NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY

MS DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING 2011

2nd Semester

DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND PROCESS MAPPING OF

AIRCRAFT RADIAL TYRE
Product Design and Development

ASSIGNMENT

Submitted to:
Prof. Dr. Liaquat Ali
Submitted by:
Arshad Chaudhry
Waqas Saleem
Sajjad Alam
Yasir Anwar
Imran Wattoo
Date of Submission:

2011-NUST-MS-DME-28
2011-NUST-MS-DME-21
2011-NUST-MS-DME-05
2011-NUST-MS-DME-06
2011-NUST-MS-DME-04
31

May, 2012

1.

INTRODUCTION
An aircraft tyre is as a ring shaped covering rubber covering that is installed on a wheel

hub. The basic purpose is to protect the wheel and provide a flexible medium that allow
absorbing of shocks. The wheel remains in close contact to the surface through the rubber tyre,
where any damage to the tyre consequently results in damage to the main wheel hub.
Synthetic, natural rubber, fabric and wire, along with other compound chemicals are used as
main materials for manufacturing the rubber tyres. The aircraft tyres consist of two main parts
i.e., tread and a body.

The purpose of tread is to provide the traction while the wheel body provides support to bear the
load of aircraft. Prior to invention of rubber and mere strip of metal was attached to the outer
circumference of the wheel hub to protect against wear and tear. Today, the vast majorities of
tyres are pneumatic inflatable structures, comprising a doughnut-shaped body of cords and wires
encased in rubber and generally filled with compressed air to form an inflatable cushion.
Pneumatic tires are used on many types of vehicles, such as cars, bicycles, motorcycles, trucks,
earthmovers, and aircraft.

2.

CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
Tyres are an integral and most essential part of the aircraft as they play a vital role during

takeoff and landing phase. During these phases, these are subjected to enormous loading and

momentum and thus are prone to much wear and tear as compared to wheels and tyres installed
on ground transport vehicles.

We have recently come across with a problem of short life of aircraft wheels on Super-MU. In
fact, life of an aircraft tyre and its wheel hub are measured separately and in number of landings
and takeoffs. A shortened life of aircraft tyre would entail its replacement much frequently and
incur increased cost.

Thus the design team thought of redesigning the tyre for aircraft Super-MU with an increased life
and at competitive price as being offered by other manufacturers. It is important that the facilities
for rubber production and subsequent processing are already held with Rubber Shops at Aviation
Complex. This is mainly a reverse engineering approach while referencing to other aircraft tyre
manufacturers and their best practices. The team would focus on manufacturing processes of the
aircraft tyre and in this effort wheel hub would not be included as part of effort. The approach
would be to make a design, develop manufacturing processes, develop prototype, and devise
client acceptability and inspection criteria.

UNDERSTANDING THE OPPORTUNITY

3.1

MISSION STATEMENT

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

The product is an aircraft radial tyre.

BUSINESS CASE

Product would be used on commercial aircraft (Boeing 747).

To capture 30% of market share by introducing better quality

GOALS

and durability and extended life of tyres at affordable cost than

PRIMARY MARKET
SECONDARY MARKET

available in market.
All Boeing 747 aircraft operating airlines
All individual / private aircraft owners.
Low Cost

Greater number of landings

Less wear and tear

Low premature failure rate

Consistent quality

Less care and maintenance requirements

Good Year

Michelin

General

Bridgestone
Users (Aircraft operators)

Retailers / Distributors

Sales & Marketing

Service Centers

ASSUMPTIONS

COMPETITORS

STAKE HOLDERS

Production Facility

Aviation MROs

Private aircraft owners

3.2

GATHERING THE RAW DATA FROM CUSTOMERS

Three methods for data collection were employed

Interviews

Focus groups

Observing the product in use

Choosing the customers (10-50 interviews)

The art of eliciting customer needs data

Go with the flow

Use visual stimuli

Suppress preconceived hypothesis about the product technology

Have the customer demonstrate the product and/ or typical tasks related to the product

Be alert for surprises and the expression of latent needs

Watch for non-verbal information

Documenting the interaction with the customers

Audio tape recording

Notes

Video tape recording

Still photography

3.2.2

Interviews with Users

1.

