1912 Electrical Worker

i
presented to the
LIBRARY of the
UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO
by
Sask Tel
Corporate Literary
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ELECTRICAL WORKERS
STANDARD
LI
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PUBLISHER'S
"NATIOlÂL INSTITUTE of PRACTICAL
e/ficaffô
<.^ MECHANICS
78
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y
1985
ELECTRICAL WORKERS'
STANDARD LIBRARY
A
Complete Series of Practical Text Books Prepared

the Use of Electricians, Engineers,
Mechanics, Students, Telegraph and Telephone
Operators and Anyone Interested in Electricity.
Especially for
BY
HORSTMANN AND TOUSLEY

Assisted by a Corps of Experts, Electrical Engineers, and Designers
Connected with the National Institute of Practical Mechanics.
VOLUME
Call
Bell
IV
Annunciator Circuits, Electric Gas

and Secondary Batteries, Testing, Light,
Circuits,
Lighting, Primary
Wiring Tables, Alternating Current Motors, Transformers,

Storage Battery Connections, Economy of Conductors,
Calculation of Materials, Conduits and Wires, Tables of
Carrying Capacity, Alternating Current Wiring Tables,

Fuily Explained.
PROFUSEL Y ILL USTRA TED
PUBLISHERS
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PRACTICAL MECHANICS

CHICAGO,
U. S. A.
Copyright
1912
BY TUE
National Institute of Practical. Mechanics
Chicago, Illinois
AUTHORITIES CONSULTED
SYLVANUS
P.
THOMPSON,
Author of Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism.
C.
WALTON SWOOPE,
Author of Lessons
HENRY
S.
in Practical Electricity.
CARHART,
LL.D.,
and
HORATIO
N.
CHUTE,
M.S.,
Authors of Physics for High School Students.
ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN,
Ph.D.,
and
HENRY GORDON GALE, Ph.D.,

Authors of A First Course in Physics.
FRANKLIN LEONARD POPE,
Author of Modern Practice of the Electric TelegrapL
FRANCIS
B.
CROCKER,
Author of Electric
E.M., Ph.D.,
Lishtincr.
'0**^'*'fc5>
CLARK CARYL HASKINS,

Author of Electricity Made Simple,
HENRY
C.
HORSTMAN
and
VICTOR
H.
TOUSLEY,
Authors of Modern Wiring Diagrams and
L. P.
Author of
Deis^riptions.
DICKINSON,
Easy
Electrical Experiments.
FREDERICK BEDELL
and
A. C.
CREHORE,
Authors of Alternatino: Currents.
LOUIS BELL,
Author
of
The Art
H.
C.
of Illumination.
CUSHING,
Author of Standard Wiring for Electric Light and

Power.
CARL BERING,
Author of Ready Reference
Tables.
R.
Author
W. HUTCHINSON,
of
Long Distance
H. F.
JR.,
Electric Power.
PARSHALL
and
HOBART,
H. M.
Authors of Electric Railway Engineering.
E.
PARRY,
'Author of Electrical Equipment of Tramways.
F. A. C.
PERRINE,
A. M. D. Sc,
Author of Conductors for Electrical Distribution.
WM. JOHN MAC QUORN RANKINE,

Late Professor of Engineering, Glasgow University.
Author of Manual of Applied Mechanics.
DR. R. H. THURSTON,
Author of Manual
of the
Steam Engine.
KENELM EDGOUMB,
Author of Electrical Engineers' Hand Book.
HENRY
M.
HOBART,
Author of Electric Motors, Their Theory and

Construction.
PROF. WM. KENT,

Author of Mechanical Engineers' Reference Book.
DR.
Author
of
PROF.
PEABODY,
Manual
of
WALTER
Steam
S.
Boilers.
BUTTON,
Author of Practical Enoîneers'
Hand
Book.
PROF. JxVMEISON,
Author of
Applied
Mechanics
Mechanics
of
Engi-
neering.
HENRY ADAMS,
Professor of Engineering, London College.
Author of Handbook for Mechanical Engineers.
WILFRID
J.
LINEHAM,
M. E., M. Inst., E. E.,

M.
Author of Text Book of Mechanical Engineering.
Inst.,
DR. A.
STODOLA
and
DR. LOUIS
C.
LOEWENSTEIN,
Authors of Steam Turbines, Gas Turbines, Heat Engines.
GEO. H. BABCOCK,
Ex-President American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
W. GEIPEL, M.
HAMILTON KILGOUR,
M.
Inst, E. E.,
A. M.
I.
C. E.,
M.
I.
E. E.,
Authors of Pocket Book of Electrical Formulae.
T.
O'CONNOR SLOANE,
Author of Arithmetic of
A. M., E.
Electricity,
Member American
M.
Society
Member American
Standard Electrical
BARR,
of
Mechanical Engineers.
Author of Boilers and Furnaces

and Metal.
C. E.
Ph. D.,
Handy Book.
Dictionary, Electricians'
WM.
M,
KNOX,
Chimneys
of Brick
E. E.,
Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Author of Electric Light Wiring.
H. A.
H
f
FOSTER,
Author of Electrical Engineers* Pocket Book.
S.
A.
FLETCHER,
Chief Westinghouse Companies' Publishing Department.
F. H.
GALE
and
MARTIN
P.
RICE,
General Electric Companies* Publication Bureau.
Authorities Consulted
FRANCIS BACON CROCKER, M.
E., Ph.
D.
Professor of Electrical Engineering, Columbia Col-
New
lege,
SCHUYLER
Electrical
S.
York.
WHEELER,
D. Sc.
Expert of the Board of Electrical Control,
New York
City.
EDWIN JAMES HOUSTON,
Ph. D.
Professor of Physics, Franklin Institute. Pennsylvania.
ARTHUR
E.
KENNELLY,
D. Sc.
Author of Algebra Made Easy, Alternating Currents, Arc Lighting, Electric Heating, Etc.
DUGALD
C.
JACKSON,
C. E.
and
JOHN PRICE JACKSON,
M.
E.
Joint Authors of Text-Book on Electro-Magnetism and the Construction of Dynamos, and

Alternating Currents and Alternating Current Machinery.
CALVIN
F.
SWINGLE, M.
E.
Author of 20th Century Hand Book for Steam

Engineers and Electricians, etc., etc.
WILLIAM ESTY,
Head
M. A.
S. B.,
of Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Lehigh

University.
DUGALD
Head
JACKSON,
C.
C. E.
of Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University

of Wisconsin.
GEORGE
Assistant
Professor
C.
SHAAD,
of
B. S.
Electrical
Engineering,
University of Wisconsin.
CHARLES THOM.
Chief Quadruplex Department, Western Union
Telegraph Company.
KEMPSTER
B.
MILLER, M.
E.
Consulting Engineer and Telephone Expert,

Ai.liior of
"American Telephone Practice."
LOUIS DERR,
Associate
Professor of
Institute
S.
B.,
Physics,
A. M.
Massachusetts
of Technology.
H. R. VAN DEVENTER, C. S. E. E.
Author of "Telephonology."
PREFACE
The National
of Practical Mechanics,
Institute
grounds of to-day are industrial and that we combat in the name of Commerce, also know that the same valour and quality
realizing that the battle
of daring
is
business.
The weapon
command
required to
nobility, but the mightiest is utility
now
peerless
and
of
the forces of
of this hour
is
the
no longer
worker is
the castes, labor
all
the
is
highest.
In order to meet the
the great need
test,
more
is
to
knowledge
of its work.
The Electrical Workers' Standard
Library has been prepared under our direction,
assist skilled labor to a
with
this idea in
scientific
mind of presenting
understood manner, the
in a clear cut,
methods and
working electrician ought
to know.
A library that one can understand
work complying in all respects with the safety rules
of the National Board of Fire Underwriters.
easily
all
latest
essential principles a
Electricity
twenty-five
is
still
years
changes that those
chosen
field
know
in
its
infancy,
has
wrought
who
are
now
that there
greater rewards sure to
come
i
is
yet the
last
wonderful
such
a success in this
still
further and
to those
who meet

PREFACE
11
the test she offers
of the
many
in
furtherance and perfection
secrets she
The National
yet to divulge.
is
Institute
of Practical Mechanics,
following out her plan of instruction which has

proven so successful in the past in teaching scientific principles, has combined its many years of experience in teaching with the practical experience
of trained electricians and engineers and presents
an acknowledged authority, that
is
no longer an
experiment.
It
presents to the beginner or electrician a com-
and compact
plete
tion
Work,
on Electrical Construc-
treatise
a reliable guide for installing
the most improved method
and
work
in
especially in ac-
^making
the arti-
san's finished product absolutely standard
and cor-
cordance with the Safety Rules

rect.
We
all
have aimed throughout the volumes
to cover
elementary principles in detail and give neces'
in simple
Many
and especially to furnish

and non-technical form.
sary tables
test questions are
all
formulae
furnished for practice
as a helper to the student in fixing the essentials
and rudiments in his mind, thereby combining in

the one set, a textbook, a ready reference, a quizzer, that lead .to that great asset, a permanent and
lasting knowledge of the subject.
We gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to
the corps of electrical experts who have assisted us
so kindly, and to their generous aid and their hearty
support in our behalf this work is due.
PREFACE
The work has been

plumb
line,
111
tried with the spirit level
the straight line
is
now
and
the shortest dis-
tance to the given point.
Go back
to School.
to page 2 until you

plish volumes, the
Select the text.
know page
I.
Don't turn
You'll accom-
weary hours of searching
scat-
tered text books will be abandoned and that your
need
is
presented
is
the hope of the compilers.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
Page.
Call Bell Circuits, Bells, Dynamo Connections.
CHAPTER
II.
Annunciator Circuits
21
CHAPTER
III.
Fire and Burglar Alarms
28
CHAPTER
IV.
Telephone and Telegraph Circuits
CHAPTER
....
43
V.
Electric Gas Lighting
53
CHAPTER
VI.
Primary and Secondary Batteries
CHAPTER
....
58
VII.
Connecting Up, Locating Trouble
68
CHAPTER VIIL
Miscellaneous
78
CHAPTER
Electric Lighting
...
IX.
CHAPTER
X.
....
Arc Lamps, Nernst Lamp, Cooper Hewitt Lamp
CHAPTER
Recording Wattmeters
89
106
XI,
115
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XII.
Page.
Direct Current Motors
CHAPTER
121
XIII.
Automobiles, Charging Stations, Gas Engines
143
Direct and Alternating Current Generators, Compensators
151
CHAPTER XV.
Alternating Current Motors, Transformers
168
CHAPTER
XIV.
CHAPTER
Armatures
XVI.
185
CHAPTER
XVII.
Switchboards, Ground Detectors
CHAPTER
Storage Battery Connections
CHAPTER
188
XVIII.
.
200
XIX.
Testing
203
CHAPTER XX.
j
Light
217
CHAPTER XXI.
j
Wiring Tables
221
]
CHAPTER
XXII.
Electric Signs, Flashers, Display Lighting
229
INDEX
Absorption of
light, 276.
Alternating current generator, 182.
Alternating current motor, 196.
Annunciator
circuits, 21.
telephone, 47.
Arc-circuits, 105.
dynamo,
Candle-power, test for, 276.

Capacity, 230.
Carbons, consumption cf, 275.
Cascade connection for motors, 206,
Charging circuits for automobile**
163.
167.
storage batteries, 18, 250.

Circle, area of, 95.
lamps, A. C, 117.
lamps, D. C, 116.
switchboard, 236.
Armatures, 233.
Circular mills, 95.
Circumference of
Compensator, D.
Arresters, lightning, 49.
Automatic cutout, gas
circle, 95.
C,
177.
alternating current, 198.
lighting, 65.
in parallel, 180.
Automobiles, 159.
Compound wound dynamo,
Auto-starter, 212.
Auto-transformer, 198.
motor, 134.
Condenser, 89.
Battery, dry, 69.
Connecting
170.
action of, 226.
grouping
of, 66.
secondary, 71.
tese of, 84.
êt, 68.
Bell circuits, 7.
Cooper-Hewitt lamp, 122.

Copper wire, dimensions of, 283,
control of, 11.

differential, 14.
on dynamo
bell circuits, 76.
incandescent circuits, 231.

Continuous ringing attachmenta,
Controller, motor, 152.
A. C. motor, 211.
Convertible system, 98, 108.
resistance of, 72.
resistance of, 96.
circuit, 16.
weight
polarized, 16.
of, 95.
short-circuit, 14.
Counter E. M. F., 229.

Cumulative winding, 134.
single stroke, 15.
Current, induced, 58.
Booster, 250.
Bridging system, telephones, 44.

Brush arc lamp, 116.
armature, 234.
Differential bell, 14.
winding on motor, 134.
Bunsen photometer, 276.
Direction of current, 86, 90,

Discount meter, 129.
Burglar alarms, 28.
Divided
circuits, 92.
Door opener,
Callow's
constant
ment, 34.
ringing
attach-
7.
Drum armature,
Dynamo current
185, 233.
for bells, 16, 391
IflL
INDEX
Dynamo, A. C,
single-phase, 182.
arc, 177.
compound wound,
Monogram
170.
direct current, 131.
Edward's condenser system,
63.
reversing, A.
C,
197.
D. C, 135.
series wound, 131.
shunt wound, 133.
reversing,
Electric signs, 285.
Electrolytic interrupter, 60.
A.
controller,
C.
motor,
single-phase, 201.
216.
synchronous-, 196.
signals, 113.
End
letter, 290.
Motor, compound wound, 134.
wound, 167.
shunt wound, 168.
series
Elevator
Magneto, testing with, 263.

Monocyclic generator, 187.
three-phase, 199.
switch, 250.
cell
Equalizer, 174.
Fire alarm system, 28.
Nernst lamp, 121.

Neutral wire, 176.
Flashers for electric signs, 285.

Fort Wayne single-phase motor, 204.
Ohm's law, 91.

Organ controller,
Frequency meter, 222.

Fusing currents, 284.
Over-compounding, 171.
Overload starting box, 137.
Gas
143.
lighting circuits, 61.
Generator, monocyclic, 187.

single-phase, 185.
ring armature, 229.
connections, 7.
detectors,
in, 171, 191.
&
Wilkins annunc'*
ator system, 25.
three-wire, 182.
Ground
dynamos
Partrick, Carter
three-phase, 190.
Gramme
Parallel wires in, 281.
D. C, 243.
detectors, A. C, 247.
Incandescent light circuits, 97.
lamps as resistance,
17, 165.
lamps, eflBciency of, 273.

lamps, wattage of, 263.
Induction coil, 58, 89.
Induction motor, 196.
Photometer, 276.
Polarized bell, 16.
Power factor, 231.
Power
factor meter, 222.
Printing press controller, 139, 144,

152.
Pump motor
controller, 141.
Rawson & Evans
Flasher, 286.
Recording wattmeters, 125.

Rectifier,
mercury
arc, 256.
Intercommunicating telephone, 45.
Reinforcing wires, 125.
Interrupter, current, 59.
Remote
Iron wire, resistance

weight of, 96.
Repeater, telegraph, 50.
of, 96.
Joints in wires, 278.
Jump
spark, 163.
control, 107.
Resistance of batteries, 72.

Return call annunciators, 24.
bell circuits, 7.
Self induction, 229.
Light, intensity of, 273.
Lines of force, 86.

Long shunt, 171.
Losses, on wires, 277.
on three-wire system, 176.

Magnetism, 94.
Separate exciter, 195.

Series arc circuit, 110.
arc
dynamo,
167.
incandescent circuit, 109.

motors for constant current, 150.
motors for constant potential, 131.
INDEX
Short-circuit bell, 14.
Short-circuits
on
bell syBtema, 83.
test for, 259.
Short shunt, 171.

Shunt motor, 133.
multiplying power
dynamo,
of, 93.
168.
Signs, electric, 285.
Single-phase armature, 234.
dynamo,
182.
motor, 201.
Single stroke bell, 15.
Split phase motors, 203.
Testing board, A. C, 220.

Testing incandescent circuits, 259.
T.-H. arc switchboard, 238.
armature, 234.
Theater switchboard, 112.
Three-phase armature, 235.
system, lights on, 100.
Three-wire generator, 182, 190.
system, 97.
Transferring arc circuits, 236.
Transformers, 226.
Tree system, 97.
Trouble, locating on bell systems, 79
Starting, A. C. motors, 198.
Underload starting box, 137.
box, 137.
switch, A. C. motors, 209.
Storage batteries, 71.

circuits for automobiles, 159.
connections, 250.
Street car
motor
testing with, 263.
formula for
test, 265.
circuit, 147.
Switchboard, arc, 236.

direct current, 240.
theater, 112.
Synchronous motor, 196.

Synchroscopes, 191, 226.
Tandem
connection for motors, 206.

Teaser wire, 187.
Telautograph, 52.
Telegraph circuits, 49.
Voltmeter conn:;ctions, 213.
repeaters, 50.
Telephone circuits, 43.

Test for insulation resistance, 84.
Wagner
shigle-phase motor, 201.

Watts, definition of, 94.
Wattage of incandescent lamps, 273.
Wattless current, 231.
Wattmeter, recording, 125.
Western Electric Co. arc dynamo^
167.
Wheatstone bridge, 266. 270.

test with, 263.
Wiring tables, 277.

Wright discount met^r, 130.
X-ray, 67.
MODERN
WIRING DIAGRAMS AND DESCRIPTIONS.
CHAPTER
CALI. BELl. CIRCUITS.
I.
BELLS.
DYNAMO CONNEC-
TIONS.
Figure 1 shows a simple
bell
circuit with extra
wires for a door opener to be operated
A
FIGURE
Ê
ity of the bell.
left
vicin-
1.
In this diagram the wire
may
be
out and two ground connections used as shown
at E.
from the
y^
WIRING DIAGRAMS
may
and
call
also receive
an answering ring as an
indication that the signal has been heard.
Figure S shows another method of wiring to accomplish the same purpose as the foregoing figure.
In this case the
must
also be
Two
This method
bells are in series.
quires greater battery
power and one of the
re-
bells
arranged to act single stroke.
ordinary circuit breaking
bells
will
not act
well in series as for instance the one having the stiff er
spring or slightly weaker magnet would always lag
']
behind the other never coming to a full stroke.
The
Qniiiii
FIGURE
advantage of
the caller to
3.
arrangement
this
know (by
that the one at the other end

single stroke bell
and the
circuit
the employer
is
is
that
the ringing of his

is
it
enables
own
ringing.
bell)
If the
located at the employer's end
breaking
may know
bell at the attendant's
end
absolutely that the bell at
the other end rings when the one at his station does,
since
cuit
it
is
the attendant's bell which breaks the cir-
and causes the one
one station (which
may
at his
own desk
to ring.
At
b^ taken as the attendant's)
CALL BELL CIRCUITS
shown a 3-waj switch by which the attendant may change his bell from vibrating to single
there
is
This
stroke.
bell
may
will enable
him
noticed only by one near
^
^
it
From
stations.
single
stroke
station
is
may
be
it.
A
FIGURE 4.
Figure 4 shows one
two
to arrange so that the
attract general attention or that
bell
arranged to be rung from
one of the stations
and the ringing
will
it
will act
indicate which
calling.
QD Q QD
f?
F?
FIGURE
f^
5.
Figure 5 shows a number of bells arranged to be

rung from one push button. With this method it is
essential that the battery be of low internal resist-
ance and of ample current capacity.
may
be obtained by grouping the
the figure;
cells
cell
it
is,
This result
cells as
shown
in
however, preferable to use large
singly rather than smaller ones in multiple.
WIRING DIAGRAM?
10
Figure 6 shows connections by which either of the

right hand pushes will ring the single bell near battery, while
bells
may
from the station at battery the other two
be rung with one push button.
D
FIGURE
6.
Figure 7 shows two bells arranged with one wire

and grounds so that parties at either end may call.
This method is economical in regard to wire but re-
and 3-way push at each end. The

push buttons must normally keep the line closed
from bell to bell, leaving the battery circuits open.
When a push button is pressed the battery at that end
quires a battery
rings the bell at the other.
Qa I
FIGURE
Figure 8 shows a
controlled
from
1
bell so
either
7.
connected that
of two stations.
it
may
be
If both
switches are set to the same wire the bell rings.
If
CALL BELL CIRCUITS

moved
11
either
switch
stops.
The advantage of this method lies in the fact

may be left to ring continuously or
desired.
At one station the wiring is arranged
is
to
the other wire the bell
that the bell
not as
>
FIGURE
8.
for a double throw knife switch and at the other end

for a 3-way snap switch.
Figure 9 shows an arrangement of switches which

enables one to turn the bells on or off at
any number of
stations.
These
FIGURE
may
any one of
and
bells are in series
9.
be left to ring continuously or not as desired.
diagram throw-over knife switches, snap

and specially designed switches are shown
to illustrate the different ways of attaining the same
In
this
switches
object.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
12
Figure 10 shows two

the switch
bells
so that either
connected by means of
may
be used alone or both
B==Mn
FIGURE
together.
alone.
With
the
If the switch
switch as
is
g=?^
10.
shown b
will
turned to 2 and 2^ both
ring
bells
CALL BELL CIRCUITS
13
Figure 11 shows the manner of wiring commonly

used
It
connection
in
may
with
speaking
tube
systems.
Any
also be used with interior telephones.
station is able to call and may also be called from

any other station. Only one battery is used and
from one of its poles one wire connects to all of the
From
push buttons.
the
other pole
another wire
passes to one binding post of each bell.
From
the
other binding post of each bell wires are then run

to
the corresponding push buttons at each of the
other stations.
Figure 12 shows an arrangement of wiring often

used in connection with
push buttons
first
One
buildings.
set
of
arranged at the main entrance on
is
usually
floor
flat
boxes
and
of push buttons
may
together with
Another
speaking tubes.
set
letter
also be placed one at the front door of each flat.
This enables the
bell to
be rung either from main
entrance or from entrance to
flat.
In addition to
these, three
diff'erent
connections are shown in the
three
In
a buzzer has been added and
is
flats.
flat 1
connected to ring from rear door.
In
flat
2 the
bell
rings from main hall, front door and rear
entrance.
In this case small signs requesting par-
same
ring a certain number of times will be found

very useful at front and rear doors. In flat 3, buzzer and bell will ring from main entrance; the buzzer
ties to
alone will ring from rear entrance and the bell alone
WIRING DIAGRAMS
14
Three-way pushes are used
from front entrance.

for front and rear door.
Figure 13 shows the plan of a
two
coils
are
when current
wound
When
through one
coil
ture,
which in turn
other
coil.
is
Both
current
first
it
the circuit through the
closes
coils
applied at
is
only; this attracts the arma-
now
balance,
and the armature
producing the same vibrations as in
released, thus
an ordinary
The
flowing through both there will be
is
no magnetism.
flows
differential bell.
to oppose one another, so that
bell.
=^
FIGURE
FIGURE
13.
Figure 14 shows a short

rent in
its
circuit bell.
14.
The
circuit is never broken, but, as the
cur-
mag-
nets attract the armature, the spring in connection
with
coil
it closes
the shunt circuit and this deprives the
of current, thus destroying
releasing
its
armature.
its
magnetism and
This, and also the diffêren-
CALL BELL CIRCUITS

tial
will
bell,
operate with
ordinary vibrating
higher
of
cuits
bell,
less
15
sparking than an
and both are useful on
The
voltage.
short-circuit
should be used only on circuits where other

ances prevent any
great rise in current.
ordinary battery circuit
Figure 15 shows a
it
may
bell
be
made
bell
On an
arranged to act either
For temporary purposes

by simply
to act single stroke
adjusting the vibrator spring so that
open the
resist-
would not be useful.
single stroke or vibrating.
cir-
bell
it
does not
circuit.
Ky^ o--
FIGURE
FIGURE
15.
Figure 16 shows a
attachment.
falls
2.
As
with continuous ringing
the armature
and completes the
From
bell
this post
16.
circuit
is
attracted the lever
through binding post
a wire leads to the battery and
completes the circuit through post 1.
This attach-
^^^ may be added to any of the other

^^m ment
bells.
The
WIRING DIAGRAMS
16
bell
will
placed in
continue to ring until the

its
little
lever
is
normal position.
Figure 17 shows the arrangement of a polarized

This
bell.
bell
may
be used in connection with
ternating currents, and

telephone work.
is
al-
the type generally used in
This type of
bell
may
also be used
with continuous currents when provisions for revers-
ing are made; and in this way can be made to act

as a single stroke bell, each reversal of current caus-
ing one stroke.
^ôC::^
It
is
often desirable to operate bells from electric
light circuits, either direct or through suitable stor-
age
may
batteries.
For
be placed in
this
series
purpose incandescent lamps

with the
bell
system, and
by choosing lamps of the proper candle power and

voltage any necessary current
may
be obtained. There
are also special resistances designed for this purpose
may
may be
which
take the place of lamps shown in diagram
or
placed one with each
jection to lamps as
shown
bell.
in the
The main
ob-
diagrams would
CALL BELL CIRCUITS

be encountered
when
17
several bells in a system are to
be used at the same time; since only a certain
amount
of current can pass through the lamps, only one bell
work properly.
This
by placing a lamp or
resist-
at a time can be arranged to
trouble can be avoided
ance in series with each
shown
it
is
One lamp on one
in diagrams.
circuit
side of the
to insure proper operation, but
sufficient
is
and leaving out those
bell
advisable to use one on each side, as shown in
the figure, to prevent serious
be caused by grounds
if
damage which might
one side only contained re-
sistance.
If
dynamo
current
is
to be brought into connec-
tion with bells, the wiring
and insulation should be
fully equal to that required for incandescent wiring.
Push-buttons should be mounted on fireproof bases
and no inflammable material should be used either

within or about the
When
bells.
the ordinary incandescent
resistance,
it
must be borne
of the lamp when cold
is
in
lamp
is
mind that the
very
much
used for
resistance
greater than
when hot or burning; varying in the ordinary 110

volt 16 c. p. lamp from 900 ohms cold to 220 ohms
hot.
If the
current
if
is
lamp
is
to be used in a circuit where the
low the cold resistance must be figured, but
the current approaches that at which the
lamp
burns the hot resistance must be figured, othenvise

the rise in current
age the instruments
when the lamp heats might damin the circuit.
To
overcome
this>
WIRING DIAGRAMS
18
special
lamps are made to be used on
the current
is
In Figure 18 an arrangement
the battery
is
attracts
its
where
is
shown by which
automatically disconnected when the
is
FIGURE
dynamo
circuits
low.
18.
The magnet when
in operation.
energized
armature, thus breaking the battery
cir-
cuit
and completing the dynamo connections to the
bell
system.
When
the
dynamo
current
ceases
spring draws the armature back again, closing the

battery circuit.
E^
Tohelh
)fator
-T_
FIGURE
Figure 19 shows two
a throw-over
bells
switch.
the other
is
19.
batteries, each provided with
While one
charging.
is
operating the
The dynamo
current
CALL BELL CIRCUITS
19
never comes in contact with the bell wiring and no

po^^ o^ ^^^
The
extra insulation is necessary.
dynamo must connect
to
pole of battery always, in
order to charge.
FIGURE
20.
Figure 20 shows dynamo connections direct to the

bells
and a primary battery provided
when dynamo
to operate bella
is at rest.
FIGURE
21.
Figure 21 also shows direct dynamo connectio^j to

In this diagram a master circuit
the bell wiring.
breaker in the form of a buzzer or bell

into the circuit,
ing
is
may
and the
bells
often causes
introduced
throughout the build-
be arranged single stroke.
always more
is
The sparking
destructive with high potential,
much
and
trouble with ordinary cheap bells;
therefore this circuit breaker should be of high grade
WIRING DIAGRAMS
20
and located convenient to engineer or janitor,
may
be kept in order.
This
so
it
circuit breaker should
also be selected with reference to the bells used, as
it
must not vibrate faster than the natural vibration

of the
bells.
CHAPTER
ANNUNCIATOR
II.
CIECUITS.
Figures 22, 23 and 24 show diagrammatical representations of ordinary annunciators.
In Figure 22
two annunciators are shown, one to be located
in the
kitchen or hall and the other perhaps in the servant's
bedroom.
By
means of the switches
1, 2, 3, the
push
buttons are connected to either one of the annunciators as
may
be desired.
The
bell
annunciator has a continuous
connected with each
ringing attachment
shown by the extra wire attached to the middle bind-
FIGURE
ing post.
The overthrow
necessary but
is
22.
switch S
is
not absolutely
quite desirable as a safeguard
it
sometimes happens that the continuous ringing at-
21
WIRING DIAGRAMS
22
tachment
falls,
and without
this switch the bell
would
ring and run battery down, even though the annun<;.tor
were disconnected by the switches
a
WW
1, 2, 3.
QD
FIGURE
23.
Figure 23 shows a method of connecting- two annunciators which should be avoided.
With
just the
right battery strength and accurate adjustment of
drops
it
may work
fairly well for a time, but sooner
ii.
Q.
a
'Lk
& 1Q
H'H'h
FIGURE
or later
it will
the circuits
24.
result in confusion.
it will
are several paths which the current
one
is
others.
more
direct
By
tracing out
be seen that from any push there
and has
less
may
take although
resistance than the
ANNUNCIATOR CIRCUITS
23
Pigure 24 shows an annunciator to which have
and
been added the switches
1, 2, 3,
leading to the three
shown below
bells
also the wires
ated at once.
The switches
may be oper-
it.
are mechanically connected so that all
These switches serve to disconnect the
annunciator magnets and at the same time to con-
push buttons.
nect the three bells with the
switches set to the magnets, the current
With
the
from any
push button passes through the corresponding magWith

net and through the single bell at the right.
the switches set to the wires leading to the bells the
cuirent passes through the corresponding bell without
FIGURE
[disturbing the single
bell.
jether are of different

ite
25.
The
three bells
sound and the ring
shown towill indi-
location of the caller without the necessity of
[looking at the annunciator.
This
may
be useful in
V7IRING
24
DIAGRAMS
many
residences where the
ciator
is
located
is
room
it
is
call
annunciator system
frequently used in hotels, where
sary that a guest

called
which the annun-
not always occupied.
Figure 25 shows a return

as
in
from the
may
office.
it
is
neces-
call the office as well as
be
This system requires one bat-
tery and two leading wires for each room, one leading
wire passing from each room to the annunciator, while
another passes from each push to one of the
bells lo-
cated in rooms.
FIGURE
26.
Figure S6 shows another system of annunciator

This
wiring for the same purpose as Figure 25.
system requires only
one leading wire
room, but two general battery wires.
from each
One battery
wire leads to each bell and to the annunciator, while
the other leads to one point of each
25
push button.
Three-way push-buttons are used in the rooms and

Pressing any of the buttons
at the annunciator.
1, 2, 3, will operate the annunciator, while
any
pressing
of the buttons at the annunciator will ring the
bell in the
corresponding room.
FIGURE
27.
Figure 27 shows diagrammatically the wiring used

in the Partrick, Carter
which
is
&
Wilkins annunciator system,
quite extensively used.
wires are necessary,
and
to the corresponding
also
Two
general battery
one wire from each room
drop on the annunciator.
Two
three-way pushes, one at the annunciator and one in

each room, are also necessary.
These push-buttons
are mounted on bells and on annunciator respectively,
making the whole arrangement very compact.
With
reference to each other, the polarities of the two sets
of batteries must be as shown.
If
it
were otherwise
WIRING DIAGRAMS
26
both batteries, acting in

bells
and attract
all
series,
pushed at the same time.
By
seldom occur.
circuits thus
all
of the
of the annunciator needles when-
ever the two push-buttons
2 the
would ring
on the same wire were

This
will,
means of the dotted
however, very
lines at 1
and
formed can be readily traced.
an
0^'
IF
D
FIGURE
28.
The annunciator magnets used in this system are

made so as to partially retain their magnetism after
the current ceases to flow, in order to hold the indicator until an attendant releases
it.
The magnets
are magnetized in a certain direction before the an-
and it is advisable to connect

the battery so that this magnetism is not reversed.
nunciator
is
sent out,
The binding
27
post on annunciator to which the zinc
pole of battery should be connected
is
plainly
indi-
cated on each instrument.
must not be understood that the
It
P., C.
& W.
annunciators can be used with this method of wiring

only
in fact, either of the
25 or 26 are applicable
ferred where
may
it is
to
methods shown
it,
likely that at
be connected with
in
Figures
Figure 25 being pre-
some time telephones
it.
Figure 28 shows an arrangement of annunciators

which
is
quite economical in hotels or restaurants,
where there
is
ent hours.
Each floor has an annunciator which inroom sending a call, and each of these
dicates the
annunciators
a great variation in business at differ-
is
in series with one
annunciator located at the main

cates the floor
from which the
drop of another
office
call
and which
indi-
The
bells
came.
located with annunciators on the different floors are
each provided with a switch, by which any one of
them may be made
to act single stroke or be cut out
During busy hours an attendant is kept

on each floor and the bells are set to act independently, while the annunciator and bells at the main office
are cut out altogether by the switch shown. During
altogether.
slack hours the bells on the different floors
may
cut out and an attendant stationed at the main

only.
may
The
figure shows switches
be cut out.
by which the
be
office
bells
CHAPTER
III.
AND BURGLAR ALARMS.
FIRE
Figure 29 shows a number of annunciators arto act as a manual fire alarm. When an^^ one
ranged
of the switches S
on each
which
floor,
is
closed
it
causes a bell to ring
and each annunciator
floor the
alarm came.
indicates
from
Independent batteries
are provided for each floor to insure greater reliability,
as one battery failing will disable one floor
only.
The
batteries
diagram, so that
must
all will
all
be arranged as shown in
send current in the same di-
rection.
Figure 30 shows the building system of the Consolidated Fire
Alarm Telegraph Company, of New
York, and the description here given
from a memorandum furnished by
this
is
condensed
company
to
the Underwriters' Bureau of Fire Engineering, and
which forms part of Electrical Signal Report No. 14.
The house wiring used with

entirely of
two parallel
this
system consists
circuits led
throughout the
building in close proximity.
At
suitable intervals,
by the local insurance boards, thermoand manual switches, D, are installed. The
as required
stats, c,
current flows continuously through both circuits, in-
cluding the magnets
and B.
28
The magnet
while
FIRE
AND BDKGLAR ALARMS
29
energized holds at rest a transmitting device which,
when
released, automatically causes a fire signal to be
sent in.
FIGURE
In order to send
both
coils
29.
in a fire signal, it
of magnet
is
necessary that
be de-energized; this will oc-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
30
cur only when both
lines are
broken, either through
the melting of a fuse in each
FIGURE
one of the manual switches.
are
wound
line,
or
by means of
30.
The two
in opposite directions,
coils of magnet
and hence there
AND BURGLAR ALARMS
FIRE
is
31
no magnetism while current flows equally

Should,
lines.
however,
any variation
both
in
current
in
strength occur in either of the lines the balance
now
once destroyed, and the armature being

releases a transmitting device
alarm.
may
at
is
attracted
which sends in a trouble
In order that any possible electrical defect
disturb the balance of the
magnet
and send
in a trouble alarm, the battery in one of the lines
The
of higher voltage than the other.
is
resistance of
the magnets and lines vary in the same proportion,

so that normally the current in both lines
M'.
The double
contact springs
keep the outside circuit
and M' are provided
X-Y
equal.
is
Part of the transmitting devices are shown at
and
and \J normally
The
closed.
to connect the
springs
ground
by
means of projections on the contact wheels, whenever

the double contact springs close on any of the other
projections.
In this way, by means of the ground,
signals are transmitted, even though the circuit
X-Y
be broken somewhere.
In view of the importance of the grounds
and P,
they are placed under constant test by means of the
battery O, which maintains current from
through the relay N.

ture of
If this current
short-circuits the
trouble call to be sent
in.
main
fails,
to
wires, causing
Whenever a
the arma-
fire
alarm oc-
curs the transmitting device revolves the cylinder G.
This cylinder, by means of raised teeth, engages the

contact springs of wires led to
it
from the
different
WIRING DIAGRAMS
32
floors,
and
way
in this
magnet
controls the
in the an-
nunciator H, which moves the pointer forward one

step for each impulse received.
When
a point be-
yond the broken line is reached, the impulses cease

and the pointer stops, indicating the location of the
fire.
The
cylinder
ringing circuit
so
is
arranged that the local
closed only
is
when a
fire
alarm
is
sent in.
\^
^M
FIGURE
31.
Figure 31 shows an annunciator arranged as a

burglar alarm.
When
used for this purpose
it
is
usual to have the bell arranged to ring continuously
when once
started.
for what
known
is
It
is
also necessary to
as the silent test.
each circuit leaving the annunciator

a,
switch by which
it
may
For
is
this
arrange
purpose
provided with
be disconnected during the
FIRE AND BURGLAR ALARMS
33
day to avoid giving an alarm whenever a door or win-
dow
is
opened.
When
night the switch S

circuit
is
then thrown in singly, and
window has been
left
without ringing the

switch
is
ready to close the house at
turned to connect at 1
is
open the drop
bell.
When
if
each
any door or
will indicate it
all is in
order the
turned to 2, thus completing the circuit
FIGURE
through the
bell.
The
32.
dotted lines show the wiring
for the continuous ringing attachment as shown in
Figure 16, Chapter I.

