White Paper

An appraisal of propagation
modelling methods for point-point
and point-multipoint microwave
networks in the bands 2.3GHz
to 42GHz

John Berry BSc MBA CEng MIEE MCMI

February 2004

Solutions in Radiocommunications

An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling Methods

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Introduction
Context
Putting the point to point and point to multi-point link scenario into context we see a network topology something
like that shown in the following view.

Overview

Finally I will also look at some of the constraints on the network deployment covering in turn the modelling of interference and the achievement of coexistence between networks
and specifically between networks of differing technologies.
As a round up and by way of conclusion I will also look at
probability in planning and will draw attention to the main
probability distributions and how they affect what we as
planners and integrators can deliver by way of a service to
the end user or subscriber.

P COM

P COM

P COM

P C OM

Path Geometries

P COM

P COM

P COM

P C OM

P C OM

P COM

P COM

Fibre Backbone

In analysing the potential for connection between our node

stations or from node to subscriber we need to construct a
path profile showing the conditions encountered. The following shows such a path across an urban area. Where we
have thousands of subscribers and hundreds of nodes in
any area we must have thousands of path profiles each individually assessed for path performance.

Network Management
Software

Figure 1:Typical Network Topology

Radio is used to connect node stations together or to connect subscribers to nodes across urban areas. Backhaul
radio links connect in turn to fibre and on to routers and
switches. The complete network forms an integrated
whole providing these subscribers with a variety of voice
and data services using a variety of protocols and transmission methods.
Scope of the Paper
Our interest today is not the transmission methods used in
this network but the conditions that these radio links experience. Both BWA and backhaul radio use the frequency bands from 2.3GHz to 42GHz. Both have similar
path requirements but since the operating frequencies are
over several octaves the effect of the various conditions
encountered will differ vastly. At the lower end of the frequency range large Fresnel zones dictate use of links suffering some diffraction. These links also experience high
incidence of multi-path both from the environment and
from layer refraction in the atmosphere. At the higher frequencies rain has a marked effect and technology precludes any excess loss if we are to avoid significant reduction in workable path length. During the paper I will look at
how today we model all of these effects.
In order that we can indeed look at the transmission
across these urban areas we need a statement of the environment as a three dimensional terrain and buildings
model. I will also look at how these models are created
and what resolutions and accuracies we can expect.

Figure 2: Path Profile

The line of sight is shown as the blue line connecting the
two terminals. The Fresnel zone is shown in brown. In this
case the frequency is 28GHz and the radius of the Fresnel
zone is 2.7
metres. This zone must be clear of obstruction by buildings
to be able to describe the path loss by the free space loss
equation Lfs=32+20log10 (f.d) dBi.
Given that obstruction loss is a function of the degree of
obstruction as a ratio of the Fresnel zone radius, it is clear
that the potential for high loss per metre of building infringement into the zone is greatest close to the terminal ends.
Care is therefore needed when installing that these areas
are indeed clear.
Finally then we have a completely defined path profile. For
those of you who know a little of atmospheric refraction, we
should indeed modify the Earths radius to allow the direct
ray between terminals to be viewed as a straight line for the
value of dN/dh prevalent. This is done automatically in the
profile construction.
Given this profile we can set about modelling the network
performance. Little has changed over the years but technol-

An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling

Modelling Methods
Methods

ogy now allows the profile to be assembled with significantly enhanced data and millions of profiles can be analysed in seconds.

Environmental Models
The Digital Elevation Model
The DEM is a digital terrain model describing ground
heights and a buildings elevation model combined. It describes the maximum or canopy height at any point on the
ground. It is described generally by a matrix of points in
the x and y or Eastings and Northings directions with the
axes aligned to a chosen coordinates system. The matrix
has a given resolution. For planning mobile systems and
for microwave systems where every path will be surveyed
a resolution giving a height point every 50 metres is usable. For PMP networks at 28GHz we need to achieve a
resolution of nearer 1 metre to position nodes and subscribers more precisely.

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Rooftop Definition
One highly useful data file is that defining the roof outlines.
This can in turn be further expanded to describe urban, suburban or postal zone rooftops hence allowing filtering and
more especially relocation of errored terminals. An example
of this file is shown below.
Given this definition we can immediately suspect the business subscribers in the roads and in parks and take corrective action. Such a file also allows the reporting of rooftops
covered or other definitive performance metric.

Figure 4: Rooftop Definition with Subscribers

Map Images

Figure 3: Digital Elevation Model

Whilst the DEM is in fact all that is needed to permit planning to proceed, we do need to overlay the rather bland
model with something that is meaningful to recipients of the
planning work. Typically this is an image of some form.

In the z direction we need to specify a height. Given a

Fresnel zone radius of 2.7 metres it would seem excessive
if we had a resolution of 10 centimetres and provided that
we have captured the maximum height at any point within
the 1 metre matrix, a 1 metre z resolution is adequate.
Of critical importance is the degree of error in positioning
the matrix in the x and y directions and in specifying the
height at each point. This error is a function of the way in
which the data has been captured and processed to yield
the DEM. Most high resolutions are developed from aerial
survey either using downward looking radar or laser or the
interpretation of stereo photographs. The methods are
really beyond the scope of a brief presentation but the key
issue is simply this. However produced, the planning engineer must have a specification of the DEM showing both
resolution and error.