Number of Landings should be greater.

2.

Premature failure rate should be low.

3.

Installation/ removal easy.

4.

No extensive care and maintenance requirements.

5.

Not of a higher cost.

6.

Better quality.

7.

Protection against Weather effects

8.

Less wear and tear

9.

Should get fixed on existing wheel hub.

10.

Should support existing aircraft braking system.

11.

Should have adequate cooling mechanism after brake applications.

12.

Should operate in a wide range of temperatures even under extreme weather conditions.

13.

Should operate at varying nature of landing surfaces.

14.

Easy access to charge air pressure.

15.

Must retain the air pressure.

3.3

INTERPRETING RAW DATA IN TERMS OF CUSTOMER NEEDS

Express the needs in terms of what the product has to do and

not in terms of how it will do

3.3.1

Express the needs as specifically as the raw data

Use positive and not negative phrasing

Express the need as an attribute of the product

Avoid the words must and should

Data collection

About 10 to 15 users including technicians, pilots and maintenance engineers working in

airlines and aviation MROs were interviewed for seeking customer needs. Additionally,
maintenance facilities were visited for studying the existing tyres and the range provided by
different manufacturers. All collected customer needs and interpreted needs are being
summarized below :

CUSTOMER

XYZ

ADDRESS

CHAKLALA

TELEPHONE

05190990

WILLING TO FOLLOW UP

YES

INTERVIEWERS

PROJECT TEAM

DATED

15 APRIL, 2012

CURRENT USE

MICHELIN

TYPE OF USER

COMMERCIAL

CUSTOMER STATEMENT

INTERPRETED NEEDS
Tyre life is measured against the number of

Number of Landings should be greater.

landings that should be higher enough to

match aircraft inspections.
Tyre should not fail before completion of

Premature failure rate should be low.

assign life in terms of number of landings.
Procedure
and
access
for
Installation/ removal easy.
No

extensive

care

removal/installation should be easy and

and

less time consuming.

maintenance Reduced maintenance at operational and

requirements.

inspection level.

Not of a higher cost.

Cost should be affordable vis--vis utility.

Rubber of tyre should be of good quality to

Better quality.
support described functions and usage.
Weather effects should have minimal or
Protection against Weather effects
zero effect on tyre surfaces and rubber.

Less wear and tear

Cut marks, bruises, blisters and minimal

frictional effects should be encountered

during the operational life
Tyre design and dimensions should allow it
to get installed on existing wheel hub
Should get fixed on existing wheel hub.
without requiring any modifications in hub
assembly.
Design, dimensions and weight loading
capacity of tyre should be enough to
Should support existing aircraft braking system.
support existing aircraft braking system
without requiring any type of modification.
Tyre design should allow instant cooling
Should have adequate cooling mechanism after
after brake application under high loading
brake applications.
and momentum.
Tyre should remain

intact

and

in

Should operate in a wide range of temperatures

operational condition between temperature
even under extreme weather conditions.
ranges from -25C to 60C.
Should be able to support aircraft landing
Should operate at varying nature of landing
at rough surfaces, landing strips, ice and
surfaces.
unpaved surfaces.
Charging of air pressure and its checking
Easy access to charge air pressure.
for inspection should have easy access.
Tyre should be able to retain maximum
Must retain the air pressure

pressure for a longer period of time without

requiring frequent charging of pressure.

3.4

ORGANIZE THE NEEDS INTO HIERARCHY

Print or write each need statement on a separate card or self-stick note

Eliminate redundant statements

Group the cards according to the similarity of the needs they express

Choose a label for each group

Consider creating super groups consisting 2-5 groups

Review and edit the organized needs statement

3.5

HIERARICHAL NEEDS ARE AS GIVEN BELOW:

S NO

INTERPRETED NEEDS
Tyre life is measured against the number of landings that should be higher

1
enough to match aircraft inspections.
2

Reduced maintenance at operational and inspection level.