With burglar alarm systems
it
is
quite usual to
connect the wiring through a suitably arranged clock,
which can be made to connect or disconnect the wiring

at certain hours.
Provision
which the current, when
may
also be
made by
releasing the annunciator
WIRING DIAGRAI.1S
34
drop, also releases a weight or spring, allowing them

to operate a mechanical bell.
Figure 32 shows the same annunciator and
bell
arranged to act as a combination burglar alarm and

house annunciator.
test has been
made
The same
as in
provision for silent
Figure 31.
The
solid lines
show the wiring for window and door springs, while

the dotted lines indicate wiring to push buttons. By
means of the four switches shown on the annunciator,
the window and door circuits
may
be shut off during
the day, leaving only the push buttons connected.
The push buttons are always in circuit,

alarm may be turned in at any time.
In
this figure
an extra
bell is
connected in series with the
ing the switch S to point
shown, which
annunciator
In
3.
an
so that
bell
may
be
by mov-
this case the current
entering through any drop of the annunciator will
pass through both bells and the magnet

switch S and the battery.
to point 3,
Current passing through
A, allowing the switch to
attracts the armature
drop, thus closing the battery circuit through both

The extra
bells, causing them to ring continuously.
wiring for this purpose
is
shown
in dotted lines.
Figure 33 shows an attachment for constant ringThis consists of a

is known as Callows.
ing which
magnet provided with two

button
is
coils as
shown.
pressed current passes around
this attracts the
armature A, which
connection with the battery.
is
When
coil 1,
the
and
also in electrical
part of the current

now
35
passes along the armature to the wire leading to
the bell, and at the junction
passing through the

of the magnet.
bell
The
it
divides, one-half
and the other around
coil
current passing around coil 2
FIGURE
33.
keeps the armature in position while the current in

the bell
is
interrupted.
If the switch
bell will ring only while the button
this
is
open the
With
attachment the switch controlling the constant
ringing
may
be at any distance from the
FIGURE
Figure 34 shows a closed
bell.
34.
circuit
burglar alarm.
always flowing along the main
Current
is
current,
by means of relay R, keeps the
is
pressed.
line.
This
local bell cir-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
36
cult open.
Whenever the main
where the relay armature
and causing the
local circuit
also
circuit
flies
is
opened any-
back, closing the
bell to ring.
This figure
shows combination wiring, whereby the
be used single stroke for calling.
bell
may
Switches are pro-
vided at 1, 2 and 3, and arranged so that connection

is
made with the
circuit
shown
in dotted lines before
While current passes

through
the relay only. When one of the buttons makes connection with any of the wires shown in dotted lines,
that in the full lines
is
broken.
along the wires shown in
full lines it passes
The
the current passes through the bell and relay.

bell
is
arranged single stroke for calling, but
ring vibrating when the relay closes the local
FIGURE
35.
Figure 35 shows a -simple closed

alarm.
In
will
circuit.
circuit
burglar
this case the current passes continuously
through the
bell
tures attracted.
magnets and keeps the
bell
arma-
In this way the local circuits B',
B"
are kept open as long as current from the closed cir-
FIRE
cuit battery
AND BURGLAR ALARMS
37
through the magnets.
When-
flows
ever the main wires are opened both bells will ring
continuously.
Short-circuiting the main wires will
also cause one or both bells to ring, according to loca-
tion of the short circuit.
useful arrangement,
number of
bells in
This
is
a very simple and
and may be extended
to
any
a building.
If crow foot batteries are to be used in connection
with this system the
bells
must be
the ordinary bell has not a sufficient
wound;
number of turns
specially
of wire to operate properly with the small currents

obtainable from these batteries.
FIGURE
36.
Figure 36 shows a burglar alarm system using

Both circuits are run
circuits.
both open and closed

to each opening.
The wiring
is
the same as in Figure
WIRING DIAGRAMS
38
31, and the three closed circuits passing through the
While current
three relays, 1, 2, 3, have been added.
passes through these relays their armatures are attracted; if
armature
any
circuit
is
back and
flies
opened the corresponding
closes the circuit
corresponding drop on the annunciator.
through the
This system
when
provision must be made
requires a closed circuit battery, and,
kinds of
cells
are used,
the battery at work if the annunciator

for any great length of time.
As
is
certain
to
keep
disconnected
here shown, the
battery will always be at work unless a window or
door in each section
is
open.
FIGURE
Figure 37
shov/s
37.
an annunciator as
either as a fire or burglar alarm.
magnet M, an
electric circuit
is
it
may
By means
be used
of the
closed whenever con-
39
made by one of the push buttons or contact

springs. With each electric light, L, an electric bell
is placed, and whenever the alarm is set off bells will
tact
is
ring in the different sections and a general illumina-
The
tion will take place.
used for this purpose
bells
should be of the tjpe shown in Figures 13 or 14,
and should be carefully installed,

may be no grounding or bad contacts.
Chapter
The
I,
electric light circuit here
any of the
to
so there
shown may be added
closed or open circuit burglar alarm
systems described by simply arranging a magnet like
M,
which, by attracting or releasing
allows the switch

circuit.
Any
used as a
fire
S to
fall
and
its
burglar alarm annunciator
alarm
armature,
close the electric light
if suitable
may
also be
thermostats are con-
nected with the wiring, arranged to open or close the
when the temperature
circuit
rises
above a certain
point.
Figure 38 shows a system of burglar alarm wiring

which can be used when some special object
protected.
This object
may
is
to be
be a safe, vault or room,
and may be located any distance from the alarm
sta-
tion.
In the diagram
which
By
is
is
coil
of any chosen resistance,
to be placed inside the object to be protected.
tracing the circuits
it
will be seen that
current
from battery B, which is a closed circuit battery,

flows through this coil and through a closed circuit
WIRING DIAGRAMS
40
burglar alarm spring G, thence through magnet
R''
back to battery.
Another
circuit
running from the same
M, back
goes through magnets R'' and
When
is
current
is
flowing from battery
held in a balanced position
and R''
(this
is
facilitated
shown), and the armature
FIGURE
the local bell circuit open.
is
is
the line running to
attracted.
This holds
38.
If the line running to

R'' ceases,
The armature
by magnet R'' and the
the armature
midway between R'
by means of springs as
opened, the current through
comes demagnetized.
batter}*
to battery.
is
and
be-
then attracted
bell circuit is closed at
is
it
F.
If
short-circuited, the increased
current in R' attracts the armature and the bell circuit
is
closed at F'.
If for any reason the battery
FIRE
AND BURGLAR ALARMS

magnet
gives out, the
armature
circuit.
is
demagnetized and the
closes the bell circuit.
not in use the switch S
alarm
M
is
41
When
alarm
is
thrown over, opening the
This device was designed and patented
by G. B. Lehy, of Medford, Mass.

/
WIRING DIAGRAMS
42
In systems of
this
kind the wires
braided into cables, and
it will
may
be very
be twisted or
difficult to
de-
termine which wires must be short-circuited or cut in

order to
make
the alarm ineffective.
The
switch
is
provided to cut the alarm bell in or out of use as desired.
This arrangement
on "Haus
is
Max Linder's book

and was devised by O.
taken from
Telegraphic,"
Schoeppe, of Germany.
CHAPTER
IV.
TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH
CIRCUITS.
Figure 40 shows diagrammatically the connections

of an ordinary telephone instrument when in use.
While the
cuit
is
receiver
hangs on the hook, the
complete through the polarized
neto generator to ground.
This
is
bell
line cir-
and mag-
the connection
when the instrument is not in use. T is the transmitter, and it is in series with a small induction coil and
f^
iMMk^
^Ô
^:C^9/^:Z^
^^-UBJ
FIGURE
battery, which
shown; the
telephone
is
is
EXWH
40.
connected with the local circuit as
local battery circuit
not in use.
being open when the
The magneto generator
is
usually provided with a shunt circuit, which allows
the calling currents from other stations to pass around

it
and ring the
bell.
The generator
43
is
so arranged
WIRING DIAGRAMS
44
that this circuit

dle
is
automatically opened when the han-
is
turned.
Figure 41 shows the connections of the bridging

bell system.
ple
In this system the
bells are all in multi-
The
resistance of the bell
and always
magnets
great.
is
in circuit.
very high and the self induction quite
This gives them
sufficient
FIGURE
impedance to pre-
41.
vent telephonic currents from passing, but does not
prevent the lower frequency currents of the magneto
from ringing the
bells.
The magneto generator must
be of sufficient capacity to ring
same time.
all
of the
bells at the
This system requires some code of sig-
nals, since all the bells
ring whenever any station
is
called.
Figure 42 shows a telephone

arranged
in series.
no induction
coil is
With
line
with the stations
the instruments here shown
used, the talking batteries
and
transmitters being arranged directly in series with the
telephone instruments.
signalling battery
is
re-
TELEPHONE CIRCUITS
45
quired at each station, and also a 3-way push.

ever this push
will ring.
is
pressed at any station
The number of
y^
may
stations that
1^^
QD
FIGURE
ranged on a
line
be ar-
H>-^
QD
I
When-
of the bells
all
of this kind
42.
is
very limited, since the
talking currents must pass through the bell magnets
of
all stations
except those talking.
^r
&
U
I
WTf
FIGURE
m
I
43.
In Figure 43 an intercommunicating system
shown using magneto generators for calling.
is
Each
of the stations 1, ^ and 3 contains the arrangement
WIRING DIAGRAMS
46
shown
is
in
To
Figure 40.
call
any
station the
plug
inserted in the jack which connects with the wire
leading direct to the station wanted.
generator
the bells will ring,
receivers the line
is
On
turning the
and upon taking up the
ready for talking.
Figure 44 shows an intercommunicating system

using one common battery for signalling and individual talking batteries at each station.
FIGURE
43, the
plug
is
station will ring.
The
in
Figure
44.
inserted in the proper jack,
pressing the 3-way push
not ring.
As
and upon
the bell at the corresponding
bell at the calling station will
TELEPHONE CIRCUITS
With
through
all
47
systems such as these the plugs are likely,
carelessness, to be left in the jacks,
or less confusion
may
To
result.
and more
obviate this, special
shown
devices are made, to take the place of plugs
here, and which automatically make the proper connections when the receiver is replaced.
Figure 45 shows an ordinary annunciator system
adapted for the use of telephones. Each station can
communicate with the
office
only.
QD
is
the annuncia-
QD
Q
fwv-9
t>^SAg^
QD
fSTH'I'K
FIGURE
46.
ir
receiving the signals from the different stations.
plugging
'the
ton
in at the
button any station

is
released the line
proper wire
may
is
in
be called.
When
ready for talking
I^Jpeivers are removed from their hooks.
B, and pressing
As
the but-
if
the re-
here shown,
WIRING DIAGRAMS
48
common
one
tery
is
talking battery
is
used,
and another bat-
used for signalling.
In Figure 46 an adaptation for telephones of the

annunciator system given in Figure 26
Whenever the plug

B,
it
is
inserted in
is
shown.
any of the jacks
at
breaks the wire at this point, thus forming an
independent circuit through the station called and the
FIGURE
office
instrument.
With
46.
this
system there
one common signalling battery for
all
is
shown
and
stations
a talking battery at each station.

It
has not been thought necessary to give more
than the foregoing diagrams in connection with telephones, as anything approaching a full exposition
of the
many
would alone
different
fill
methods of connecting them
a volume.
The foregoing diagrams
TELEPHONE CIRCUITS
49
are sufficient to illustrate the methods usually em-
For a
ployed in house wiring.
fuller treatment,
and
for illustrations of exchange practice, the reader
is
referred to the more pretentious works dealing with
telephone practice only.
As telephone
receivers are very sensitive,
sential that the wires connecting

L
run very
1^
electricity.
close to
To
it
is es-
them should not be
other wires carrying currents of
avoid cross talk and other disturbing
influences, the lines should be
arranged so that both
sides are of equal length and resistance.
Arrange-
ments should be such that no electro-magnets are
l^pin
circuit
when the
line is
used for talking.
advisable to cross wires or twist
also
them together;
this
In factories
will help neutralize inductive influences.

i
and kindred places where there
may
l^pthe telephone instruments
left
is
is
It
much
vibration,
be suspended from
springs.
Figure 47 shows the connections of an ordinary

long distance telegraph
Iers
The
S.
lines it
line
with relays
and sound-
relays are used, because in long distance
has been found unprofitable to maintain cur-
rents sufficiently strong to control the heavy armatures necessary on sounders to
^ble.
For
make the
this reason the relays
signals audi-
are equipped with
very light armatures, and control a local circuit which

operates the sounder.
One-half the battery
is
placed
at each end of the line; this lessens the trouble from
leakage.
Each
station
is
also
equipped with a light-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
50
ning arrester connected to ground, as shown, and a

switch closing around the key. This applies to intermediate stations as well as end stations, and intermediate stations are also equipped with a switch,
by
^ Jm
^w
BL
LJJ
tt
FIGURE
which they
ground on
may
47.
be entirely cut out or connected to
either side, in case of a broken line or other
trouble.
ÛiGst
FIGURE
48.
In Figure 48 a very simple form of repeater

shown, which
set up,
is
due to Edison.
is
It can be very readily
and requires no additional apparatus except
TELEGRAPH CIRCUITS
51
a 3-way switch shown in diagram. With the switch

S, as shown, the current from the eastern hne passes
through both batteries to ground and keeps the armaAt the same time current from the
ture I attracted.
west passes through the armature I and the main battery to ground.
armature I
is
When
released
thus repeating into
the eastern circuit
With
it.
is
and opens the western
opened,
circuit,
the switch turned to the
)ther point, the western circuit will repeat into the
Lstem.
ujesl
eaLsl
FIGURE
49.
In Figure 49 another form of repeater, known as

[Milliken's,
is
shown.
This
does
not
changing of any switch to make one

jinto the other,
jrent
ture
but
is
require
the
circuit repeat
entirely automatic.
The
cur-
coming from the east normally keeps the armaof magnet 1 attracted this armature controls the
;
WIRING DIAGRAMS
52
circuit of
magnet
ern circuit
is
2.
If,
now, the current in the east-
interrupted, the armature of
opening the local circuit of magnet 2;

releases its
A.
armature and breaks the western
The breaking
of this circuit
would
back,
circuit at
result in re-
same instant the
leasing the armature of 4, but at the
armature of 2 opens the western
circuit it also
the extra circuit controlling the magnet

leases the
1 flies
this in turn
pendant armature, which
is
3.
opens
This re-
drawn by
spring against the armature of 4 and prevents
opening the
its
its
The west end station is an exact

the eastern, and when sending from that
circuit.
duplicate of
side the operation
is
repeated in a similar manner.
THE TELAUTOGRAPH.
An
elementary diagram of the connections of the
telautograph
is
given in Figure 49a and the complete
connections showing switches,
etc., in
The message to be transmitted
is
Figure 49b.
written upon the
platen P, Figure 49b, by a pencil occupying the position
shown as a black dot. The movement of the pencil,

by means of light rods, moves the arms A, A', sometimes
pulling one and pushing the other. These arms move
over resistances and thereby vary the current strength
in two lines which lead to the receiver shown in upper
half of the figure. In the receiver each of the two
magnets
to
M, M', are fitted
move up and down.
ward by
springs
with plungers which are free
These plungers are drawn up-
and sucked
into the cores of the
mag-
TELEGRAPH CIRCUITS
On
53
WIRING DIAGRAMS
64
nets
by
currents passing through the coils of the
The magnets themselves
plungers.
are
separately
excited.
These plungers connect to two arms similar in principle to those of the transmitter and the nature of the
connection is such that every motion of the pencil
upon the platen P is reproduced by a similar pencil or

pen designated by a black dot in the receiver. Thus
the message written upon the transmitter platen is reproduced with great fidelity upon the platen of the
receiver.
The manner in which this is accomplished can best

be explained by reference to the elementary diagram
Figure 49a.
When
the instrument
is
in action current
shown with the transmitter at

the left, along the wires drawn as heavy lines, passing
through the main magnets M, M', and the auxiliary
The actual work of writing is done
magnets m, m!
It
entirely by the currents passing over these wires.
will be seen that the arms A, A', as they move over the
resistances cutting out or in resistance and also acting
flows from the battery
as shunts to each other, produce great variations in the
current strength in the two transmitting
changing currents affect the magnets

ingly
and reproduce the
In the transmitter
I
and
The
its
is
lines.
These
M, M', correspond-
writing.
also included
an induction
coil
secondaries, together with an interrupter
alternating currents produced
by these
I'.
coils are
TELEGRAPH CIRCUITS
55
Dx^^
"BriL ^^^^
FIGURE
40b.
^T^T^
loijX
WIRING DIAGRAMS
56
superimposed upon the continuous currents in the
main circuit.
S is a small switch so connected that
the instrument
pencil
is
not writing.
upon the platen opens
this switch
strengthens the alternating currents.

in current strength operates the relay
and causes
magnet L.
it
closed
it is
when
Pressure of the writing
and thereby
This increase
m in the receiver
to open the circuit through the pen lifting
This releases the pen so that
it
becomes
move in accordance with the arms of the

The arrangements are also (by vibration
free to
ceiver.
re-
of
armature of m) such that the alternating currents keep

the pen in a slightly vibratory state and thus reduce
When the pressure is withfriction to a minimum.

drawn from the platen the alternating currents become
too feeble to interfere with the continuous, the relay
again closes the circuit through the penlifter and
the pen
The
is
raised.
object of m' in the receiver
is
to control the
battery and the local circuits in the receiver.

its
armature
and
is
attracted, the circuit through L,
When
M, M',
are closed.
is
an electromagnetic device which shifts the

circuit is broken at the end of a line.
paper when the
When no
closed.
current
is
on the
This places the
and m, and as these are

bell,
line,
bell
O keeps the contacts

E in parallel with M
of higher resistance than the
the latter rings whenever the push-button
pressed.
This
is
used merely for signalling.
is
TELEGRAPH CIRCUITS
67
X-RAY CIRCUIT.
A diagram of the
wiring and instruments often used
X-ray tubes is given in Fig. 49c.

shown at T connected to the secondary of a strong induction coil. At the terminals of
this secondary winding of the induction coil an adjustable spark gap G is provided. This is used to protect
the tube against excess voltage. This gap properly
adjusted will act as a shunt and the excessive current
in connection with
The tube
will
itself is
jump the
air
between the spark points rather than
pass through the tube.
CnWq-JhD
mmm
Lp^_MAA/|
a
?*-,
1
I
FIGURE
The
49c.
exact nature of the light emitted depends some-
what upon the degree
of
vacuum maintained
in the
[tube.
As a general rule tubes of low vacuum take more

emit more light, and the light is of greater
[current,
[actinic
power.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
58
The
ever,
light emitted
from a high vacuum tube, how-
more penetrating, that
is
pass through
will
is,
greater opaqueness than the other.
To
obtain the best results in
all cases, it is
therefore
advisable to have on hand a stock of tubes suitable

for different kinds of work.
The
somewhat with the
color of the light also varies
nature of glass used.
tube
.In order to properly operate the
it is
necessary
to send a very rapidly interrupted current of electricity at
a very high voltage through
by means
the
of a
good induction
common form
is
which
differs
from
coil in
which no particular
make and
time of make
paid to the exact nature of the
break, secondary currents are induced at
and
done
only in the nature of the interrupter.
In the ordinary induction

attention
coil
is
This
it.
also of break.
An
induced current is produced in the secondary

whenever lines of force are increased or decreased in
the winding or iron core. These secondary currents
flow in one direction while the lines of force are increasing
and
The value
in the opposite while they are decreasing.
of the induced E.
M.
F.
is
the rate of change of the lines of force.

if
the current
second
it will
the E.
M.
is
increased from
in proportion to
That
is
to say,
to 10 amperes in 1
induce secondary currents with 10 times
F. as
if it
were increased the same amount
in the time of 10 seconds.
In the X-ray tube

be practically
all in
it is
essential that the currents
the same direction and therefore
TELEGRAPH CIRCUITS
one of the induced currents must be as far as possible

eliminated. The E. M. F. induced at time of break
of the primary current
make because
much
may be
is
the circuit
rent rises comparatively slow to
M.
make and
it
F.
is
its full
much
therefore
is
very suddenly (prac-
make
opened, while the
tically instantaneously)
break E.
greater than that at
the one that
is
value.
cur-
The
greater than the
used to produce the
Ught.
The
greater the difference between the
desirable
it is
low enough
for
it will
if
the
is
two the more
F. can be kept
not send current through the tube.
The sparking which

cuit
make E. M.
occurs at time of break of
cir-
the only element that prevents instantaneous
break of current, and to reduce
it
as
much
as possible,
for the double purpose of preventing destructive action
and increasing the suddenness

denser
is
provided.
of the break the con-
Part of the current at time of
break instead of continuing in the form of a spark
when the
rushes into the condenser to be discharged
make
occurs.
There are three

the current in use.
distinct
One
methods of interrupting
of these
is
the well
method employed with ordinary induction
known
coils
or
vibrating bells.
The second method is that of causing the interrupmade through a small motor which operates
tions to be
either a plunger or a disc with projections so arranged
that they enter and leave a mercury contact with

great rapidity.
motor
is
also sometimes
employed
WIRING DIAGRAMS
60
to throw a jet of mercury against a succession of con-
mounted on the inner periphery of a suitable jar.

The third method is known as the electrolytic.
This is an arrangement very similar to a battery.
tacts
The
positive pole of the circuit
is
connected to one of
the poles of the break (which
is
platinum) and the
other pole of the break
phuric acid
is
a lead plate.
is
As current passes through
also used.
this cell bubbles are
Diluted sul-
formed on the platinum and these
stop the current flow
by
their resistance.
They im-
mediately pass away and the current begins to flow
The interruptions produced in this way are

much more rapid than those of any other method and
this method can also take care of much stronger cur-
again.
rents.
These breaks are simple and easily kept in
order.
Always make the platinum the positive
if
otherwise
It
is
it will
pole,
soon be destroyed.
important to arrange that current cannot be
turned on to the induction
coil unless
are in action or ready to act.
For
the interrupters
this reason
where
motor drive interrupters are used the switch S may be

arranged to close the motor circuit before the circuit
to the coil
is
closed.
By means of the shunt resistance connected as shown

any desirable voltage is obtainable from a 110 volt
circuit.
Start with low voltage and work up to desired voltage.
an alternating current is to be used it must be

rectified by motor generator or some other means.
If
CHAPTER
V.
ELECTRIC GAS-LIGHTING.
Figure 50 shows the wiring of a complete metallic
return gas-lighting system. I is the spark coil, which
is
absolutely essential.
attachment, R, which
the spark coil
circuit occur
is
This spark
has a relay
whenever
Should a ground or short
energized.
on the system, the
bell will
OX^ yi^
coil
closes the bell circuit
FIGURE
^'if
immediately
V^^ ^VrW
._
50.
^B system divided into a number of circuits, and, by

^B disconnecting the circuits, one at a time, the one out
^B of order may be readily found.
is
For
so-called automatic burners it
is
necessary to
run two wires to each burner; and push buttons con61
WIRING DIAGRAMS
62
trolling one burner
may
be placed in different parts
With
of the building, as shown at top of figure.
pendants the gas can be controlled at the fixture only.
Automatic burners are not very
ways a
safe, as there is al-
of gas leaking.
liability
If a cheaper installation than the above
the relay,
bell,
is
desired,
and switches S may be omitted, and
the whole installation arranged as one
circuit.
The
gas piping can also take the place of the return wire.
Instead of employing a separate" battery to operate
the
tell-tale bell,
be used; as the
two
earlier
than the others,
tice to
do
JC
so.
cells
cells so
of the main battery
used, however, give out

it is
may
much
not considered good prac-
ELECTRIC GAS-LIGHTING
switch S or S' to the wire
to No. 2,
1.
This
and when the other party
button the gas will be turned
63
will give
current
presses the proper
This method pre-
off.
supposes that the switch S or S'
is
returned to
its
normal position after being used.
Figure 52 shows a system of gas lighting with an

induction
coil.
spark of high potential
is
produced
which can jump many small air gaps arranged above

gas jets in
time
is
With
series.
ignited.
the switch one circuit at a
In systems of
this
kind about 16
UJ-i
FIGURE
52.
burners are allowed to a 1 inch spark coil;

joil
;as
giving a spark 1 inch in length.

jets should be
ley will light
arranged so
i.
e.,
If possible,
close together that
from one another.
In such a case
mly a few of them need be equipped with spark conicts.

Very high insulation is essential with this sys;m,
and there may be but
little
use for
it in
these
lays of electric lighting.
In Figure 53 are shown the connections used in
Edwards condenser system. Here all of the burn^rs are wired in multiple and each is equipped with
a small condenser. This system is mentioned in Mr.
H. S. Norrie's work on gas lighting, and is said to
le
WIRING DIAGRAMS
e4
be successful.
it
suitable induction coil
is
used,
and
need not have a very great spark capacity, and
FIGURE
there
is
much
less
53.
danger of a breakdown
in the in-
sulation.
FIGURE
54.
Frictional gas lighting machines
and they are connected
may
also be used,
similar to Figures
52 and 53,
ELECTRIC GAS-LIGHTING
one terminal leading to ground or
wire,
and the other
As grounds and
65
common
return
to the switch.
short circuits on gas lighting sys-
tems are quite common, several forms of automatic

cutouts have been devised.
The
Figure 54.
One of
these
is
shown in
battery wire passes through a
mag-
net which controls clockwork connected with a long
pinion shaft.
This clockwôrk
is
in operation while current is
magnet
there
coils.
will
started
and continues
passing through these
If the current lasts only an instant
be but very
through a short
circuit or
little
movement;
while,
ground the current
is
on for any great length of time, the clockwork
open the
circuit.
if
kept
will
CHAPTER
VI.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BATTERIES.
The Figures 55 to 58 show different ways in which

batteries may be grouped. Figure 55 shows the usual
manner. In this way the highest E. M. F. is ob-
H III
FIGURE
tained,
and
FIGURE
55.
56.
also the best results in all cases where the
line resistance exceeds the battery resistance.
It
must
be borne in mind that the battery has an internal resistance independent of that of the line,
FIGURE
temal resistance
as
any other
will
and
this in-
57.
modify the current quite as much
resistance.
The
battery resistance varies
inversely as the surface of the plates exposed in the
and directly as their distance apart.

Taking into consideration this law, we can
liquid,
readily
see that six cells placed in multiple, as in Figure 56,
66
PRIMARY BATTERIES
will
have but one-fourth the resistance of those in

In Figure 55 the resistance of six
Figure 55.
is
67
XR
in
Figure 56
ând
Figure 58
in
XR
it is
-'
is-^
it
cells
in
Figure 57
it is
Also in any ar-
I
rangement of
tery equals
cells
the internal resistance of the bat-
X V R where X
stands for the
^^^
of
cells in series
for the
for the resistance of one
number of groups
number
cell
and
in parallel.
^^
FIGURE
The
total
58.
E. M. F. of any battery equals
number of
NX
E,
and
for the E. M. F. of one cell. The E. M. F. of any
ell is independent of its size, and while no current is
where
stands for the
flowing
is
current
is
independent of
internal resistance.
flowing, however, the drop in E.
ual to the current

e
its
cells in series
When
M. F.
the internal resistance.
internal resistance of all
primary
cells is
is
As
quite
igh, this fact must not be overlooked whenever large

rrents are to be used.
As a
general rule
eir internal
cells
resistance
should be so grouped that

is
nearest equal to that of
WIRING DIAGRAMS
68
the line and instruments through which they are to
work.
Where very high
resistance lines are worked, as in
telegraphy, for instance, the internal resistance of the

is of little consequence, since an addition of
100 ohms resistance to a circuit of several thousand
ohms would hardly be noticeable. For circuits of low
resistance, such as gas lighting, it is, however, an
item which must not be overlooked. The resistance
battery
of an average gas lighting circuit does not exceed a
few ohms, and to place into such a
circuit a battery
having ten or twenty ohms resistance would obviously
Where
be poor practice.
is
advisable to use large
multiple has
many
be taken that
large currents are used
Placing small
cells.
it
cells in
disadvantages, and great care must

are of the same E.
all cells
M.
F.,
and
they should also be of the same make.
There are two general
classes of
primary
batteries,
each suited to a different class of work.
For
all
intermittent
work an open
circuit battery
Cells of this kind will last
should be chosen.
a very
long time on open circuit without deterioration, but
must never be
left
on short
circuit or used for continu-
ous work.
Perhaps the best known of

is
the Leclanche
will
apply most
cell,
all
circuit batteries
and the instructions here given
specifically to
in general with all
open
open
it,
but can be followed
circuit cells.
PRIMARY BATTERIES
Never use more
ammoniac than
sal
69
be readily
will
dissolved; about six ounces will be sufficient for ordi-
nary
It
use.
is
preferable to
make a saturated
solu-
and after filtering it through

cloth or cotton wool, add about 10 per cent, of water.
tion of sal ammoniac,
Do
fill jars more than three- fourths full of soand keep them in a cool place, well inclosed, to
not
lution,
prevent evaporation.
Never allow your battery to
Keep
all
freeze.
exposed parts covered with paraffine and
see that all connections are clean
Do
and
tight.
not allow the battery to be short-circuited or
run down.
If this has occurred let
circuit for a
few hours;
it will
If the solution appears milky
that more sal ammoniac

beneficial to
remain on open
it
often pick up.

is
it
required.
is
remove the carbon and
an indication
It will also be
let
it
dry out
thoroughly before using again.
Impure
zincs
which do not eat away evenly
facili-
tate the formation of crystals, which greatly increase
the resistance, and if not removed will destroy the

action of the battery.
Dry
batteries for general use are
same materials as open
circuit
difference being that the material
form of a paste.
for portable work.
may
They
made up of
batteries,
is
the
the main
applied in the
are used quite extensively
When
run down some of them
be recharged by sending a current of two or
three amperes through them for a few hours.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
70
If they are dried out so that current will not flow
through them an opening may be made
and the
This
cell
then soaked in a solution of
of the
cells
ammoniac.
The opening should

prevent evaporation. As the shells
will facilitate
be sealed again to
in the shell
sal
charging.
usually consist of the zinc element,
it is
well to see that they are covered, or at least that

cells
do not touch.
The primary
battery commonly used for closed cir-
cuit work, or continuous work,
foot" or gravity battery.

the bottom of the glass
is
the so-called "crow-
The copper element rests on

jar.
The jar is filled with
clean water and enough sulphate of copper

vitriol)
added to give a blue
is
of the water.
The
tint to
blue line should be maintained

zinc,
suspended from the top of the jar, and
made
(blue
about one-half
about midway between the copper and the

is
two
is
which
usually
in the shape of a crow's foot.
When
this battery is first set
action, as it
up
and
it
should be short-
must be kept in
deteriorates rapidly when left on open
circuited for several hours,
it
circuit.
While
this battery
remains in action the specific
gravity of the upper solution increases.

tion should be maintained at about
drometer
test.
If
it falls
be short-circuited for a
yond
this,
This solu-
25 degrees hy-
below this the battery should

little
while.
If
it
goes be-
some of the solution must be removed and
the rest diluted with clear water.
The
resistance
is
SECONDARY BATTERIES
71
much increased by dense sulphate of zinc solution.

The zinc oxide which sometimes forms on the zinc
may be removed with a brush and water.
The gravity cell has a high internal resistance,
and
suitable only
is
of small quantity
is
Leclanche exist in
where a continuous current flow

desired.
many
This
cell
and
also the
Enough
modified forms.
has been said to enable anyone to select a suitable

battery,
and
all batteries
detailed instructions will be
found with
where such instructions are necessary.
SECONDARY BATTERIES.
Storage, or secondary batteries, as they are often

called, are quite extensively
tice.
It
is
used in latter day prac-
beyond the scope of
this treatise to give
anything but a few working directions covering general operation.
Detailed instructions applicable to
the different types will accompany most
cells
when
purchased.
The E. M. F. of secondary batteries will average

over 2 volts. On discharging, the E. M. F.
little
should not be allowed to fall below 1.8 volts.
The charging
should proceed slowly, and should
never be carried beyond 2.5
volts.
The charging E. M. F. should not
exceed that of
the battery more than 5 per cent.

Cells
should not be discharged more than two-
thirds of their capacity.
uncharged.
They should never stand
WIRING DIAGRAMS
72
,
In battery rooms
all
exposed metal work should
be painted as a protection against acid fumes.
Wooden
floors
should also be protected against
acid.
If charging
is
continued after the active material
has been used up, oxygen and hydrogen gas

given
will
be
off.
Pure sulphuric acid should be used, and this should

be diluted with distilled watfer. Pour the acid into
Never pour water into
the water slowly.
much
heat
is
Whenever necessary,
distilled water and mix
will float
,
Two
acid, as
generated.
replenish
with
evaporation
well, as otherwise the
water
on top.
methods of measuring the internal resistance
of batteries are shown in Figures 59 and 60.
Figure 59
represents an
ammeter and
In
a volt-
Instruments for this purpose must be chosen
meter.
suitable to measure the small currents

likely to be used,
and must have a
and E. M. F.
scale sufficiently
large to admit of reading fractions of volts and amperes.
To make
the voltmeter.
the test,
first close
the circuit through
This gives us the E. M. F. of the
whole battery, and
may
be called E.
Next
close the
circuit through the ammeter and note the current
reading
also at the
same time note the reduced read-
ing of the voltmeter and

resistance of the battery
call this E'.
is
equal to
The
internal
where
SECONDARY BATTERIES
is
the
73
number of amperes flowing through the am-
meter, and the other two symbols as above.
The
readings must be taken in a very short time, or polarization will
modify both current and voltage.
ammeter used above
is
If the
of very low resistance, an ad-
ditional resistance should be placed in circuit with it
to prevent excessive current flow.
ItAt
FIGURE
FIGURE
59.
In Figure 60 no ammeter
ance of
ing as in
must be known.
Figure 59 and
is
60.
needed, but the resist-
Take
the voltmeter read-
E.
call it
Next take the
voltmeter reading with current flowing through
and
call it E'.
The
internal resistance of the battery
EE^
is
E'.
In other words, divide E' by R, which gives
the current flowing through

ference between
R;
and E' by
then divide the dif-
this current.
sult will be the battery resistance.
The
re-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
74
comparative test as to the value of the different
may
batteries
be made in the following manner
cure the same number of
of each kind to be test-
cells
A suitable resistance and a voltmeter with a
ed.
must
ble scale
also be procured,
The
as in Figure 60.
Pro-
suita-
and connections made
voltmeter should be of quite
high resistance, so the current flowing through

will
The
not materially affect the battery.
it
resistance
should be about equal to the battery resistance.
This
allow a current to flow which will gradually
will
polarize
any open circuit battery. When all is ready,

through R, and at regular intervals,
close the circuit
of say one minute, note the

voltmeter until the battery
open
and
nearly polarized.
is
shown
figures obtained
in
Now
same way take readings at regular

the battery regains its former E. M.
or, if this is too long, for
The
E. M. F. on the
in the
intervals, until
F.
fall in
may
any convenient
time.
be plotted in curves, as
Figure 61, where the time
is
plotted hori-
zontally each division representing one minute, while
the drop in E.
M. F.
is
plotted vertically, two divi-
sions representing one-tenth of one volt.
and recovery
initial
an
E. M. F.
curves of a Laclede cell having
of 1.2 volts, and discharging through a resistance of
The
figure shows the polarization
S ohms. During the first minute the E. M. F. fell

to .78 during the second to .68 third to .62 fourth
to .58 fifth to .55 and at the end of twenty-six min;
utes
it
had
fallen to .3.
SECONDARY BATTERIES
Upon opening
the
first
the circuit the E.
M. F.
75
rose during
minute to .47, and during the second to
and then in a more gradual and steady manner

dicated by the curve.
12
(.0
.5
as in-
CHAPTER
CONNECTING UP
VII.
LOCATING TROUBLE.
Figure 62 shows the rough wiring used to connect

tin
annunciator with a
and
1, 2, 3, 4,
those floors.
from each of the floors

from the office to each of
call
also a call
This figure
is
introduced to illustrate a
C-
>4
y>
*^
FIGlj.lE 62.
method of testing
connections,
and
to find the proper wires to
it
will
wires are concealed
and
that
it
is
be assumed that
all
all
make
of the
are of the same color, so
impossible to trace out
76
any part of the
CONNECTING UP
wiring.
Let
it
also be
77
assumed that the party who
to connect the system did not install the wiring,
is
and
knows nothing about any part except the purpose for

which it is installed.
The
step should be to separate the wires at
first
outlets
all
so
there
may
be no accidental connec-
would cause confusion.
tions which
The next
step
to connect the battery to the
two battery wires
as shown, which will very likely be
found without any
is
trouble.
found
Now go
and bunch
wires
all
there, testing each wire to all other wires with
a portable
tained
to floor
it is
bell before connecting.
an indication of a
If a ring
short circuit or
is
ob-
wrong
must be located and corrected beNext proceed to the push

buttons, P, and with the test bell find the wire coming from 1 when the bell is connected to the wire
coming from 1 and to the battery wire a ring will be
Now take up the annunciator wires and
obtained.
connection, which
fore proceeding farther.
find the wire
coming from
1 in the
same way.
Having now found one wire which rings with two

must be the battery wire, and may be
connected to one side of all the pushes, and to the
annunciator through the bell. The other two wires
others, this
may
be marked and the connections at 1 removed.
After this has been done, connect the two wires coming from 1 each to its proper place, push 1, and drop
1 respectively, and
fix
the push button so
it
will
........ .......,^.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
,78
opening the connections on
first
cuit
would have been the
Now
floor 1,
a short-cir-
result.
return to 1 and find the wire which rings the
annunciator, and also the one which rings the test

bell
The one
without disturbing the annunciator.
wire used in
common
for both
the battery wire,
is
and connects to one side of the bell and also to the

push for annunciator. The wire leading to push P
is to go on the other side of bell, while the one leading to annunciator goes to the other side of push
The fourth
button.
wire must necessarily be the
battery wire leading to the floor above, and
is
to
be connected to battery wire coming from floor below.
For
these tests a bell to act either single stroke or
vibrating
ciator
is
is
very useful, especially when the annun-
away that
so far
cannot be heard.
bell
the ringing of
its
bells
of this kind will indicate
at once whether the wire through which
it
rings
is
connected with the annunciator or the push buttons,

since
it
will
ciator bell
ring vibrating in
and single stroke
push button
series
with the annun-
in connection with the
wire.
The foregoing tests represent a

time and labor, much of which may
great deal of
be avoided by
using wire of one color for the battery wire

different color for all the other wires
For Figure 62
this
would require
on each
five colors.
and a
floor.
With
wires arranged this way, the steps necessary to con-
LOCATING TROUBLE
nect
up the system
79
First connect the bat-
will be:
tery wires on the different floors so that there will
be one continuous wire from the battery to the fourth

floor.
While doing
on each
may
ton wires
this note the color
of wire used
that the annunciator and push but-
floor, so
be connected
up
After
accordingly.
connecting these and the battery, return to each

floor
and
up
set
tery wire.
the bell and connect
Now
it
to the bat-
touch one of the two remaining
wires to the bell; if
it
rings
it
is
the wire coming
from the annunciator, and the other

wire to connect to the
is
the proper
bell.
Always locate the battery as near as possible to

the push buttons. In this way the chance of leakage
may be reduced to a minimum, since one wire only
is exposed for any considerable length, the other being cut short by the pushes.
When
one
is
valuable help in
alone a bell and battery

fish
work.
coming from the battery into the

is
is
a very
Insert one piece of wire
expected to bring the wire
to.
ceiling
where
Connect the
it
fish
wire to the other side of the battery and proceed in

the usual way.
When
the two wires meet the bell
will ring.
liOCATING TROUBLE.
While looking for trouble always work according to

haphazard testing and guessing will
a fixed plan
In
usually waste time.
thing to ascertain
is
all cases
the most important
whether the battery
is
in
work-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
80
ing order.
of them
is
If there are several bells and any one

working properly, the battery may be set
down
as all right.
If there is no bell in operation,
and none at hand, the most convenient way to test
the battery is by "tasting"; arrange wires so that
both poles come in contact with your tongue,

the battery
and a
is
little
in order
you
will notice
if
a peculiar taste,
experience will enable anyone to deter-
mine, approximately, whether the current

portion to the number of
cells
in pro-
is
employed.
It will be well to avoid "tasting" circuits provided
with an unusual number of

or spark
coils, as
the taste
cells
is
and large magnets
apt to be very strong,
especially if the wires are allowed to meet
tongue and then break.
If no current
on the
obtained
is
at the battery, examine the binding posts and connections; see whether each jar
whether any of the
is
properly
filled
zincs have been eaten
and
away, or
covered with crystals, which often causes a total cesIf the battery is not found deany of the above points it may be entirely
run down, either from overwork or a short circuit.
Some idea of the trouble may often be gained by
sation of current.
fective in
If
questioning parties interested.
suddenly
circuit.
it
would indicate a broken
the
bells
line or
stop
a short
If any bell were ringing continuously for a
long time
it
would run the battery down.
tery has been merely run
down
it will
short time if left on open circuit.
If the bat-
pick up in a
small galvano-
LOCATING TROUBLE
meter
very useful and will soon indicate whether
is
a battery
each
81
is
picking up;
separately.
cell
it
may
also be used to test
In any case,
it
is
best to have
the battery in good working order before looking

elsewhere for the cause of trouble.
in order the next step (if there
be to examine the
is
If the battery
but one bell) should
and push buttons;

order and that the bell
bell
contact points are in
is
see that
prop-
is
erly adjusted; also examine the line connections
and
and tight. A portable batvery convenient, and with it one can quickly
see that they are clean
tery
is
determine whether the bell