Figure 5: Map Image with Subscribers

The first and most useful is a map. Given a scale of say

An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling

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An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling Methods

1:50,000, we can locate terminals, provide meaningful
feedback to marketing and other functions and brief site
finders and installation teams. Whilst logically the better
the scale the more accurate we can be, there are diminishing returns from high-information images. The classic is
the use of 10cm resolution ortho-photographs. Unless
installers are to be briefed these are particularly useless
and a cost well avoided.
The image here shows the roads, vegetation and houses
and is probably ideal.
Propagation Models
Now that we have the environmental model we can construct the profile. Given the profile we can then apply a set
of algorithms to that profile to predict the path performance
and its ability to sustain a link for the required time. These
algorithms comprise several parts.

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wanted and the unwanted are correlated or uncorrelated.

On short urban paths the fading is probably correlated whilst
on distant interferes it is probably uncorrelated.
On a similar point, we will design the wanted for a given
reliability or availability without considering interference.
Interference should only be able to degrade the wanted performance for a small percentage of time. This optimistic
prediction (optimistic since it takes advantage of all the
anomalous propagation incident at that frequency) must be
factored in to the determination of contesting signals the
wanted for a high percentage of time but possibly faded to
threshold against an unwanted for a low percentage of time.
Using ITU-R P.452-9 we can set the percentage of time of
the unwanted whilst fading the wanted.

Free Space Loss

Free space loss is the condition when the First Fresnel
zone is free of obstruction and was defined above as a
formula. Currently the relevant ITU recommendation is
ITU-R P.526.
Diffraction
Even if we elect to demand free space paths for our
wanted paths at 10GHz and above we must model diffraction on interfering paths. At lower frequencies and with
multi-carrier technologies providing protection against delay spread we can now work heavily obstructed paths. We
must model diffraction to permit prediction of excess loss
over free space and we must do so as accurately as possible. Diffraction loss modelling has progressed over the
years from the early beginnings postulated by Bulington to
todays multiple knife edge methods after Deygout. In the
marginal condition where only the lower half of the Fresnel
zone is obstructed we must also model the so-called subpath loss and both are done using the ITU-R P.526 methods.
Whilst not directly to do with free space, we do also need
to consider the small losses due to gaseous attenuation.
This is covered by using ITU-R P.676-4.
Enhancement of Interfering Paths
As we have mentioned, the model used for interference
might be slightly different from that used to model the
wanted.
There are two popular philosophies when modelling interference. We either leave both wanted and unwanted unfaded or we fade the wanted and leave the unwanted to
arrive at full received power. This latter scenario is clearly
the worst case and whether or not we choose to use it will
depend on whether or not we think that the fading on the

Figure 6: ITU-R 452-9 for Low Percentages of Time

Where we are undertaking statistical work on a large number of paths experiencing varying anomalous propagation
we can simulate the effect by setting a random time percentage.
Regulator Models
Regulators act to ensure coexistence. This coexistence and
the associated constraints require that operators make predictions of the nuisance field in adjacent networks and territories. The models that the regulators demand vary. Many
are based on the ITU-R P.452 cited above. Others are as
crude as free space loss provided by ITU-R P.526. The
main issue here however is that certainly at 3.5GHz and
even at 26 or 28GHz operators must design their networks
with regulator constraints in mind.
Fading and Availability
The path will be victim to fading through a variety of mechanisms. Fading determines the percentage of time for which
we might have the benefit of a usable received signal at
either radio terminal. Fading in PMP and P-P link networks
comes from three principle sources.
Rain
Losses due to rainfall or other hydrometeors falling on the
path are dependent upon the rain rate, the polarisation and
the frequency. Today there are two popular methods, one
ITU based and the other from the USA.

An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling

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An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling Methods

These effects are modelled using ITU-R P.530-8. Here we

simply state the time for which 100 N units per km is exceeded and for a given path and fade margin the path reliability can be computed. Iteration then permits the fade
margin for a given reliability to be returned and hence a network designed for a stated target reliability across the paths.
Figure 7: Consideration of Rainfall
ITU-R P. 838 requires that we set where in the world the
path is and then path dependant loss is added to the path
loss to simulate a fade margin required to overcome rain
fading. Where no accurate local rain rate is available the
ITU give a coarse figure in the form of a rain zone map.
To calculate, all that is required is the location and the
percentage of time for which the rate is exceeded. The
Crane model functions in a similar way.
A failing of these models is the fact that rain does not affect all parts of the path uniformly and indeed it may be
raining on a small part of the path leaving the rest unaffected. This concept of rain cell modelling will cause such
coarse modelling as currently offered by ITU methods to
be refined in the coming years.
Atmospheric Multi-path and Super Refraction
The spreading signal may suffer layer refraction and where
the path is substantially in the clear this may be the predominant fade mechanism at lower microwave frequencies. Layer refraction will in turn create one or mode multipath arrivals and when in and out of phase with the direct
ray, may cause cancellation and reinforcement in turn
causing fading. Similarly super refraction causes long
distance paths with significant Earth bulge to be flattened
enhancing the signal received for small percentages of
time.