Cut marks, bruises, blisters and minimal frictional effects should be

3
encountered during the operational life
4

Weather effects should have minimal or zero effect on tyre surfaces and rubber.
Rubber of tyre should be of good quality to support described functions and

5
usage.
Tyre should not fail before completion of assign life in terms of number of
6
landings.
7

Cost should be affordable vis--vis utility.

Should be able to support aircraft landing at rough surfaces, landing strips, ice

and unpaved surfaces.

Procedure and access for removal/installation should be easy and less time
9
consuming.
Tyre design and dimensions should allow it to get installed on existing wheel
10
hub without requiring any modifications in hub assembly.
Tyre design should allow instant cooling after brake application under high
11
loading and momentum.
Design, dimensions and weight loading capacity of tyre should be enough to
12

support existing aircraft braking system without requiring any type of

modification.
Tyre should remain intact and in operational condition between temperature

13
ranges from -25C to 60C.
Charging of air pressure and its checking for inspection should have easy
14
access.
Tyre should be able to retain maximum pressure for a longer period of time
15
without requiring frequent charging of pressure.

3.6

ESTABLISH THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE NEEDS

Give Numerical importance to each customer need

Feature is un-desirable I would not consider a product with this feature

Feature is not important I would not mind having it

Feature would be nice to have but it is not important

Feature is highly desirable but I would consider a product without it

Feature is critical I would not consider a product without this feature

RELATIVE
S NO

INTERPRETED NEEDS
IMPPORTANCE
Tyre life is measured against the number of landings that should

5
be higher enough to match aircraft inspections.

Reduced maintenance at operational and inspection level.

Cut marks, bruises, blisters and minimal frictional effects should

5
be encountered during the operational life
Weather effects should have minimal or zero effect on tyre

4
surfaces and rubber.
Rubber of tyre should be of good quality to support described

4
functions and usage.
Tyre should not fail before completion of assign life in terms of

4
number of landings.

Cost should be affordable vis--vis utility.

Should be able to support aircraft landing at rough surfaces,

5
landing strips, ice and unpaved surfaces.
Procedure and access for removal/installation should be easy and

3
less time consuming.
Tyre design and dimensions should allow it to get installed on

10

existing wheel hub without requiring any modifications in hub

assembly.
Tyre design should allow instant cooling after brake application

11
12

4
4

under high loading and momentum.

Design, dimensions and weight loading capacity of tyre should
be enough to support existing aircraft braking system without

requiring any type of modification.

Tyre should remain intact and in operational condition between
13

3
temperature ranges from -25C to 60C.
Charging of air pressure and its checking for inspection should

14

3
have easy access.
Tyre should be able to retain maximum pressure for a longer

15

3
period of time without requiring frequent charging of pressure.

3.6

LIST OF METRICS AND NEEDS METRICS MATRIX

Metrics should be dependent and not independent or variable

Metrics should be practical

Some needs cant be transferred into quantifiable metrics

The metrics should include the popular criteria for comparison in the market place

4.

INITIAL DESIGN METHODOLOGY

In order to approach the design and then manufacturing process, the team considered following
areas vital to the manufacturing process of aircraft tyres.

1. Functional Requirements
2. Material Selection
3. Manufacturing and Assembly consideration
4. Cost consideration

4.1

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

The main functional requirements for aircraft tyres are

4.1.1

Balance

The centrifugal forces exerted on the main wheel hub and axle during the rotation of the
tyre depends mainly on center of mass and the orientation of their moment of inertia,
referred to as balance, imbalance, or unbalance.

4.1.2

Camber thrust

It is the force generated perpendicular to the direction of travel of a rolling tyre due to its
Camber angle.

4.1.3

Centrifugal growth

A high speed rotating tyre develops larger diameter due to the centrifugal forces moving
the rubber tread away from the center, which may cause speedometer errors.