If, after the
is
in order.
foregoing, the bell
still fails
to work,
the trouble must be looked for in the line,

will
and
it
be well to examine the wires near bell and push
buttons, as these wires are handled quite often for
and
various reasons,
will often
be found broken quite
Splices are also quite often
close to their connections.
to be found quite close to terminals, as wires are often

cut short
and
when
installed.
When
there are several bells
to work, the inference would naturally be
all fail
that the main battery wires are cither broken or short
If the battery
circuited.
one
may
an open
From
that in
is
in
good working
order,
be certain that no short circuit exists, and

circuit
the
all
must therefore be looked
many foregoing diagrams

ordinary multiple
it
for.
will
bell systems,
coming from the battery leads to the
bells
other to the Dush buttons; this does not
be seen
one wire
and the
mean that
WIRING DIAGRAMS
82
the bells must
all
connect to the same wire and the
push buttons to the other, since, in Figure 63, the

location of any bell and its push button might be
exchanged without hindering
its
operation.
In Fig-
and 2 are the battery wires connecting with

and buttons as shown. Suppose none of the
will ring and we have come to the conclusion
ure 63, 1
bells
bells
that one of the battery wires
is
the best
way
with a test
bell,
broken
to locate a break in the main wires
is
starting from the battery end of the
line.
At any
sD QD aD
J^
FIGURE
63.
convenient place where both battery wires are accessible,
will
say at
and B, connect the
show that the
line
between
it
test bell;
a ring
and battery
is
in
order, while failure to ring would indicate the break
and the battery. Suppose no ring

has been obtained and we now wish to ascertain which
one of the main wires is broken; we can do so by
running a temporary wire from B back to the batto be between
it
tery as shown by the dotted
lines.
If the wire (1)
is not broken between B and the battery, a ring will

be obtained when connections are made to the oppoIf the wire is broken no ring can
site battery pole.
LOCATING TROUBLE
83
be had from either battery pole; but when the tem-
porary wire
is
connected to the wire and pole of the
battery in which the break
is,
the whole system will
be in working order.
C and D, Figure
by cutting a bell into the
If a short circuit exists, say at

64, one
way
to locate
it is
If the battery has been run
circuit at the battery.
down by the "short,"

recharge or wait for
battery
is
at hand.
ID!
as will likely be, one must either

it
to pick up, unless
Having connected
an extra
the bell near
WIRING DIAGRAMS
84
can be obtained.
By making
several tests as out-
lined above, the seat of trouble can be very closely
The foregoing
located.
wiring
is
difficult.
instructions assume that the
concealed or that a close inspection
Short
circuits
will
generally
be
is
very
found
where wires cross metal pipes or bars, or where one
Wire
staple holds two or
more
a very
of short circuits, and
prolific cause
wires.
lath
it
is
also
must be
borne in mind that two grounds on opposite wires

are equal to a short circuit.
bell
fact if
system can be kept clear of grounds, there will
be but very
An
As a matter of
little
trouble from short circuits.
easy and also a sufficient test for battery bell
systems can be made by means of a strong magneto.
Connect the magneto in place of the battery and

give it a few sharp turns; if a ring is obtained the
insulation between opposite poles
is
weak.
This
may
be caused by the leak across the surface of a push

button or kindred device, or
it
may
be the result of
poor general insulation, both poles being slightly

A ground on one side only would not
grounded.
be discovered in the above
To
test.
test the insulation resistance to
ground, con-
nect one wire of the magneto to a convenient water
or gas pipe, the former being preferred on account
of the poor conductivity often caused by rust or

red lead in the joints of the gas pipes; the other
wire connects to the whole bell system without the
If, on turning the magneto, a ring is obbattery.
LOCATING TROUBLE
tained, it
ance,
is
an indication of poor insulation
and very
damp
85
likely
some of the wiring
is
resist-
located in
place or in contact with metal or other
By
grounded material.
disconnecting one of the
batter}^ wires one can easily determine on which side
of a system a ground
may
be located.
All grounds
should be removed, as they are the cause of leaks
which run batteries down, and in time
may
broken wire through electrolytic action.
phone systems one or more grounds may
cause a
In
tele-
also serious-
ly interfere with the talking qualities of a line, even

if the
grounds are
all
on one side of the
circuit.
CHAPTER
VIII.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Whenever a current
flowing in a wire
is
duces lines of force surrounding that wire.

current in the wire flows
the lines of
right,
clockwise.
e.,
pro-
If the
away from the observer
force will encircle the wire
i,
it
from
(See Figure 65.)
left to
Lines of
magnet (compass needle) at

and
leave it at the north seekpole
seeking
the south
force always enter a
ing end.
FIGURE
From
this
it
65.
follows that if a compass be held
under a wire in which a current
flowing from you
is
the north seeking end of the needle will deflect toward

the left; while if the current
flowing toward you
is
it.
-^M>N
FIGURE
will deflect
66.
toward the right.
above the wire the deflections
If the compass
will
the above, as shown in Figure 66*
86
is
held
be the reverse of
MISCELLANEOUS
87
Unless an extremely delicate compass be at hand,

this
method of determining the directions of currents
in wires will be confined to comparatively large cur-
If there are any magnets in the circuit, and
rents.
if
we know
the direction in which they are wound,
we can very
easily determine
the direction of the
current, since the relative direction of current
magnetism
will
FIGURE
If there
is
and
be as in Figure 67.
no magnet
67.
available, one
may
be tem-
porarily constructed out of a screwdriver or pocketknife
by taking a few turns of the current carrying
wire around
it.
If no compass
is
at hand, one can
be made from a piece of cork and a

afloat in
steel needle set
a cup of water, the needle being
first
mag-
netized.
hand be held above a wire as in Figure 67, in which the current is flowing from you and
the winding as shown in the figure, the north pole of
If the right
WIRING DIAGRAMS
88
the magnet will be as shown.
If the direction of
winding be reversed, or the direction of the current,

the north pole will be at the other end.
All magnets have a retarding effect on alternating
or intermittent currents.
shown
in
erally
jump
With an arrangement
Figure 68, a lightning discharge
will
as
gen-
the small distance between the points of
the lightning arrester rather than pass through the
mx
noon
<sj
'^
'^
FIGURE
coils
'^
HII
of the magnet.
When, however, a
once been started around a magnet
tendency to continue, and
spark
if
h--
FIGURE
68.
will
it
manifest
69.
current has
has a strong
itself in
a long
suddenly interrupted, as in a gas-lighting
drawn to illustrate this, and the magnet there shown is of very

low resistance compared with the lamp shown in multiple with it. If the battery circuit is closed the magspark
coil,
for instance.
Figure 69
is
net will be energized, but no appreciable current will

flow through the lamp.
If
suddenly opened, there
will
now
the battery circuit
charge through the lamp, causing
an instant.
is
be a strong current disit
to flash
up
for
MISCELLANEOUS
Figure 70
89
designed to illustrate some of the dif-
is
The winding
ferences in electrical currents.
of mag-
net A, if properly proportioned, will be found to be
almost impenetrable to rapidly alternating or intermittent currents, while
it
may
offer hardly
sistance to continuous currents.
any
re-
continuous cur-
'5
FIGURE
70.
an ordinary bell would be much retarded

by it, however, and the bell would work very slow.
B has two windings opposed to each other. If one
rent working
winding only
is
in circuit it will act similar to
A;
if
r::
*i
FIGURE
71.
the switch on the second winding
be but
little
retardation.
is
closed there will
The condenser C
entirely
prevents the passage of continuous currents, but tele-
phonic currents pass readily through, and polarized

bells
may
also be
made
to ring through
it.
Figure 71 shows the plan of an ordinary induction

coil.
The
terrupter,
iron core
and
when energized
attracts the in-
this breaks the current at C, as in
WIRING DIAGRAMS
90
vibrating
primary
At
bell.
circuit
make and break
every
In the
secondary currents are induced in
the fine secondary winding.
The
circuit breaker is
bridged by a condenser in order to reduce the sparking to some extent.

is
With cheap
coils
the condenser
usually omitted.
Two
wires carrying current in the same direction
each other, while if currents are in oppo-
will attract
site directions
A leak
destroy
An
it;
they will repel each other.
ground on a
to
positive wire will gradually
the negative will not be affected much.
easy method of determining the direction of
current consists in letting the current pass through a

little
The
water confined in a cup.
from
hydrogen bubbles appear, which
current will flow
the positive pole to the wire at which small
This method
The
which
is
contacts of bells,
produce
is
frequent
relays
To
in
current,
determine whether
they are platinum or not, drop a
attack
negative.
and other devices
interruptions
should consist of platinum.
on them;
the
not applicable to low voltage systems.
little
nitric acid
this acid will not affect platinum, but will
German
A continuous
silver
and other
imitations.
current will carry an arc
than an alternating current.
much longer
It also produces
chemical action directly in proportion to
its
amount
in amperes.
magnet
in
an alternating
duce the current, and the iron
circuit will greatly rewill
be heated by the
MISCELLANEOUS
91
frequent reversals in the direction of magnetism.

the magnet
nations
is
lar^ and
the frequency of the alter-
very great, only a very small amount of
is
The magnetism has no such

The heat generated
on continuous currents.
current will flow.
continuous current magnet
effect
in
produced by the re-
is
and the current flow de-
sistance in the wire only,
pends on
If
Alternating currents
this resistance only.
and diminished by lead covered wire or wires run in iron pipe. These wires act
as condensers and currents are also induced in them.
Whenever it is necessary to run wires in this way,
both wires should be enclosed in the same sheath or
are also greatly retarded
Continuous currents are not affected in this
pipe.
way except
for an instant at
make or break.
USEFUL FACTS AND FORMULAS.

In any direct current circuit the current equals the
electromotive force divided
One
application of this law
72, where the voltmeter

rent.
by the
The
value of
ing through
divided
From
is
by R, the
is
is
resistance, I
E
R*
indicated in Figure
used to measure cur-
being known, the current flow-
equal to the voltmeter reading, E,

resistance.
the formula I
= p
- two others are deduced.
Jtv
In Figure 73, knowing the value of the electromotive
WIRING DIAGRAMS
we can
force E, and current I,
by dividing
by
I,
I and the resistance R,

force E,
The
find the resistance
Knowing
=-:j:-.
we can
any
the current
find the electromotive
by multiplying I with R,
volts lost in
= IR.
circuit equal the resistance
of that circuit multiplied by the current.
FIGURE
,V
^t
FIGURE
72.
among
Currents of electricity divide
derived cir-
cuits in proportion to their conductivities,
inverse ratio of their resistances;

sistance takes the
most current.
ance of two circuits in parallel
is
e.,
The
73.
which
is
the
the lower rejoint resist-
equal to the product
of the two resistances divided by their sum.
In Figure 74
5X5 = 2y2
+ 5
The
any number of circuits in

be found by dividing
parallel if all are equals
the resistance of one circuit by the total number of
circuits.
The joint resistance of any number of cirjoint resistance of
may
MISCELLANEOUS
cuits in parallel,
whether they are equal or not,
sum
the reciprocal of the

resistances.
93
is
of the reciprocals of their
Joint resistance equals

1
1
where R, R', R", are
ciprocal of a number
thus one-tenth
is
J_
JL
The reby that number,
different resistances.
is
divided
the reciprocal of 10.
10
^llYotTs
FIGURE
To
FIGURE
74.
find the total current. Figure 75,
find the joint resistance of 20
ing to the above formula,
the other resistance 10, in

electromotive force 11,
one-half
ampere,
of
by
and
we must
first
30, which, accord-
Next add this to

the circuit, and divide the
is
12.
this
sum.
The
which three-tenths
result is
will
pass
and two- tenths through C.

The multiplying power of a shunt
through
75.
is
the ratio of
the total current flowing in the circuit to that part

of it
which flows through the ammeter.
The shunt
WIRING DIAGRAMS
94
required to give a certain multiplying power
is
found
by dividing the resistance to be shunted by the multiplying power desired minus 1.

Thus, if the multiplying power desired is ten, we divide by 10
1,
which is 9. If the resistance to be shunted is 100
ohms, the proper resistance of the shunt

vided by 9, which
11 1/9 ohms.
is
is
100
di-
Nine-tenths of
the current wiil flow through this shunt and 1/10

will flow
through the ammeter.
The amount
tricity
is
of work done by a current of
measured in watts.
To
elec-
determine the num-
ber of watts multiply the square of the current by the

resistance, or
W = I^R.
erated in a wire
is
For
instance, the heat gen-
proportional to the square of the
current; thus, doubling the current wiU produce four

times as
much
Other formulas for determin-
heat.
ing the watts deduced from the above, using Ohm's

law, are
W=I E, or the current times the electromo-
tive force,
W = E^/R,
or watts equak the electro-
motive force squared divided by the resistance.
horse-power equals 746 watts.
To
One
reduce to horse-
power divide the watts by 746.

The magnetism produced in an iron core is to a
certain extent proportional to the number of ampere
turns (current times the number of turns of wire)
is
reached, although
increased,
stiU there will be
but when the point of saturation

the magnetizing force
but
little
is
increase in magnetism.
trates the increase in
magnetism
in
Figure 76
illus-
wrought iron and
MISCELLANEOUS
cast iron, the magnetizing force
95
(ampere turns) be-
ing represented by the distance measured along the

horizontal line and the resulting magnetism
distance along the vertical line.
to bear in
mind when adjusting
This
is
field coils
by the
important
or rheostats
on dynamos or motors.
The circumference of
a circle
is
found by multi-
plying the diameter by 3.1416, or roughly 3 1/7.

The area of a circle is found by multiplying the
square of the diameter by .7854, or the square of
the radius by 3.1416.
ir_
WIRING DIAGRAMS
96
The
resistance of copper wire increases
1^ for each degree
The
,
about
rise
21/100 of
in Fahrenheit.
resistance per mile of pure copper
54882
-o
,
5
The weight of
is
.,
d being
wire
mils,
where d
is
resistance per mile of galvanized iron wire
is
iron wire per mile
is
J At
the diameter in mils.
The
about
d being in mils; or about seven times
that of copper.
The
resistance of
times that of copper.
German
silver is
about thirteen
CHAPTER
EX.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING.
known
distribution.
The
Figure 77 shows what

of
electric light
floor
must be of
sufficient
At each
current.
is
floor or succeeding center of dis-
FIGURE
77.
may
is
be reduced, suitable
FIOIJRB
78.
cutouts being provided as
This system
wires at the lowest
capacity to carry the total
tribution the size of mains
FIGURE
as the tree system
shown
in the
79.
diagram.
not to be recommended, as
it
will
result in great diff'erence of potential between those
branch circuits nearest the dynamo and those at the

97.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
98
When
extreme end of the system.
the mains are fully
loaded, the nearest lamps will either burn too bright
or those at a greater distance be dim.
This
overcome by the arrange-
difficulty is largely
ment shown
in Figure 78.
Figure 79 shows a system of distribution which
very often used.
dynamo, or
The mains
is
are run direct from the
street service, to the last center of dis-
tribution without changing size of wire.
While
this
system has some of the disadvantages of the tree

system in regard to drop,
reduced owing to the
still
much
the losses are greatly

smaller losses on the
mains between those centers farthest away from the

source of supply.
may be run
If
the mains are of small size they
directly through the
branch blocks at
the various centers, as shown at the upper part of the

figure.
If
the mains are too large to be run directly
through the blocks, either of the methods shown in

the lower part of the figure
may be
used, that
shown
at the bottom being preferable for, in case of a short

circuit, across
the contacts on the branch blocks, the
smaller fuse will blow, while
the center
is
if
the method shown in
used the main fuse
will blow.
This ar-
rangement also allows any center to be disconnected for

testing without affecting the remainder of the circuits.
Figure 79a shows how a two wire system may be
converted into a three wire.
to be run.
If the
One
extra wire will have
change over results in doubling the
voltage of the system this wire will not require to be
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
as large as the original wires
to the neutral
shown
e.
i.
99
and should be connected
should run to
all
of the cutouts as
in cut.
FIGURE 79b.
FIGURE 79a.
FIGURE 79c.
Figure 79b shows method of arranging cutouts so

that
all
branch wires on any side of box are of the same
polarity.
This
is
frequently of use in electric signs
where large numbers of wires are often bunched.

In Figure 79c a three wire system is shown converted
into a
two
wire.
As
this usually is
accompanied by a
-^
FIGURE 79d.
reduction in voltage and a consequent increase in
current for the
same number
of lights it will likely
be
necessary to run an additional wire and divide the
cutouts as shown.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
IGQ
Figure 79d shows the manner of connecting cutouts

to a three phase system where cutouts are scattered
along the
line.
Particular attention
must be given to
see that lights are as near as possible balanced between
the phases.
FIGURE
The
is
79e.
delta connection for cutouts grouped together
given in Figure 79e.
By
tracing out the diagram
it
can readily be seen that the cutout connections are

similar to the connections of the single lamps
shown
at the right.
r-O-Tr-O-i
o--t---o
rf^
0:^:3:0
^^
^_^^
FIGURE
79f.
The Voltage of lamps used in connection with this

arrangement must be the same as that of the phases.
The
star connection of cutouts
is
given in Figure
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
79f
If this
connection
is
used
it
101
should have a balanc-
ing wire as shown.
The
this
voltage of lamps to be used in connection with
system must be equal to the voltage of the phases
divided
by
1.73.
This method
--^-T^SO
FIGaRE
Figure 80 shows
not generally used.
is
;>
80.
a two-wire
circuit
with seven
by a double-pole switch, S; three

Kghts controlled by a single-pole switch, S'; and two
lights not controlled by any switch.
lights controlled
_i~y^77o OOOO066e)6
FIGURE
Figures 81 and 82
[ure 81
itch
)y it.
[broken,
is
show
three- wire circuits.
Fig-
arranged with double-pole switches, each
completely disconnecting the wires controlled
In Figure 82 only the two outside wires are

the neutral wire remaining intact.
[9ingle-pole switches are

rire
83-
When
used in connection with three-
systems, they should be placed on one of the
mtside wires, as the neutral wire
is
nearly always
WIRING DIAGRAMS
102
grounded.
to
make
it
No
switch must ever be connected so as
possible to break the neutral wire without
also breaking the outside wires at the
<r
same
instant.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
103'
Figure 86 shows a method of controlling a circuit

from any number of stations. Any number of doublepole switches, as shown in the center,
may
m
FIGURE
the
line.
Snap
2.
85.
switches as shown in Figure 87
may
also be used in place of the throw-over knife switch.
By
1.4
FIGURE
86.
the system shown in Figure 87, a circuit can
also be controlled
from any number of
places.
single-pole switches remain in the center
FIGURE
be cut into
87.
switches are added as required.
[ment polarities
[on
and
off.
may
The
and other
With
this
arrange-
also be reversed in turning
lamps
WIRING DIAGRAMS
104
Figure 88
This
is
able loss
is
known
as an equal potential loop.
useful on long lines where there

;
all
is
consider-
lamps receive the same pressure and
bum
at the same candle-power.
(r~5
FIGURE
88.
Figure 89 shows a method by which lamps may be

used at full candle-power; or, by throwing the
switch over, they
two
in series.
may
be used at half candle-power,
S
&
FIGURE
^3
89.
Figure 90 shows one switch arranged to
When
either two, four or six lamps.
the two top lights alone will burn

rr
5
FIGURE
bum
connected at 1,
at 2 the four bot-
90.
tom lights will burn alone, while by connecting 2 and

3 all six lights will burn.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
105
Figure 91 shows wiring arranged to provide

call
The
for hotels or similar places.
and the lamp
in series with
it
will
bell
2,
will
is
thrown over, the
If the
bell 1
will
(m
ii^
my
fo
ring
burn only as long
as the switch at the cutout remains closed.
double-throw switch
guest
P
o
5U
FIGURE
91.
continue to ring and the lamp will burn until the
guest throws his switch over, or the party calling returns his to the original position.
HI
-X
-^^
O-
i^
ti
FIGURE
92.
In Figure 92 the wiring for low-tension arc lamps

is
shown.
Such lamps may be wired
either in scries
or in midtiple, the wiring being arranged to suit the
kind of lamps used.
With
all
some resistance must be used.
lamps of this kind
With lamps run
in
WIRING DIAGRAMS
106
multiple
is
it
is
usually provided with each lamp, and
generally built in with the lamp.
Figure 93 shows a throw-over switch
so
arranged
that only one lamp at a time can be used, one resist-
ance answering for both.
All switches used in con-
^^
FIGURE
93.
nection with direct-current arc lamps must be ar-
ranged so that
polarities cannot be
changed by them.
Figure 94 shows connections enabling one to burn

either the
two lamps at the right or those at the
only two at a time being used.
left,
This arrangement
re-
quires the use of series lamps.
3JI
51^ -X-
FIGURE
94.
Figure 95 shows a system of wiring which makes

it
possible to light all of the lamps in a building,
not controlled by key sockets, from three different

places at any time, even after they have been turned
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
off
by the occupants of rooms.
107
In the top part of
the figure one double-throw switch and one three-way
tit
FIGURE
snap switch are shown.
95.
Whenever, by either of
these switches, the lamps are turned off, the switches
WIRING DIAGRAMS
108
make connection with
the cutouts above, so that
by
throwing any one of the three knife-switches the
lamps
may
pose.
By
lights
may
In the lower part of
be lighted again.
the figure one circuit
is
arranged for the same pur-
closing the single-pole switch S,
of the
all
be turned on at any time, excepting, of
This
course, those that are turned off at the sockets.
arrangement
very useful in case of
is
emergency where
it is
fire,
or
any
desired to illuminate a whole
house quickly.
UM
3B
3_l
FIGURE
96.
Figure 96 shows the wiring of a convertible system.
By
means of the three-wire switch, connections may
be made to either a two or three-wire supply.

this system the middle or neutral wire should
as
much carrying capacity
it
must carry the
full load, while either of the outside wires
group
system.
have
as both outside wires, since
when used with a two-wire supply

but half the current.
With
need carry
Cutouts of the kind shown in
1 should not be used in connection with this
They
are not very objectionable in straight
three-wire systems, but
when used
in connection with
two-wire systems the middle fuse must be doubled to
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
109
Such cutouts as are shown
carry the load.
2 are preferable.
Great care
is
in
group
necessary when arc
They
lamps are to be connected to such a system.
can be connected with one side of the neutral only,
and
this side
not reversed
must be arranged so that polarities are

when the main switch is thrown over.
^^/
i
Where
FIGURE
97.
arc lamps are used extensively and where
it is
necessary to balance the load, as on the Edison threewire system, the wiring used in Fig. 97
may
be em-
In place of the two double-pole, double-
ployed.
throw switches, a four-pole, double-throw switch
may
be used.
FBED
JF=C2J
FIGURE
^.
98.
Figure 98 shows incandescent lamps arranged
I^Beries.
This plan of lighting
I^Bonnection with
street
is
in
generally used in
railway work.
The
figure
110
WIRING DIAGRAMS
ent voltage.
Instead of the ground a return wire
may
be used.
Figure 99 shows the wiring of a high-tension arc

circuit.
group of incandescent lamps
shown.
When
nection
with
enough lamps
is
also
incandescent lamps are used in con-
arc
lamps as
shown there must be
group
to take the current used
in each
by the arc lamps. The switch S controls the incandescent lamps and also the arc lamps 1, 2, 3 by
The
simply short-circuiting them.
FIGURE
S' controls the group
turned off this group

is
the only safe
A
is
and
double-pole switch
99.
is
so
arranged that when
entirely disconnected.
way of switching
This
high-tension arcs:
where they are merely short-circuited they are nearly

as unsafe to handle as
incandescent lamp
switch.
When
is
this
when burning.
At B one
shown controlled by a single-pole

lamp is burning it robs the arc
lamp of as much current
as
it
requires, the
amount
of current depending on the candle-power of the
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
111
Incandescent lamps should be used on arc
lamp.
cuits only in
risk of
is little
cir-
an emergency and then only where there

fire.
Figure 100 shows a diagram of the connections of

a theater switchboard.
sets
The board
is
fed by the two
of mains shown by the arrows on the lower sets
of bus bars.
The
lower set of bus bars feeds the
lights in the house, or auditorium, switch 51 control-
ling the majority of these lights.
running from
all
of bus bars
number of smaller
this switch feeds a
main switches which control
set
the lights in the differ-
ent sections of the house, such as the gallery, bal-
cony, main floor,
etc.
Bus bars running from
these
switches feed other switches which control the differ-
ent groups of lights in the various sections of the

house.
The
other set of main bus bars at the bottom of
the board feeds the lights on the stage, these lights
being controlled by four main switches:

controls all the white lights
and 43,
all
35,
all
24, which
the red lights,
the blue lights, smaller switches being used
to control the different colored lights in the foots,
borders, strips, etc.
The
switches which operate the white lights, 17 to
23 and 26
tacts of
trolled
to 32, are all double-throw, the
which are connected to a
set
upper con-
of bus bars con-
by the main white switch, 24, while the lower
contacts are connected to a set of bus bars indepen-
dent of this switch.
By means
of this arrangement
WIRING DIAGRAMS
112
part of the lights can be thrown off by the main

switch while certain ones are left burning.
f
8
M
ai
lo
12
mi
jc
H||HJMjjji!nj!!njn!!
7-2'
7-J
7*'
}
3:i
3\j
o*
*xi
57
"^
."&
oO
7.-.
^0
V/
IUi!}!!J
OO
, 0! "
o5
03.
Stasc But Bars
s
FIGURE
few of the
circuits are
House Bus Bar
100.
shown connected to the
dimmers from which they run to the branch

cutouts.
circuit
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
1.
113
WIRING DIAGRAMS
114
burn when the car is traveling downward.

lamps are connected to a series of contacts,
^\
etc.,
These
^, 3,
1\
which are mounted on a device generally
lo-
cated at the top of the shaft near the elevator machine.
sliding
contact,
which
is
operated by
means of a screw geared to the

elevator
drum and
so designed that
the motion of the elevator car from
the top to the bottom of the shaft

will
move the contact
piece over
the entire length of bar
a,
makes
connection between the contacts a
ethfi.
6th
ft.
''*^
and 2, 3, ^, 5, 6, while the car is

moving upward, and between a'
and r, 2\ 3\ 4,\ 6\ while the car
is moving downward.
This movof such size that
able contact
is
connection
made
is
to three or four
of the contacts, ^, S, i, etc., at

one time. The operation is as fol-
3(1 ft.
lows:
3d ft.
Suppose the car
bottom of the shaft.
is
at the
The
sliding
contact piece will connect a with

ntp.
FIGURE
contacts 2,
3 and
^.
Current
will
101.
Main to the
"up" lamps on the 2d, 3d and 4th floors. As the car
moves upward contact is made to points, ^, ^ and 5,
while the contact to the 2d floor is broken. In this way
then flow from the
the lamps on three or four floors ahead of the car will
ELECTRIC LIGHTING
115
burn until the car reaches the top of the shaft.

last contact, 6, is
of such size that
it will
The
take in the
whole movable contact so that while the car
is
at the
top of the shaft the light on the 6th floor only will
burn and
this light
shows that the car
is
going down.
When the car starts to move downward the connection

l^fcbetween a and 6 is broken and connection made be^tween a' and 5\ ^' and 3\ the "down" lamps on the
corresponding floors then burning. As the car moves
l^pdownward
the operation previously explained will be
repeated except that the
"down" lamps
will burn.
CHAPTER
X.
ARC LAMPS, NERNST LAMP, COOPER HEWITT LAMP.

Figure 102 shows the
Brush arc lamp.
This lamp
rent, direct-current systems.
FIGURE
positive binding post
the resistance
R to the
of the improved
circuits
is
used on constant-cur-
The
current enters the
102.
and part of
it
goes through
carbon rods C, C, then through
the carbons to the negative post N.
The remainder
of
the current passes through wire a to the cutout block
C, O, but, as the cutout
is
closed at
116
first,
the current
ARC LAMPS
117
crosses over througli the cutout bar to the starting
R, and to the negative
resistance S,
a part of this current, however,
is
side of the
lamp
shunted at the cut-
out block through the coarse wire winding of the
magnets M, M, and so to the upper carbon rod and

carbons and out. The fine wire winding of the magnets
M, M,
is
connected in the opposite direction to
the coarse winding, and

posite.
When
its
attraction
is
therefore op-
the arc increases in length,
its
resist-
ance increases, and consequently the current in the

fine
wire
is
The
increased.
^^wire winding
is
attraction of the coarse
therefore partly overcome and the
^mrmature
begins to
^Bened and
the current in the fine wire decreases.
fine
fall.
wire of the magnets
As
it falls
M, M,
is
the arc
is
short-
The
connected in series
with the winding of the auxiliary magnet M'.
This
^pknagnet, which also has a supplementary coarse windI
ing, does not raise
its
armature unless the voltage at
the arc increases to 70 volts.

ect at the inside terminal
The two windings
con-
on the lower side of the
magnet and the current from the

ne wire of the main magnets passes through both
indings and then to the cutout block and so to the
tarting resistance and out.
If the main current is
uxiliary cutout
interrupted (as by the breaking of the carbons) the
lamp passes through the fine

ire circuit.
This will energize the auxiliary maget M' and close a circuit directly across the lamp
rough the coarse wire on M' to the main cutout
hole current of the
WIRING DIAGRAMS
118
and thence
When
to negative terminal.
the
main cut-
out C, O, operates, the armature of the auxihary cut-
out
falls
because there
circuit to energize the

off
by
In
is
not sufficient current in that
magnet.
This lamp
is
switched
N, N'.
current arc lamps care must be taken
simply short circuiting
all direct
it
across
to see that the current enters at the proper binding
away about
post, as the positive carbon burns
as fast as the negative carbon.
When
ing a small cup-shaped formation
a lamp
will
is
twice
burn-
be noticed at
the arc on the positive carbon and a small projection
on the negative carbon.
Lamps
nected so that the upper carbon
are generally conis
positive,
and
this
hollow formation on the positive will throw the light
downward.
way
In
the light
this
is
way
it
can be determined by the
thrown as to whether a lamp
is
burn-
ing right side up or not.

arc
circuits in
a constant current
lamp for use on alternating current systems.
When
the
lamp
is
switched on current passes through
the coarse winding of
magnet
M and then to the car-
bon rod and carbons and out at the other terminal.

This energizes
and
attracts the core
A, thus
ing the upper carbon and establishing the
arc.
rais-
The
magnet M'' is wound with a great length of fine wire

and opposes magnet M. As the resistance of the arc
increases more current is sent around the fine wire
winding of M' and the core A and the carbon thus
lowered.
If for any reason (breaking of the car-
ARC LAMPS
119
bons, etc.), the resistance at the arc
of the cutout
C come
rent will pass through

T'.
The
resistance of
in contact
C and
is
that just enough current
greatly in-
is
A will be lowered until the two points
creased, the core
is
when the main cur-
resistance
to the post
in such proportion to
sent around
M'
M'
keep
to
By
means of the spring S the

length of the arc may be adjusted. Tightening the
the cutout
spring
closed.
increases
the
amount of current
arc
to flow
by requiring a greater
around M' to lower the
carbons.
FIGURE
103.
FIGURE
104.
Figure 104 shows the winding of a constant potential,
alternating current arc lamp.
or choking
coil,
the purpose of which
is
is
the voltage of the line to that required
This
coil
a reactance
to cut
down
by the
arc.
takes the place of the resistance coil in the
120
WIRING DIAGRAMS
'
direct current, constant potential lamp.
The
current
T to the magnets M, M,
and then to the upper carbon, from there to the lower
carbon and then through the reactance coil and out
passes from the binding post
at the other terminal.
It will be noticed that this
lamp has no shunt winding

This
current lamp.
the terminals
bum away
is
is
similar to the constant
unnecessary as the voltage at
practically constant.
the current through
As the carbons
M, M,
due to the increased resistance of the

armature
is
is
decreased,
arc,
and the
lowered, thus lowering the carbons.
NERNST LAMP
lamps
stant-potential
cannot
be
121
operated
without
some resistance to steady the current.

Figure 105 shows the diagram of a Nernst lamp.
In the diagram,
is the heater, which is made up of
a winding of platinum wire on a porcelain tube. The
glower
is
composed of an oxide which at the ordi-
nary temperature
is
of very high resistance but when
heated lowers in resistance considerably.
is
made up of
sistance as
it
fine iron
The
ballast
wire which increases in re-
becomes heated, thus tending to
stead}*^
and keep the voltage over the glower as

near constant as possible. When the lamp is started
current passes through the heater H, gradually heat[ing it and the glower, which is located directly below
the current
sit.
As
through
the glower
it
is
heated current begins to pass
and the cutout magnet M,
until finally
[becomes strong enough to attract the cutout
opens the heater
circuit.
open as long as current
These lamps are made
This circuit
is
will
it
which
then remain
passing through the glower.
in several sizes
from one to
six
glower and they consume when burning 88 watts per

glower.
Each glower
the
lamp
when the lamp
equal in candle-power to
16 candle-power incandescent lamps.
three ordinary
When
is
is
is
started
more current
is
used than
burning, owing to the fact that the
heater coils are in circuit.
In the six-glower lamp
which takes when burning 2.4 amperes on 220
volts,
the starting current rises to about 3.2 amperes.
These
lamps are at present used only on alternating current
WIRING DIAGRAMS
122
systems as the glower becomes blackened in a short

time when used on direct-current systems.
Figure 106 shows a diagram of the connections
ot
the Cooper Hewitt mercury vapor lamp.
0^
The
COOPER HEWITT LAMP
123
the tube to which leading in wires are attached and

at the lower ends with iron cups which are partially
with mercury.
filled
Either of two different methods
are used to start the lamp.
great inductance
In one case a
coil
of
used to send a kick of current
is
through the tube between the positive and negative
down
electrodes, thus breaking
In the other method after
allowing current to flow.

the current
is
the high resistance and
turned on the tubes are tipped until
all
the mercury in the lower cup flows out into the tube
and forms a path

tube
is
to the
upper
the
tipped back and the column of mercury leaves
the upper electrode light
positive
main
flows
given
is
through the cutout, switch S, to
T' then through tube T'
positive terminal of tube
to the negative terminal
through
this tube
The connec-
off^.
Current passing from the
tions can be easily traced.
tlie
As
electrode.
and out
to the
of tube T,
and the adjustable resistance R to

The two tubes and the
the negative side of the line.
resistance are simply connected in series
to see that current flows through the
proper direction
wrong
the
will
for,
if
current
direction, even for a
be ruined.
through the
Great care must be taken
proper cutout and switch.
The type
is
lamp
in
through
sent
the
in
few minutes, the tube
of lamp shown
is
used for
photographic purposes and takes about 3.5 amperes

at
110
volts
when running normally.
time.
At
the start
little
over 100;^ for a very short
The ordinary lamp
consisting of a single tube
the current rises to a
WIRING DIAGRAMS
124
is
rated at about 750 C. P.
After the lamps have
been in use for some time (about 1600 hours), the
lamp becomes coated with a brownish substance and small globules of mercury will adhere to the
inside of the
sides.
The
tubes then have to be replaced.
For photo-
graphic purposes this lamp taking 3.5 amperes compares very favorably with a 10 ampere arc lamp.
CHAPTER
XI.
EECORDING WATTMETERS.
circuits in the two-wire
son recording wattmeter.
One of the mains
nected through the winding
con-
M, M, which forms
The armature of
of a motor.
fields
Thomis
this
motor
the
con-
is
nected across the mains in series with a resistance
and the shunt

cuit,
whether there
is
or not, and
it is
motor.
purpose
Its
This shunt
field S.
field is
always in
cir-
current used through the meter
so arranged that
is
it
tends to start the
to overcome the friction of the
iarmature so that the meter will register on very small

loads.
It will be noticed that the connection for the
potential circuit
is
taken off the main at A.
done so that the meter
This
will register the current
in the potential circuit,
and
this is
one reason
is
used
why
the generator must always be connected on the left

side
this
and the load on the right side of the meter.

is fed from the wrong side it
form of meter
run backward.
In Figure 107
it will
If
will
be seen that if
the feed were reversed (leaving polarities
unchanged)
the current through the fields would be in the opposite direction,
while that through the armature would
remain unchanged, hence the motor would be reversed.
Used on direct-current
this
125
meter runs as a simple
WIRING DIAGRAMS
126
direct current
motor and when used on alternating
current, at each reversal of the current the polarities
of both the
fields
and armature are changed simulta-
neously; and the motor will therefore continue to
run
in the one direction, because
tion of current in both the fields
changing the
direc-
and armature of a
shunt motor does not change the direction of rota-
There is no iron used in the construction of the

motor and therefore no loss from heating.
tion.
FIGURE
107.
FIGURE
108.
Figure 108 shows the two-wire meter for heavy

The circuits in this meter vary from the pre-
loads.
ceding one only in having but one main carried
through the meter with a tap to the other main.

Figure 109 shows the three-wire meter. The two
wires (positive and negative) are carried
outside
through the meter, one through each field, and the

is connected from one outside to the neutral.
armature
In some of the three-wire meters no neutral tap
is
RECORDING WATTMETERS
127
used, the potential circuit being connected directly

across the outside mains.
FIGURE
109.
FIGURE
110.
Figure 110 shows a meter for a balanced three

phase
line.
Figure 111 shows a station meter for use on

arc
series
lines.
J^ktiit^t
s u u niHi-u- -
FIGURE
111.
FIGURE
112.
Figure 112 shows a meter used on switchboards to

record the entire current passing through the bus
bars.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
128

This meter
wattmeter.
rents only
is
and depends for
circuits
the
in
Gutmann
used with alternating curits
action on an
aluminum
disk, slotted in spiral lines, operated in joint action
with a shunt laminated magnet

series coils S, S.
and a pair of
coil S'
In the two-wire meter the
series coils
are connected in series with one of the mains and the
shunt
coil is
diagram.
connected across the mains as shown in
The
loss in the
shunt
coil
does not exceed
1 J^ watts on the 110 volt 60 cycle meter and the drop

in the series coil does not exceed J4
full load
on the small
size meters,
ally less in the larger meters.
/^
of one Tolt on
and
is
proportion-
RECORDING WATTMETERS
No
coil.
circuit
is
tap
is
129
taken to the neutral as the pressure
connected across the mains as in the 200-250
volt meter.
Figure 116 shows a meter for use on either 100 or
200
volt systems.
lines is for
The
100
The
volts
reactance coil
connection shown in the full
and the dotted for 200
volts.
balanced to have exactly the
is
same choke as the shunt
coil.
.L^
sEi
FIGURE
FIGURE
115.
116.
In Figure 117 the connections of an Edison chemical,
three-wire meter are shown.
The two
outsides
only are carried through the meter, no neutral connection being used.
the
first
This type of meter was one of
used on commercial work, the amount of cur-
rent having passed through the meter in a given time
being determined by the amount of zinc deposited on

the negative electrode.
These meters are rapidly be-
ing replaced by the mechanical meters.