Note that there is a cross over in frequency where the predominant mechanism rain or atmospheric multi-path and
super-refraction takes over. Calculation of both and assessment of correlation between the two allow a final path
availability to be reached.
Environmental Multi-path
At lower frequencies where we need to work over an obstructed path there will be significant multi-path but here the
reflections will be from the buildings in the vicinity of the
terminals. In modelling this it is useful to consider the scenario as two vectors one representing the direct ray and
the other the vector sum of the multi-path at any point in
time.
This resultant obeys a Ricean distribution. The more in the
clutter that the terminals are, the higher the multi-path and
the higher the standard deviation of the distribution. Referring to ITU-R PN.1057 we see that typical standard deviations lie in the region of 4.5-7.5dB. Given that we want to be
n standard deviations confident of receiving a usable signal,
we can calculate the fade margin needed to achieve this.

Multi-path

Direct

Resultant

Figure 9: Effect of Multipath

Working Diffracted Paths

Figure 8: ITU-R P.530-8

These algorithms for the calculation of margin in order to

overcome fading by whatever mechanism do have failings.
When applied generally there will be path by path error an
example of which is the application of Ricean distribution to
a network where a substantial number of paths are actually
free space. In reality perhaps the right approach is to look
for the worst case and use that for all availability calculations.

An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling

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An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling Methods

Interference

versally accepted as the most flexible.

We have now seen how we might go about modelling all

the various path scenarios. We can therefore predict the
performance of wanted and unwanted bearing in mind
that there may be many unwanteds.

-44dBm
Margin

Given that the wanted and unwanted are in some way

related in frequency there are two possible ways of modelling this to determine if there is indeed interference.

Basic C/I = 35dB

14dB

-79dBm
-83dBm New Noise Floor
-97dBm Noise Floor
Frequency

B2

C/I Methods
B1

The C/I method is the simplest and relies only on there

having been a lab test done on the contest between the
victim and the culprit to determine the limit value of C/I
ratio. The computation then used is shown below.

F1

Overlap of B1
Rise in Noise Floor =
10LOG(10^-97 + 10^(-79+10LOG0.4))=-83dBm
Threshold Impairment = -83 97 = 14dB
Frequency

N=0

-44dBm
Margin

Figure 11: IRF Method Graphically

Basic C/I
-79dBm

Overlap Area as a ratio of B1

Frequency
B2
Considered co-channel interference
B1
since bandwidth B2 overlaps B1
F1

N=0

F2

Basic C/I = -44 - (-79-0) -10Log0.4 = 38.97dB

RX Interference Rejection Factor Overlap of B1

Frequency

Figure 10: C/I Method Graphically

This shows a calculated value of 38dB. If the limit is 40dB
then we have an intolerable condition and we need to take
action to reduce the unwanted or increase the wanted levels.
IRF and Threshold Suppression Methods
This method arose since it is not always possible to test
every contest scenario. Provided that we have a statement of the net filter discrimination for the pair made up of
the transmitter noise spectrum and the receiver filter response we can deduce the net filter discrimination and
therefore the interference rejection factor (IRF) for both cochannel and adjacent channel. This then permits the computation shown.
This time the output is a statement of the extent to which
the receiver noise level is elevated and hence for the same
carrier to noise ratio, the extent to which the threshold has
been suppressed. This second method is becoming uni-

Conclusions
In setting out to design and analyse a network plan in the
2.3GHz to 42GHz region we must understand that there are
several probability distributions in play.
The first is the basic ability to predict the performance of a
path. The environmental model that we use will be errored.
Provided that we know that error we can determine the certainty of the path being as we describe.
The second is the physics of the path and the fact that various mechanisms affect the propagation. Knowing something about where the path is and what factors affect it allows us to predict how the path, so modelled will perform
and what availability it will provide.
The third is that unwanted signals will be received which
degrade the wanted link performance for small percentages
of time. This interference degrades further the availability.
The fourth has not so far been discussed and covers the
scenario that given a diffracted path heavy in reflections, we
will experience a standing wave pattern as we change the
location of one or other of the terminals over a few 10s of
wavelengths. Practically signal will vary significantly across
the user premises giving a locations variability around the
terminals. This will in turn require a further margin to yield a
percentage probability of establishing a viable link on installation at the optimum installation location.
Finally, assuming high multi-path, there will be delay spread.
Depending on the nature of this, our received Bit Error Rate
will degrade through inter-symbol interference. Whilst a
propagation and planning issue, this is beyond the scope of
this paper.

An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling

Modelling Methods
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An Appraisal of Propagation Modelling Methods

In planning point to point and point to multi-point networks
in the microwave bands we do need to consider many
aspects. Modern radio network planning tools permit
these effects to be modelled and networks to be planned
with a high degree of automation and optimisation and
they should be employed extensively to reduce the problems outlined here to a manageable level.
-oo00oo-

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Solutions in Radiocommunications