4.1.4

Circle of forces
The circle of forces, traction circle, friction circle, or friction ellipse is a useful way to
think about the dynamic interaction between a vehicle's tire and the road surface.

4.1.5

Contact patch
The contact patch is the area of the tread that is in contact with the surface.

4.1.6

Cornering force
Cornering force or side force is the lateral force produced during turnings.

4.1.7

Dry traction
It is the ability of tyre to deliver traction, or grip, under dry conditions.

4.1.8

Force variation
The tire tread and sidewall elements undergo deformation and recovery as they enter and
exit the center line area of tyre foot print.

4.1.9

Load sensitivity
It is measured in terms of behavior of tyres under loading and off loading conditions.

4.1.10 Rolling resistance

Rolling resistance is the resistance to rolling caused by deformation of the tyre in contact
with the surface.

4.1.11 Self aligning torque

It is the torque that a tire creates as it rolls along that tends to steer it, i.e. rotate it around
its vertical axis.

4.1.12 Slip angle

It is the difference between a rolling wheel's actual direction of travel and the direction
towards which it is pointing.

4.1.13 Stopping distance

Performance-oriented tyres have a tread pattern and rubber compounds designed to grip
the road surface, and so usually have a slightly shorter stopping distance.

4.1.14 Work load

The work load of a tire is the determination of under undue stress conditions that ,may
lead to premature failures of the he tyre.

4.1.15 Tread wear

The tread wear is the wearing and tearing to which the tread of the tyre is subjected
during its life span.

4.1.16 et traction
It refers to the tyre grip under wet conditions on a surface.

4.2

MATERIAL SELECTION

Keeping in view the functional requirements of the aircraft tyre as described above, team decided
to choose synthetic rubber as one of main fundamental material for aircraft tyre manufacturing. A
number of polymers are used to manufacture the aircraft type, brief description of each is given
below.

4.2.1 Natural Rubber

Natural rubber has the chemical name poly-isoprene and consists of polymer chains all
having an almost perfect structure. Natural rubber can attain a good regularity when
stretched. Hence it crystallizes on stretching, resulting in a high gu, tensile strength.
natural rubber is vulcanized with sulphur compounds that can cross link the chains
because of presence of reactive double bonds making it stronger.

4.2.2 Poly-Butadiene Rubber

Stereo specific catalysts can be used to polymerize butadiene to a high structure. Most of
the poly-butadiene products are of the cis type but may have mix chain structure.

4.2.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber

These are obtained by mixing two monomers butadiene and styrene. the chains contain
random sequence of monomer chains, which gives them rubber like behavior but does
not allow to crystallize upon stretching.

4.2.4 Butyl
This polymer contains mostly iso-butylene units with just a percentage of iso-prene
units. Hence, unlike butadiene and natural rubber products, this polymer contains only a
few percentages of double bonds.

4.2.5 Ethylene Propylene Rubber

This elastomer is a butadiene with one chlorine atom replacing one hydrogen atom.

4.2.6 Nitrile
This is a co-polymer of two monomers, butadiene and acrylonitrile, Like SBR it has an
irregular chain structure.

4.2.7 Hydrin
It is a copolymer of epichlorohydrin and ethylene oxide that is primarily amorphous with
small amounts of crystallite.

4.2.8 Royaltherm
It is a relatively nw compound and is silicone modified EPDM. It is a good value for
mechanical properties.

4.2.9 Parel
Parel elastomer is a sulphur-capable copolymer of propylene oxide and allyl glycidyl
ether. This polymer elastomer is finding use in applications where good dynamic
properties and flexibility at extremely low temperatures are important.

4.3

DESIRED CHARACTERISTICS IN AIRCRAFT TYRE RUBBERS

Following are few material characteristics that need to be taken into consideration while
selecting a material for aircraft tyres.