Figure 118 shows a diagram of what
the
is
Wright discount or demand
meter.
is
known as
This meter
used in connection with recording wattmeters to de-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
130
termine the
maximum
during a given time.

desired to
it is
know
passed through the
current which has been used
It
the
also used on circuits where
is
maximum
glass bulb connected to a tube
U which
Around bulb B
with a liquid.
current which has
is
flowing in this wire heat
in the bulb
is
and
until
I join,
resistance
When
current
generated and the air
is
it
FIGURE
117.
118.
reaches the point where the tube
when
it will
of liquid in tube I
flow into tube
will
I.
sistance wire on bulb B.
The
scale
graduated in amperes and watts.
eff'ected
the
by momentary
maximum
The amount
ter; ten minutes,
100^
will register.
95^
five
re-
back of tube I
The meter
is
increases in the current.
current lasts
depend on the maximum
amount of current which has passed through the

is
expanded thus forcing the liquid around
FIGURE
tube
is
partly fiUed
is
wound a
wire which carries the main current.

is
In the diagram,
circuit.
minutes 80^
not
If
will regis-
will register; thirty minutes,
CHAPTER
XII.
DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS.
Figure 119 shows the winding of a

use on constant-potential circuits.
fields
and armature are
cuit.
The purpose of
a resistance in
sert
motor for
main
in series across the
the starting box
series
FIGURE
starting, to prevent
series
In this motor the
SB
is
cir-
to in-
with the armature when
119.
an excessive flow of current which
would result were the main current thrown on fully

with the armature at
rest.
To
start the
motor the
main switch S is closed, and the arm of the starting*

is moved gradually from one contact to another
box
until
it
has reached the position where no resistance
left in circuit.
magnet
off,
It is then held
is
by means of the small
in this position until the current is cut
or for some reason ceases to flow, when, by means

131
WIRING DIAGRAMS
132
of a spring attached to
original position.
the current on while
armature
circuit.
it,
arm
the
This makes
all
The
it
the resistance
small
back to
will fly
its
impossible to throw
magnet
out of the
is
is
connected
directly across the mains, generally having a resist-
ance in series with

box, and
it
to reduce the voltage on the
This resistance
winding.
is
is
placed in the starting
not shown in the drawing.
the automatic coil
is
In some motors
connected in series with the
main current, but in this case the variations in the

current from no load to full load make its use unsatisfactory.
The speed of a
series
motor varies with the load,
decreasing as the load increases and vice versa.

the load
is
entirely
removed the motor
will
If
run away,
unless, as in the case of very small motors, the
ohmic
and armature is sufficient to

control it. This type of motor is also used on street
car work, although in this case the starting box is replaced with a controller which, by varying the resistresistance of the field
ance or connecting the motors in
series
or multiple
(where two motors are used), varies the speed.
Figure 127.]
Reversing either the
field
[See
or armature
connections will reverse the direction of rotation.
If
and armature are both reversed the motor will

same direction.
This motor is always protected from overload by
a fuse or circuit-breaker placed in the main circuit.
Fuses are shown in the drawing on the motor switch.
the
run
field
in the
DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS
133
Figure 120 shows the winding of a shunt motor.
The
field
and armature of
shunt across the main

is
motor are placed
this
The
circuit.
in
SB
starting box
placed in the armature circuit and performs the
same service as in the constant-potential,
series
The automatic
connected in
coil
series
with the
motor
is
of the starting box
field
The speed of
circuit.
practically constant,
type of motor
is
and for
extensively
FIGURE
started in the same
way
is
field
a shunt
this reason this
used.
The motor
is
and
is
120.
as the series motor,
protected from overload in the same way.

the
motor.
If either
or armature connections are reversed the mo-
tor will run in the opposite direction.
a shunt motor
in either the
may
The speed of
be varied by inserting resistance
armature or
field
circuit
[See Figure
124], or by shifting the brushes.

It
must
line in
also be
remembered that the
long runs feeding a motor
loss
will cut
in the
down
the
P. D. at the armature, and this will decrease the speed
WIRING DIAGRAMS
134
as the load increases.
To
obviate this the size of
wire should be chosen so that the drop in potential

shall be as small as possible.
Figure 121 shows the winding of a compound motor.
In addition to the shunt winding on the
an extra winding
armature.
The
is
added, which
starting box
is
is
in series with the
connected in series
with the armature, and the automatic

nected in series with the shunt
fields
field
coil
is
con-
as in the shunt
135
the increased current in the series winding will partly

neutralize the effect of the shunt winding
the magnetism of the
field,
On
the speed of the motor.
and decrease
thus tending to increase

loads which have a con-
stant variation, such as the planer, for instance, when,
at the end of each stroke a great increase of load
comes on, the differential motor
The cumulative motor
is
apt to spark badly.
will in the
decrease in speed at each stroke.
motor
is
not as
efficient as
the fact that there
two
fields
same case slightly
The
differential
the cumulative form from
a waste of current due to the
is
opposing each other.
Where motors
are used in isolated plants the motor
switches should be opened before the plant
is
shut
down.
number of
speed of a motor
different
may
rotation reversed, are
the three-wire system
may
connections
shown
is
by which the
be varied or the direction of

in
Figure 122.
Where
in use the speed of a motor
be varied by using the three-wire, double-throw
switch shown at the left of the diagram.
With the
switch thrown to the upper position the armature will

obtain the full line voltage, and with the switch on the
lower position the armature will receive the voltage
between the outside and the neutral; while the
field
will receive in both cases the full voltage of the
line.
In the 110-220 volt system the upper connection
and the lower connection 110 volts on

the armature, the field receiving 220 volts. It is cusgives
220
volts
136
WIRING DIAGRAMS
tomary to use a
three-wire,
single-throw switch to
connect the service to the motor, this switch being
placed in the line before the double-throw switch and
being used whenever
it is
desired to shut
down
the

The double-throw
motor.
switch
is
137
only operated
when the motor is at rest.

In the upper part of the diagram are shown the
connections of the Cutler-Hammer underload and
overload starting box. With the movable arm A on
contact shown in drawing no current will flow.
If
the arm is moved to contact 1 current will flow from
the main through magnet U to the arm A, through
all the resistance to the series field and armature and
to the other side of the line.
arm has made
As soon
through the winding of magnet

shunt
and opposite
field
contact, where all the resistance

circuit.
When
it
is
it
is
The arm
cut out of the
attracts the armature

this position as
long
flowing through the magnet.
If the main supply were for any reason shut

the
magnet
(which
is
is
reaches the last
reaches this point the
magnet M, which is energized,

on the arm A and holds it in
as current
and out to the
side of line.
gradually moved to the right until
armature
as the movable
contact with 1, current will also flow
off',
would be de-energized, and the arm
equipped with a spring) would
the "off*" position.
This makes
it
all
the armature circuit.
In case the
back to
impossible for the
supply current to be momentarily cut
thrown on again while
fly
the resistance
off'
is
and then
cut out of
field circuit
should
open, by the breaking of a wire, for instance, the
magnet
off'.
M would be de-energized and the current
When
the motor
is
cut
shut down by opening the
WIRING DIAGRAMS
138
motor switch, the arm
will
not fly back until the
speed of the motor has considerably decreased, owing

to the fact that the motor
is
acting as a generator and
sending current around the shunt
The purpose of
tor
from any
a short
magnet
the
field
is
excessive rise in current,
circuit in the
too heavy a load.
and
coil
mo-
due either to
motor or to the throwing on of
With
the normal current flowing
through the winding of U, the armature below

not be attracted; but
amount the armature
M.
to protect the
if
is
it will
the current exceeds a certain

attracted,
and the winding of
M short-circuited at the point

demagnetizing M and allowing the arm A to
the automatic magnet
P, thus
back and shut
fly
off^
the current from the motor.
The armature below magnet U is adjustable, so that

it may be set to operate at whatever current is desired.
Similar apparatus to the above
may
be used to
regulate the speed of the motor by applying resist-
ance in
down
series
with the armature, and thus cutting
the current; but in such case the apparatus
is
designed to carry the full current for an indefinite
The automatic
time.
coil
is
arranged to attract
an armature which is connected to a pivoted lever,

having a point at the other end which fits into a series
of indentations on the lower part of arm A, and holds
the
tion
arm squarely over the

it
may
contacts in whatever posi-
be placed for the required speed.
Strengthening the
field
of a motor tends to decrease

the speed, and weakening the
speed.
shunt
may
SR
field
is
field
139
to increase the
a rheostat connected in series with the
by means of which more or
be cut in series with the
fields.
less resistance
Cutting in more
resistance will reduce the current in the fields,
and
thus weaken them and increase the speed, and cutting
out resistance will act in the opposite way.
The
two-pole, double throw switch shown in lower
may
right-hand corner
be used to reverse the direc-
With
tion of rotation of the armature.
thrown to the upper contacts the current
the switch
will enter
the armature from the right-hand side, and with the

switch thrown to the lower contacts current will enter
on the left-hand
side of the armature, thus reversing
This switch should never
the direction of rotation.
be thrown while the motor
is
running, but should be
thrown over while the armature
is
at rest.
Figure 123 shows connections for the Cutler-Ham-
mer printing-press
motor.
size
is
controller, as used with a shunt
a resistance box generally in the larger
motors installed separately from the controller,
and connected
to
it
by wire
leads.
The automatic
is connected in series with the field circuit, and

when current is on attracts an armature (not shown
in drawing) which is connected to a pivoted lever, the
coil
other end of which
fits
into a series of indentations
on the lower end of the arm

whatever position
made
in two
it
may
and holds the arm
in
is
be placed.
pieces, separated
The arm
by an insulator
so that
WIRING DIAGRAMS
140
the upper and lower parts are not in electrical con-
As the arm is moved to point 1, current

from the mains enters the lower part of the arm and
goes to the copper segment S. From there it is carnection.
ried to the
armature and back to the segment T.
It
10
FIGURE
123.
then crosses the upper part of the arm to the contact

1
and through
all
the resistance in
point 10 to the other side of the
and back
The
line.
simply connected across the mains through

If the
arm
is
moved
to
field is
coil
M.
to point 1, the current will
then flow through the armature in the opposite direction, thus reversing the direction of rotation.
With
the arm on contact 10
all
This controller has ten varia-
tions in speed forward,
the resistance
is
cut out of
and two backward.
At
the

left is
shown a diagram of the connections of

when used with a compound motor.
141
this
starting box
In Figure 124 are shown connections for the Cutler-
Hammer
The
self-starter used with a
motor driven pump.
connections shown are for a
compound motor.
UufMH
FIGURE
is
124.
a solenoid connected across the mains through the
switch
and the arm
of the self-starter.
The
current in this circuit varies from 34 to 1 ampere,
according to the
controlled
that
bj a
size
motor used.
float in the tank,
it will close
The
and
is
switch
as the level of the water lowers
open again when the tank has become
is
so arranged
filled.
and
This
WIRING DIAGRAMS
1142
switch
When
may
be placed any distance from the m^tor.
the switch
and the
closes, the solenoid
copper contact piece,
end of which
core, at the lower
ener^zed,
is
attached a
is
closes the contacts
E, E', thus
allowing current to flow through the series
armature of the motor and through

in the starter.
At
the same time,
all
when
and
field
the resistance
E'' is closed
current passes through the solenoid S' and through

the small spring connecting contacts
energizes the solenoid S'
This
B'.
and draws up the core and
arm A, thus gradually cutting resistance out of the

When the arm reaches the upper
armature circuit.
contact, the circuit
at
through the solenoid S^
and the lamps thrown
in series with
is
it.
opened
This
is
done to cut down the current flowing through the

solenoid, as less current
in place than to
cuit
move
it
is
required to keep the
over the contacts.
The
arm
cir-
from the small solenoid S is connected to the

so that when the arm A moves upward
contact 1
lamps are thrown
down
in series with this circuit, to cut
S to that required
any reason the supply
current is cut off^, the contact E E' cannot be closed
until the arm A has moved to the lower point, where
the current in the solenoid
to just hold it; so that, if for
all
the resistance
is
in the
armature
circuit.
The num-
ber of lamps used varies with the size of motor. This
same apparatus can be used with any air pump, or

elevator in which the motor does not reverse, the
switch
being replaced with the necessary switch.

On
the solenoid
S the small magnets
143
K are used to ex-
tinguish the arc at the break.
Figure 125 shows a diagram of the connections of
The
a shunt motor used for blowing a pipe organ.
arm of the
resistance
box
mechanically connect-
is
ed to the bellows of the pipe organ so that

tion
is
When
its
posi-
determined by the amount of air in the bellows.

all
of the air
is
out of the bellows the arm of
FIGURE
the rheostat
is
in circuit, or as
125.
where no resistance
in the position
shown
in the
diagram.
As
is
the motor
up and air is forced into the bellows the rheoarm slowly moves over the series of contacts cut-
speeds
stat
ting resistance into the circuit at each step.

bellows are completely
tact
series
where
with
all
filled
the
arm
is
When
on the
of the resistance of the box
the motor, this
resistance
the
last con-
is
in
being great
WIRING DIAGRAMS
144
enough to completely stop

scription
it
will
From
it.
the above de-
be seen that the action
is
automatic,
the speed of the motor being governed
by the amount
After the organ has been
of air taken by the organ.
at rest for some time the air gradually leaks out of
arm moves to the point

For this reason a
the bellows and the rheostat
where no resistance
starting box
is
is
in circuit.
always provided.
Figure 126 shows the connections of the Cutler-
Hammer compound drum

troller
controller, this
type of con-
being used on printing presses, cranes and
other work requiring a frequent change in speed and
In the upper part of the dia-
direction of rotation.
gram is shown the drum laid out, the contact rings

X, Y, Z, Y\ 7/ and W, and the segments below being
mounted on a revolving drum, while the contacts 1 to
7 and B, A, SF, B' A', SF' and L are stationary,
being supplied with fingers which make contact with
drum is revolved.
drum moved to the first point on the forward motion the rings X, Y, Z will come in contact
the segments opposite as the
With
with A,
the
SF and
and the rings
1 respectively,
with B', SF' and L.
Current
will
W, Y' 7/
then flow from the
main through the series field to the resistance box

R and through all the resistance to the point 1 of the
From 1 it passes to contact ring Z, and
controller.
-|-
then through ring
and contact
and back to B' and ring
to the negative side of the
to the armature
and contact L
As the drum is moved
to ring Z'
line.
.SLudlhU.
-kiiiE
C3L
FIGURE
126.
145
WIRING DIAGRAMS
146
toward point 7 at each step, part of the resistance

in series with the armature is cut out, until at 7 the
armature and
series field are
connected directly across
the mains.
In the bottom of the controller are located two copper rings and a number of contacts, which are connected to their respective points in resistance box R.
small,
movable contact shoe short-circuits rings 11
and 17, while the
controller
is
moved from points
to 7, thus allowing current to pass from the positive

side of the line to 17,
the shunt
field
and out
to negative side of
line.
on to 11, and then through

to bar
As
the
Y^ on
drum
controller
and
passes point 7
the contact shoe connecting 17 and 11 will then connect 17 and 12, thus cutting the resistance between
points 11 and 12 in the resistance box
in series
and increasing the speed of the motor.

As the controller is moved still further, more resistance is cut in series with the field, until at point 14
all the resistance is cut in and the motor has reached
with the
its
field
highest speed.
drum
moved to 1 on the reverse motion

a,re made with the exception of
In this case current from contact 1
the armature.
passes to ring 7/ and then to B and armature, this
If the
is
the same connections
causing current to flow in the opposite direction in

armature and reversing the direction of rotation. In
printing press work a stop is used which allows the
147
reverse motion to take in two contacts only, thus limit-
ing the reverse to two speeds.

Figure 127 shows the connections of the General
Electric
of the
K2
street car controller.
series parallel type,
and
FIGURE
is
varies the speed of the
127.
car by connecting the motors

in parallel, suitable resistance
gradual starting current.
This controller
first in series
and then
being used to give a
In Figure 128 are shown
the various connections between the rheostat and motors obtained at the different points of the controller.
In the upper left-hand corner the drum of the conT, Rl, R2, etc., are stationary
troller is laid out.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
148
contacts with fingers which

rious segments on the
At
drum
make contact with

as
it is
right of the controller
the
the va-
revolved.
is
the reversing
by means of which the car can be made
go
drum
on which are placed two sets of contacts, these making
connection with the stationary points F2, AA2, etc.,
If the controller drum is
as the drum is revolved.
moved to point 1, the current from the trolley wire
enters at T, then to segment on drum opposite T.
switch,
in either direction.
From
there
K, through
it
reverse switch
is
to
also a
passes to contact Rl, then to rheostat
all
reverse switch.
will
The
the resistance to the point 19 on the
With
the reversing switch on
it
then pass to Al, through the armature of motor
No. 1 back to AAl, on the reverse switch and through

field
of motor No. 1 to the point
From El
it
El on
passes to the point 15
the controller.
by means of
seg-
ments on the drum, and to 15 on the reversing switch
and to armature of motor No. 2 back to AA2 on the

reversing switch, and to the field of motor No. 2 and
back by means of E2 to the ground. The two motors
are
now connected
rheostat
in series with all the resistance in
This
in series with them.
is
shown in 1
of Figure 128.
As
the controller
Is
moved to points 2 and
of the resistance in rheostat
is
3,
part
cut out, until at 4
the two motors are running in series with no resistance.
At
point 5 the
fields
of both motors are weak-
ened by shunting them around the resistance in rheo-
149
K2, thus further increasing the speed.

The
points between 5 and 6 are used to change the connections from series to multiple. At point 6 the menstat
tors are in multiple, in series with part of the resist-
At
ance in K.
is
points 7
multiple with the
-^-TTTl-'
IP .-^=^
-J=BXI
Nrl-^Thn
'-^TTn
*-^=rm
fields
biQ^
QjQ
-Ptn
>-qTh-
and 8 part of
this resistance
cut out, while at 9 the motors are connected in
o
o
O
O
i-WW-r
tAA/W^
'-ÂNW^
ÂMAA^^
wvv
'
oo
w/w-î
>--MJI>-^
I
In case
may
it is
ww^
wwWW^
ww^
ww^
WW^'r-Q
WW^[
^WW^-L
[^WWh-'p-O
rA/WWr^
WVW-L
128.
necessary to cut out one of the motors,
If the switch at the left-hand
thrown to the upper contacts, motor No.

short-circuited.
Throwing
motor No.
ut, a stop
WW*
be done by means of the switches shown be-
low the controller.
circuits
ww^-^fo
FIGURE
this
^*A/\/V\/^
WW
WW
WW
O
f
0**'
tÂJ\/\A/^
o
o
O
O
--RtT'i
'-HXD-^-T
weakened.
2.
the other switch
When
will
up
one of the motors
is
be
short
is
cut
comes into play which allows the controller
WIRING DIAGRAMS
150
to
move over the
points only.
first five
If this were
not done and the controller moved to point 6, the
would be directly connected to ground through
trolley
the rheostat K.
This can be seen by reference to 6 in
Figure 128, where cutting out motor No.

circuits
The
19 and El.
1 short-
car should never be run
with the resistance in rheostat
in circuit, therefore
points 4, 5, 8 and 9 only should be used for any great
The diagram shows one
length of time.
set
of con-
trolling apparatus only, this set being duplicated at
the other end of the car.
The speed of a
constant current series motor varies
with the load, decreasing as the load becomes greater
and increasing
in speed as the load
If the load
entirely
away."
No
is
satisfactory
devised which would
becomes lighter.
removed the motor
will "run
method of winding has been
make
ing, so that if the motor
these motors self-regulatto be used on a varying
is
load some mechanical device must be employed to

regulate the speed.
In Figure 129 the arm
moves over a
series
of
contacts which are connected to different points of
the
field
hand,
winding.
or, as is
ugal governor.
its
This arm
may
either be
moved by
more common, connected to a centrifAs the load on the motor increases,
speed will slightly decrease, thus decreasing the
speed of the governor and moving the arm upward.
This cuts out part of the

the motor.
field
winding and speeds up

In Figure 130 the arm
151
moves over a number of
contacts which are in connection with the resistance
FIGURE
wire R.
129.
Current coming from the left-hand main
passes through the lower part of the resistance
and
is
shunted at the arm A, part of
it
passing
B
FIGURE
130.
through the remaining resistance and part of it going

to the motor. By changing the position of the arm,
WIRING DIAGRAMS
152
more or
less current
can be sent through the motor,
amount passing through it when the arm

is at the lowest contact.
The arm may either be
moved by hand or used with a centrifugal governor,
the greatest
as described in the preceding paragraph.
It will be
method is not very efficient, as a great

deal of energy is consumed in the resistance wire.
There are a number of other methods used for constant current series motor regulation, but they are
seen that this
mostly variations of those shown.

This type of motor
is
fast being
constant potential motor.

these motors, as the current
replaced
by the
Fuses are never used on

is
always the same, and
the switch used to start and stop the motor closes

the main line
when
it
opens the motor
circuit.
The
ordinary snap switch cannot be used.
Figure 130a shows diagram of a printing press con-
known as of the Kohler system and

by the Cutler Hammer Co. This system is
widely used and there are many variations; modifications being made in some cases to fit different voltages and also to obtain different results as not all
presses are run in the same way.
In the diagram
is the main magnet which when
energized closes the armature circuit at A. The two
troller generally
built
A represent
blow out magnets which are

not always used. The circuit can readily be traced
along the heavy lines and through the rheostat R.
N is another magnet or solenoid which when energized
circles
below
FIGURE
130a.
153
WIRING DIAGRAMS
154
up the contact bar

by dotted
pulls
of the rheostat
as indicated
resistance of
When
R until it rests
thus cutting
lines,
the
all of
into the armature circuit.
any position the solenoid is held in

by a ratchet device (not shown) and also by current which passes through N and the auxiliary resistance L at the left. The ratchet and also the circuit
through N are controlled by another magnet O. This
magnet when energized withdraws the ratchet and
allows the bar to slip down and also opens the circuit
at rest in
place
through N. at
solenoid
When
5.
the circuit of
circuit of
is
opened when
wherever
it
happens to be.
the resistance
may
The
is
closed the
N begins to move downward cutting out resist-
ance until the

rest
be
field circuit
left in
it
comes to
Thus more
or less of
can readily be traced and
be seen that as the solenoid moves down to
its
it
can
lowest
field circuit which

and cause the motor to attain its
notch resistances are cut into the
weaken the
field
highest speed.
is
the brake circuit and
being deenergized
it
when
closes the
descends after
armature
circuit at
B,
thus short circuiting the armature and quickly bringing the motor to rest.
is
a circuit breaker and the plunger shown opens
the circuit through

ceeds
The
are
its
M when the armature current ex-
allowable value.
by which the motor is controlled

the lower right hand corner. There may
various buttons
shown
in
155
may be
be any number of these buttons and they
located at different convenient places about the
From any one
chinery.
may be
lows
The operation
started or stopped.
The motor cannot be
ma-
motor
of these buttons the
as fol-
is
started unless the solenoid
has drawn up the contact bar of the rheostat to
This
highest point closing the safety circuit at S.
its
is
accomplished as soon as the main switch (not shown)

closed.
is
Current passes from the positive pole of
the circuit to point
which
is
closed until
is
ener-
N to point 2 which is closed until
gized, thence through
has acted, and from there to the negative pole of
the
line.
The middle bar
at 5 rests upon the lower contacts

shown except when O is energized. When O is
active this bar is drawn up against the upper contacts.
there
Before current can be gotten into the armature

all
of the points 3
When
this is
done
<iircuit
on the buttons must be closed.
circuit
is
established through wire 4,
magnet M, resistance P and the negative pole of the

Owing to resistance P this current is not of
line.
sufficient strength to close the
When now
one of the buttons
established through
armature
is
circuit at
closed at 6 current
A.
is
to the negative pole of the line.
This releases the ratchet before mentioned and also

5, establishes a shunt circuit around P through
S and strengthens the current in
sufficiently to draw
up the core and close the armature circuit at A. This
starts the motor at its slowest speed and allows the
draws up
WIRING DIAGRAMS
156
contact bar of
to descend, thus cutting resistance
out of the armature circuit and speeding up the motor.
When the button

through
is
released 5 again closes the circuit
and holds
wherever
it
may
be, thus
keeping the motor running at that speed.

If the
speed of the motor
one of the buttons 7
will
is
to be reduced pressing
cause the contact bar of
N to
of
and cut in more resistance into the armature cirThe motor can be stopped by opening any one
the buttons 3, but all of them must be closed before
it
can be started.
rise
cuit.
This
is
a safety arrangement of
great value.
Another diagram of Kohler system printing press

controller
motor
is
is
given in Figure 130b.
reversible
In this case the
but can be used in the reverse
direction at the slowest speed only.
There
is
also
mechanism shown at P which can be set so that

the motor can be operated at a fixed speed only. In
this case it is intended that the pressman shall have
no control over the speed but have full control over
starting and stopping of motor.
The field and armature circuits can easily be traced
and will need no explanation. There is also the brake
lock
circuit as in the preceding Figure 130a.
With the reversing switch indicated in the lower

hand corner thrown to the right, circuit is at once
established through wire 1 solenoid N points 2 and 3,
right
and the negative pole of the line. When N acts the

circuit at 2 is opened and current is now forced through
F=^
Lc=feJ
I
M
P
<i
o-^
M/VW1
V,
CQO
""
FIGURE
130b.
9 9S
157
WIRING DIAGRAMS
158
R' which reduces

tain
it
so as to be only sufficient to main-
With the reversing switch
in its position.
thrown to the
button 4
is
left
closed
there
is
and when
bar descends until
it
current in
this is
only while
opened the contact
strikes the locked plug
the
position of which determines the speed at which the
motor
To
shall run.
close the
button
5.
M,
armature
circuit it is necessary to close
This sends current through point
6, sole-
and negative pole of line.

There is also a parallel circuit around the circuit
breaker C which keeps the circuit open after an overnoid
safety S, point 3
load in the armature circuit has caused the breaker to

act.
For normal operation
in the forward direction
button 4 must be closed and remain closed until 5

closed.
When 5
is
closed the armature circuit
is
is
closed
and the motor starts at its slowest speed. To speed

it up 4 must be opened; this allows N to descend and
cut out resistance and speed up the motor.
CHAPTER
XIII.
AUTOMOBILES.
ELECTRIC AND GASOLINE, CHARGING STATIONS, GAS

ENGINES.
The
following
methods of
the
diagrams
electric
Woods Motor
Vehicle Co., and
formation herein given
Wood's work, "The
taken
is
gives three speeds.
grouping the
The
first
four
batteries
This connection
ler connects all
much of
is
earlier
speed
in
methods and
is
obtained by
parallel
made when
and ten
the control-
of the points along line a with the
opposite points along line
b.
The
to bar 1, thence to
the reversing switch
+ poles of the
Y, through both
R; back
to
can readily
circuit
be traced, the current passing from the

cells
the in-
from Mr. C. E.
Electric Automobile."
Figure 131 shows one of the
in series.
some of the
illustrate
automobile wiring employed by
fields,
F, to
both annatures;
through other side of reversing switch and to X,

bar 2 and the
side of the batteries.
The second speed
obtained when the controller
is
connects the points along line a with those along
This places the battery
and twenty
in series.
in
groups of two
The
159
third step,
c.
in parallel
by connecting
WIRING DIAGRAMS
160
a and
d, places all
forty
cells in series
with the
fields
and armatures.
^
^
K>
-ir-+
-ir-i
-li- +
-^
6-&--a
T'"^?t^
<j
Q
D
e6
-_9- -,C^
Q-9-
-</^
FIGURE
î>-
6 6
tiSc
'^
'
<Li>
-
9_9
131.
Figure 132 shows an arrangement giving four

speeds and in which not so
in battery connections, but
As
in the previous
main
in parallel.
many changes
more
are
made
in those of the fields.
diagram both armatures always
re-
AUTOMOBILES
The
first
speed
is
161
obtained when the controller con-
The two
and work
the current passing from
nects the points along a with those along 6.

halves
of battery
through both
are
now
fields in series,
FIGURE
in
parallel
132.
the positive pole of battery to bar 1, thence to
field
F, back to controller and through F', thence back to

reversing switch R, through both armatures and again
through reversing switch and back to negative pole

of battery and bar 2.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
162
The next
and
leaves batteries
time throws the

fields
and c
in parallel and at the same
parallel thus weakening the
step on the controller combines a

still
fields in
and speeding up the motor.

third step, combining a and
The
teries all in series
and the
J,
throws the batincreasing speed
fields also,
through increased E. M. F.
In the fourth speed, connecting a and
teries
remain in
and
series
and the
fields
The charging plug
in parallel.
to charge, the batteries
nections for electric
e,
the bat-
are again placed
shown
are thrown in
is
gong and lamps
at the right
series.
Con-
are also shown.
It w411 be noticed that with these motors fuses or

circuit breakers are not used.
It
would indeed be
quite dangerous to have a fuse blow out
ing a steep
signed that
hill.
it
The whole wiring
when climb-
therefore so de-
can safely carry for a short time
that the battery can deliver.
no
is
all
These diagrams show
resistances used as with other motors; the reduc-
tion of E.
lel is
M.
F. at starting by placing
cells in
far more economical and satisfactory.
paral-
Vehicles
have, however, been built which combine resistance

control with the methods just described.
Figure 133 shows the arrangement of an automoBy means of the rheostat R

bile charging station.
the current
is
regulated to the needs of the battery.
The charging plug P is usually so made that it can

be inserted only one way so that the polarities of the
charging dynamo and the batteries will always be cor-
AUTOMOBILES
The
rect.
voltmeter
may
be used to test the condi-
tion of the battery
and
dynamo or battery
if these are
also to indicate polarity of
double-throw switch shown

is
desired to test or
163
"form"
is
The
not known.
needed only in case

It provides
batteries.
it
an
easy connection for discharging batteries.
FIGURE
In Figure 134
is
133.
shown the general pnnciple of
A jump
ignition used in gasoline automobiles.

is
almost invariably used and this
means of an induction
coil
FIGURE
high voltage.
The
spark
produced by
capable of giving a very
134.
figure shows an induction coil
equipped with a vibrator, but this
is
and many equipments dispense with
cam C
is
that
makes and breaks the
it
is
not always used

it
entirely.
The
connected with the gearing and adjusted so

circuit at just the
proper
WIRING DIAGRAMS
164
time for ignition.
Whenever the current at C is

X. At this point a "spark
broken a spark occurs at
plug" equipped with proper terminals across which

the spark is to jump is fitted into the end of the cylinder.
Figure 135 shows a four-cylinder engine equipped

sets of batteries and independent coils.
with four
FIGURE
An
is
135.
arrangement using either battery or generator
shown
in
Figure 136.
Generators used in this con-
nection are usually fitted out with some form of gov-
ernor which keeps them running at a sufficiently uni-
form speed to allow of practical operation whether the

car be running fast or slow. This figure also shows
wiring arranged for a "double spark gap."
plug
is
very apt to "foul"
that
is,
to
spark
become covered
with soot from the combustion of gas in the cylinder.
When
it
is
thus "fouled" the current leaks through
the carbon from one terminal to the other and, of
AUTOMOBILES
course, there
no spark.
is
165
The proper remedy
is
to
new plug or clean the old one. It is,

however, claimed by some automobile users that if another spark gap be introduced in series with the one
which is "fouled" that both will then spark. Whether
either provide a
this
be true or not
it
can at best be only a temporary
for in time the plug in the cylinder will become so completely covered that it cannot possibly
spark. The throw-over switch in Figure 136 admits
relief,
using a single or double spark gap.
p3
FIGURE
137.
In Figure 137 are shown the connections of a gas

engine igniter where the gas engine
a
dynamo supplying
taken from an
L
is
electric lights.
is
used to drive
The
current
electric light circuit while the
running, a 50
c.
p.
lamp being placed
is
dynamo
in series with
WIRING DIAGRAMS
166
the spark
tery
The
is
While the engine
coil.
starting the bat-
is
used to supply current for igniting the gas.
single-pole throw-over switch
connections either way.
disadvantage that
and
light system
arranged to make
usually "grounds" the electric
it
is
is
This arrangement has the
therefore not approved
by most
insurance companies and inspection bureaus.
btsi
r
fe^^^âfl
To Qas-lightinj
To Bells
FIGURE
138.
Figure 138 shows another arrangement of gas en-
The
gine ignition.
small generator
the gas engine and driven by

is
the engine.
is
coupled to
While the engine

magnet
closes the
on the spark coil and cylinder C of
it.
at rest the armature of the
battery circuit
As
the engine gains speed the generator
sends current through the magnet
and raises
the armature, thus disconnecting the battery and clos-
ing
its
battery
own
is
circuit
used
it
on the spark
may
by throwing the switch
may
coil.
If a storage
be charged from time to time

S''
over.
The
switch near
be opened to prevent accidental short circuits
while the engine
is
at rest.
CHAPTER
XIV.
DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS, COMPENSATORS,

ALTERNATORS.
diagram of the
Co.'s series arc
circuits in the
dynamo
stant-current, series
shown
is
in
Western Electric
Figure 139. Con-
dynamos, hke the constant-cur-
rent, series motors, are not self-regulating, so that
some mechanical means must be employed to keep the
FIGURE
current constant.
This
139.
accomplished by shifting
is
the location of the brushes, or varying the
exciting turns on the
fields,
In the machine shown the
these methods combined.
voltage
is
number of
or in some cases by both
regulated by shifting the brushes.
In
tlie
diagram, current flows from the lower or positive

brush to the center connection of switch S, and then
around the
fields
and out
to the positive side of th
107
WIRING DIAGRAMS
168
line,
returning through the regulator
The
brush.
down
switch S
in the position
When
it
to the
upper
used in starting and shutting
shown switch
is
running.
set for
desired to shut down, the switch
is
This
closed.
is
first
short-circuits the fields
is
and then
the armature.
switches shown at the left are
used to cut
The
down the
current bj short-circuiting part
of the
windings.
field
Thej
sired to operate either the
are used where
1200
c.
p. arc
de-
it is
lamp taking
6.8 amperes, or the enclosed arc lamp taking 6 amperes.
machine
With
the switches in the position shown the
will
generate 9.6 amperes, the current gen-
erally used
on the 2000
c.
p. arcs.
To
reverse the
direction of current the armature leads are reversed.
In connecting two arc machines

one machine
is
connected to the
in series the
of
the other.
of
The
positive side of the machine
must always be connect-
ed to the positive side of the
line.
Figure 140 shows the connections on a shunt-
wound dynamo. The winding varies from that of

the series dynamo in having the field magnets, which
are wound with a great length of fine wire, connected
The current in
in shunt across the dynamo brushes.
this field is then in
is
shunt with the main circuit, and
generally about 2 or 3 per cent, of the whole cur-
Shunt-wound dynarent generated by the machine.

mos are used where a current of constant potential is
desired, such as the lighting of incandescent
lamps
in parallel, furnishing power for motor? and in stor-
DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS

age battery charging and electro-plating.
dynamo
the voltage of a shunt

stant,
still,
gradually
as the load
fall,
of the rheostat
the
field.
is
Although
practically con-
increased, the voltage will
must be regulated by means
and
this
which
If resistance
current in the
is
169
is
is
connected in series with
cut out of the rheostat the
fields is increased,
and the voltage of
the machine rises, and vice versa.
This dynamo
is
always protected from overload by a fuse or circuitbreaker placed in the main circuit.
FIGURE
140.
To start the dynamo it is first brought up to speed

and the voltage regulated by means of the rheostat
and the voltmeter V, and the main switch is then

thrown in. The connection for the field is taken off
the dynamo leads so that the opening of the main
switch will not open the
son the
field
will
field circuit,
and for
this rea-
begin to build up as soon as the
WIRING DIAGRAMS
170
machine
is
started.
Pilot lamps are sometimes used
in place of voltmeter V, the voltage being determined
by
This
the brightness of the lamp.
method and
satisfactory
present time.
is
very
is
little
If either the armature or
a very unused at the

field
connec-
tions are reversed current will flow in the opposite

direction.
FIGURE
141.
Figure 141 shows the connections of a compoundThis machine, like the shunt-wound
wound dynamo.
machine,
is
used where a current of constant poten-
tial is desired,
but
machine in that
it
it
has the advantage over the shunt

maintains the voltage more con-
stant over a greater variation in load.
The winding
from that of the shunt dynamo in having, in

addition to the shunt field, an auxiliary field which
varies
is
in series with the armature.
winding of both the shunt and
It
is
series
in reality the
machine on one

As
machine.
171
by the dynamo
the current supplied
increases, the current in the series field
winding inmagnetism and the
creases, thus increasing the field
voltage.
In this way the voltage
kept practically
is
constant.
When
a dynamo of
this
kind
is
used to supply a
large load located at some distance from the generator,
the
sometimes desirable to have the voltage at
it is
dynamo
terminals increase as the load increases,
to overcome the increased drop in the line due to the
from increased current. To accomplish this a

method known as over-compounding is used, the series
losses
windings being so calculated that, as the current increases, the voltage will rise accordingly.
In some cases the shunt
is
connected between
series
winding, as shown
known
as the long shunt,
field
one brush and the end of the

in the dotted lines.
This
is
the method of connecting directly across the brushes
being known as the short shunt.

connected in the shunt
field
and
rheostat
serves the
is
same pur-
pose as in the shunt machine.
Figure 142 shows the connections when two shunt-
wound machines
140.
The
The wind-
are to be run in parallel.
ing of these machines
is
the same as shown in Figure
positive lead of each
to the same bus bar.
machine
In starting,
is
connected
if it is desired to
use but one machine, the method described in Figure
140 is followed. When one of the machines is running

and the other is to be thrown in, the idle machine
WIRING DIAGRAMS
172
is
brought up to speed with the main switch open and
the voltage regulated by means of the rheostat and

voltmeter until the voltages of the two machines cor-
The main
respond.
switch
is
then thrown in and the
load on the two machines, which
ammeters,
there
is
is
equalized
any great
is
ascertained
by means of the
by the
If
rheostats.
difference in voltage between the
FIGURE
142.
machines, the higher one will run the other as a motor
without changing the direction of rotation.
The
field
current will remain unchanged and the armature current of the low
cause
it
dynamo
will
be reversed, which will
to run in the same direction as a motor as
ran as a dynamo.
it

When
a plant feeding motors
switches on motors should

likely
motor fuses
first
is
down the
be opened, or very
As
will blow.
shut
173
the voltage goes
draw more current to do the

If a plant is shut down with the motor
work.
switches "on" it will generally be found impossible
to start up a shunt dynamo, the low resistance in the
mains not allowing enough current to flow around
down
the motors will
the shunt
fields
to energize them.
FIGURE
143.
Figure 143 shows connections for two compound-
wound dynamos run
in parallel, the
machine being the same as

or more
in
winding of each
Figure 141.
compound-wound dynamos are
When two
to be run to-
gether, the series fields of all the machines are con-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
174
nected together in parallel by means of wire leads
or bus bars, which connect together the brushes from,
which the
This is known as
shown by the line running to
series fields are taken.
the equalizer, and
is
the middle pole of the
out the series circuits
dynamo
it
from the upper brush of
will
By
switch.
tracing
be seen that the current
either
dynamo has two paths

leads through its own
bus bar. One of these

and the other, by means of the equalizer bar,
through the fields of the other dynamo. So long as
to
its
fields,
both machines are generating equally there
is
no
dif-
ference of potential between the brushes of Nos. 1 and

S.
Should, from any cause, the voltage of one ma-
chine be lowered, current from the other machine
would begin to flow through its fields and thereby

raise the voltage, at the same time reducing its own
until both are again equal.
The equalizer may never be called upon

much current, but to have the machines
closely
it
should be of very low resistance.
to carry
regulate
It
may
shown by the dotted lines, but this will

leave all the machines alive when any one is generatThe ammeters should be connected as shown.
ing.
If they were on the other side they would come under
also be run as
the influence of the equalizing current and would indicate wrong, either too high or too low.
izer should
little
The
equal-
be closed at the same time, or preferably
before, the mains are closed.
the middle, or equalizer, blade of the
In some cases
dynamo
switch
175
made longer than the outsides to accomplish this.

