington Aircraft has proudly worked on turboprop planes
used in agriculture since 1972.

Turbofan

Merging the best features of the turbojet and turboprop, the

turbofan is an aircraft turbine engine that diverts a secondary
flow of air around the combustion chamber, which creates
additional thrust. This is the most modern version of an aircraft
turbine engine and the one often found on high-speed transport
and fighter planes. Because many corporations choose turbofan
engines, Covington Aircraft focuses on plane maintenance to
keep corporate planes in the air, avoiding grounded aircraft due
to maintenance issues.