4.3.1 Tensile Strength

Since the polymer is never extended to more than a fraction of its ultimate elongation
and tensile strength because of the presence of reinforcements, there is a considerable
amount of controversy regarding the value of the properties. However, the tensile
strength is a good estimate of quality of the rubber. It is measured in pounds per square
inch. A high value of tensile strength is preferred.

4.3.2 Percentage Elongation

The percentage elongation of the rubbers is the ratio of the change in length to the
original length. The percentage elongation is a good indicatot of the quality of rubber and
is measured in interval scales ranging from zero to 800.

4.3.3 Modulus
The modulus of rubber is measured usually as the stress in the compound when
stretched to three to four times of its original length, the stress is calculated on the basis
of the specimens original ;length, a higher value of modulus is preferred.

4.3.4 Heat Generation

The heat generated in the tyre is the most important factor resulting in its premature
failure during the service life. The properties of most polymers changes with heat. A low
rate of heat generation would allow greater life for operation.

4.3.5 High Temperatures

High temperatures reduce the properties of the polymers and cause the cords to separate.

4.3.6 Fluid Resistance

The resistances of elastomer to liquids lie in the volume changes that occur with time and
temperature, the change in physical properties as the rubber absorbs the liquid, the low
temperature flexibility.

4.3.7 Abrasion
Abrasion is initiated by the local stress concentrations at the contact between the track
asperities and rubber. The abrasion causes the formation of ridges perpendicular to the
direction of abrasion. These ridges are saw tooth shaped with the teeth pointing against
the direction of abrasion.

4.3.8 Traction
Traction is the adhesion of the tyre to the surface. The tract of the tyre depends on three
variables, tread design, tyre construction and tread compound.

4.3.9 Adhesion
The capability of the adhesive system is important in determining the mass of tread, the
angular speed that this mass can be rotated and the displacement that the tread mass can
tolerate when it passes through the surface contact point.

4.3.10 Processibility

Since the tyre has to be built on the drum and then cured in the mold, r rheological
properties of rubber such as green strength, building tack, and creep resistance are very
important properties.

Considering above factors, Butyl was selected as the most appropriate material form
manufacturing of the aircraft tyres.

4.4

DESIGN AND MODELING

For the designing and modeling of the aircraft tyres, The Pacejka "Magic Formula" tire

models was employed. Pacejka has developed a series of tire design models over the last 20
years. They were named the 'magic formula' because there is no particular physical basis for the
structure of the equations chosen, but they fit a wide variety of tire constructions and operating
conditions. Each tire is characterized by 10-20 coefficients for each important force that it can
produce at the contact patch, typically lateral and longitudinal force, and self-aligning torque, as
a best fit between experimental data and the model. These coefficients are then used to generate
equations showing how much force is generated for a given vertical load on the tire, camber
angle and slip angle.

The Pacejka tire models are widely used in professional vehicle dynamics simulations, and
racing car games, as they are reasonably accurate, easy to program, and solve quickly. A problem
with Pacejka's model is that when implemented into computer code, it doesn't work for low
speeds (from around the pit-entry speed), because a velocity term in the denominator makes the
formula diverge. An alternative to Pacejka tire models are brush tire models, which can be

analytically derived, although empirical curve fitting is still required for good correlation., and
tend to be less accurate than the MF models.

The general form of the magic formula is

where b, c, d and e represent fitting constants and R is a force or moment resulting from a slip
parameter k.

4.5

Manufacturing Considerations and Major Parts

Few of the major considerations that are to be emphasized during the manufacturing of

the aircraft tyre are discussed as under.

4.5.1 Tread
The tread is the part of the tire that comes in contact with the road surface. The portion
that is in contact with the road at a given instant in time is the contact patch. The tread is
a thick rubber, or rubber/composite compound formulated to provide an appropriate level
of traction that does not wear away too quickly. While designing thetread, void ratios
would be kept small to provide more rubber in contact with the road for higher traction,
but may be compounded with softer rubber that provides better traction.