The series fields are often regulated by a shunt of
is
variable resistance.
To
insure the best results, com-
pound-wound machines should be run at just the

proper speed, otherwise the proportions between the
shunt and series coils are disturbed.
FIGURE
Figure
144<
144.
shows connections where two shunt-
wound machines are connected to operate on what is

known as the three-wire system. The two dynamos
are connected in series, three wires being carried from
them
one from the outside pole of each machine and
one from
t!ie
junction of the two machines.
voltage between these outside wires
is
equal to
The
th<*
WIRING DIAGRAMS
176
combined voltage of the two machines, and the
volt-
age between the outside and the central or neutral

wire
is
equal to the voltage of the corresponding ma-
If the load on both sides of the system
chine.
is
equal there will be no current flowing in the neutral

wire, while if the loads are unequal the neutral wire
will
have to carry only the difference in currents be-
tween the two outsides.
The advantage
wire system
derived from the use of the threein
lies
the fact that one wire
(which
would have to be used were the two machines operated

on two separate circuits) can be done away with, and
on account of the voltage being doubled the wires

can be of much smaller capacity. For the same per
amount of wire required
cent of loss the
the three-wire system,
same
size as the outsides, is
used to a great extent in the large

direct
current
is
of the
but three-eighths of that
required with a two-wire system.
station,
to operate
when the neutral wire
distribution,
This system
cities
and
is
for central
it
is
also
used on the secondary mains in alternating current

work.
In the feeder
neutral wire
is
lines
of the direct current system the
generally
made one-third the
size
of
the outsides, while in the secondary mains in both
and alternating current work all three wires

are made of the same size; for, if one of the outside
fuses should blow, the neutral would have to carry
direct
the full current.
]77
Figure 145 shows a diagram of the winding and

connections of a Western Electric
compensator
set.
This apparatus
compound-wound
is
used in connec-
220 volt generators and by means of it a

three-wire 110-220 volt system is obtained. This set
consists of two motors, the armatures of which are
mounted on the same shaft so that both run at the
same speed.
When the machines are started the
switch P and the circuit-breaker are left open and the
switch shown at the left closed.
The machines are
then started by means of the starting box. Tracing
out the circuits it will be seen that the main current
from the positive pole of the switch passes through
the starting box, through the armature and series
fields of machine B then through the armature and
series fields of machine A and back to the negative
tion with
side of the line.
The
circuit for the shunt fields
is
connected to the starting box, current flowing through

the resistance box, R, and then through the shunt
fields
of machine
connected in
and machine B, these
series, to
It will be noticed
being
fields
the negative side of the
by the
line.
direction of the arrows that
the current in the series fields and the shunt fields are
in opposition.
This remains so
in
both motors only
while the load on both sides of the neutral
and under
this condition the
series fields is
very small.
thrown on one
side,
is
amount of current
even
in the
If an additional load
say ten lamps at
X, part of
is
the
excess current flows along the neutral wire to the
178
WIRING DIAGRAMS
<-*^
COMPENSATORS
armature and
179
of machine A.
series fields
This cur-
rent being in opposition to the current in the shunt
weakens them and tends to speed up this motor.
fields
This speeding up increases the counter E. M. F. of

machine B, the
ened,
fields
and current
through the
of which have not been weak-
flows
series fields in
out of the armature and

a direction opposite to that
The
now be
shown by the arrows.

in this
machine
will
current in both
in the
field coils
same direction and
the machine will act as a
compound-wound generator.
more power than
a motor and will generate a
It cannot as a generator give out

it
receives
little less
X.
This
from
as
than one-half of the excess current used at

is
Figure 146.
shown a
little
With no
plainer
by the diagrams
in
load, or with the load evenly
distributed on both sides of the neutral, the conditions will be as
shown
in the
machines acting as motors.
upper diagram, both
With
excess of load be-
tween the positive and neutral approximately onehalf of the excess current will pass along the neutral
wire through the lower machine causing
it
to act as
a motor while the balance of the excess current
is
sup-
by the upper machine acting as a generator.

The lower diagram shows the conditions with excess
In the
between the neutral and the negative.
these machines, when they have attainecj
operation
of
Iload
plied
full
speed after starting, their voltages are equalized
by means of the
resistance
placed in the strongest
field.
box R,
When
this
box being
automatic start-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
130
ing boxes are used, as
in this case,
it is
almost always
necessary to place the resistance box in the opposite

field to
balance the resistance of the magnet on the
starting box.
tions are
made
For equalizing
the voltages connec-
to the voltmeter as
Mo tor
Motor
With
eifcess
between
-t-
shown
in
Figure
had
of
and*.
,-,<:
With excess of load
Motor\
between and-
:::::::X::
FIGURE
146.
143, so that reading for both machines can be taken.
When
the machines are at even voltage the circuit
breakers are thrown
in.
Figure 147 shows the switchboard and machine

connections
The two
for two
Compensator
sets
in
parallel.
panels at the left are for the 220 volt gen-
erators, the
two at the right are for the feeders while
COMPENSATORS
181
the two center panels are for the operation of the
compensators.
By
following out the circuits for the
0=^^
individual compensators
it will
be seen that, with few
exceptions, they correspond to the circuits
shown in
WIRING DIAGRAMS
182
Figure 145.
shunt
resistance
box
installed in each
is
while in Figure 145 there
field circuit
one resistance box.
On
is
only
the lower part of the com-
pensator panel shown at the
are
left
two switches,
the upper contacts of which are connected to the au-
tomatic switch, AS, on the right-hand panel, while

the lower contacts are connected to the compensator
windings at points between the series

armature.
panel
tral
is
The automatic
fields
and the
switch on the right-hand
operated by the current flowing in the neu-
wire and
so arranged that
is
it
short-circuits
either of the sets of contacts, 1-1' or 2-2', thus short-
circuiting the series fields of the
a motor and causing
it
machine acting as
to act as a simple shunt motor.
In later machines the connections are so made that

this switch is
done away with, the compensators being
entirely automatic.
The
principle
Generator
is
of
the
Westinghouse Three Wire
illustrated in Figures
FIGURE
147a.
147a,
147b, and
ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR

147c.
Figure
147a
dynamo armature.
183
shows the connections of the
The
outer circle represents the
ordinary armature winding connected by means of the
commutator to the brushes A and B. The fine coils

shown running through the center from C to D represent taps taken from diametrically opposite points
of the direct current winding.
If these taps are joined
through resistances as indicated alternating currents

will circulate in
them and
at
there will be a point at
w^hich just half of the voltage of
system
exists.
The
therefore be used to
the direct current
wire connected to this point can

fulfill
FIGURE
the same requirements as
147b.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
184
the neutral wire in the ordinary two generator three

wire system.
The
connections of a single machine are shown in
Figure 147b.
In actual practice the alternating cur-
rent connections of the armature are connected to two
auto transformers as shown.

are
known
These auto transformers
also as balancing coils.
Figure 147c shows the switchboard connections for
two
such
generators
operating
FIGURE
is
multiple.
On
147c.
account of the fact that the load
ammeter
in
is
often unbalanced an
provided in each leg leading from a ma-
chine to the switchboard.
The
series fields of
each
machine are also divided so that current from each

leg
may
pass through half of each
field.
Since the

series fields are divided it is necessary to
izer for
185
run an equal-
each division and two are therefore shown.
The balancing coils should be mounted as near to

dynamos or switchboard as practicable. Any
the
great resistance introduced into their circuit will affect
the voltage existing between the neutral point and the

outside wires.
It
should be noted that both the
and negative equalizer connections as well as

both the positive and negative leads are run to the circuit breakers in addition to the main switches on the
positive
This
board.
is
necessary in
all
cases.
Otherwise,
when two or more machines are running in parallel

and the breaker comes out opening the circuit to one
of them but not breaking its equalizer leads, its ammeter
is left
current
is
connected to the equalizer bus bars and
fed into
it
from the other machines through

it as a motor or burn-
the equalizer bars either driving

ing out the armature.
Once properly installed the balancing coils require

no further attention and give no trouble. Provision
should however be made so that their circuit cannot be
opened accidentally while in operation.
Figure 148 shows the connections of a single-phase,
The field of this maby a direct current, part of which is

taken from some outside source (generally a small
dynamo belted to the shaft of the alternator) and
alternating current generator.
chine
is
excited
part of which
is
taken from the windings of the
ternator, the current being rectified
by means
al-
of the
WIRING DIAGRAMS
186
commutator C. This commutator has as many segments as there are poles to the dynamo, and the alternate segments are connected together as shown in
the small diagram. S is a German silver resistance
which
is
connected in shunt across this rectifying
The main
commutator.
armature
is
current
coming from the
shunted, part going through the shunts,
the remainder around the
field
winding.
method of field excitation

is very similar to that used on the compound-wound
direct-current dynamo.
In the diagram shown both
It will
be seen that
this
FIGURE
148a.
of the field windings encircle every pole, but in
machines the
rectified
some
current will traverse a few
poles only, the current from separate exciter travers-
ing the remainder.
Current on these machines
is
usually generated at high voltage, and transformers

are used at the point of supply to cut the voltage
down
to that required.
The transformer
is
used

in connection with voltmeter
on that instrument.
Figure 148a shows a
to reduce the voltage
theoretical
cyclic generator of the
187
diagram of a mono-
General Electric Co.
Such
generators are sometimes used on systems where the

lighting load
is
the main factor and only a few
starting motors are to be operated.
It
is
self
essentially
a single phase alternator with an extra winding of

smaller capacity placed so as to produce a phase difference of 90 degrees between the currents in the
coil
and those
The
in the smaller.
main
smaller winding
is
known as a "teazer"
coil,
this coil attaches is
spoken of as the "teazer" wire.
The
machine
and the middle wire to which

three
carries
collector
rings.
The
arrangement of the wires placed upon the armature can
be seen from the figure at the
right.
The main
coils
are placed in the deep slots and the teazer coils into
the shallow ones.
In the General Electric generator,
between the two main wires

difference of potential
and the teazer
The
shown
field
is
if
the voltage
2080 there
will
be
between either of the outsides
of 1160.
connections of a monocyclic generator are
in Figure 148b,
and the diagram
is self
explan-
atory.
The armature connections
are given in Figure 148c,
and the following instructions are quoted from the

General Electric Co. "The armature of a standard
monocyclic generator rotates in the counter-clockwise
WIRING DIAGRAMS
188
CONNECTIONS OF MONOCYCLIC GENERATOR
jzzzzii-^
Separ-ately
Field
EI^ci'Leci
^/\/\^/ww
St-at-ionar-j/
SHuot.
Or Compounding Rheostat
6S>--Collect;-oin
Uir
Co nn nn
_it_
Rir<gs
a-Lo n
CONNECTIONS FOR SERIES FIELD
For 2300 Volt Generators, connect as shown by solid lines.

For 1150 Volt Generators, omit connections A \.oB,C to D,
to F, and 6^-to H, and connect as shown by dotted lines.
FIGURE
148b.

direction as one faces the
generator
coil
is
When
the
loaded, the voltage between the teazer
and the two terminals
different;
commutator.
189
therefore, it
is
of the
main
coil
may
be
necessary to have the com-
mutator connected in corresponding ends of the main

coil.
" If the machine has not been arranged for clockwise

rotation the following change in the connections
commutator-collector must be
FIGURE
made
if
on the
the machine
is
148c.
to be run in parallel with another.
The diagram
Figure 148b shows the connections of monocylic gen-
In this diagram the studs on the commutatormarked 1 and 6 are the terminals of the main
coil.
These should be reversed. The numbers are
stamped on the end of the stud and may be seen with
erators.
collector
the aid of a mirror.
By
referring to the
diagram
it is
WIRING DIAGRAMS
190
CONNECTIONS OF THREE-PHASE GENERATOR
JSe>3ara-t.ely Exci-bedl
Field
j
A/WWWWOr Compounding Rheostat

43 5 261
i^Collect>or Rinâ
L-io<
Line
Con-) rr-_it sa+'.otCONNECTIONS FOR SERIES FIELD
For 2300 Volt Generators, connect as shown by solid lines.

For 1 150 Volt Generators, omit connections A to B,C to D,
to F, and G to H, and connect as shown by dotted lines.
FIGURE
148d.
191
a simple matter to trace out the connections with the

aid of a magneto, after the armature leads have been
disconnected and the brushes raised."
Figure 148d shows the connections of a General
Electric three phase generator.
as
all
of the foregoing,
Many
type.
is
This machine, as well
armature
of the revolving
now
of the larger machines are
with stationary armatures and revolving
fields.
built
In
such case the exciter feeds the moving element and the
line currents are
Two
taken from the stationary windings.
three phase compoisite
shown connected together
wound
for
generators are
parallel
running in
Figure 148e.
Composite wound alternators
if
used with inductive
loads require considerable attention at the rectifier.
A change in
E.
M.
ment
For
F.
the angle of lag of the current behind the
must be followed by a change
of the rectifier or there will be
this reason such
in the adjust-
much
sparking.
machines are used mostly on
lighting circuits only.
Figure 148f gives the switchboard connections of
two two phase machines arranged for parallel running.

Each machine is equipped with a throwover switch
by which either phase may be connected to voltmeter.
Each phase is also equipped with an ammeter.
E E are the rheostats by which the field strength
of either machine can be adjusted. The synchronizing bus S is equipped with a throwover switch so
that the synchronizing
may be
either dark or bright.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
192
Whichever method
is
preferred should be settled
and the switch locked so that
it
upon
may not be accidentally
Synchronizing lamps of double the voltage
changed.
capacity of the system must be provided as the two
CO
o
u
z
u
CD
Z.
y
m
<
|yi
It
3
<?
-^
2^ z
ao
L_
O
CO
(0
3
c

machines are
likely to
be in
series
193
during part of the
time of synchronization.
The instrument
connections of a three phase 440
volt switchboard for parallel operation of
two ma-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
194
\.
O-A
If
<>/^-/^J'^
O oA.
Pr
If)
61
X\
<^
CO
2
feO-,
ô)
**-r<^^ZXl
/Vs">\
im
k<5--
1l\
r
\j'\/
>

To
chines are given in Figure 148g.
195
avoid confusion
the exciter circuits and those leading to lamps and
motors are omitted.
An ammeter
it
is
provided for each machine by which
can be determined whether
the load.
There
is
further
it is
taking
an ammeter
its
share of
in each phase
of the bus bars to indicate the balance maintained
the system.
IB
a recording watt meter;
is
watt meter;
W an
indicating
P a power factor meter, and F a frequency
IOmeter. (See Figure 154s.)

^P L and L' are the synchronizing lamps, two
are
on
provided
for
machine 2 with
each
which
is
machine.
To
of
which
synchronize
already running, the plug
is
inserted as at S, the lower half of the plug closes gap 3
and the upper

If the
gap 4 through the lamps L.

machines are not in synchronism the lamps will
half closes
and dark. The speed of the incoming machine must be altered until the periods of
alternately be bright
BCght and
^During
^may
darkness are of several seconds duration.
the middle of the dark period the main switch
be closed and the machines
will
then operate
together.
By
tracing out the circuits
lug placed as at S'

iddle, or
it
by being
can be seen that the
inserted in the upper,
lower set of contacts can be used to take
e reading of either of the three phases
eter V.
The voltmeter
vailable as a
is
on the
volt-
also connected so as to be
ground detector.
CHAPTER
XV.
ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS.

There are two general
known
rent motors,
classes of alternating-cur-
respectively
and "induction" motors.
TRANSFORMERS.
as
"synchronous"
As an example
of the
first
If two identical alternating-current dynamos
class:
are connected together
by
wires, one
running as a
generator and the other as a motor, the driven machine would run at the same speed as the driving
machine ;
for, at every
change
in the direction
and
strength of the current given out by the generator,

like
changes would be produced in the machine run-
ning as a motor.
ism.
It
may
They would then run
in synchron-
be advisable to state here that the ma-
chine running as a motor would
first
have to be
brought up to speed, as the majority of synchronous

motors are not self-starting.
When
rent
is
a multiphase (2 or 3-phase) alternating cur-
sent around the
rent motor, a revolving
fields
occupied by the armature.
what
is
known
of an alternating cur-
field is
If
set
up
in the space
now an armature of
as the squirrel cage type (a laminated
armature in which bars of copper, running parallel

to the shaft, are imbedded in slots in the periphery,
the ends of
all
the bars being connected together,
196
ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS

(Figure
will
149),
placed
is
induced
be
in
tion with the revolving
this
in
which,
it
currents
field,
acting
197
conjunc-
in
cause the armature
field, will
to turn.
These are known as induction motors, and
this class
is
Such motors
considerable
amount of
The
generally employed in commercial work.
from
will start themselves
and
torque,
will
stand
rest with
reasonable
overload.
direction of rotation of motors of this kind
by changing the relative position of wires

any phase. It can readily be seen that this will
cause the revolving field to move in the opposite diis
reversed
in
rection.
Otfftr-htrt
FIGURE
The
149.
action of the current in the starting of in-
duction motors
is
very similar to that in direct-cur-
rent motors in that
if,
while the motor
current was thrown directly on,

considerable value.
The
it
is
at rest, the
would
rise to
smaller size motors
directly connected to the circuit as
is
may be
often done with
direct current motors but with the larger size motors
some device must be used to keep down the excessive

current on starting.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
198
may
Resistance boxes
cuits
and operated
be inserted in the motor
in the
cir-
same way as on direct cur-
rent apparatus the resistance reducing the voltage at
On two and
the motor terminals.

resistances
must be inserted
three-phase work
in each phase
ranged to work together so that the changes

sure at the motor terminals will be the same.
FIGURE
and arin pres-
150.
Figure 150 shows the connections of the General

Electric
Company's compensator used
three-phase motors.
coilf-;
in
starting
This apparatus consists of three
wound on laminated
iron cores forming an auto-
transformer in which one wire
is
used for both pri-
mary and secondary, and works on the principle that,

if an alternate current is sent through a coil of
wire,
and a tap taken from some intermediate point
in the winding, the voltage between the tap and the
end of the
coil will
be
less hhani the full
voltage sup*
(P

plied,
depending on the position at which the tap
taken
off.
115
and
were
volts; then the difference of potential between
and 4 would be
and
To
4.
less
than 115, while the difference of
and 3 would be less than between

the motor the switch is thrown to
potential between
Is
In the diagram suppose that the differ-
ence of potential between the terminals
start
the lower position,
when the motor
will receive
the
reduced current due to the reduced voltage between
and
is
thrown to the "up" position, when the motor
When
4.
the motor
is
up
to speed the switch
receive the full voltage of the line.

is
will
If more current
required in starting than can be obtained with the
connection at 1 (this being the point of lowest volt-
age), connection can be made at either 2, S or

until the current required to start the
tained.
rectly
Were
motor
is
4f
ob-
the motor, while at rest, thrown di-
onto the mains without the use of the com-
pensator, the current would rise to six or seven times

that normally required; while in starting with the
compensator the current varies from
full
load to
about twice full load current according to whether

connection
is
made
at 1 or 4.
Another method used
I^P
IH
^f
199
in starting alternating cur-
shown by the diagrams in Figure 151.

The upper diagram shows the connections on a threerent motors
is
phase armature where one end of each

to a
common
carried to contact shoes ^, ^, 2.
coil is
connected
wire, the other ends of the coils being
Between the
contact:
WIRING DIAGRAMS
200
fihoes ^, ^,
2 and
1, 1,
1 are connected resistance
wires, these wires ending in a connection
common
to
them all. When the motor is started current flowing from the armature coils passes through the reresistances r and s.
This is shown in the lower left
hand diagram. As the motor speeds up the contact
FIGURE
shoes
1,1,1
are short-circuited, thus short-circuiting
the resistances
As
^,
r, r,
r as shown in the middle diagram.
the speed further increases the contact shoes ^,

'2
are short-circuited, this in turn short-circuiting
the resistances
no
151.
s,
s,
s.
The motor
will
resistance in the armature circuit as
diagram at the
right.
now run with

shown
in th<
201
Figure 152 shows the connections for the Wagner

single-phase alternating-current motor.
the motor are three binding posts.
while post 2
tween 1 and
is
top of
Posts 1 and 3
are connected to the terminals of the
FIGURE
On
field
windingi
152.
connected to an intermediate point be-
3.
When
the motor
is
called
upon
to
heavy load, the double-throw switch shown in

the lower diagram is used.
With the switch thrown
start a
to the upper position connection
is
made
to posts X
WIRING DIAGRAMS
202
and
2,
when, on account of part of the
field
winding
being cut out, a greater amount of current
through the
fields
the motor
up
is
is
and the torque increased.
to speed the switch
is
sent
When
thrown to the
lower position, where current will be sent through

the entire
field
winding.
The armature winding
consists of a
number of
copper bars terminating in a commutator at one end.

While running up to speed the armature is shortcircuited through brushes which bear on the commutator and produce in the armature poles which, acting with the
On
cause the armature to revolve.
fields,
an automatic governor
mounted on the shaft lifts the brushes off the commutator, and at the same time short-circuits all the
commutator bars. The motor now runs as an inducThe upper connections are used where
tion motor.
an ordinary load is to be started.
This motor is reversed by moving the brushes on
Note the markings on the brush
the commutator.
The starting torque can also be varied by
holder.
attaining
speed
full
shifting the brushes.
on the brush holder
is
mark
moved farther from the center
It will be greater as the
mark.
Single-phase motors, unlike the multiphase motors,
will not start themselves
from
methods are in use to
In the small
rest without the provi-
number of different
make these motors self-starting.
fan motors made by the General Electric
sion of some special means.
203
Co. the ends of the pole pieces are slotted, and around
one of the projecting ends
per (Figure 153).

per
is
The
is
placed a band of cop-
effect
of this band of cop-
to cause two magnetic fields under each pole
piece, one being slightly out of step with the other.
This has an
effect
on the armature similar to a two-
and causes
phase current,
it
FIGURE
to revolve.
153.
Another method, known as the "split phase,"

used for the same purpose.
motors made by the Holtzer-Cabot Co. the
wound with two
separate
is
In some of the smaller
coils,
field
is
one having a few
turns of comparatively large wire and the other a
great number of turns of

is
of the two
is
fine wire.
When
current
turned on, owing to the difference in self-induction
set
coils,
up and
field similar
to the two-phase field
the armature caused to revolve.
When
the motor has readied synchronism, the current to

the high resistance coil
is
opened and the motor op-
erated on the low resistance coil alone.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
204
Other methods of bringing single-phase motors

*o
speed are described in Figures 154 and 152.
up
Any
small direct-current series motor can be used on al-
ternating current providing the

laminated.
much
The
field
magnets are
larger motors generally contain too
self-induction to be
operated on alternating
current.
FIGURE
154.
Figure 154 shows the connections of the Fort
Wayne
alternating-current, single-phase motor.
order to start this motor and bring
it
up
In
to speed,

the armature
provided with an extra winding con-
is
nected to the commutator C, shown at the

the motor
205
left.
When
to be started, the switch S, which
is
hinged at N, N',
is
is
Current from
closed to the left.
the left-hand main will then pass through the contacts
N', M', on the switch S to the series winding, and
then to the commutator and armature and out through
|J^
M, N, on
switch, to other side of line.
At each
^^Bversal of the current the magnetism in both
^^Kand armature
>îng
re-
fields
reversed at the same time, thus caus-
is
a steady pull in one direction on the armature.
As
the motor comes to speed the pilot
gradually light up, and when
candlepower the switch S
is
it
T'',
will
thrown to the right. Cur-
rent from the left-hand main will
contacts N',
lamp
has reached full
now pass through
on switch, to the
collector
rings,
through the armature, and out through points T, N,

on switch to other side of line. At the same time
jthe contacts
V,
[short-circuited
and
W,
on switch S
will
be
(these points of the switch are not
an electrical connection with the blades, being sep-
by an insulator, as shown in figure

upper right-hand corner), and the shunt field cir;uit closed through the commutator; the direct cur:rent from the commutator passing from the lower
brush through the points V, V, on switch, to the
farated therefrom
in
W, W, and through
upper brush on commutator,
now run as a synchronous motor, the
Ishunt field and back to points

[the rheostat
'he
motor
will
to the
WIRING DIAGRAMS
206
armature receiving current from the mains, while the

field
is
energized
by means
of
the direct current
generated in the extra winding in connection with
commutator C.
When
the motor
switch to the right the series
FIGURE
is
field is
running with the

open.
154a.
Figure 154a shows theoretical diagram of what
is
termed the cascade or tandem method of coupling

induction motors for variable speeds.
The
rotors of
the two motors are mounted on the same shaft or in

other manner mechanically coupled together.
main current from the generator
The
feeds stator
The
of 1.
currents induced in the rotor R, of 1 traverse the
stator of 2
and the
controlling resistance
is
cut into
the rotor circuit of 2 as shown.
The number
of poles
on two such machines may be
so arranged that different changes in speed are possible.

It
is
also possible to arrange switches so that the
TRANSFORMERS
motors
may be
207
operated in parallel or No.
alone as
shown.
Figure 154b shows method of operating rolling mills
or other devices that require a large
for
a very short time.
The
FIGURE
amount
large induction
of
power
motor I
154b.
by a limited amount of current from the

mains. The amount of current that may be drawn
from the mains is governed by an automatically controlled resistance placed in the rotor circuit.
Whenever the main current rises above a predetermined
value the core of the solenoid is drawn up and resistance is cut into the rotor circuit, thus keeping the main
is
supplied
current in bounds.
On
the same shaft with the induction motor
is
heavy balance wheel operating at a high speed and also

the armature of a direct current generator. This
generator carries a double wound armature which
WIRING DIAGRAMS
208
feeds
two motors connected to the shaft
of the rolling
mill.
The only method
of reversing
and controlling the
speed of the motors consists in changing the
The
strength of the generator.

are separately excited
fields of
and controlled by
arranged similar to those of the well
With the arm
stone bridge.
no current
is
moved
is
resistances
known Wheat-
in the position
passing through the
in the direction of the
fields.
arm
when the arm
assumes the position indicated by broken
maximum.
its
shown
If the
arrow the polarity of
the fields will be as indicated, and
current strength will be at
field
the generator
line
If it is
the
moved
in the opposite direction the current in the generator
be reversed.
fields will
The motors
are also independently excited and the
which they move depends upon the direction of the armature current, which in turn is governed
direction in
by the current through the fields. With this arrangement it is possible to draw 4000 or 5000 H. P. for a
short time without overloading the 1000 H. P. induction motor.
Very small alternating current motors are usually

connected to the line direct, and only a switch suited
to the system
require to break
As the
motors
is
used.
all
This switch does not even
of the wires of the system.
starting current of
is,
however,
current (especially
if
much
most alternating current
greater than the running
the motor start under load)
it is
TRANSFORMERS
209
advisable to place the motor under the protection of
two sets of fuses. One such set of fuses is placed

where the branch circuit is tapped off the mains, and
the other at the motor switch.
The manner of connecting a throwover switch to
two and three phase motors so' as to accomplish the
desired result is shown in Figures 154c and 154d.
1 1 R
1 1 1 1
>
^J ri
,j
O O O
I
FIGURE
FIGURE
154c.
154d.
The black circles represent the centers of the switch.

Thrown upward the motor feeds direct from the mains
which are fused to the starting current of the motor.
After the motor has acquired
switch
is
its
proper speed the
thrown downward and the motor feeds
through the smaller fuses shown.

In order to guard against leaving the motor without
the proper fuse protection such switches are some-
times equipped with springs which will not allow the

switch to remain on the upper contacts.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
210
ii
^^h
-i
/\J\
U44444y^ L/uyyAJ
FIGURE
FIGURE
154e.
Throwover switches
for the starting of
154f.
motors in
connection with auto transformers or compensators

are
shown
To
in Figures 154e
start,
the switch
is
and 154f.
thrown to the
right;
this
forces the current to pass through the transformers
and reduces the voltage at the motor.

has attained some speed the switch
FIGURE
154g.
After the motor

is
thrown to the
TRANSFORMERS
rv^TvZ^
211
^\
^l^fcfet
8
FIGURE
154h.
and connects the motor to the mains. The starting torque of the motor may be increased by connecting the taps leading from the transformers so as to
left
leave less of their reactance in the circuit.
The
connections of General Electric controllers for
three phase;
two phase four wire and two phase three
wire are shown respectively in Figures 154g, 154h,
and
The contact
make connections
154i.
center
points on the
drums
in the
either to the upper or lower
b
FIGURE
154L
WIRING DIAGRAMS
212
The motor leads are connected

Thrown downward the current must
connections shown.
to the drum.
pass through the auto transformers which reduces the

voltage.
Thrown upward
motor
the
is
connected
direct to the mains.
Figure 154j shows diagram of a three phase auto
FIGURE
starter with over
and under load
the General Electric Co.
may
remain in
154i.
circuit there
must be current
Consequently when the voltage

the circuit.
release as
made by
In order that the starter
In case the motor
fails
is
in coil 1.
the starter opens
taking too
much
cur-
rent one of the coils 2 or 3 opens the circuit through
and trips the starter thus opening the circuit.
1,
TRANSFORMERS
A
but
similar arrangement
is
former
shown
is
213
Figure 154k,
in
designed for high voltages and a voltage transis
With
provided as shown.
large motors the wiring
is
arranged as in Figure
1541.
FIGURE
For motors that

finer gradations in
shown
in Figure
start
154k.
under
light load
and require
speed a controller as diagramatically
154m
coils are inserted in
is
often used.
The compensator
two phases only;
this results in
unbalancing of the line but as long as the load

this is
The speed
when
higher
is
light
not very objectionable.

of a three phase
its
stator
is
motor
is
considerably
connected in **mesh'* or
WIRING DIAGRAMS
214
Tap^
FIGURE
**
delta" than
1541.
when connected
in
Y or star.
154n the throwover switch at the
left is
In Figure
provided to
change the winding from one to the other when

quired.
Thrown
re-
to the left the motor windings be-
come star; thrown to the right they are delta. Motors

must not be changed from star to delta unless it is
known they are capable of running that way.
A method of obtaining reduced voltage for the
starting
formers
of
is
three
phase motors direct from trans-
given in Figure 154n.
the motor obtains the
full
Thrown one way
voltage of the
thrown the other way only about one
half.
line,
and
TRANSFORMERS
FIGURE
154m.
dli
Oil
ii
-d
OD
op
FIGURE
154n.
FIGURE
1540.
215
WIRING DIAGRAMS
216
Two and
three phase motors are often equipped with
wound armatures
In such cases the starting
or rotors.
can be controlled by resistances placed in the rotor

circuit about in the same way that it is placed in the
armature
circuit
resistances are also

in Figure
154p for
motors. Such
and are illustrated
three phase and Figure 154q for
of
direct
made
current
variable
two phase.
FIGURE
The
FIGURE
154p.
154q.
rotor of an induction motor acts like the second-
ary winding of a transformer, but as the rotor comes
up to
its
proper speed the currents in
it
are
much
reduced.
Small and medium
size
motors are sometimes con-
nected to three phase systems as shown in Figure 154r.
This
is
known
as the open delta method.
transformers are required whereas to get the
Only two
full
three
phase connection three would be necessary.

Figure 154s shows the diagram of an automatic
motor as made by Cutler

Hammer Co. The controller is operated by a single
pole switch placed as at P, or, if the circuit be permanently closed at this point, closing of the main switch
controller for three phase
TRANSFORMERS
FIGURE
will
and
154r,
automatically start the motor.
solenoids
217
1,
2,
3 and 4 are
which when energized draw up their cores
close the circuits indicated underneath.
Solenoid 1 simply closes the phase wires A and B

and thereby gives current to the stator windings of the
motor M. 2, 3, and 4 when energized short circuit
certain parts of the resistance
The
the rotor circuit.
which
is
inserted in
three small solenoids 5
must
at 5';
be conceived as attached to the extremity of

6
and 7 and 8 at corresponding points

R, but only when the solenoids shown above them
is
of
attached to
act.
The
6'
solenoids are supposed to act in quick suc-
cession in the order
short circuits the
The
operation
switch
wire B.
Thus
There
as follows:
is
established
1 line
when
it
is
By
acts finally
out.
closing the pilot
from phase wire
C point D pilot switch and phase
also a parallel circuit through
energizing 1 causes
drawn up;
the motor and also the
its
closes the stator circuit of
wire circuit at E.
4;
rotor at 8' cutting all of
circuit is
through solenoid
1, 2, 3,
core to be
X.
this
fine
Current in the stator at once in-
218
WIRING DIAGRAMS
duces currents in the rotor and these draw up the cores

of 5 opening the circuit underneath until the rotor has
some speed. As the rotor attains speed the

currents in it grow weaker and the cores of 5 drop back
attained
closing the circuit underneath again.
W%
-f
J
FIGURE
1548.
TRANSFORMERS
As the
circuit is
now
point
and underneath
5,
through solenoid 2 to
closed at
current passes from phase
219
D and thence to pilot switch and phase B.
causes 2 to
draw up
core
its
becomes short circuited at
and the rotor

6'.
The
This
resistance
small solenoids
and
Drawing up the core of 2 closes
the circuit at the left of G and opens that at the right.
Current now passes from the left of 2 to the right of
solenoid 3 thence to G and phase wire B at 1. Line
C is now open and current passes from 1 through X
act as those at 5 momentarily opening the circuit
then closing
it
again.
This reduces the current leaving
to the pilot switch.
only as
much
as
is
necessary to maintain the core of 1
against gravity.
Solenoid 3
of
now
and under
acts closing the circuit at the left
This sends current from point
7.
through solenoid 4 to the
left half of
point
and
pilot switch.
When
solenoid 4 acts
it
short circuits
ance of the rotor and develops the
In
motor.
the
left
F at
its
action
and opens
it
it
all
full
of the resist-
power of the
also closes the circuit of
at
Closing the circuit
at the right.
left establishes a circuit for 4 to point D, and

same time opening of F at the right breaks the
circuit of 2, and this core descending breaks the circuit
the
at the
of 3 at the left of G.
Two
one through solenoid
1 resistance
other around 2 and 3 to 4
thence to
oi^'^*
circuits
now remain
left side of
switch "nd phase B.
closed,
to point D, the
and point
WIRING DIAGRAMS
220
By
tracing out the various
that the arrangement
is
ci^-cuits it
can be seen
such that solenoid 2 cannot
act unless 3 and 4 are in the off position and that 3
cannot work unless 2 has acted and 4 must in turn

wait on
3.
The motor can
therefore not be started
unless all of the resistance
is
inserted in the rotor
circuit.
In Figure 154t a motor testing board suitable for

use with two or three phase currents
FIGURE
current in each phase
is
shown.
The
154t.
may be measured and
thus the
degree of unbalancing of the circuit on individual
motors determined.
many motors
In practice
it is
found that very
are considerably out of balance elec-
trically.
The ammeter
is
shown
in connection with the
wattmeter so that the power factor of the motor may

be determined. The power factor is found by dividing
TRANSFORMERS
221
the indicated watts of the wattmeter by the product

of the volts
and amperes
existing at the
same time.
The power factor is always less than unity.

The switches indicated are all single pole with
ception of the voltmeter switch V.
thrown upward the motor feeds
If 1,
direct
ex-
4 and 7 are
from the
line
ABC.
To
test
throw 5 and 6 up and open 7;

V to right and 2 down.
for current
to get voltage
AC
throw
TiJ
g
To
test
for current
2 up, and open 4
To
)pen
test
1.
ice
is
154u.
throw 3 up, 5 and 6 down, and

A B throw V to right.
to get voltage
for current
to get voltage
There
jircuits
FIGURE
throw
CB
2, 6, 5,
throw
and 3 down and
to the
left.
often considerable trouble on three phase
from an unbalanced
the current in
all
load.
For the best
ser-
three wires should be the same.
[A simple method by which any one of the branch

jircuits
may
be transferred to any one of the phases
illustrated in Figure 154u.

circuit is
As shown each branch
connected to a different phase.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
222
In Figure 154v the connections of the Westinghouse
The frequency meter
frequency meter are shown.
simply a voltmeter with two opposing
upon the pointer. Placed

would be no indications.
coils
in the circuit this
is
acting
way
there
In order to make
it
indicate different frequencies
inductive resistance
is
placed in circuit with one of the
FIGURE
an
154v.
and a non inductive resistance with the other.

These resistances are placed in a separate case and
mounted near the instrument to which they must be
connected as shown. The frequency meter in any
coils
given case
is
of course simply
the frequency of the
a speed indicator since
dynamos depends upon the speed
with which they revolve.
The
connections
of
the
Westinghouse
portable
powerfactor meter are shown for three phase circuit

in Figure
154w and
for
two phase
in Figure 154x.
TRANSFORMERS
223
The two phase meter has two and the

meter three
there
is
coils
another
coil
coils,
and
rotating field
three phase
In addition
is
produced by the
this field controls the position of the
pointer attached to the movable
FIGURE
fields.
the currents of which are in phase
with the voltage.
main
which form the
coil.
The connections
FIGURE
154w.
to the movable coil are
154x.
shown at the top and the

is shown in center.
arrangement for two phase
The
following instructions are quoted from publi-
cations of the Westinghouse
Company: "When the
top binding posts are disconnected and there
is
current
of at least one half full load in the series transformers,
the pointer should rotate

If it rotates in
left
hand binding
circuit the reversal should
series transformer
On a
the *lead' direction.
the *lag' direction reverse the leads
running to the lower
two phase
in
shown at the
posts.
On a
be made at the
left of
the diagram.
three phase circuit the leads should be reversed
at the meter
by connecting the common wire from the
WIRING DIAGRAMS
224
two series transformers to the left hand binding post,

and the single wire from the series transformer on the
left
Then connect the shunt
to the middle post.
circuit to the
upper binding posts as shown.
This
shunt connection should be made to the phase which

is
connected through the series transformer to the right
hand
side of the meter.
Should
it
be necessary to
reverse the series connection of the meter on three
phase circuits from that shown on the diagram in

order to obtain proper rotation, the shunt wire which
is shown connected to the wire of the circuit having
no series transformer should be changed to the wire
which is connected through the series transformer to
the left hand side of the meter. The upper half of
the scale indicates for power delivered from alternatingcurrent lines to the motor or rotary, and the lower half,
power returned to the
lines.
Should the pointer indi-
cate the reverse of that given above, the connections
at the upper binding posts should be reversed.
"Move
the scale by means of the projecting studs at
the sides of the
dial, until
the lower right hand
the
frequency index' at
portion of the scale points to the
marked with the number of alternations of the

on which the instrument is being used. The
instrument will now indicate the power factor of the
line
circuit
circuit."
Figure
154y shows the ordinary connections of

synchroscopes for voltages between
Westinghouse
1
and
200.
TRANSFORMERS
FtT
>
FIGURE
Hi?
JL
T
O
O
FIGURE
154y.
225
WT
O
^^
154a.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
226
The
connections for voltages from 200 to 500 are
given in Figure 154z and those for voltages in excess

of 500 in Figure 154'.
TRANSFORMERS.
Figure 155 shows the circuits in a single-phase
transformer.
Figure 156 shows the circuits in a single-phase

transformer
with
three- wire
This
secondary.
transformer has the advantages derived from the use
FIGURE
MAAAAAA
FIGURE
155.
large installation
is
FIGURE
156.
of three-wire distributing circuits,
VWW WWV
MAAA MAM
VWWVW
Vvvvww
MAMAAA
and
is
157.
used where
to be connected, or where one
large transformer feeds a set of secondary mains sup-
plying a
number
of residences.
Figure 157 shows the connections of a two-phase

transformer with two separate secondaries;
and Fig-
ure 158 the two-phase transformer with a
common
return wire for the secondaries.
TRANSFORMERS
227
Figure 159 shows a three-phase delta connection,

and Figure 160 a three-phase star connection.
Figures 161 to 167 show the connections used on
the Packard
Mark
windings of these transformers are
Wy/VMTÂAA/
Z^!!^^
AAAM
FIGURE
The primary
made in two sec,-
VI. transformers.
FIGURE
158.
tions, with leads
Ua/
FIGURE
159.
160.
brought out so that they may be
connected either in series or parallel.
2000
W wW
volt systems the
When
used on
two sections are connected in
iOd
FIGURE
series,
161
FIGURE
162.
FIGURE
and when used on 1000
shown
FIGURE
164.
volt systems the
sections are connected in parallel.

âre
163.
two
These connections
in the diagrams, where, in
Figures 161 to
WIRING DIAGRAMS
228
164, terminal blocks are used, and

and 168 the primaries are connected
in
Figures 165
in the
The secondaries of
wound in two sections,
same way
as the secondaries.
these trans-
formers are also
the same as
the primaries, so that either 50 or 100 volts or 100

or 200 volts
may
be obtained, according to the type
of the transformer used.
In Figures 161, 162, 165,
166, the primary windings are connected in multiple;

while in Figures 163, 164, 167, 168, the primary
FIGURE
165.
FIGURE
166.
FIGURE
windings are connected in
series.
windings are connected in
series in
167.
FIGURE
168.
The two secondary

Figures 161, 163,
165, 167, and in multiple in Figures, 162, 164, 166,
168.
)
When
a current of electricity
Is
sent through a
wire lines of force are sent out completely encircling

the wire.
As long
as the current in the wire remains
constant these lines of force remain constant, but,
if
the current increases the lines of force increase, or
transfor:\iers
if
229
the current decreases the lines of force decrease.
If the wire
is
wound
into a coil as the current in the
wire increases the lines of force sent out from each

wire of the coil will have to cut through
wires on the coil
and
in so
ter-electromotive force which
impressed electromotive
seen that this
is
force.
M. F.
the other
in opposition to the
can
It
readily
be
counter-electromotive force tends to
hold back the rise in current or

the E.
all
doing they induce a coun-
make
it
lag behind
In the same way, when the current in
FIGURE
169.
the coil decreases in strength the lines of force clos-
ing in on the wire add their E. M. F. to that of the

impressed E.
M. F. and tend
to
prolong the current,
again causing the change in the current to follow or

lag behind the E.
M.
F.
This
is
shown by the
(Figure 169), where C represents the current and V the E. M. F. This action is called selfcurve
induction.
Self-induction in a circuit acts in the
same way as resistance:
it
tends to cut
down the cur-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
230
For an
rent.
suppose the resistance of
illustration:
the wire in the coil just referred to was 5 ohms.

direct current of
110
110/5=22 amperes
we were
to send
through the
coil
to flow through the
coil.
But
an alternating current at 110
we would
much
rent would be
would cause a current of
volts
less
if
volts
find that the resulting cur-
than 22 amperes and
if
we
inserted an iron core in the coil the current would
be
still
farther reduced, because the resistance of iron
to the lines of force
is
much
less
than with air so
num-
that the lines of force would be increased in
The frequency of
ber.
the current, or the rapidity
of the alternations also effects the amount of current
produced, the current being smaller the greater the
number of
alternations.
condenser connected in a circuit acts in a
way
similar to an inductance except that the condenser
causes the current to lead the E.
When
M. F.
in phase.
an alternating current flows along a
across which a condenser
is
connected, as the E.
in the line rises the condenser
is
circuit
M. F.
gradually charged,
the charge increasing in value as long as the current

is
rising.
the E.
As
the E.
M. F.
M. F.
in the line begins to fall
across the condenser terminals lowers
and the condenser begins to discharge
into the line
and reached a
M.
maximum
this point the current
again be-
continuing to discharge until the impressed E.
F. has passed through

negative value.
At
gins to flow into the condenser.
It will be seen that
TRANSFORMERS
while the E.
maximum
M. F.
in the line
positive value to a
that the condenser current
is
mum
maximum
passing from a
is
maximum
negative value
negative or flowing out
of the condenser and while the E.

passes from a
231
M.
F. in the line
negative value to a maxi-
positive value the current in the condenser is
The condenser
positive.
maximum
current reaches a
90 degrees in advance of the E. M. F. and for

reason is known as a leading current.
this
In a circuit containing inductance or capacity,
where the current
is
out of phase with the E.
M. F.
the current
may
which
phase with the E. M. F. and the other 90
is
in
be resolved into two currents, one of
degrees out of phase with the E.

current
is
known
M. F. This
as a wattless current
and
latter
greater,
is
the greater the inductance or capacity in the circuit.
If in a circuit containing inductance or capacity
where the current
is
out of phase with the E.
M.
F.,
we would measure the power in watts, using a voltmeter and ammeter,

C. E., we would get an
apparent amount of power which would be greatly
in excess of that actually consumed.
The number of
watts actually consumed could be measured by a
wattmeter. The ratio of the number of watts actually
consumed to the apparent watts is known as the power
factor, or Power factorÂctual watts divided by
W=
apparent watts.
As an example: suppose
the volt-
meter and ammeter showed 115 volts and 10 amperes
which would be equal to 1150 watts and the watt-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
232
Then 920/1150=80/100
power factor. The actual current
meter shows 920 watts.

or .80 which
is
the
doing work would amount to 8 amperes but as shown
by the ammeter 10 amperes is flowing and the wire

and fuses on such a circuit would have to be of sufficient size to
carry 10 amperes.
CHAPTER
XVI.
AEMATUEES.
Figure 170
ture.
a diagram of a
is
This style
ing machines.
It
Gramme
ring arma-
often used with series arc light-
is
is
well suited for
high voltages
but not for heavy currents.
FIGURE
FIGURE
170.
171.
The winding shown in Figure 171 is that of an ordinary cylinder or drum armature. The wire wound
on
this
armature as well as that of the preceding
ways forms one continuous
coil
al-
This can
or loop.
be seen by tracing the wire beginning at commutator
bar
1, thence to section a,
and then
*o
around back of core to
commutator bar
2.
From
this
bar to
a'
6,
then to b' and commutator bar 3,
etc.
is
one
of the simplest windings used, but
many makers
are
233
This
WIRING DIAGRAMS
234
using modifications of
it;
the principle of
all,
how-
being the same.
ever,
Figure 172 shows a diagram of Thomson-Houston

ring armature used for
series
arc lighting.
This
armature consists of three sections which terminate
commutator segments from which current
at three
taken
The
off.
other terminals of
all
is
three sections
terminate in a copper ring which joins
all
of them
together.
FIGURE
'
172.
FIGURE
173.
diagram of the Brush armature, also for series

The figure
arc lighting, is shown in Figure 173.
shows only two
tice
many more
some of the
sets
of
coils,
are used.
coils are
always on open circuit and
will be seen that there is
tween the different

tor segments
is
coils
it
no connection whatever be-
except through the commuta-
and the brushes resting upon them.
Figure 174
such as
although in actual prac-
In this style of armature
illustrates the
winding of an armature
used in single-phase alternating current
ARMATURES
machines.
The number of
coils
235
on the armature must
always be equal to the number of poles
in the fields.
With dynamos of this kind quite often

made to revolve and the current to the
the fields are
flows
from the stationary
FIGURE
coils
outside lines
on the frame.
174.
In Figure 175 a diagram of a three-phase, fourpole, star connected
armature
ing for each separate phase

single-phase armature.
is
is
shown.
The wind-
similar to that of the
One end of each
coil termi-
nates in a collector ring; the other ends of

coils
meeting in one common connection.
all
the
It will be
noticed that there are three coils (one for each phase)
for every pole piece, making twelve
coils in all.
CHAPTER XVII.
SWITCHBOARDS
GROUND DETECTORS.
Figure 176 shows the wiring and connections of

the Western Electric Co.'s series arc switchboard.
At
the top of the board are mounted six ammeters, one
being connected in the circuit of each machine.
FIGURE
On
176.
the lower part of the board are a number of holes,
under which, on the back of the board, are mounted

spring
jacks
to
which
terminals are connected.
the
circuit
and
machine
For making connections

236
be-
SWITCHBOARDS
tween dynamos and
nating at each end
commonly
a plug, are used; these are
The board shown has
"jumpers."
called
termi-
cables
flexible
circuits,
in
237
a capacity of six machines and nine circuits, and with

the connections as
shown machine
rent to circuit 1, machine 2

circuits
2 and
3,
to circuits 4, 5
dynamos and
is
and machine 4
and
is
furnishing cur-
furnishing current to
furnishing current
is
In connecting together arc
7.
circuits the positive of the
that terminal from which the current
is
machine (or
flowing)
is
connected to the positive of the circuit (the terminal

into which the current
machine
the circuit.
Where more than one
jrated
is
connected to the negative of
from one dynamo, the
[connected to the
Likewise the neg-
flowing).
is
ative of the
circuit is to be
of
the
first
At each
of the second.
op-
circuit
is
side of
name plate (at 3, for instance) there are three

[lioles.
The large hole is used for the permanent con[the
lection, while the smaller holes are
'ing
circuits,
Imallcr cables
used for transfer-
without shutting down the dynamo.
and plugs are used for transferring,

circuit 5
from machine
[f it is
desired to cut
)lug
inserted in one of the small holes at the right
)f
[at
is
4, the other
plug being inserted
the left of 7.
lited,
Circuit 5 would
and the plug
Fferrcd to the
off*
in the
o^^
in
one of the holes
now be short cirnow be trans-
^ can
permanent connection
|and the cords running to 5 removed.

to
4,
in the
If
it is
o^ ^y
desired
cut in a circuit, say circuit 6 onto machine 2, in-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
238
sert a cord
between the
of circuit 2 and the
of 6 and
the
6 and another between the
pull the plug on the cord connecting
Now
and the
of
of 3.
of 2
+ of ^ ^^^ insert the permanent connections.
In cutting in
thej contain a great number
circuits, if
of lights, a long arc
tween 2 and 3
to shut
-|-
down
may
pulled,
is
be drawn when the plug be-
and
the machine
it is
sometimes advisable
when making a change of
this kind.
,.
dr-
f
FIGURE
Figure 177
is
177.
a diagram of the Thomson-Hous-
The
ton arc switchboard.
generators connect to hori-
zontal brass strips fastened to the back of the board,

as indicated
by the heavy black
The
lines.
circuits
connect to similar strips fastened vertically to back
of board but separated from the horizontal
These
strips
vertical
strips
and terminate
at the bottom.
constructed to
extend below
in a
Long plugs
make
the
number of plug
strips.
horizontal
holes
shown
are provided suitably
connection* between
any of the
SWITCHBOARDS
horizontal generator strips and
circuit
The
strips.
out the circuits
it
short
bottom indicate
the
and by tracing
cables
The
1.
vertical
three are in
all
positive sides of all
are usually run to one side of the board
the positive sides of
all circuits to
only through gross
that
any of the
be seen that
will
with generator
series
dynamos
at
lines
connected by
plugs
239
plugging, as to polarity,
and
the same side, so
carelessness
could
wrong
exist.
and E, Figure 178, illustrate the sucsteps necessary to change circuits 1 and 2 from
A, B, C,
cessive
dynamo 1 and 2 and connect them in series on dynamo

The solid black circles represent plugs.
S.
The first step is shown in B where the positive
poles of both dynamos are placed in parallel by inserting the two additional plugs.
The
shown
Dl
second step
A.
in
is
to
withdraw the two
first
This places the two dynamos in
plugs
series,
connecting direct to circuit 2, as shown at C.
The
voltage of
dynamo Dl may now be reduced
and two plugs with

shown at D.
This
leaves
D2
cable
connections
short-circuits
carrying the load of both
The plugs connecting Dl
inserted,
as
dynamo Dl and
circuits.
to the circuit
may now
be withdrawn, leaving the connections as at E, where
dynamo D2
In
two
supplies both circuits.

circuits are
shown as running
in series
serves to
on dynamo Dl and the insertion of plug
WIRING DIAGRAMS
240
short-circuit
J and
K
"'
_l
and extinguish
may now
circuit 2.
be withdrawn.
The plugs
I,
SWITCHBOARDS
the right
a rear view showing the connections.
is
ferring to the view at the
an ammeter with
current used.
tector switch
resistance to
PL
GD
left,
is
is
The ground
a pilot lamp.
and
de-
used to measure the insulation
ground of each
side of the system.
across the bus bars.
bus bar
is
connected directly
If the switch
is
In
179.
the position shown the voltmeter
Re-
a voltmeter and
is
scales suitable to the voltage
FIGURE
right, the
241
is
moved
to the
connected through the volt-
meter to ground, and, by means of the reading obtained, using the formula given
under the head of
testing, the insulation resistance can be determined.
Moved
to the left, the insulation resistance of the
other side of the system can be obtained.
One of the
WIRING DIAGRAMS
242
dynamo
switch
leads
M,
is
CB
circuit breaker
The
carried to one terminal of the main
while the other lead
circuit breaker
lower
is
carried through the
to the other terminal of the switch.

is
generally set to operate at a
current than the fuses on switch
rise in
M,
so
that these fuses only blow in case the circuit breaker

fails to operate.
The
necessary, but
generally installed in well designed
The
plants.
is
circuit breaker
hand wheel
small
is
not absolutely
is
connected to the
rheostat mounted on the rear of the board.

switches 1, 2, 3
and 4 operate the feeder
the rear of the board the three wires F,
The
lines.
On
and
go to the dynamo, while the line marked G is

connected to some good ground, such as a water pipe.
The
field,
rheostat
and
is
connected in series with the shunt
used to regulate the voltage.
is
shunt connected in
series
AS
is
with one of the bus bars,
the terminals of the shunt being connected to the ammeter.
This shunt
ammeter.
generally furnished with the
In case an ammeter which carries the en-
tire current
is
meter so that
the mains.
is
used, leads
it will
The
must be carried
to the
am-
be connected in series with one of
feeder lines are connected to the up-
per terminals of switches
1, 2, 3,
and
4.
The ground
and voltmeter are connected to

the bus bars through the cutout CO, standard No.
detector, pilot lamps
14 rubber covered wire being used on
these circuits.
GROUND DETECTORS
243
GEOUND DETECTORS.
In Figure 180 a ground detector switch suitable
for
mounting on a switchboard
is
Two arms
shown.
A, A', pivoted at their upper ends, are connected together with an insulating bar B.
These arms make
contact at their lower ends with two brass strips and
a contact button which are connected to the bus bars
and ground
respectively.
to the left the
-J-
When
bus bar
is
the arms are
moved
connected to ground
ti'
E)
FIGURE
FIGURE
180.
through the voltmeter V.
By
181.
means of the reading
obtained the insulation resistance to ground of the
side of the line can be calculated
formula given further on.
By moving
by using the
the
arm
to the
right the insulation resistance of the 4" side of the

line
can be obtained.
Figure 181 shows a lamp ground detector.
On a
IVO-volt system two ordinary 110-volt lamps are con-
nected in series, while the line connecting the lamps
WIRING DIAGRAMS
244
connected to ground through a snap switch S.
is
When
current
is
bum
on, the two lamps will
When
equal brilliancy at a low candle-power.

switch S
is
closed, if the
two
a ground on the
is
but
if
there
lamp 2
side of the line
will
burn brighter, the brightness depending on the

sistance of the ground.
the
lamp
will
burning at
burn at
all.
the
lines are clear the bril-
liancy of the lamps will not be affected

-|-
with
If there
is
lamp
full candle-power,
If the ground
is
re-
a dead ground
on the
1 not
side of
the line lamp 1 will burn brighter.
i
FIGURE
FIGURE
182.
183.
Figure 182 shows another method of using a

meter as a ground detector.
The arms
volt-
A' are
hinged at the upper ends and swing separately.
Arnt
moved to post 1 gives the reading on the -{- side,

and arm A' moved to post 1 gives the reading on the
side of the line.
Figure 183 shows another method, using two

gle-pole
double-throw
knife
switches.
sin-
Throwing
GROUND DETECTORS
switch 1 to lower position connects the
245
bus bar
ground, and gives the insulation resistance of the
to
-[
side of the line.
Another form In which two double-point push buttons are used
shown
is
position contact
the voltmeter
is
is
in
made
Figure 184.
to the
In normal
upper points so that
always connected across the bus bars.
Pushing button
1, the insulation resistance
side of the line
can be obtained, and pushing button
2 the
of the
-|~
side.
Cd
H
FIGURE
FIGURE
184.
185.
FIGURE
186
Three-way snap switches are used for the same

purpose in Figure 185.
When
shown
in
several machines are in operation the
Figure 186 can be used.
With
method
this arrange-
ment the voltage can be taken on any one of several

lines or machines, and also the insulation resistance
to
ground.
means of
fit
The
voltmeter connection
flexible cords
in the jacks,
which
is
made by
terminating in plugs, which

in
turn are connected to the
machine leads or to the various
circuits.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
246
The
switch shown in Figure 187
use where two
dynamos are run
pivoted at the center
is
is
designed for
in parallel.
An arm
equipped with brass strips,
which, by moving
arm A, make contact between the

and
arm moved down the voltmeter is con-
center curved piece and the contact points 1, 2, 3
With
4.
the
nected to machine No. 1, and with the

the voltmeter
slight
is
arm moved up
By
connected to machine No. 2.
movement of the arm the voltage of
either
r^
El
FIGURE
FIGURE
187.
machine can be taken.

is
This
188.
is
FIGURE
useful where a
189.
dynamo
being brought up to speed to connect on to the bus
bars.
Figure 188 shows a lamp ground detector for use

on a three-wire system where the neutral is not
grounded.
tral
is
In nearly
either
all
three-wire systems the neu-
permanently
grounded
or
becomes
grounded so that ground detectors are not used, a
ground on
either of the outsides blowing a fuse.
Figure 189 shows a method of locating grounds on
GROUND DETECTORS
a
series arc line,
247
where lamps are burning.
num-
ber of incandescent lamps are connected in series, the

last
lamp being connected to ground.
Two
wires are
carried to the double-throw switch S, one wire being
connected to each side of the
From
circuit.
the mid-
dle of the double-throw switch a flexible connection

is
carried to the first lamp,
lamps noted.
If the
and
the.
brightness of the
lamps do not burn up to
candle power, connection
is
made
at
some lamp nearer
the ground, and this continued until the lamps

at full brightness.
the
number
of
When
lamps
is
counted, and
just twice as
many
it will
bum
been reached
this point has
cr.ndescent lamps are used
^^b are
full
if
100-volt in-
be seen that there
arc lamps burning between
that side of the machine and the ground as there are
incandescents burning, for an arc lamp takes approx-
imately 50 volts.
In the diagram suppose there
ground on the arc
circuit at
X;
nection to the incandescent lamps as
dotted
lines,
is
then, with the con-
the lamps will burn at
shown
full
in the
brightness.
Care should be taken in handling apparatus of this

kind on account of the high voltages on arc circuits
on which there are a number of lamps.

Figure 189a shows diagram of ground detector con-
A lamp is connected
and by connecting the
lamp to different points as 1 or 4 for instance, an idea
of the resistance to ground can be formed.
If the
lamp will burn brightly at point 4 it indicates that the
nections on a
two phase
circuit.
in parallel with the inductance
WIRING DIAGRAMS
248
insulation resistance of the line to ground
lower than
it
is
much
would be if it would have to be con1 to burn brightly.
nected at point
''^
similar plan for three phase circuits
is
followed
in Figure 189b.
As with other ground

is
detectors,
connected to the leg that
not burn at
all.
is
if
the ground switch
grounded the lamp
will
GROUND DETECTORS
Figure 189c shows
ground detector arranged
high potential service.
Two
249
for
voltmeters are connected
through two transformers as shown.
If the line is
two voltmeters show low readings which are

equal for both instruments. With a ground coming
on at A and the switch closed to guard the meter at the
clear the
FIGURE
189c.
lower and that on the right higher.

With a ground coming on at C the indications will be the
left will indicate
reverse, while with

will
read higher.
a ground at
both voltmeters
CHAPTER
XVIII.
STORAGE BATTERY CONNECTIONa..

Figure 190 shows a diagram of connections of a
storage battery and booster suitable for an ordinary
where
electric light installation,
it
desired to use
is
the battery at time of heavy load to assist the genera-
and to use the battery alone at time of light load.

The booster B, which is driven by the motor M, the
tor,
two forming a motor generator

series
connected in
set, is
with the battery circuit, and serves to raise the
voltage to that necessary to charge the batteries.

is
a rheostat in the
field
by which the
of the booster
E. M. F. can be regulated.
To
downward and the

end-cell switch
single-pole switch
and when
it is
stat closes the
up
The motor
speed the arm of
to
is
in parallel with the generator.
now
The
started,
the motor rheo-
To
to point 1
double-throw switch S upward.
As
thrown
closed, the
is
charging circuit at C.
throw the end-cell switch
teries alone
is
being placed on point 5 so that aP
the cells are in circuit.
cells
charge, the double-throw switch
discharge,
and throw
battery
To run
is
then
with the bat-
open switch MS.
the E.
M. F. of
are switched in
the battery falls, more end-
by moving switch
250
to points
STOEaGE BATTERY CONNECTIONS
=g
251
6-
o^
0^5
=ri.
o-o
m
MS
n
B
11
A/WW\H
3E:
t^
riQURB
180.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
252
2,
3,
4 or
5.
separate voltmeter
is
generally in-
stalled so that the readings of the voltage
may
be
taken from the end-cells separately, to prevent overcharging or exhausting them.
In power work, where variations in voltage are

greater and not of so
teries are often
much
importance, storage bat-
connected directly across the mains

ii
iitJi
i^^^^^^-jî
II
rwmmmmm
Is^v^lZXZ^^^
FIGURE
without a booster.
190a.
In such cases the battery
current from the mains
when the load
is
will
take
light
and
the voltage correspondingly high, and give

into the line
heavy
when the
current
voltage becomes low due to
loads.
Figure 190a shows connections of a storage battery

to be charged without the use of a booster.
charging, the battery
is
For
connected with the two halves
STORAGE BATTERY CONNECTIONS
253
WIRING DIAGRAMS
254
As shown the battery
in parallel.
if
ready for charge
is
the single pole switches at the center are closed
downward, and those at the
right
their proper positions with the
As the E. M.
and
end
left
placed to
cells
in circuit.
up
sections of
F. of the battery builds
the resistance R, beginning at the right, are cut out.
An ammeter
is
provided in each leg so that the rate of
may
charge of each half of the battery
When
S
is
fully
charged the main switch
then also opened, S'
is
closed
is
be observed.
opened, switch
and the
single pole
switches at the center of the battery are closed on the
upper points.
and
fit
This places the two halves in
for connection to the line.
series
The end cells should
be adjusted so that the voltage of the battery is about

equal to that of the line before it is thrown in.
Figure 190b shows diagram of storage battery as
arranged by the Gould Co., to be charged from a high
voltage (150 volt) dynamo.

switches
both
is
may
are two
separate set of end
cell
provided for charge and discharge so that
be taking place at the same time.
There
circuit breakers, the one at the right
vided with a reverse current trip to protect the
is
pro-
dynamo
in case its voltage should fall so that the battery could
send current through
it.
In Figure 190c a large automobile charging station

is
shown.
As a battery
corresponding
switch
is
is
connected for charge the
thrown
allows current to pass through the
the rheostat
is
now
upward.
This
ammeter A, and
set so that the current flow is at

the proper rate.
thrown downward,
When
this
use with the next charge.
circuit the voltage of
By
P
o-i
An end
cell
cells
ammeter
entirely opening the

in the corresponding
-o
o-
190c.
switch as sometimes used
is
shown
in
This switch avoids short circuiting the
while changing from one to the other, and also
avoids opening the circuit entirely.
The arm
the permanent connection, but while
it
A makes
is
^rom one segment to the other the other arm
is
free for
any battery can be taken.
FIGURE
Figure 190d.
done the switch
is
this leaves the
switch and inserting plug at
255
moving
carries
WIRING DIAGRAMS
256
The Cooper Hewitt Mercury

rectifying
alternating
electrodes at its
mercury
in the
purpose
the
for
of
shown diagrammatical ly
B is a glass bulb which carries two
upper extremity and a quantity of
charging storage batteries,

in Figure 190e.
adapted to
Rectifier,
currents
is
The
bottom.
globe
is
further filled
with mercury vapor which posseses the peculiarity
NMW
FIGURE
that
190d.
allows current flow from the upper electrodes
it
into the lower, but does not allow a reversal of this
current.
In the bottom of the bulb there are also two electrodes,
one in the mercury and the other a
little
above
it.
In order to start the operation
tilt
the bulb sufficiently so that the mercury bridges
the two lower electrodes.
it is
necessary to
This starts current flow
through the auxiliary wires R.

allowed to return, this circuit
is
When
the bulb
is
interrupted and the
current from whichever of the two upper electrodes
257
happens to be positive at the time continues in

place.
for
an
again.
is
its
Should the current ever cease entirely, even

instant, the bulb
would require to be
tilted
In order to avoid this occurrence the reactance
provided;
this
produces a phase difference be-
tween the impulses in the supply
circuit
and those
CI
mTw^mMTmwmmw\
FIGURE
(passing
190e.
into the battery so that the currents overlap,
and the current from one electrode does not cease until
that from the other has been started. The alternating
current supply
is
connected at
Figure 190f shows a small
C.
storage
battery con-
nected to be charged from a series arc circuit.
While
WIRING DIAGRAMS
258
the switcn
remains in the position shown no current
passes through the battery.
downward part
ance
and part
AZ
If
the switch
is
pulled
of the current passes through the resist-
Js/
of
it
through the battery.
The
dif-
5#^^
FIGURE
190f.
R will
R and the
ference of potential existing at the terminals of
be equal to the product of the resistance of

current flowing.
than the E.
M.
This must always be a
little
greater
F. of the battery or the battery will
discharge through the resistance.
CHAPTER XIX.
TESTING.
Figure 191
jsting out
designed to illustrate a method of
is
rough wiring when
be considered con-
except the ends at outlets, and
jaled
lat
may
All wiring
be connected.
lights or fixtures are
nothing
is
known of how
it
the wiring
assumed
is
is
run
in.
23
FIGURE
The
may
there
step
first
is
191.
to separate all wires at outlets, so
be no wrong connections.
an ordinary
bell
and fuse up the
and battery as shown

circuit.
must be a short-circuit
If the bell
Next connect
in the figure
now
rings, there
in the wiring leading direct
from the cutout, since we have disconnected

îres.
?ss
)ff
To
locate this
to the wiring,
it will
and
it
may
plaster or break into walls.

to
abandon a
all
other
be necessary to get acbe necessary to tear
Oftentimes
it is
circuit with such trouble as this
259
bet-
and
WIRING DIAGRAMS
260
run in a new one.

next step
ends of
If the circuit
it
found
clear, the
to temporarily bring together the bare
is
the wires found at any of the outlets until
all
a ring from the bell

tained
is
is
obtained.
When
a ring
is
ob-
will indicate that the circuit feeds direct to
from the cutout.
this outlet
outlet the
Next pick out
at this
two wires which together produce a ring.
These two wires come direct from the cutout, and
may now
be marked as such.
In the figure
it
is
intended that the light 1 shall
be controlled by the switch
S',
and the
by the
light 2
switch S''; the lights 3 and 4 are not provided with

switches, but the large chandelier
trolled by the double-pole switch
The next
is
to be con-
DS.
step will be to find the two wires leading
to switch S'.
To
accomplish
this,
close the switch
and bring any two of the wires found
at outlet 1 in
contact with those coming from the cutout
when
the proper wires have been thus connected the bell

will ring.
One of
the switch wires
may now
be con-
nected permanently to one of the circuit wires coming
from the cutout, while the other
is
to be connected
The
other wire
coming from the cutout goes to the other
side of the
to one side of the
lamp or
Lamp
fixture.
now completely connected

and under control of switch S^. The quickest way to
find the proper connections for lamp 2 and switch S"
is by bunching all the wires at 2, and then trying at
lamp or
1,
fixture.
any two wires
1 is
to those
coming from the cutout
TESTliNG
until the bell rings.
The two
lamp
ringing lead direct to
261
wires which cause this
2,
and may now be con-
nected to the wires leading from the cutout, care be-
ing taken that they are connected so as not to come
under control of switch
and
at 2,
Next, separate the wires
S'.
which when brought together
find those
cause the bell to ring ; one of these must be connected
lamp or
direct to the
fixture, while the other
nected to one of the remaining wires.
one wire, and
is
con-
This leaves
connects to the other side of the lamp
it
and completes the connection of lamp 2 and switch
The four remaining
S".
in a similar
wires at 1
may
be found
manner, care being taken that they are
connected behind the connections of switch
also
Two
of the six wires at outlet
C may now
nected direct to those coming from outlet 1.

this,
go
to switch
DS
and
find the wires
S'.
be coniVfter
coming from
and the cutout (by ringing the bell), and

connect them to the proper points on the switch. The
outlet 1
remaining wires connect to the other pole of the
The
switch and to the chandelier.
wires leading to
lamp S may be doubled up under the screws of the

cutout terminals.
For
testing of this kind the bell
convenient instrument, since

distance,
and a
circuit
through several rooms.
as
it
is
shown
described often
magneto may
with an assistant to turn the crank, or

at
the
cutout
is
is
short-circuited
the most
audible at quite a
the
extends
also be used,
if
the circuit
wireman may
WIRING DIAGRAMS
262
carry
it
with him, making connections wherever he
wishes to
may
If the cutout center
test.
is
"ahve" a lamp
be placed instead of one of the fuses, and the
wireman may carry another with him for

galvanometer or telephone receiver
in this
may
testing.
also be used
way, the battery alone being connected at the
cutout center.
Figure 192 shows the main and branch wiring of

a two-wire incandescent system,
ready for
final test
and connection.
necessary to close
it is
fuses,
and a
all
In the
place
If current
fuses.
may
then be made by
in circuit in place of one of the
will light in case there
now thrown on
is
is
any
the
lamp
serious defect in the
insulation between opposite polarities in
any part of
In case there are any two or three-way
the system.
will
first
test for short circuits or faulty insula-
placing a lamp
switches
and
complete
the switches and insert all
tion between opposite poles
main
all
controlling
lights
from
several
places,
it
be necessary to turn one of these on each circuit
after the
first test
other test
has been made and then make an-
since one cannot well be certain whether
such switches close a circuit or not unless a lamp can

be seen to
bum.
It will also be advisable to
with single and double pole switches, and
do
may
this
often
be easier than removing covers from snap switches to

see
whether they are on or
off.
Snap
switches will
often indicate by the sound of the snap whether they

are on or
off,
but this
is
not always reliable.
TESTING
263
If a more thorough test than that given
lamp
is
required,
it
may
four instruments shown.
by the
made with any one of the

The voltmeter may be con-
be
nected in place of the lamp.
If the system
is
perfect
the voltmeter will indicate nothing, while if a short-
FIGURE
circuit exists
it
192.
A tele-
will indicate the full pressure.
phone receiver may
also be used in the
properly wound, and
if the
W,
if
system contains no lead-
covered wires or iron pipe and

the Wheatstone bridge
same way,
is
not too large.
or magneto
is
If
to be
WIRING DIAGRAMS
264
used for
both main fuses must be removed
this test,
and connection made

instruments.
to both wires as
shown with these
Lead-covered wire, or wire in iron pipe,
will also interfere with testing
by a magneto, a ring
sometimes being obtained when the insulation of the
system
is
The
perfect.
figure
also
shows the voltmeter
up with battery
telephone receiver fitted
and the
to test the
insulation resistance to earth of lines having no cur-
rent; the same connections
may
be made with the
magneto or Wheatstone bridge, and both main wires

may be connected at once as shown by dotted lines.
More
detailed explanation
and formulas for testing
with the voltmeter and Wheatstone bridge will be

given further on.
When
it is
desired to ascertain the current passing
along the mains, an ammeter

place of voltmeter
as
may
shown.
be connected in
To
test
the in-
sulation resistance accurately, the system should not
be
alive,
although approximate
tests
may
be
made
with a voltmeter or ground detector lamps connected

as shown in Figure 19S.
This method of testing
circuits is practical only
on small systems, since the
live
system cannot be subdivided, and the indications are

accurate only so long as defects are confined to one
side of the line.
With
large three-wire systems
it is
quite usual to have the neutral wire grounded, and

these methods could not be used at
all.
In Figure 192 there are shown two ground de-
TESTING
235
C and D, and bj means

may be
tector lamps
switch the wire between them
ground.
As long
tact with the
as this key
ground
not brought in con-
is
wire, both
of a key or
connected to
lamps burn dimly
in
series
if no ground
exists in any part of the system, depressing the key
Should, however, a ground
will not affect the lamps.
and with equal
exist,
brilliancy,
and
say at G, closing the key will establish a path
through the ground and through lamp

posite side of the circuit.
If the ground
to the opis
of very
lamp C will burn at full candle

will not burn at all.
Should the
low resistance the

power, while
ground be of high
resistance there will be but little
difference in the brilliancy of the lamps.
The
connections of the voltmeter are based on the
same principle.
The
switch S
moved one way makes
connection with the positive pole through the volt-
meter to the ground, and moved the other
way makes
connection with the negative pole through voltmeter

to ground.
In the position shown the switch
is
clear
of the ground, and connects the voltmeter to the
The
lighting mains so as to obtain full pressure.
formula for use with the voltmeter when the exact

value of the resistance
iî
where
is
to be determined
E is the full
is
=R
voltage of the battery or
other source of current as indicated on the voltmeter,
E'
is
the reduced reading obtained through the volt-
meter and the resistance to be measured, and
the
WIRING DIAGRAMS
266
resistance of the voltmeter,
unknown
being the value of the
This formula
resistance.
is
based on the
supposition that the voltmeter and the resistance to
be measured are in
series,
and that
all
current pass-
ing through the resistance being measured also passes
through the voltmeter.

Referring to Figure 192, so long as
is
the only
defect on the system allowing current to flow, the
above formula will give us the correct resistance; as

soon, however, as G'
is
comes unreliable, since G'

meter and robs
it
introduced the formula beis
a shunt around the volt-
of current.
The
current passing
through the voltmeter no longer depends only on the

voltmeter resistance and that of G, and therefore the
readings can no longer be used as a basis of calcula-
As a matter
tions.
live
of fact, if the voltmeter test on
system as shown in the figure indicates a low
ground on one
side, as, for instance, G', it will usual-
The ground
ly show the other side very high.
de-
tector lamps are subject to the same limitations, but
although they and the voltmeter cannot be relied upon

for accurate testing, both are very useful when ar-
ranged so that
tests
can be made several times per
day, so as to give means of detecting a ground as
soon as
it
comes on.
In Figure 193
stone bridge.
is
given a diagram of the Wheat-
This instrument
is
generally
used
where accurate measurements of resistance are to be
made, and on account of
its
wide range
it is
the most
TESTING
267
It will be seen
useful instrument for this purpose.
that current from the battery entering at 1 has two
paths open to
through
one through
it,
X and the other
and
and R, to the other pole of the battery.
If the resistances
and
are equal, then an equal
quantity of current will pass through each to the

points 2 and 3 respectively.
FIGURE
no current
will
and B) they
If the resistance of
current to 2 as
and
still
galvanometer.
no current
will
made
is
away
carry
these conditions
carry to S
X, then
as
will
and
will
is
to
if
is
carry away
X takes away
no current
So long
ten times as great
carry only one-tenth as
will
ten times as high as
3,
will also
Under
will
the current from 2, while
from
much greater
be
pass through the galvanometer G.
as that of B, then
much
made
and
193.
equal quantities of current.
all
may
are ajso equal (though they
or smaller than
If the resistances
all
current
flow through the
as
is
pass through the galvanometer.
X,
Whento
WIRING DIAGRAMS
268
ever this relation
is
disturbed, some current will pass
through the galvanometer, either from 2 to 3 or 3 to
If
S.
through
to 2
while
entirely
is
the current flowing
all
to 3 will pass through the galvanometer
and, again, if
open,
and
is
of higher resistance than
are equal, some current will pass
2 through the galvanometer to
To make
X,
from
3.
the resistance of A,
and
may
brass plugs are provided which
variable,
be inserted in
the openings shown so as to form a shunt to the resistance bridged
around the opening.
the proportional arms
and
In each of
two openings are
al-
ways plugged, and the one unplugged is the resistance through which the current must pass. In R all
plugs are removed to get the total resistance, while to
get the lowest resistance
all
openings but the lowest
are plugged.
To
the
measure any resistance proceed as follows:
unknown
resistance connected at
is
If
not greater
than the total of R, or smaller than any one plug in
R,
and
B may
be plugged equal; for instance,
plugs inserted in the openings 1000 and 100 on each

arm, leaves on each side ten ohms in circuit and
leaves the greatest battery strength for the galvano-
meter.
Now
plug
and press the key;

whether
flection
it
is
so the resistance will be quite low

if this gives
any
to the right or left.
deflection note
If a decided de-
has been obtained, remove a number of plugs
until the resistance of
R is quite
high and again press
TESTING
now obtained
If the deflection
the key.
26Q
in the op^
is
posite direction of the former, the value of the resist-
ance
something between the
is
value of R, and
first
the second, and repeated trials are necessary until no

deflection
icaused
is
No
obtained.
by a weak battery.
[increasing or lessening
may
deflection
If everything
also
be
in order,
is
should cause reverse deflec-
tions.
When
mm
balance
obtained with
is
and
of the unplugged resistances in
is
balance unless
of
ralue
lin
X.
versely, if
If
^he values
will give the
greater than
is
A;
and, con-
than the smallest resistance in R,
is less
of A,
equal, the
greater than R, we cannot ob-
balance cannot be obtained unless
'henever balance
obtained,
is
and
B
is
is
to
smaller than A.
as
is
to
are known, and, since
X.
it is
well-known rule of arithmetic that in any proporbion the

le
product of the means equals the product of
we can
extremes,
.XX=BXR>
ind the value of
mplugged
If, in
the
7 =X,
X
value of
X,
since
or in other words to
we must multiply the sum of the

R by B and divide by A.
resistances in
Figure 193,
to 1000,
find
is
when balance
unplugged
is
obtained
times
R.
1000,
X will equal 1-100 part of R.
If
is
unplugged
to equal
X will
to equal
10 and
equal 100
10 and
The
total
at
range
of the resistance that can be measured by the arrange-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
\270'
ment shown
from 1 ohm
in this figure is
to
600,000
ohms.
Figure 194 shows one commercial form of the
Wheatstone bridge.
In
this
form movable arms are
The
used to adjust the resistance instead of plugs.
]l{l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l
FIGURE
resistance to be measured
posts
is
194.
connected to the binding
marked X, and when balance
sum of
is
obtained the
the resistances indicated by the lower arms
divided by
and multiplied by M.
The key
is
is
ar-
TESTING
ranged to
circuit
271
close the battery circuit before closing the
through the galvanometer.
This
is
important,
especially where inductive resistances such as the coils
of electro-magnets are to be measured, and prevents

inductance and discharge of these magnets from dis-
turbing the galvanometer reading.