4.5.2 Bead
The bead is that part of the tire that contacts the rim on the wheel. The bead is typically
reinforced with steel wire and compounded of high strength, low flexibility rubber. The
bead seats tightly against the two rims on the wheel to ensure that a tire holds air without
leakage. The bead fit is tight to ensure the tire does not shift circumferentially as the
wheel rotates. The width of the wheel hub in relationship to the tire is an important factor
in decideing the shape of tyre bead.

4.5.3 Sidewall
The sidewall is that part of the tire that bridges between the tread and bead. The sidewall
is largely rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords that provide for strength and
flexibility. Sidewalls are molded with manufacturer-specific detail, government

mandated warning labels, and other consumer information, and sometimes decorative
ornamentation, like whitewalls. Thus the team decided to take guidelines from
regulations issued by US Department of Transportation.

4.5.4 Shoulder
The shoulder is that part of the tire at the edge of the tread as it makes transition to the
sidewall. The team decided to take guidelines from regulations issued by US Department
of Transportation.

4.5.5 Ply
Plies are layers of relatively inextensible cords embedded in the rubber to hold its shape
by preventing the rubber from stretching in response to the internal pressure. The
orientations of the plies plays a large role in the performance of the tire and is one of the
main ways that tires are categorized.

4.6

ESTIMATED COSTS
4.6.1

Design Cost

In design phase, majority of costs were associated with accessing US Department of

Transportation Regulations, internet; A Modeling Software, Rubber Specifications,
World Rubber Manufacturer Catalog, Human Resource Pay.

Entity

Rough Order of Magnitude Cost

US Department of Transportation Regulations

2500 USD

Internet

25 USD

Modeling Software

5000 USD

Rubber Specifications

500 USD

World Rubber Manufacturer Catalog

500 USD

Human Resource Pay

25 USD Avg/Hour

4.6.2 Manufacturing Cost

The manufacturing cost would involve the following costs.

Entity

Rough Order of Magnitude Cost

Raw Material

100 USD/tyre

Spinning and Weaving Process

50 USD/tyre

Compounding Process

75 USD/tyre

Bead Wiring and Forming

25 USD/tyre

Carcass Forming

25 USD/tyre

Buffing

15 USD/tyre

Vulcanizing

100 USD/tyre

Finishing

85 USD/tyre

Inspection Cost

35 USD/tyre

Human Resource

50 USD/tyre

Machine

35 USD/tyre

Tools

15 USD/tyre

Cost of Quality

50 USD if rework required

These costs are estimated to be on average of 610-660 USD per aircraft tire
where the company was already buying an aircraft tire from foreign vendor at a price of
2000 USD.

4.6.3 Total Project Cost

The total project cost is the sum of both design and manufacturing costs and is estimated
to be around 50000 USD on a rough order of magnitude.

5.

DFM AND DFA PRINCIPLES

Following DFM principles were applied during this project.
1. The Team decided to use Butyl Rubber for the reasons that it was full filling the
requirements for functional parameters and was easily available with rubber
manufacturer and retailers and distributors in required grade having desired physical and
chemical properties.
2. Part features and tolerances were such that these do not require any special processes.
3. No special tooling was emphasized except for NDI equipment.
4. General tooling was recommended to undertake manufacturing process.
5. Most of the dimensions are with general tolerances except the tight tolerance at the Bead.

6. Most of the operations involved are low labor cost except the NDI that required high
skill and special equipment.
7. The process was progressive one as the final part was a single entity.
8. Step-by-step and one directional manufacturing technique is applied here.

6.

GENERAL PROCESS MAP

Original Design
Review

Client

Review Client

6.1

MANUFACTURING PROCESS MAP

Simulation and

Cord Twisting

Banding

Conceptual

Bead Forming

Detailed Design

Weaving

Banbury Mixing

Carcassing
Design Review

Design Approval
Dipping Machine

Batch Off Machining

Vulcanizing

Manufacturing
High Tensile Machine

Heat Rolling

Finishing

Quality Inspection
Calendaring

Cutting

Tread Extruding

Testing and
Tread Skivering
Evaluation

Inspection

Handed Over to
Release

6.2

MANUFACTURING PROCESS SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

7.