N-v y^, Â1
YA/.
OPPPPPPPP
v:'
FIGURE
195.
Figure 195 shows another form of Wheatstone

bridge, and Figure
With
lin
form the resistance to be measured
this
nected at
196 a diagram of the connections.
X, and
if it is
greater than
the center are arranged as shown in black.
balance
is
obtained
plugged resistances
by A.
With
[between
fiistances
X
in
equals the
is
con-
the two plugs
When
sum of the un-
multiplied by
and divided
the plugs arranged in the opposite holes
A X and B R, X equals the unplugged

of R multiplied by A and divided by B.
re?
WIRING DIAGRAMS
272
As
will
be seen from Figure 193 the multiplying
proportional
known.
coil
is
the one in series with the un-
In this form of bridge
it is
possible to place
either one of the coils in series with the
hence we
may
unknown and
use either one to multiply and the other
This greatly increases the range of the
to divide.
instrument with the same amount of resistance.
FIGURE
With a plug
left out, the
straight resistance box.
back contact which
when
R and X, the other

box may be used as a
inserted between
two plugs being
itself
196.
released,
The galvanometer key
closes the
has
galvanometer circuit on
and tends to stop the needle from
II
swinging.
Oftentimes these boxes are not equipped with battery,
and instead have two binding posts
battery
may
be connected.
the above were connected at

dle could be
made
to which
If the battery in either of
the galvanometer nee-
to deflect in one direction only.
CHAPTER XX.
LIGHT.
The
intensity of the
the distance from
Hght
the source.
varies as the square of
This
is
rigidly true
only at such distances where the source of light
may
be considered as a mathematical point having no

physical dimensions.
tric light is
two inches as at four
Thus
the intensity of an elec-
not four times as great at a distance of

inches.
16 candle-power lamp
is
usually allowed for ev-
ery 100 square feet in ordinary rooms, when not sus-
pended more than seven

dark colored
sired,
walls, or
feet
from the
floor.
where a very bright light
With
is
de-
more lamps should be provided.
The
efficiency
of lamps varies greatly with differ-
ent candle-powers, a fair approximation being given
below:
32 candle-power lamp requires from 100 to

"
"
"
"
50 "
16 "
"
"
"
"
30 "
8 "
a
a
^
JQ
110 watts
56
33
2^
"
"
After lamps have been used for some time the efficiency
is
reduced somewhat and the current con-
sumption increased.
273
274
WIRING DIAGRAMS
The candle-power of any incandescent lamp increases much more rapidly than the current supplied
to
it,
so that the higher efficiency
age for the lamp.
If long
be operated at low voltage.
Below
taken from the General Electric
showing the variation
demands
life is desired
is
given a table,
Company
in candle-power
full volt-
they should
and
bulletin,
efficiency
of standard 3.1 watt lamps due to variations in volt-
age:
Percent of normal
LIGHT
275
In Figure 197 the various curves show the relation

between the candle-power and voltage, current and
watts in an incandescent lamp, the curves having been
plotted from a 100-volt, 16
curve marked Volts and C. P.
70
volts the
was at 15.
c.
p.
As
was at
c.
it will
2, while at
Taking the
be seen that at
100
volts the
c.
p.
the voltage rises the candle-power in-
creases very rapidly, reaching
and 55
p. lamp.
p. at about
127
25
volts.
c.
p. at
110
votts
WIRING DIAGRAMS
276
very simple method of comparing the candle-
powers of different lamps

Set
up
is
that
known
as Bunsen's.
the lamps to be compared, and, taking a piece
of paper with a grease spot on
it,
adjust
it
between
the two lamps until the spot becomes invisible.
The
candle-powers of the two lamps are then in the same
proportion as the squares of the distances from the

paper.
The absorption of
light
by globes
is
given as fol-
lows:
Clear Glass, 10 per cent.
Holophane, 12 per
Opaline, 20 to 40 per cent.

cent.
An
cent.
Ground, 25 to 30 per
Opal, 25 to 60 per cent.

arc light gives out from one-twentieth to one-
fortieth as
much
heat as gas light of equal candle-
power.
An
incandescent light gives out from one-fifth to
one- tenth as
much
heat as a gas jet of equal candle-
power.
One 5-foot gas burner (16

air as four men.
c.
p.) vitiates as
much
CHAPTER XXI.
WIRING TABLES.
The wiring
table
No. 1
For each
ing manner:
considered there
is
arranged in the follow-
is
size
of wire and each voltage
given (under the proper voltage
and opposite the number of the wire under the heading B. & S.) the distance it will carry 1 ampere at a
loss
of 1^.
The same
wire will carry 2 amperes only
half as far at the same percentage of loss and again

will
carry 1 ampere twice as far at double the per-
centage of
From
which
is
loss.
these facts
:
we deduce the
rule of this table
Multiply the distance in feet
one leg only
by the number of amperes to be carried and divide the

Take
result by the percentage of loss to be allowed.
the number so obtained and under the proper voltage
find the number nearest equal to it.
Opposite this
number under the heading B. & S. will be found the
size
of wire required.
To
illustrate:
We
have 22
amperes to carry a distance of 135 feet and the

to be allowed
is
3 per cent, at 110
loss
volts.
2Q70
22X135=^^^=990
3
We take the number 990, turn to column for 110 volts,

and
find
841, which
is
not
sufficient.
277
The
next above
it
WIRING DIAGRAMS
278
IS
1060, which corresponds to No. 7 wire.
With
this
wire our loss will be slightly less than 3^, while with
No. 8
For
it
would be somewhat in excess of 3^.
three- wire systems using
the column marked
220
110
volts
on each
volts should be used.
side,
The
WIRING TABLES
column marked 440
volts
is
279
provided for three-wire
The
systems using 220 volts on each
side.
termined will be correct for
three wires in both
all
sizes de-
cases.
The columns
ranged
in the
at the right, marked motors, are ar-
same way, the only difference being
H.
For this reason we
multiply the distance in feet by the number of horsepower to be transmitted and divide by the percentage
that, for greater convenience, they are figured in
P. feet instead of ampere feet.
of
all
loss,
under
other operations remaining the same as
lights.
When any
considerable current
is
to be carried
only a short distance the wire indicated by the desired

loss will
ity;
it
very likely not have sufficient carrying capac-
is,
therefore, always necessary to consult the
table of carrying capacities.
WIRING i:>IAGRAMS
280
Csico
!;SS;^
2.
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WIRING TABLES
For
lights, find the
ampere
vide by the per cent, of
age
find the
number equal
feet (one leg)
Under
loss.
281
and
di-
the proper volt-
to this or the next larger;
opposite this number in the column marked B.
&
S.,
will be found the size of wire required.
For Motors, proceed

ampere
feet instead of
may
It
in the
same way, using H. P.
feet.
often be desired to find the loss in an es-
tablished circuit carrying a certain load.

readily be determined
the following rule:
from
may
This
by observing
this table
Find the number of ampere
feet
and, selecting the column headed by the proper voltage, divide by the
number opposite the
size
of wire
For example, we have a No. 10 wire carrying
used.
24 amperes a distance of 90 feet at 110 volts, 24 X

Opposite No. 10 in the column marked
90=2160.
B.
&
=4
S.
volts
we
and a very small fraction, which
age of
It
gauge and under 110
is
loss
occurring on this
find 529,
is
2160
~
the percent-
line.
often necessary to reinforce mains which have
become overloaded.
It
is
quite usual
though often
very incorrect, to choose by the table of carrying

capacities a wire of such size that the rated capacity
of
it
and the wire
the load.
to be re-enforced shall be equal to
Small wires have proportionately a much
greater radiating surface than larger ones and therefore their carrying capacity
is
proportionally great-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
282
er.
In order that a wire connected in parallel with
another wire shall carry a certain current,

mils,
C.
must be equal
M.Xa
where C.
its
circular
M.
stands
for the cross-section of the larger wire in circular

mils
is
and
for the current to be carried
the current to be carried
No. 2
is
calculated
from
by the extra
this rule
by
it,
while a
wire.
Table
and shows the
size
of wire necessary to re-enforce another overloaded to
a certain per
cent, as indicated in the
top row.
For
instance, a 0000 wire overloaded 40^ requires re-en-
forcement by a No. 1; a No. 3 wire overloaded 20^

requires a No. 10 wire.
enforced in this
way by
Where
large wires are re-
smaller ones great care must
be taken that the larger wire cannot be accidentally
broken or disconnected, since in such a case the whole

load would be forced over the smaller wire and would
likely result in a
fire.
ly soldered together.
The two
wires should be secure-
WIRING TABLES
No.
Numbers
B.&S.
Gauge.
3.
283
284
WIRING DIAGRAMS
No.
4.
Table Showing the Currents Which will Fuse

Wires op Different Substances.
B. & S.
'JauKe.
CHAPTER
XXII.
FLASHERS.
EI.ECTEIC SIGNS.
DISPLAY LIGHTING.
Figure 198 gives a diagrammatic view of the
Reynolds Flasher for

flasher here
circuits,
shown
electric signs
is
and displays. The
capable of controlling twelve
each circuit with a single-pole switch.
FIGURE
Only
198.
one wire of each circuit passes through the flasher and

single-pole fuses are usually installed as near as possible to the flasher.
the circuits
ever
may
convenient.
The
fuses for the other sides of
be installed within signs or wher-
The diagram shows

285
flasher
ar-
WIRING DIAGRAMS
286
ranged for three-wire
installation only one of the
and the two
In case of a two-wire
circuits.
mains
is
led to the flasher
sections of the flasher are connected to-
gether.
Figures 199 to 204 show the circuits of a flasher

for
&
to
electric signs and displays

made by Rawson
Evans of Chicago. This machine is designed
change connections from one circuit to another
without ever entirely opening the
FIGURE
circuit.
From two
199.
to four groups of lamps are wired in series
and the
movable arms, A, B, C, Figure 199, short-circuit

those groups not in use. During the time of change
from one group to another

series
the groups are in
all
and most of the current which would otherwise

itself in the form of a spark passes through
manifest
The
the lamps.
that
it
is
time of open circuit
is
so very short
impossible to hold an arc for any appre-
ciable time.
The breaking of
the circuit in
many
places at the same time also lessens the destructive

qualities of the arc
which occurs.
ELECTRIC SIGNS
Figure 199
is
287
a diagram of the flasher as connect-
ed to three-color signs; the white lights being ar-
ranged to follow after the red and also after the

green. Referring to Figure 199, A, B, C, are metal
arms insulated from one another but firmly fastened

together so as to form one movable piece. As these
arms are moved from point to point they connect
the diametrically opposite terminals, 1, 1'; 2, 2';
and
3, 3';
4, 4'.
In Figure 199 the current passes
along wire 5 through the red lights connected to cut-
%\ arm B to point 2, thence

to point 4', arm A, points 4 and 3 to arm C, back to
So long as the arms rethe other pole of dynamo.
main in this position the red lights burn and all the
out
X,
to wire 6, point
others are short-circuited.
machine brings arm

1'; current
arm
arm
now
The
next position of the
in contact with points 1
A to point 1', wire 6 and the white lights at Y;

A now forming a short circuit around the red
lights.
The
current passing through the white lights
returns over wire 7 to point 3 and

also
and
passes direct from point 1 through
arm
moved) to the other pole of dynamo.
lights
now
bum
and
all
The next movement

points 2 and 2' and
nection between 3 and
through arm
C from
The
white
others are short-circuited.
brings arm
(which has
to 1 and
3'.
The
1',
in contact
with
leaving no con-
current
now passes
point 1 to 1'; thence to point
arm A, point 2, 4' arm B to point 4 through the

green lights and back to point 3' and to the other
9f
WIRING DIAGRAMS
288
pole of the dynamo.
The green
lights
now burn
while the others are short-circuited.
The fourth position of the arms leaves the space

between 4 and 4' open and the current again passes
through one of the arms from point
white lights, wire 7
mo.
An
shown
in
to points 3, 3'
1 to 1', wire 6,
and back
to
dyna-
elementary diagram of those connections
Three of the points,
Figure 200.
is
1, 2, 3, 4,
are always short-circuited.
FIGURE
-G
200.
Figure 01 shows the same machine with one of the

arms removed connected to control a double-face sign,
one side to
bum
at a time.
The
current in this case
passes from the positive pole of the switch to the
upper group of cutouts which represent one

the sign.
The
side of
current passing through these lamps
continues to point
2',
arm A, point
of the switch. The
thence to point 1,
arm B and negative pole

next movement brings arm B in contact with point 4'
and current passes along it to 4, thence to 2, arm
A to 2', the lower group of cutouts representing the
1'
and
3,
ELECTRIC SIGNS
289
other side of sign and back to the negative side of
the switch.
uUh
fftm
FIGURE
201.
Figure 202 shows connections for four groups of

colors, one at a time being illuminated.
In Figures 203 and 204 connections for single and
double-pole break are shown.
~~TVi/
FIGURE
For large
202.
installations, in connection with three-
wire systems, double-disc machines are used
the posi-
tive
and neutral wire connecting to one and the nega-
tive
and neutral
to the other.
WIRING DIAGRAMS
290
This machine and the combination of circuits are

protected by letters patent.
<V
li_f
FIGURE
203.
Figure 205
several of the
lamps
will serve to illustrate the principle
monogram
signs.
The
of
incandescent
are each set within a metal shield which pre-
L
FIGURE
205.
vents the spread of light to

sign.
One common
any other part of the
feed wire leads to
all
of the
lamps, and from each lamp a switch wire leads to the

serving to make the proper connections.
Each monogram has the lights within it so distributed that by lighting the proper lamps any letter in
the alphabet can be made and a sign, consisting, say,
machine
ELECTRIC SIGNS
291
of 10 monograms, can, therefore, be made to spell

out any word or combination of words which does not
exceed ten
letters.
6
Câst
At
w??sn^w^Q)
The mechanism used

set
;c?
A A A-A.
FIGURE
of a
/^^ 6
206.
for spelling out words consists
of discs for each
monogram and
these carry
brass bars, as shown at B, which serve to energize
DONT FOLD THIS CARD
WATCH FOR
o
oo o
EkdricNo.
600
-^^
til
COS zO
OlV(
DriTen' Ctieck
Q.
ThW CtUCK To UMiroMlIO ATTINCMHT Ot-T.

.
Tki
QwtrK cvTtafi ciu6i.'ni;^r;:r'
the wires leading to the lamps.
These bars are cut
out as shown and only those sections remaining full
make contact with the switch wires.

Figure 206 is a representation of a monogram used
WIRING DIAGRAMS
292
as a carriage call, principally for theatres.

case only nine wires are used for each
in case the sign
is
In this
monogram and
illuminated on both sides each of
the nine wires supplies two monograms, one on each
One wire
side.
is
common
feed for
and the other eight wires serve

small group of lamps in the
groups of lamps are so arranged
tion of them almost any number
all
of the lamps
each to connect a
monogram. These
that by a combinafrom
to 9 can be
made. To accomplish this a perforated card shown
The card shown is
at bottom of this cut is used.
arranged for a sign consisting of three monograms.
As
will
be seen the yoke
each of which
is
gizing the wire connected to

pressed
it.
8 contact points
carries
capable of making contact and ener-
down upon
it
when the yoke
is
the current carrying bar beneath
In order to allow none but the proper points to
be connected the card
is
inserted between the current
Thus the figure 6 is

made by allowing only the points 1, 2, 5 and 7 on
the yoke to make connection with the bar below. The
is formed by making connection with points 1, 4,
carrying bar and the yoke.
In this figure all of the lamps denoted by

number
are on one circuit. The lamps marked
the same
^, if lighted, will form the figure 1 the lamps 1, 4,
6 and 7 form the figure 6, while is formed by 1, 4,
6 and 8.
A somewhat similar monogram is made by wiring
the necessary number of properly distributed lamps
5 and
7.
ELECTRIC
on one or more circuits
SIGxNS
in the usual
293
manner and then
inserting lamps only where required to outline the

letter or
number wanted, the other openings being cov-
ered.
All of these devices are covered
The information
herein given
enable wiremen to intelligently
them should occasion
require.
is
by
letters patent.
intended merely to
go about connecting
PART
II
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND
CONSTRUCTION TABLES
EWSL
ELECTRICAL WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION TABLES

CHAPTER
I.
DIRECT CURRENT WIRING TABLES.

The wiring
tables here given consist of four different tables
of amperes; one each for the voltages most in use in direct
110, 220, 440 and 550 volts.

determine the number of amperes necessary with a
current work, viz:
To
certain
it
is
number
of H. P., K. W., or 55 watt incandescent lights,
necessary to refer to the table pertaining to the voltage
under consideration.
given the
number
Under
the
column marked H.
of horse-power equivalent to the
of amperes, K. W., and lights in the
P. are
number
same horizontal
line;
no matter how the problem is presented, the number of

amperes equivalent to it at 100% efficiency, can be at once
thus,
read
off.
At the
of the column marked "Amperes" will be

column marked "Efficiency Numbers." These
numbers indicate what must be added to the amperes, given
for 100% efficiency, in order to compensate for the losses due
noticed
left
the
to a lower efficiency.
In order to determine this
we
refer
hand corner, and select

the nearest efficiency to the one imposed by the case in consideration.
Directly under this efficiency will be found another number. We multiply the efficiency number next to
to the small table in the upper right
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
the amperes in question by this

to the amperes; the
with that
For
sum
TABLES.
number and add the
total will
result
be the amperes required
efficiency.
efficiencies
not given in the table, such as
proportional intermediate numbers
be accurate enough for
Example:
all
may
.95, .90, etc.,
be used.
These
will
practical purposes.
How many
amperes are required to transmit

and an efficiency of Hll Following
down the line headed by K. W. until we come to 24, we see
Noting
that at 100% efficiency, 224 amperes are required.
the small table at the right we find under ^11 the number 4
and consequently we are to add 4 times 16, or 64, to the
number given in the table. The amperes required are therefore 64 plus 224, which equals 288.
All of thje tables are worked in the same way. The figures
have all been carefully checked and are believed to be per-
W.
24 K.
at 110 volts
fectly correct, at least sufficiently so for all practical purposes.
Nernst lamps
rent,
are, of course, not often
used with direct cur-
but are given in these tables because the direct current
tables can be carried
more
into detail than those for alternat-
The same method can be used

amperes required with low power-factors and
alternating currents that was used with direct currents for
low efficiencies.
ing currents that follow after.
to
find
the
The four
charts
presented
opposite
the
four tables
of
amperes are all alike with exception of the small tables in

upper right hand corner. One is given with each voltage
simply for the convenience of the user; to save the turning of
a page, and lessen the possibility of confusion. These charts
express in curves the actual loss in volts occurring on the
different wires for 100 feet distance, with the amperes given
at the top of the chart.
Each curve begins

the wire, to which
it
to
rise
pertains,
on the horizontal
and from this line
under
must be
line
it
measured.
The
spaces
between the heavy horizontal
lines,
each represent one volt; the fine lined spaces, each represent
1/5 of one volt. Thus, the curve pertaining to No. 12 wire
shows that
this
wire at 12 amperes, 100 feet distance (200
would lose about 4 volts. The curve beginning

wire shows that this wire would lose with 12
at No.
amperes only .25 volts, etc. To economize space, a number
feet
wire)
of the curves pertaining to the smaller wires have been started

from one base in upper left hand corner. Gauge numbers of
these wires are printed in the body of the chart.
The num-
bers given in parentheses give the value of each vertical fine

lined space in amperes, the rate of increase changing at differ-
This enables us to give a very fine gradation

likely to come up in practice.
To use these charts for the purpose of determining the
proper size of wire for a certain loss, we proceed in the following way: First find the actual number of volts to be lost;
divide these by the number of 100 feet to which the power
ent places.
and thus reach any case
is to
The
be transmitted.
result will be the loss in volts
we
Next determine the number of
desire to have per 100 feet.
amperes we have to transmit. Now, select the vertical line

headed at the top by the required number of amperes and
follow it until the wire which most nearly gives this loss
per 100 feet
it
is
To facilitate finding the proper wire

a ruler and place it parallel with the
and count the spaces between the base of the
found.
will be well to take
horizontal lines
curves and the point where
it
crosses the line headed by
the required amperes.
Wherever any curve

followed to the
proper wire.
left
to
indicates the desired loss, that curve

its
starting point, will point out the
In some cases where a small current
is
to be
transmitted a great distance and at a small loss, the loss per

100 feet will be so small that it can with difficulty be read
correctly on the chart.
In such a case accurate results can be
10
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
obtained by multiplying both the amperes to be transmitted
and the
by some convenient number as
volts to be lost
2,
or
same number the

same wire will be indicated as though the actual values were
used, but care must be taken not to get beyond the range of
any wire.
Example: A motor at a distance of 400 feet from the
10,
or
If both
50.
generator
is
are multiplied by the
required to deliver 30 K.
efficiency of the
motor
is
.87
and the
W.
at 110 volte.
The
loss in the line is not
5%. What size of wire is required? To get the

amperes we refer to the table for 110 volts. This table does
not give 30 K. W. direct, so we may take either 31 K. W.
or, if we are very particular, we may find the amperes for
29 also and take the average of the two. Taking 31 K. W.
we have from the table 279-r(2X20)=319 amperes. A 5% loss
This 5^ divided by
is equal to an actual loss of Sy^ volts.
4 (the number of 100 feet) equals 1.4 approximately. Bearing
this number (1.4) in mind we follow the line under 318 amperes
downward until at the bottom of the chart, we see that none
of the wires in this chart can give us so small a loss by referto be over
ence to the special chart for the large wires
we
see that a 500,-
000 C. M. wire will give us the desired loss.

To facilitate the calculations the small tables in the upper
hand corner of the different charts have been provided.

row represent distances in feet, those
in the vertical column at the left represent the percentages of
Wherever the horizontal line pertaining to the desired
loss.
loss crosses the vertical column headed by the distance will be
found the number expressing the desired loss per 100 feet,
right
The
figures in the top
number of volts to be lost by the wire giving the

For distances shorter or longer than those given
table select a number ten times shorter or longer and
this is the
proper
in the
move
tance,
loss.
the decimal point one place to the
and one place
to
left
for the longer dis-
the right for the shorter distance.
11
Thus, suppose we wish to lose 3% at 220 voUs, 40 feet

number found in the table under 400 feet is 1.6;
by moving the decimal point one place to the right, it becomes
16; were the distance instead 4000 feet it would be .16.
distance, the
It will
be noticed that the curves giving the losses end where
the carrying capacity of the wires end, so that the error of
(selecting a wire which would be overheated by the current to

Wherever the heavy solid
l>e used cannot be easily made.
line of any curve ends will be found (at the top) the number
pf amperes that wire, provided with rubber insulation, can
tarry.
r
The
capacity
dotted extensions of these lines represent the carrying

of wires
provided with
other
insulations.
Both
carrying capacities are those allowed by the "National Electrical
Code."
Other tables for alternating currents are provided, but these

tables can be used in connection with such currents for indoor
work where wires are close together. To get the correct number of amperes to work with, it is, however, often necessary
to refer to ampere tables for alternating currents especially
for two and three phase systems, and for single phase systems
when efficiency and power factors are to be considered.
12
AND CONSTRUCTION
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20
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
SPECIAL CHART FOR LARGE WIRES.
TABLES.
CHAPTER
II.
ALTERNATING CURRENT WIRING TABLES.

These tables consist of two parts; a series of tables from
which the actual number of amperes needed in problems of
transmission may be readily obtained and a series of charts,
giving graphically the actual losses occurring in alternating
current crcuits with such wires, systems of distributon, frequencies
and distances apart as are considered
In the four columns at the
H.
left
in the tables.
are given the
number of
K. W., Nernst glowers and 55 watt incandescent lamps

mutually equivalent to the number of amperes given in the fifth
P,.
no matter how the problem may

may be at once approximately determined. The values given are for efficiencies and
power-factors of 100%. The small auxiliary table at the top
and at the right furnishes a ready means of determining the
amperes with lower efficiencies and power-factor values. In
this table figures in the second vertical column signify different
efficiencies.
The other columns pertaining to the different
column from the
left; so that
be presented the number of amperes
AND CONSTRUCTION
ELECTRICAL WIRING
22
power-factors,
i.
e., .95,
.85
and
.75
TABLES.
give the combined values of
the efficiencies with these power-factors.
If
the
number of
amperes given in the table for 100% efficiency, be divided by

any of these numbers we shall obtain the actual current required with the corresponding efficiency and power-factor.
Instead of making this division we can also obtain the
amperes required in another way. At the right of each column
of amperes is given another column containing what are termed
"Efficiency Numbers." These numbers represent the necessary
addition that must be made to the amperes given for 100%
efficiency with every drop in efficiency as given in the small
table at the top of the page.
To
use these numbers
we
refer to the small table in the
upper right hand corner of the page. Find the approximate

efficiency in column headed "Efficiency," then follow to the
right until the column headed by the proper power-factor is
reached. At this place will be found a number which represents the combined efficiency. Refer this number back to the
column headed "Efficiency" and find a number nearest equal to
Directly to the left of this number will be found another
it.
Multiply the proper "Efficiency Number" in the
number.
large table by this and add the result to the amperes given in
the table to obtain total amperes for the given efficiency and
power-factor.
The
values given may, of course, be but approximations to
the actual values imposed by the problem, but
it is
believed that
values can in most cases be so selected that the results will be

accurate enough for
We
all
practical purposes.
W. to transmit at 440 volts;

80% efficiency, 85% power-factor; single-phase system: How
many amperes will be required? The nearest number to 85
K. W. given in the table is 84 this requires at 100% efficiency
Example:
have 85 K.
190 amperes.
Referring to the small table
bined value of efficiency
.82
we
comand power-
find the
(the nearest to .80)
23

factor .85 to be
"Efficiencies,"
.70.
we
Referring this to the column headed by
find .69 as the nearest; opposite this at the
number 6 and the efficiency number given next

amperes must therefore be multiplied by 6, 6 X 14
Great
274, which is the actual current required.
84; 84 + 190
accuracy in these calculations is seldom necessary, as both
power-factor and efficiency are variable and must be approxileft
we
find the
to the 190
mately assumed.
The
charts opposite the different tables of amperes are de-
signed to facilitate the calculation of losses in alternating curIn continuous current circuits the loss in voltage
rent circuits.
always proportional to the current and the cross-section of

the wire employed. In alternating current circuits there are,
however, many other circumstances to be taken into account.
is
In the
first
place, the losses are
no longer proportional
to the
cross-section of the wire, even though other things be equal,

so that
we cannot judge by
the circular millage at
all.
They
vary also with the frequency of the alternations, the distance

apart of the conducting wires, the surrounding or enclosing
material of the wires and the nature of the load, or the translating devices
in
the circuit.
Some
dealt with in the table of amperes,
of these influences are
and others are negligible
because in the construction of lines they are reduced to a mini-
mum.
Therefore these charts show only the effect of the

most important of the influences affecting alternating currents,
but will, nevertheless, be found as accurate as necessary for
all
ordinary work.
The general plan
of the charts for alternating currents
is
Wires larger than

has not been deemed neces-
similar to that used with direct currents.
No. 0000 are not often used, and

sary to consider
them
here.
it
Whenever
the carrying capacity of
a No. 0000
is
great,
far better to use several smaller wires in parallel
it
is
not sufficient or the losses caused by
than one larger wire.
it
are too
AND CONSTRUCTION
ELECTRICAL WIRING
24
TABLES.
To convince one's self of this fact it will be well to figure

out a number of cases assuming the use of one large wire and
the same cases assuming the use of several small wires in
parallel, sufficient to
The
make up
the
same
circular millage.
emanating from any one of the wires

at the left represent the losses due to different distances apart
of that wire. The lowest line stands for a distance between
centers of J/2", the second 3", the third 6", the fourth for
12'', the fifth for 24" and the sixth for 36".
With the smaller
wires the ohmic resistance becomes relatively more important
so that the effect of the inductance which alone is increased by
greater distance apart is not so marked, hence only the extremes
different lines
are given.
To
is
we proceed
use these charts
First, find the actual
number
as
of volts
it is
for direct currents.
desired to lose
this
done by multiplying the voltage of the system by the per-
centage
of
loss
Next we divide
which we
= about
.7.
loss.
If
as
.03X1000
30.
by the number of hundreds of feet, to

wish to transmit power, as 4200/100
42; 30/42
Bearing the number so obtained in mind select the
by the right number of amperes

and follow it downwards until one of
ascending from one of the wires indicates the desired
no wire exactly corresponds to the desired loss, select
column headed
(taken from the
the lines
expressed in decimals;
this
at the top
tables),
the nearest one, allowing either a slightly greater or a lesser

loss, as the
case
may seem
If the distance to
great and the loss
is
to warrant.
which power
is
to be transmitted
to be very small, the
is
the loss per 100 feet will be but a very small fraction and
cult to estimate correctly
on the
chart.
very
number expressing
diffi-
In such a case proceed
as outlined for direct currents, multiply the amperes and the
some convenient number, as 2 or 10; the final result

must be exercised not to get beyond
the range of any wire. Such a case can, of course, come up
distance by
will be the same, but care
25
only with currents very small relative to the wire to be used.
For three-wire systems
figure as
though
it
were a two-wire
system, using the voltage of the outside and use a neutral wire
of the same size as the other wires.
In connection
indicate a loss
with
three-phase systems the charts will
somewhat greater than
it
actually
is.
Where
accuracy is required the volts to be lost should be

divided by .86 and a wire giving a loss corresponding to this
great
selected.
26
ELECTRICAL WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION TABLES.
1000 Volt Table of Amperes
ALTERNATING CURRENT WIRING CHART.
27
Find actual volts to be lost. Divide these by number of 100 feet In

alstance. Select line headed by desired amperes and folow downward
until wire Klviii^ loss equal to this is found. For 3 nliase work, if jrreat
accuracy Is required, divide actual volts lost by .86 before proceeding
with the
rest.
28
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
Volt Table of Amperes. Alternating
Current.
TABLES.
Efficiency.
Power
.95
Factors.
85
.75
.93
.87
.82
.77
.73
.69
.66
.63
.60
.57
.55
.53
rt
a>
^-3
C3-S
Q C5g o n
QTS
Table of Carrying
Capacity of Wires.
29

distance. Select line headed by desired amperes and follow downward
until wire giving loss equal to tliis Is found. For 3 phase worl<, if great
accuracy is required, divide actual volts lost by .80 before proceeding
\rith tne rest.
30
ELECTRICAL WIRING
220 Volt Table of Ampekes
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
31

until wire Riving loss equal to this is found. For 3 pliase work. If ^rreat
accuracy is required, divide actual volta lost by .86 before procoedinK
With the
rest.
32
10
ELECTRICAL WIRING
Volt Table of Amperes
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
33
^m
OQg
m^
Find actual volts to be lost. Divide these by number of 100 feet in

aistance. Select line headed by desired amperes and follow downward
until wire sivinj? loss equal to tnis Is found. ForSpiiase worli, If jfreat
with the
rest.
34
ELECTRICAL WIRING
1000 Volt Table of AMPEREfi
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
35
'
II
16 11
II

until wire giving loss equal to this is found. For 3 nhase work, if great
with the
rest.
36
ELECTRICAL WIRING
440 Volt Table of Amperes.
AND CONSTRUCTION
Alternating Current.
TABLES.
37
Find actual volts to be lost. Divide tliosc by number of 100 feet In

distance. SoliM't line lieadod by (U-sirt'd anipL-ri's and follow downward
until wire givhi}^ loss eciual to tins is found. For3 uhasework.if great
accuracy is required, divide actual volts lost by .8b before proceeding
with the rest.
38
ELECTRICAL WIRING
220 Volt Table of AMPEREa
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
39
Find actual volts to be lost. Divide these by number of T (^^ fdistance, Select line headed by desired amperes and follow
until wire giving loss equal to this Is found. For 3 plmse W(
accuracy is required, divide actual volts lost by .86 before yrucwcumg
with the rest.
40
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
110 Volt Table of Amperes. Alternating Current.
TABLES.
41
era
6WrMd'
4?t5i:i?,
^fc
AMPERES
the
imiiiiiiLi
âch mall division repretenta

In par<nthe.
amperes shown
lllLUL iiJi
i
m?.
i--'

until wire giving loss equal to this is found. For 3 phase worlc, if great
with the rest.
42
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
43
Find actual volts to be lost. Divide these by numl)er of 100 feet in

until wire giving 1oj:3 equal to this is found. For 3 nhase work, if great
with the rest.
4.4
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
45
^^^S^lMO^^N
Oh^
IPERES
.
the
Each small division represents,

amperes shown in parentheses.
mE&E
'.F
y\i--
Flnd actual volts to be lost. Divide these by numberof 100 feet in

Istance. Select line headed by desired amperes and follow downward
until wire giving loss equal to this is found. For 3 phase work, if great
with the
rest.
46
ELECTRICAL WIRING
220 Volt Table of Amperes.
AND CONSTRUCTION
Alternating Current.
TABLES.
47

until wire giving loss equal to this is found, For 3 phase work, if great
with the
rest.
48
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
110 Volt Table of Amperes. Alternating Current.
TABLES.
49

Select line headed by desired amperes and follow downward
Ontil wire giving loss equal to this Is found. For 3 phase worlc, if great
with the rest.
distance.
CHAPTER
III.
ECONOMY OF CONDUCTORS.
Any
system of
electrical
conductors
may
be designed with
reference to any of the following conditions

1.
The conductors may be designed
for
minimum
fiist
waste or quality of service.

The conductors may be designed for best possible service
cost, regardless of
2.
regardless of cost.
3.
The conductors may be designed
for
minimum
cost of
generating plant.
4.
The conductors may be designed for maximum general
economy of operation and installation; i. e., to yield the most
profitable results in the long run.

5.
The conductors may
be designed for a
minimum
first
and conductors.
The first condition is fulfilled by selecting the smallest wire
allowed, either by the heating limitations or mechanical considerations. The second condition is fulfilled by selecting very
large wires, thus reducing the loss to any desired minimum.
cost of generating plant
The third condition is also fulfilled by selecting such large

wires that the generator will not be called upon to supply much
unnecessary power. The fourth condition, to be fully realized,
requires
some very
careful
and elaborate
calculations, but ap-
51
proximate calculations can easily be made by the use of tables

prepared for
this purpose.
moreover, a subject that has been very much neglected; especially in connection with short runs, such as are
used inside of buildings. The general practice has been to
This
is,
on a loss from 2% to 5%, or to disregard all questions

economy of operation and work from the standpoint of
figure
of
minimum
That
first
cost entirely.
has been productive of large and utterly inexcus-
this
able losses will appear
from the following
tables, if they are
carefully studied.
The
in
chart
and the tables B and C are designed to assist

most economical conductors. It must be
calculating the
understood that a certain loss in electrical transmission is

unavoidable, and that the nearer we approach to an efficiency
of 100%, the
more copper, proportionately, is required to save

For instance, if we have a certain wire,
the remaining loss.
which is causing a loss of 10%, by adding another wire of the

same size, we reduce our loss to 5% by adding two more wires,
we only reduce the loss by 2^%, and by adding four more
wires, we gain only lJ4%- In other words, one wire was
;
capable of transmitting
and 8 wires 98^%.

spend more
90%;
2 wires,
95%; 4
wires, 97j/^%,
That under such conditions
in trying to save the
energy than
it
it
is
is
easy to
worth
is
evident.
has been shown by Sir
Wm. Thomson
and by Mr. Giswhich the

value of the annual waste of energy equals the interest charge
on the cost of line construction necessary to save it. In these
calculations, we have nothing to do with the total cost of the
line we are concerned only with the difference in cost between
installing the smallest wire permissible and wires of larger
cross-section.
This makes a direct formula impracticable and
cumbersome, because it implies at first hand a knowledge of
It
Kapp
bert
that the
most economical
loss
is
that at
ELECTRICAL WIRING
52
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
the cost of installing the required extra copper, whereas this
cannot well be
known
determined upon.
and
it
is
to
make
until
the particular wires have been
Trial calculations are therefore necessary,

these as easy as possible that these tables
are provided.
Chart
shows the
loss occurring
on any wire by any of
the currents given at the top of the page per 200 feet, each
of the spaces between the heavy horizontal lines representing
one volt and the fine divisions one-fourth volt. The curve
starting from any of the wires indicates this loss wherever it
crosses a line representing amperes and a line representing
volts.
For instance: The line ascending from No. 14 wire
up to 12 amperes, indicates that a No. 14 wire carrying 12
amperes would
lose 6.3 volts per 200 feet.
carrying 6 amperes would lose only 3.16 volts.
No. 14 wire
To
find the loss
with any wire and any load we simply follow the curve starting from the proper wire, to where it crosses the line headed
by the right number of amperes, and count the number of

it crosses within those limits.
This table
also shows the carrying capacity of the different wires.
Directly above the end of the heavy line of the curve will be found
the carrying capacity for concealed work and rubber covered
wires, of the wire to which the curve pertains, and at the end of
the dotted line will be found the number of amperes allowed
for weather-proof wire and open work.
At the right of Chart A are further given "curves" which
horizontal spaces
express the relative conductivity of the different wires.
Wher-
ever the curve leading from any wire crosses any vertical
line
will
number
be found
(in
a number.
the vertical line)
indicates that the wire given at the left of
the
This
hori-
line at which the vertical line intersects the curve

(where the three lines meet) has a conductivity that much
zontal
greater
than
the
first
wire
considered.
For
tracing the curve from No. 6 wire to where
it
instance,
by
intersects the
53
and following the horizontal line from this

we see that a No. 00 wire has 5 times the
conductivity of a No. 6.
Table B shows the annual waste of energy due to such losses
in voltage as are considered in the table. This table is figured
vertical
line
point to the
left
direct for 110 volts; to use
given in
it
vided by 110.
table.
it
for other voltages the values
must be divided by the voltage
Some
Wherever
in question, di-
of these values are given at the top of the
the horizontal line pertaining to any loss in
volts, crosses the vertical line pertaining to
any
price, will
be
found a number expressing in dollars and cents the value of

the energy lost annually (3000 working hours) by one H. P.*
Table C shows the annual interest charge on different costs
of line construction. The cost on which the calculations are
based should always be the cost of running 200 feet of wire.
This may be as low as 25 cents, it may be simply the difference
in cost between No. 14 and No. 12 wire, since the labor and
material would not be affected by such a substitution, or again
The wide range of interest given is
it may be considerable.
to cover temporary work as well as permanent. If the line
For
is to be used one year or less, the rate should be 106%.
two years the
rate should be
57%
for three years,
40%,
etc.,
arranged on a 6% basis.
To use these tables we first determine the number of amperes to be transmitted. This can best be done by referring
to the tables of amperes given in other sections of this book.
Next, determine from Chart A, the smallest wire permissiFrom Table B determine
ble and note the loss caused by it.
the annual waste of energy due to this loss per H. P.
and divide by the number pertaining to the voltage under
as given in the table, which
is
consideration.
Next, select at random, a wire that will divide this loss by

as 4, or 6, or 10, and estimate the
some convenient number,
ELECTRICAL WIRING
54
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
cost of installing this wire in place of the former.
Also divide
the total loss by this number.
Compare
the
amount saved by the larger wire with the

by it (given in Table C) when the two
interest charge caused
are equal the proper wire
Example
is
found.
We
have 3 H. P. to transmit at 220 volts (the

motor efficiency .85. The price per
H. P. hour is 2 cents and the line is to be used one year only.
Current is to be used the full 3000 hours for which the table
distance
is
is
immaterial)
figured.
From
amperes we see that 3 H. P. at 220 volts

Referring to Chart A we see that
the smallest wire permissible is a No. 14, and this wire, carrying 12 amperes will lose about 6.3 volts per 200 feet. A loss
of 6 volts per 200 feet at 2 cents per H. P. hour we find
from Table B equals $3.26 for 110 volts; as our voltage is
220
we divide by 2 which gives us $1.63 and
H.
P.,
number
of
multiply
this
the
by
3,
Having ascertained
which gives us a total of $4.89.
the value of the loss due to the smallest wire permissible, we
can now see whether it will be economical to save part of it
To this end we again consult Chart A and make a few trial
calculations.
By following the curve of No. 14 downward to
where it intersects the line 4 and tracing the horizontal line
to the left, we see that a No. 8 wire in place of the No. 14
would reduce the loss to one-fourth of its original value, leaving it at $1.22. The cost of substituting an 8 for the 14 we
will assume to be about $2.50 per 200 feet and the interest
charge is therefore $2.65, as the line is to be used for one
year only. The annual value of the wasted energy should
table of
require about 12 amperes.
equal the interest charge
and our
the
line cost is
original
leave
it
in this case
little
too high.
it is
$1.22 against $.265
No. 10
in place of
14 would divide the original loss by
at $1.96.
This wire
we assume would
2^
and
cost extra
55
about $1.30 per 200 feet and give us an interest charge of

In this case the line cost
about $1.38.
is
little
too low,
showing that the exact size of wire would be between the

two and that this is as near balancing the values as we can
come in this particular case. The total loss for the No. 10
would be $1.96+$1.38=;$3.34, for the No. 8 it would be
$2.65+$1.22=$3.87 and with the No. 14 it would be $4.89.
If the line is not used the full 3000 hours assumed in the
table a proportionate reduction in the value of wasted energy
must, of course, be made.
The question of minimum first cost of line and generator
depends upon the distance to which power is to be transmitted.
It revolves entirely around the question as to whether it will
cost
more
to provide a generator of a certain excess capacity
to supply the wasted energy, or whether
provide the line capacity to save part of

of most
it
will be cheaper to
this.
In the problem
we have
nothing to do with the

distance, but in this case, the distance is the most important
economical
part of the problem.
loss,
The same
tables
and the same method
used to determine the most economical cross-section of conductors can be used in this problem. Only we must take into
consideration the full length of the
line.
Beginning with the
smallest wire permissible, determine the loss this
wire will
cause and the cost of providing the extra generator capacity.
Next estimate
the cost of installing the next larger size of wire,
and divide the excess capacity of generator by the proportional number of the wire considered and again determine cost
of excess capacity of generator.
in cost of
larger wire
the
When
generator equals the outlay

that combination of line
most economical.
the
amount thus saved
made necessary by
and generator
will
the
be
56
ELEClRiCAL WIRII.G
AND CONSTRUCTION
CHART
TABLES.
A.
wmm
ill:i;i;nsmU:;lllf:lii|HKSB
r
S!
58
ELECTRICAL WIRING
Table C
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
Showing Intebest Charge.
CHAPTER
IV.
MISCELLANEOUS
ELECTRIC ILLUMINATION.
The following tables are taken from publications of the
Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company:
Nemst Lamps.
Average
Condition.
Location
Machine
shops
(high
roofs;
no
namely, electric driven machinery)
Machine shops (low
ceiling;
belts
75
lighting,
colored
goods
and
1.
to 1.25
5 to
1.
.75 to 1.25
1.25
terials
Mill lighting, plain white goods
looms
General office work
Drafting rooms
5 to
75
75
stores
Department stores handling light material

1.
and bric-a-brac
Department stores handling colored ma-
Mill
and
other obstruction)
Hardware and shoe
Variation.
belts;
1.
to 1.50
1.10
.90 to 1.30
1.30
1.10 to 1.50
high
1.50
1.25 to 1.75
1.75
1.50 to 2.50
Reception hall
.5
to
Dining room
Church and lecture
.4
to
.8
to 1.2
hall
1.
1.
.8
The above table is based on the performance of either

Nernst or multiple enclosed arc lamps.
ELECTRICAL WIRING
60
AND CONSTRUCTION
For incandescent lamps the
table
is
TABLES.
approximately true
if
the
values are multiplied by two.
The number
of lamps required for any given service equals
the factor found in the table multiplied by the area in square
and divided by the wattage of the lamp.