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

Following acceptance criteria was reversed engineered from the design of the aircraft tyre of
company RICHELIN (name changed for confidentiality) for our design.

8.

Tyre Size

6.00-6

Ply Rating

Speed Rating

120 mph

Loading

1750 lbs

Pressure

42 psi

Thread Design

RB

Skid Depth

0.18 inch

Tyre Weight

7.8 lbs

Max Unbalance

6.0 Oz-in

Outside Diameter

16.90-17.50 inch

Section Width

5.90-6.30 inch

Shoulder Dia

15.30 inch

Shoulder Dia

5.8 inch

Loaded Radius

6.9 Inch

Aspect Ration

0.91

INSPECTION CRITERIA
Following is the inspection criteria for the tyre that have been manufactured after

processing through above manufacturing steps. The conditions given below are not acceptable.

4.

1.

Cuts

2.

Swirl Wraps

3.

Thread Separation

Groove Cracking

5.

Rib Undercutting

6.

Rubber Heating

7.

Cut or Snug

8.

Ozone or Weather Cracking

9.

Kinked Bead

10.

Inner Tyre Damage

9.

REJECTION CRITERIA
Tires with cuts penetrating into the inner liner and with cuts reaching to more than 40% of

the actual number of plies. For Radial tires, cuts reaching 40% of the belt plies.

Tire with cuts and weathering reaching the carcass plies on the sidewall and the bead area.

Tires with spot wearing exposing the carcass or belts.

Tires with signs of cord-melting from overheating at the bead base.

Tires with broken, bent or exposed bead wire.

Tires with wrinkles on the inner liner surface.

Dually mounted tires where one has burst in operation (Both should be scrapped).

Tires with casing separation.

10.

TESTING AND VALIDATION

Following test would be conducted to check for the good tyre.

1.

Geometric Test.

This test allows for a complete analysis of the tire sidewall

and tire tread width areas. These measurements ensure that the tire will not have any
defects that were not able to be detected by the uniformity and dynamic
balance tests. These defects could include bulges or depressions in the tire
sidewall, as well as in the tire tread that could compromise the integrity of
the tire and the ride quality of the vehicle.

2.

Compression Test.

This test helps to determine if the tyre manufactured has the

capacity to sustain the loads and aircraft momentum for what it has been designed.

3.

Elastomer Check.

Elastomer of the tyre rubber after manufacturing is verified

to be within the required and specified limits as per the design requirwements.

4.

Radiographic Testing.

This test helps to detect the subsurface cracks in the

rubber of the tyre that can not be detected by normal visual methods.

5.

Dynamic Balancing. This test measures tires according to static, couple, and

upper and lower plane imbalance. If not properly checked, these forces can cause an
aircraft to bounce, have tire wobble, and not steer properly.

6.

Uniformity Test.

This test measures force variation, run out, and sidewall

appearance. Without properly checking these forces, the integrity of tire and quality is
dramatically affected. These forces can cause a vehicle to bounce, vibrate, and not steer
properly.

7.

Wear Rate.

Real time simulation of the tyre would be carried out to measure its

wearing during brake application under dry and wet conditions. These would provide a
good estimate for the life to be assigned to the tyre.

11.

CONCLUSION

With the financial challenges arising from the deregulation of the air-travel industry, the airlines
are faced with the challenge of reducing operating costs to remain competitive. As a result, the

airlines have demanded that the aircraft manufacturers produce new designs with high reliability
and low maintenance requirements. In basic design, costs associated with the aircraft tyre may be
reduced by aiming at simplicity, compactness, and minimum weight and maintenance
requirements. Simplified design and improved manufacturing techniques, are being used to
reduce the part-count.

REFERENCES
Airmichelin.com (2012) Michelin Air: The very best in aviation tires.. [online] Available at:
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