For Nernst lamps the following elevations are recom-
feet
mended
Vertical height above floor.
Type of lamp
Two
and three glower

Four glower
Six glower
Watt
88 Watt
55
Feet
11^
13
14
9
10
COOPER HEWITT LAMPS.
Data on Successful Liohtino by CoopebHewitt Lamps.
Chakacteb of Work.
61
62
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
Q>o^^cc^5
eocoMcoeo
OQ
T-icfe
C<
t^co
rl 1 1
t^ cc c^ r^ -^
1 tH
o c o ic
cî
S~cTF^"eo'QF^
1-^
-l
OOOOiClOO
oooot~-t^t^
^ lO
(Mrt_i005
t^lM QOOC<0
00
"-^
OOOOt^t^t^t^
f ^^ 00 CO kO
OOC0>0fl"3
oosoooot>-
cococoioco
ifli5-*'^-><-i<
o-fOOQ
OOt>-t~-COO
-*<
*
lO 0 *-**
ecoootûo^
-^
CO CO
COHt^
t^t^co
COOJiOIMt^
CO -H 05 t-- CO lO
Tt -^ CO CO CO CO
^(MOOJOCt^
"3QCOC0
Qt^'^^Ht^
O-^-f^C0
COCOCOiMIMC^
^ (M -H 05 00 00
t^ lO CO CO (M (M
(M e<J IM IM C<1 (M
<*<^H00iO<N
oio-<*<-^-*
OSt^lOCOOl
eocoeoco(M
l^COiOeOCOfM
eOT-HOQiOlM
ÔSOOCOCO
(MO05050000
^ i-i .-h ^h
^^tiCOCOeO
CDlCiOO-^
eOIMiM(M(M
-H
C5 r^ >o
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t^cO-îM-H
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rtrtrtrt^_i
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t-h
t^COiOiO-^
,-1 ,-1 r-c .-(
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COt-I
coos
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<-"
eoc^c^-H^^H
i-( >-l
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C! 00 c; e^
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0500
CO5OiO
Tfi
r-^
^ ci 00 < o 'H
t^ CO ic o -n" <
ti
cococsiiMCîc^
iJSTtieC-H
tÔl
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>c
OOOJOJOJ
,-,,-1
OS
l^COOOO
t^ t^ CO
cocdcoic
00 *
"-H
C<J^^ÔOi
00 00
Ol-ÔliC
0^05t>-0-<
CO
t>It-COCOCO
lO"!-^-^-^-^
"J'rJteOCO
'J'^HOO
t^COiC-<t<CO
tîOCO^H
00050000
t^ciM(M
t^T}<a>coc
osoot^
00CO--
cCico
iMeqcq
SSQSSQSS QS'^SPS
^co-hcîîo
(Mi5r>--Ht^
jwiww tôtôo
^^^(^j^ coo5iOQ>oo
cotôoocoso
COCO-*iC'CO
*<}<
ic >o
icioiocio
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oococococo
COMBINED CARRYING CAPACITIES.
63
Table Showing Combined Carhying Capacity of Different WiBEb.
1.5
1
450
500
550
600
650
600000
700000
800000
900000
1000000
600
585
730
810
890
970
1200000
1400000
1600000
1800000
2000000
547
520
500
485
472
1050
The carrying capacity per

wires,
650
578
556
730
694
667
777
754
735
525
circular mil, of small wires, is
owing to the difference
810
840
much greater than
in relative radiating surface.
970
945
1050
that of large
In the above tables
tliia
is
taken into account, and the carrying capacity of smaller wires at the current density allowed
[for the larger wires
[two wires
cross.
is
given wherever the horizontal and vertical lines pertaining to any
The number found
[larger wire, will give the
To
at this place,
added to the carrying capacity
combined carrying capacity of the two
find the proper wire to reinforce another
[horizontal line pertaining to the wire in question
of the
wires.
which has been overloaded: Select the
and follow to the
right until a number

At the top of the vertical column in
[which this number is found, will be found the gauge number of the proper wire.
The figures given are based on those allowed by the "National Electrical Code" for
[equaling the necessary
number
of
amperes
Irubber-covered wires (column R. C).

multiplied
by the
figures given in
is
found.
For weatherproof insulation, the values given
column W. P.
may
64
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
IRON WIRE.
Speoific gravity
7.7
Weight per cubic foot
480 pounds.
Physical. Propebtihjs of Ikon Wire,
pi
65
COMPARISON OF WIRES.
C^05t^
SS 8S222
r^QOoct>-t>-
t--. <
o -^ -H
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iCC
t^
x<00C
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c<>
r--.
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ISiiSI
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0000O0000O5
55
-f
t^cocD'C'H
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eo'ô<
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53 (N CO
o c6
oooeocoo
ccecêsjî
IM
(NeO'f<iOCD
^têoQt-t^
t^ t-
SS
C0dS)O>-<
88S2;
53^^^
io>c<)Q
<*<
C0O5OS
io-ôjt^t^
^Qoooeôs
OSCD005N05
siri^^"'
cîoib-Ô'^
-^ Qo 05
(Mco'ôjoo
oe^c
r
3:5
>co-îM-H
<
.giOMCO
(M-^COOO
>ooooio
'ê
S^S^S
^S?S?55
5?:Sg SSS^S?
ISSe^QQu?
?iQ00!X5l<e5
loSSDt^
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|8
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SicS'*^
*oor>.
S^SS SSSJhS
ELECTR10\L yvimmo
66
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
COMPARISON OF COPPER AND ALUMINUM

WIRE.
Copper. Aluminum.
Specific gravity
2.68
8.93
Conductivity for equal area
100.
Weight for equal conductivity

Area for equal conductivity
100.
48.
100.
160,
Diameter for equal conductivity
100.
126.
It will
num
63.
be noted from the relative diameters that an alumi-
wire to be of equal conductivity as a copper wire
exactly two sizes larger by B.
The
&
is
almost
S. gauge.
aluminum wire is 63 per cent that of

aluminum wire of equivalent conductivity will
conductivity of
copper, but an
have 48 per cent of the weight and 160 per cent of the strength.
POLE LINE DATA.

For spans of about 125
10 or 12 inches in
The following table

Company of Chicago:
Temperature
Sag
feet
summer and
is
some companies allow a sag of

8 inches in winter.
given by the
Commonwealth
Electric
10
20
30
40
SO
60
70
80
90
10
10
12
12
14
14
Poles should be set at least as deep into the ground as
shown by
the following table
Depth
Length of pole
in
ground.
Feet
35 feet
5^
40 feet
45 feet
50 feet
6
,6
614
55 feet
60 feet
For good illumination arc lamps should be not more than

six times as far apart as arc
is
above surface.
PCLE LINE
Arc lamps (10 ampere), 250
DATA.
feet apart, give
streets.
20 poles per mile equal 264 foot span.




54 poles per mile equal
98 foot span.
67
good
results for
ELECTRICAL WIRING
68
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
MEASUREMENT OF SURFACES.
To
find the area of a paralellogram
Multiply the base by
the altitude.
To
find the area of a triangle
when base and
altitude are
Multiply the base by the altitude and take half the
given:
product.
To
them
together.
To
ter
any angular surface divide it into

Find the area of the different triangles and add
find the area of
triangles:
find the circumference of a circle
Multiply the diame-
by 3.1416.
To
find the diameter of a circle
To
when
the circumference
is
Divide the circumference by 3.1416.
given:
find the area of a circle
when
the radius
square of the radius by 3.1416.

given multiply square of diameter by .7854.
tiply the
is
given
When
Mul-
diameter
is
To find the radius of a circle when the area is given Divide the area by 3.1416 and extract the square root of the
:
quotient.
MEASUREMENT OF SOLIDS
To
find the lateral
area of a right prism:
Multiply the
perimeter of the base by the altitude.
To
find the lateral area of a right cylinder:
Multiply the
circumference of the base by the altitude.

To find the volume of a cylinder or prism:
Multiply the
area of the base by the altitude.
To
find the lateral area of a right
pyramid:
Multiply the
perimeter of the base by the slant height and take half the
product.
To find the lateral area of a cone: Multiply the circumference of the base by the slant height and take half the
product.
MEASUREMENTS OF SURFACES:
To
volume of
find the
i.
69
SOLIDS.
pyramid or cone:
Multiply the
area of the base by the altitude and take one-third of the

product.
To
find the surface of a sphere
Multiply the square of the
diameter by 3.1416.
To
find the
volume of a sphere
Multiply the cube of the
diameter by one-sixth of 3.1416 or .5236.
To
extract the square root of a
number
Point off the given number into periods of two figures

each, beginning at the right. If there are decimals and only
1.
one figure
at the right of the
decimal point add a cipher to com-
plete the period.
Find the greatest square in the first period on the left;

root on the right, like a quotient in division subtract
the square from the period, and to the remainder bring down
2.
place
its
the next period for a dividend.
Double the root found and place it on the left of the

trial divisor.
Find how many times the trial
divisor is contained in the dividend exclusive of the right hand
figure; place the quotient in the root and also on the right of
3.
dividend for a
the trial divisor.

4.
Multiply the complete divisor by the
root; subtract the product
last figure in
from the dividend and
the
to the re-
mainder bring down the next period for a new dividend.

Double the whole root found for a new trial divisor and
5.
continue the operation in the same manner until all the periods
are brought down.
EXAMPI.It
8.17.961286
4
'
417
384
48,
'
1
566
1
^
33%
3396
ELECTRICAL WIRING
70
AND CONSTRUCTION
In a right-angled triangle the
sum
TABLES.
of the squares of the base
and the perpendicular equals the square of the hypotenuse.
To
of the
To
find the length of the hypotenuse extract the square root
sum
of the squares of the base
and perpendicular.
find the base or the perpendicular;
from the square of
the hypotenuse subtract the square of the other given side and
extract the square root of the remainder.
FORMULAE
Current,
1=
IN
GENERAL
ohm's law.
E = IXR
Kesistance, R = --
Volts,
Watts
-EXI-I^XR-^
USE.
FORMULAE IN GENERAL
To
To
To
USE.
/I
convert square mils into circular mils divide by .7854.
convert circular mils into square mils multiply by .7854.
find the number of circular mils in any round wire,

multiply the diameter of the wire in mils by itself.
Direct Current Wiring Formula.

C.
M. =
XDXI
21.6
VolU
lost
XD XI
21.6
Volts lost
M.
C.
feet,
M. stands
C,
''here
(one leg), and
for
circular mils,
Alternating Current Formula.

lf[(E
X P.F.)+ (I X
'here
amperes,
in
igle of
for
lag,
R)f-\-
[(E).
I.
F. )-|-L.]2
R
I.
for
F.
line,
ohmic resistance of
for
in
=E'
P. F. for
line,
for
inductance factor or sine of
for inductive drop in line
end of line.
The difference between E and E'
lecessary to deliver
distance
Drop in Voltage.
stands for volts delivered at end of
)wer-factor of load,
irrent
for current in amperes.
and E' the volts
at
is
the drop in volts in
line.
le
Current in Conductors.
ALTERNAxiNa
W
for single phase circuit.
Exp.
I
=5 X
f.
w
for
two -phase
circuit.
E.XP. F.
I
58
for three phase circuit.

EJ
P. F.
being the current in ampere ,W the watts,

id
P. F. the
power
factor of the circuit.
the voltage
electrical wiring
72
and construction
tables.
Testing with Voltmeter.

Resistance to ground
where
^7 X R.
equals the full pressure of the
E' the reduced
line,
reading through voltmeter to ground and
the resistance of
the voltmeter.
Testing with Wheatstone Bridge.
When
B X R
balance
is
obtained
jr
the resistance indicated by the instrument,
of the proportional coil in series with
of the other proportional

Efficiency of
^.-.
and
=
B
X; R being
the resistance
the resistance
coil.
dynamo or motor
Energy given
out.
Ejnergy received.
Table of Wibb Equivalents Based on Circular Mils.
73
ELECTRICAL WIRING
74
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
Tabus of Wire Equivalents for Drop in Voltage, Alternating Current. Carrting

Capacity Given for Weather-proof Insulation. N. E. C
Table Showinq Relations Between Ditfebent
To
Wms
obtain mils drop last figure at right.,
Qauqbs.
75
ELECTRICAL WIRING
76
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
STANDARD SYMBOLS FOR WIRING PLANS

As adopted and recommended by the Natioaal, Electrical Contbactobs
Association of the United States.
Numeral in center indicates
Ceiling Outlet; electric only.
number of standard 16 c. p. incandescent lamps.
Vr
4-2 indicates 4-16
Ceiling Outlet; combination.
c.
p. ttand-
ard incandescent lamps and 2 gas burners.
Bracket Outlet; electric only. Numeral in center indicates

number of standard 16 c. p. incandescent lamps.
Bracket Outlet; combination. 4-2 indicates 4-16
ard incandescent lamps and 2 gas burners.
c. p.
stand-
Wall or Baseboard Receptacle Outlet.^ Numeral in center

indicates number of standard 16 c. p. incandescent lamps.
Floor Outlet. Numeral in center indicates
ard 16 c. p. incandescent lamps.
_
066
VR(f
jl^jf
[C55
"^
number
of stand-
Outlet for Outdoor Standard or Pedestal; electric only.

Numeral indicates number of stand. 16 c. p. incan. lamps.
Outlet for Outdoor Standard or Pedestal; combination.
6-6 indicates 6-16 c. p. stand, incan. lamps; 6 gas burners.
Drop Cord Outlet.
One Light
Outlet, for
lamp
receptacle.
(S>
Arc
Lamp
Outlet,
Special Outlet, for lighting heating
^^^^^^Cîliê ^^" Outlet.
Q2
53
Q4
and power current, as
described in specifications.
S. P.
D.
P.
Switch Outlet.
Switch Outlet.
3-Way Switch Outlet.

4-Way Switch
Outlet.
Show as many symbols as there are

switches. Or in case of a very
large group of switches, indicate
number of switches by a Roman
numeral, thus: SI XII; meaning
12 single pole switches.
Describe type of switch in specifications, that is.

Flush or surface push button or
snap.
Copyright 1906 by the National Electrical Contractors' Association of th

United States.
Published by permission.
NATIONAL ELECTRICAL
77
CODE.

As adopted and recommended by the National Electrical Contbactobs
^^
Automatic Door Switch Outlet.
CJ E
Electrolier Switch Outlet.
Meter Outlet.
Distribution Panel.
Junction or Pull Box.
6^
Motor Outlet; numeral in center indicates horse power.

Motor Control Outlet.
Transformer.
"i"
MMM^HMiwMain
or feeder run concealed under floor.
îHaBB Main
or feeder run concealed under floor abovp.
mm MM av MB Main
or feeder run exposed.
Branch
circuit
run concealed under
Branch
circuit
run concealed under floor above.
Branch
circuit
run exposed.
"

Pole
floor.
line.
Riser.
SuaoESTioNS IN Connection with Standard Stmbols for Wiring Plans.

Indicate on plan, or describe in specifications, the height of
located on side walls.
all
outlets
It is important that ample space be allowed for the installation of mains,

feeders, branches and distribution panels.
a key to the symbols used accompany all plans.

branches and distribution panels are shown on the
desirable that they be designated by letters or numbers.
It is desirable that
If mains, feeders,
plans,
it is
ELECTRICAL WIRING
78
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.

As adopted and recommended by the National Electrical. Contbactobs
Telephone Outlet; private service.
to
M
Q
Telephone Outlet; public service.
BeU
Outlet
Buzzer Outlet.
Push Button Outlet; numeral indicates number of pushes.
,2'
|
^mmOS^
Annunciator; nimieral indicates number of points.
iMi^
Speaking Tube.
.^^
Watchman Clock
^1
Watchman
^&
Station Outlet.
Master Time Clock Outlet.
Secondary Time Clock Outlet
Door Opener.
Outlet.
Special Outlet; for signal systems, as described in specifications
R?1
1 1 1 1 1
iBattery Outlet.
(
1
Circuit for clock, telephone, bell or other service,

run unde*" floor, concealed.
Kind of service wanted ascertained by symbol to
which line connects.
{Circuit for clock, telephone, bell or other service,

floor above concealed.
of service wanted ascertained
line connects.
run under
Kind
by symbol
to
which
NOTEIf
other than standard 16
c. p.
incandescent lamps are desired,

lamp to be used.
specifications should describe capacity of
CHAPTER
V.
CALCULATION OF MATERIALS.
The
following table
is
designed to facilitate the calculation
where the
of branch wires in large spaces
lights are evenly
distributed as in department stores for instance.
The
sary data are, the distance from outlet to outlet, the
neces-
number
number of rows in both directions

a rough outline of the space to be illuminated.
The numbers given at the intersections of the vertical and
of lights per circuit, the

id
horizontal
the cut-out
lines
indicate
in the
the
lower
distance from those points to
left
hand corner,
in
terms of the
The numbers below
distance from outlet to outlet.
the lines
represent diagonal measurements and those above, measure-
ments at right angles. To convert either into

by the distance from outlet to outlet.
To
feet multiply
number of outlets roughly,

shown by dots below and locate the cut-out
outlets as shown by X for instance.
use the table lay out the
for example as
at one of the
The example given

ed into 4 parts. We
is
a complicated one and must be dividlocate all of the points above and
first
to the right of the cut-out X in the table and add all of the
numbers found at these places; these numbers are 1, 1.4, 2.3,
Next imagine the two points
3.2, 1, 2, and 3, making 13.9.
at the left located in the table and add their numbers, 1 and
Now proceed to locate the 4 below and to
1.4, making 2.4.
the right on the table; they are 1, 2, 1.4, and 2.3, making 6.7.
Lastly locate the six points to the left and below the cut-out;
these are 1.4, 2.3, 22, 2.3, 2.8, 3.6, total 15.6. Adding all of
80
20.
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
21.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.0
CALCULATION OF MATERIALS.
we have 15.6+67+2.4+13.9, making
these
If the
distance between outlets
38.6X10X2=772
To
10 feet
a total of 38.6.
we
shall
require
for the horizontal runs along
feet of wire
ceiling or floor above.
is
81
must be added the wire neces-
this
sary to drop through ceiling, and in case cutouts are located
on some sidewall
per
circuit,
to
run to them.
If there are
two
outlets
the length of each circuit will be the length of
run to nearest outlet plus 1. With three outlets per circuit

will be the length of run to nearest outlet plus 2, etc. In a
complicated case as that shown in the example, confusion
it
can be avoided by turning the plan of outlets
in
conformity
with the table while calculating the different sections.

This table can be used to advantage in determining the
most economical location of cut-out centers.

In large rooms such as machine shops, offices where single
lamps are provided for each desk and where single lights
are fairly well distributed the quantity of wire between outlets
(not including runs
to
cut-outs
or along walls)
will
be found quite approximately by multiplying 2 times the

number of lights by the square root of the average surface
illuminated by each
greatly
in
different
the different parts
lamp.
sections
may
If
the density of lights varies
of such spaces calculations of
be separately made.
If free choice in the location of cut-out centers is
given
not more than about 10 per cent of additional wire will be

required under average conditions.
82
ELECTRICAL WIRING
QKiyi
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
HOV3
savHa -ZQ
saiv^
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SONIHSag QNV
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CHAPTER
VI.
CONDUITS AND WIRES.

Two
sides of the smallest rectangular enclosure that will
contain a given
number
of wires are
DX
DXbX.86.
and
being the diameter of the wire,
number of wires in longest row, and

number of rows.
The nearer square this enclosure can be made the greater
the economy of material.
The greatest number of wires that can be placed in a
a,
the
b,
the
rectangular enclosure
is
(-^
>^
XJ
( =r
iJ y\ .00 )
being the length of the enclosure,
the height, and
the diameter of the wire.
This formula
tions obtained
by
^
is
only approximate and in using
-^
D
and -
DX
it
all frac-
must be dropped.
.86
Example:
Given an enclosure 6 inches long and 2 inches

wires can it hold, the diameter of each wire
being .7? 6 divided by .7, equals 8.6. Dropping the .6 and
subtracting ^, we have 7.5 for the first factor. Next, .7 times
.86 equals .602; 2 divided by this equals 3.3; dropping the .3
we now have to multiply the 7.5 by 3, which equals 22.5 or
high,
how many
22 wires.
For
circular enclosures
no general formula can be given
because the percentage of waste space varies greatly with

different wires.
The
first
chart
may
be used to determine
ELECTRICAL WIRING
84
AND CONSTRUCTION
smallest conduit that will
the
wires.
TABLES.
enclose a certain
number
of
how nearly different

spaces.
To use this chart
This chart shows graphically
numbers of wires
fill
out circular
number given in connection

with circle containing the requisite number of wires. This
will give the smallest diameter of tube or conduit that will
multiply diameter of wire by the
receive these wires.
How much
larger the conduit to be used
The number and nature
must be depends upon circumstances.
of bends, nature of insulation, flexibility of wire as well as
temperature and inspection requirements must be taken into

consideration.
The
charts illustrate the relative spaces occupied by the
different conduits, viz: 3",
the wires considered.
The
2H",
V^", 1%",
2'',
sizes of conduit are
various circles and each horizontal
row
1",
and
in the
pertains to one size
of wire with exception of the 4th and 5th in each
a few at the top of one of the charts.
etc.,
marked
The
row and
4th shows a neutral
wire of half the carrying capacity, and the 5th of double the
carrying capacity of the outside wires.
The
different sizes of
conduit given in each case will enable one to judge the most
appropriate size to be used under different circumstances.
The wires shown
are all double braid stranded cables.

In the tables that follow are given the number of wires
that will fill approximately 2/3 of the space in the conduit.
This is about right for average work but for long difficult runs
it is
advisable to allow
somewhat more
space.
CONDUITS AND WIRES.
85
86
ELECTRICAL WIRING
1000000
CM.
AND CONSTRUCTION
1250000
1500000
CM.
800000 CM
CM.
900000 CM.
d)
600000 CM^^-^ /^^-X
500000 CM
400000 CM
300000 C. M.
250000 CM
TABLES.
d)
700000 C
CONDUITS AND WIRES.
87
OOOB.&S.
OOB.d,S.
OB.&S
1B.&S.
2B.&S.
-*4,
^
3B.&S.
-2^4
ELECTRICAL WIRING
88
AND CONSTRUCTION
One-halp Inch Condttit.
oi
03
TABLES.
Internal Diameter. 40-64.
89
CONDUITS AND WIRES.
Three-foubths Inch CoNDxnr.
Intebnal Duubteb. 52-C4.
0000
000
00
2
3
4
5
26-49
28^2
22-41
20-37
19-35
18-33
2342
21-38
20-36
19-34
ELECTRICAL WIRING
90
One Inch Conduit.
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
Inteenal Dubjeteb, 67-64.
g
MO
1^
eg
0000
000
00
2
3
4
5
26-49
28-52
22-41
20-37
19-35
18-33
23-42
21-38
20-36
19-34
CONDUITS AND WIRES.
One and Onb-foubth Inch Conduit.
91
Internal Diameter, 88-64.
5:
g^
Q
>J
=2
0000
000
00
2
3
4
5
26-49
28-52]
22-41
20-37
19-35
18-33
23-42
21-38
20-36
19-34
92
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
One and One-half Inch Conduit.
TABLES.
Internal Dumeteb, 103-64.
es
132
CO
0000
000
00
26-49
22-41
20-37
19-35
18-33
28-52
23-42
21-38
20-36
19-34
CONDUITS AND WIRES.
Two Inch
CJondutt.
Internal Diameter. 132-64.
9^
ELECTRICAL WIRING
94
Two AND One-half Inch
c1
AND CONSTRUCTION
Conduit.
TABLES.
Internal Diameter, 157-64.
CHAPTER
VII
TABLES OF CARRYING CAPACITIES.

The following
tables are designed for use in determining
the smallest wire permissible with any particular load under

the different conditions of construction.
The
tables are cal-
culated for 55 watt incandescent lamps, Nernst glowers,
both alternating and direct current motors.
drop
is
and
question of
not taken into consideration, the tables showing only
maximum amounts
the
The
of the different kinds of apparatus
allowed on the different sizes of wire by the table of carrying

capacities of the National Electrical Code and the rules of the
city of Chicago, these latter
being the only ones
among
the
from the National Code rules.

For three-wire systems, where the load is evenly divided
irger cities that differ
on each
side of the neutral wire, the table for the voltage of
the outside wires should be used.
Example
What
size of
wire
is
required for 300 incandes-
cent lamps on a 110- 220- volt three-wire system where rubber
covered wire
is
to be
used?
National Code rules.
Referring
to the table for "Incandescent Lights and Nernst Glowers,
National Electrical Code Rules," we follow downward in the

column headed "Single phase or direct current," "55 watt
lights," "Rubber insulation" until we come to the section
marked 220 volts, where we find that a No. 3 B. & S. wire
will carry 304 lights and showing this to be the proper wire
to use.
put
As an example of another use to which

Suppose we have a set of No. 0, B. &
:
wire; 2-wire, 110-volt system feeding 200
the tables
S.
may be
rubber covered
lights.
How many
added to these mains? Following downward in

the column marked "Rubber insulation" in the section for 110
lights can be
ELECTRICAL WIRING
96
volts
we
find that a
No.
0,
AND CONSTRUCTION
&
B.
S.
TABLES.
wire will carry 254
lights,
thus giving us an additional capacity of 54 lights.
The requirements
circuits
varies
The
partments.
as to size of wire for motors
considerably
among
different
on branch
inspection
rules of the National Electrical
de-
Code and of
the City of Chicago are as follows:
NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE RULE.
EDITION 1905.
" The motor leads or branch
circuits must be designed to

carry a current at least 25 per cent greater than that for
which the motor is rated, in ordei to provide for the inevitable occasional overloading of the motor, and the increased
current required in starting, without overf using the wires ;
but where the wires under this rule would be overfused, in
order to provide for the starting current, as in the case of
many of the alternating current motors, the wires must be
of such size as to be properly protected by these larger fuses."
CHICAGO RULE.
EDITION 1905.
"The leads or branch circuits for direct current motors

must be designed to carry a current at least twenty-five per
cent greater than that required by the rated capacity of the
to provide for the inevitable overloading of the motor
at times without overfusing the wires.
The leads or branch
circuits for alternating current motors must be designed to
carry a current at least fifty per cent greater than that required by the rated capacity of the motor to provide for the
inevitable overloading of the motor at times without overfusing the wires."
motor
The
for direct current motors, National Electrical

has been calculated on a basis of 90 per cent
efficiency for mains, and 90 per cent efficiency and 25 per cent
Code
table
rules,
overload for branch circuits.

It will
be seen that in the case of alternating current motors
the National Electrical Code rule gives no definite require-
ment which would enable one
to
determine the proper
size
of wire unless the characteristics of the motor and the exact
TABLES OF CARRYING CAPACITIES.

condition's
of
starting
were known.
The
97
table
given
for
alternating current motors has been calculated on a basis of
85 per cent power factor and 90 per cent efficiency with an
overload of 25 per cent for branch circuits or for mains sup-
At
plying one motor.
the right of the table for alternating
current motors will be found a small table giving multipliers
which can be used where a power factor or efficiency other

than those for which the table is calculated is given.
For
What
example:
for
7j/2
power
size
of wire
(rubber covered)
is
required
horse power, 220 volt, single-phase motor, with a
and an
factor of 75 per cent
Consulting the small table
we
efficiency of
80 per cent?
an
efficiency of
find that for
80 per cent and a power factor of 75 per cent we are to

multiply the horse power in question by 1.28. 1.28X7.5=9.6
horse power.
Following downward under column marked
"Single-phase," "Branches," "Rubber Insulation," we find in
section for 220 volts that a No. 5 B. & S. wire will be required.
It will be well to consult the inspection departments as to
what power factor and efficiency they will agree to assume
with the general run of motors.
For determining the size of mains for a mixed load, such
s lights and motors, the table for motors may be used by
changing the lights to an equivalent in horse power, allowing
15 55-watt lamps, or 9 Nernst glowers to the horse power.
Example
What size mains are required to supply a load
of 25 horse power in 220-volt motors, and 300 5S-watt UO-volt
li"
lamps on a 110-220
I^L __=20
I
volt,
three-wire system?
horse power equivalent for the
lights.
20+25=45
Direct Current
under section for
volts. "Mains," we find that a No. 000 B. & S. rubber
overed wire will carry 47.2 horse power; this being the
horse power, total load.
Motors,
120
National
In the table
Electrical
roper size wire to use.
Code
rules,
for
ELECraiCAi.
WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION TABLES.
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NATIONAL ELECTRICAL
99
CODE.
itÔsoSoS
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100
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
Motors, Altbbnatinq CxniRENT, "National Electrical Code" Rules.
NATIONAL ELECTRICAL
^ r o>
o OS M t^
OS H t* 00
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101
CODE.
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102
AND CONSTRUCTION
ELECTRICAL WIRING
S^
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5:^S!
COeOQQ'H
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oo
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NATIONAL ELECTRICAL
CODE.
Table of Cahrtinq Capacitt of Wires.
103
104
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
"St-O'ti 05
,-i.-li-ilM!M
T-< r-(
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CHICAGO RULES.
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106
ELECTRICAL WIRING
Motors.
AND CONSTRUCTION
Ai/tbrnating Current.
TABLES.
Chicaqo Rules.
CHICAGO RULES.
00 1 00 k U) 1-4 C9
t^
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côoeôO-^N
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108
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
=^^SJ::?S5^5^ 0 cCt^ O'^

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CHICAGO RULES.
Table of Carbtinq Capacttt op Rubbkr Covibed Wibes.
109
110
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
Parts of an Inch in Decimals and Mils.

8ths.
TABLES.
DIMENSIONS OF COPPER WIRE
k^.
111
112
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
Table giving the outside diameters of rubber covered wires for us

voltages less than 600.
Size
B. &S
Gauge
OD
TABLES.
Outside Diameters of Rubber
Covered Cables.
Capacity in
Diameter
Cir. Mils.
over Braid
1.500.000
1,250.000
1,000,000
950,000
900,000
850,000
800,000
750,000
700,000
650,000
600,000
650,000
500,000
450,000
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
113-64
107-64
97-64
95-64
94-64
93-64
89-64
87-64
83-64
81-64
79-64
76-64
73-64
68-64
66-64
64-64
61-64
59-64
Dimensions of Unlined Conduit.
Nominal
113
Outside Diameters of Weatherproof Wire.
114
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
115
TABLES.
DIMENSIONS OF CLEATS.
One-Wire Cleats.
DuGGAN Cleat.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
16-8 B. <fe S.
"
6-2
2-00
000-300,000 C. M.
400,000-800,000 C. M.
900,000-1,200.000 C. M.
4 holds wires
7
5
6
8
9
Brunt Cleat.
Stand.
Number Width Length Groove

328
329
331
330
332
}
1
\i
U
li
2
2}
2i
2i
2J
holds wires
"
"
"
*
"
"
"
"
16-5 B. A
8-3
3-00
4-1
0-0000
Two AND Three- Wire Cleats

Brunt.
No. 334 2-wire holds wires
"
"
No. 337 3 wire
&
16-8 B.
16-8 B.
&S
16-8 B.
6-00 B.
16-8 B.
& S.
& S.
Si
DuGGAN.
No. 3
No. 2
No. 1
2-wire holds wires

**
"
2-wire
"
"
3 wire
Pass
No.
No.
No.
No.
A-43
2-wire holds wires

"
"
2-wire
"
"
3-wire
43
3-wire
A-3
3
"
"
& S.
& Seymour.
14-12
14- 6
14-12
14- 6
B.
B.
B.
B.
fe
& S& S.
AS.
116
ELECTRICAL WIRING
AND CONSTRUCTION
DIMENSIONS OF IRON SCREWS.

Trade Number
TABLES.
APPROXIMATE.
TABLES.
RATING OF MOTORS.
Full Load CuRaENTS.
H. P.
117
ELECTRICAL WIRING
118
AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLES.
The Hewitt-Cooper Mercury Vapor lamp requires a ctirrent of about 3.5

amperes.
The Nernst lamp consumes 88 watts per glower; for a 6 glower, 110 volt
lamp, about 4.8 amperes.
Series miniature lamps, operated 8 in series, on 110 volts, require a current
of about .33 amperes for 1 candle power lamps, and 1 ampere for 3 candle
power lamps.
Tables showing the currents which will fuse wires of different substances.
B.
&S.
Gauge
INDEX
Alternating current
25 cycles, 26.
Alternating current
60 cycles, 34,
Alternating current
125 cycles, 42.
Alternating current
la,
wiring table,
wiring tables,
Losses on wires, 52.
Formula
Formula
for direct current, 71.

alternating cur-
for
rent, 71.
wiring tables,
Lamps per square

Mains, size of, 97.
wiring formu-
Materials, calculation of, 79.
Table
71.
Aluminum
wire, properties of, 65.

of materials, 79.
Carrying capacities, tables of, 95,
103, 109.
Cleats, dimensions of, 115.
Combined carrying capacities, 62.
Comparison of wires, 65.
Comparative sizes of wires, 75.
Conduits, dimensions of, 113.
Conduits, size required for wires,
83.
of,
61.
Copper wire, dimensions of, 111.

Current in conductors, alternating, 71.
Direct current wiring formula, 71.

Direct current wiring tables, 7.
Divided circuits, 70.

Drop in voltage, alternating cur-
size
of wire for,
96
Measurements of surfaces,
Of solids, 68
68.
Motors, rating of, 117.

Moulding, dimensions of, 114.
Nails, dimensions of, 116.
Nernst lamps, 59.
Size of wire for, 98.
Ohm's law,
70.
Pole line data, 66.

Reinforcing wires, 62.
Relative conductivity, 52.
Sag
of wires, 66.
Screws, dimensions of, 116.

Shunt, resistance of, 70.
Square
root,
extract,
to
69.
Symbols, wiring, 76.

Testing with voltmeter, 72.
With Wheatstone
bridge, 72.
porcelain, dimensions of,
114.
Voltmeter, testing with, 72.
Waste of energy, 53.
Watts, formula for, 70.
Wheatstone bridge, 72.
Wire, rubber covered, dimensions
of, 112.
Tubes,
rent, 71.
Economy
of conductors, 50.
Efficiency of dynamo or motor, 72.
Energy lost in wires, value of, 57.
Fusing currents. 118.
Heat generated In wires, 70.
Illumination of arc lamps, 59.
Nernst lamps, 59.

Incandescent lamps, 60.
Incandescent lamps,
rating
of, 82.
circuits,
Motor
Calculation
Cooper Hewitt lamp, wattage
54.
foot,
Weatherproof,
of,
Inches, in fractions and decimals.

110.
Interest charge on wires, 58.
Iron wire, properties of. 64.
Knobs, dimensions of, 114.
dimensions
of,
113.
Gauges, comparative
Equivalents, 74.
Per Outlet. 81.
In parallel. 62.
Wiring symbols,
76.
sizes,
75.
BM^_ Jmi^^^H
..
please do not remove
ards or slips from this pocket

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i

Practicalc^uffontative- ComprehensiveZ/p to '"JOate^y^jfina (O^anuals ivr

Complete Series of Practical Text Books Prepared

HORSTMANN AND TOUSLEY

Annunciator Circuits, Electric Gas

Wiring Tables, Alternating Current Motors, Transformers,

Carrying Capacity, Alternating Current Wiring Tables,

PROFUSEL Y ILL USTRA TED

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PRACTICAL MECHANICS

Author of Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism.

Authors of Physics for High School Students.

ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN,

HENRY GORDON GALE, Ph.D.,

CLARK CARYL HASKINS,

Authors of Modern Wiring Diagrams and

Authors of Alternatino: Currents.

Author of Standard Wiring for Electric Light and

Authors of Electric Railway Engineering.

'Author of Electrical Equipment of Tramways.

Author of Conductors for Electrical Distribution.

WM. JOHN MAC QUORN RANKINE,

Author of Electric Motors, Their Theory and

PROF. WM. KENT,

Author of Practical Eno^ineers'

Author of Handbook for Mechanical Engineers.

M. E., M. Inst., E. E.,

Authors of Steam Turbines, Gas Turbines, Heat Engines.

Authors of Pocket Book of Electrical Formulae.

Author of Boilers and Furnaces

Institute of Electrical Engineers.

Author of Electric Light Wiring.

Author of Electrical Engineers* Pocket Book.

Chief Westinghouse Companies' Publishing Department.

General Electric Companies* Publication Bureau.

FRANCIS BACON CROCKER, M.

Professor of Electrical Engineering, Columbia Col-

Expert of the Board of Electrical Control,

EDWIN JAMES HOUSTON,

Professor of Physics, Franklin Institute. Pennsylvania.

JOHN PRICE JACKSON,

Joint Authors of Text-Book on Electro-Magnetism and the Construction of Dynamos, and

Author of 20th Century Hand Book for Steam

of Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Lehigh

of Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University

Consulting Engineer and Telephone Expert,

"American Telephone Practice."

nobility, but the mightiest is utility

the castes, labor

In order to meet the

the great need

understood manner, the

changes that those

greater rewards sure to

the test she offers

furtherance and perfection

following out her plan of instruction which has

of trained electricians and engineers and presents

an acknowledged authority, that

presents to the beginner or electrician a com-

a reliable guide for installing

the most improved method

san's finished product absolutely standard

cordance with the Safety Rules

have aimed throughout the volumes