HM

122 Fluid Friction

Theoretcal principles

4.1

Pipe flow with friction

Loss Measuring System

Below, the purpose is to determne the calculation

ofpressure loss pv and loss level hv in pipe flow
with f riction.
ln the case of turbulant pipe flow, it is regarded
as formed with a Reynolds number Re>2320 if the
pressure loss s proportional to the

(l
I
I

length I of ppe
pipe friction coefficient )"
Density p of the ftow medum
square of the flow velocity v.

The pressure loss also increases as the pipe diameter is reduced. lt is calculated as follows

t'
(,E

"t

Pv=23

(,

v'

The associated loss level hv is calculated as fol_

Iows

!o

n-ild 29.
"""

ln the case of turbulent pipe ftow( Re>2320) the

pipe frction coefficient " depends on the ppe
roughness k and the Reynolds,s number Re. The pipe
roughness k defines the height of the wall elevatons in
mm. The roughness of the experiment ppes s lisied in
the Appendix in a table. The relatonship beh/een Re,
}"and kisshown

in the diagram according to Colebrook

and Nkuradse. Here, the wall roughness k is re_
ferred to the ppe diameter d.

4 Theoretical principles

Ib

HM'122 Fluid Friction Loss Measuring System

.?0
30
0

100
120

200
5

000
I011

0020
0.0i 8

2000

0016
0.011

5000

0 012

r0C00
20000
50000

0olo

0,009
0.008
0.007

t00 000

E
(5

Fig, 4.1

Pipe friction number , accordng to Colebrook and (dotted) Nikuradse

(from Dubbel: Manual of Mechanical Engineering)

The Eeynold's number Fle s calculatd f rom the

pipe diameter d, the flow velocty v and the kine-

matic viscosity v.
(5

Re='d.

I()

The kinematic viscosty can be found in Table 6.2.1

for water as a functon of the temperature.

I
I

llow velocity v is calculated f rom the volumetric f low V and the pipe cross section.
The

,9,

4v
n d'

=__

For hydraulically smooth pipes (Re < 65 d/k)

and a Reynold's number in the range of 2320< Re
< 105, the pipe friction coeff icient is calculated in
accordance with the formula of Blasius.

"

4 Theoretical prnciples

0.3164

ri Re

17

HM

122

Ftuid Friction Loss Measuring System

ffi
For pipes in lhe transition range to rough ppes
(65 d/k < Re < 1300 d/k, range in the diagram
below the limit curve), the ppe f ricton coeffcent
is calculated according to Colebrook

x:f
zn( 2'51-+0?7
" L-',IRe,'
drL \1'
rr
\'- "

'" )"

It is an implict formula which must be solved iterati-

vely. First estimate ), , insert it into the formula and

calculate the first approximation. This approximation
is inserted back nto the equaton and a second
approximation is calcuated.

lf the estimated value is taken from the diagram

according to Colebrook and Nikuradse, the frst
approximation generally already has suffcient accuracy and the values differ only in the third decimal place.

(,
-9

.a

I
f

(,E

,5.
t4

4,2

Resistance coefficient of special pipeline elements

(,
=

Specal pipeline elements and fttings such as pipe

I
,9

changes or also valves and flaps create additional

pressure losses in addition to the wall f riction los-

bends or elbows, ppe branches, cross section

In the case of cross section changes and therefore associated speed changes, components from

the Bernoulli pressureoss (dyn. pressure) must

also be taken into account in the total pressure loss.
The Bernoul equation lvith loss element is
o

4 Theoretical prnciples

v?* p., + p

9 zt

='

r3

z1 * pr+

g22+^pv.

18

HM

122

Fluid Friction Loss Measuring System

Assumng equal levels 21 and 22, this gives the

measurable total pressure loss
Aps""

pr

pz=P2 qv!-vl, +tp,

The followng is obtained for the loss level

hro"" =

,'., 1vr'-vi)

+h,

Apart f rom a few special cases, the additional flow

resistances cannot be calculated in a systematic
way, in contrast to the wall f riction losses investigated in the previous section.

E
E

(,
.9

Empirically obtained resistance coefficients( are

quoted here in the literature for the various elements. These alow the additional pressure losses
to be calculated easily

I
a0

:i

E
(5

- v'
P-- \P
2

(,

i1

or for the loss levels

=
o

.n'z:
I
.q

.- v2
qZ
g'

The followng can thereby written for the total loss

level

, 1 )., l,vl

"
h,n..=-2b tv2'-vt'\

xrl

,vf

-v!
2S d;* g' r*(" r',

The ppe frction resistance must be determned

separately for the section before and after the
cross section change. ln contrast, the resistance
coefficient is only referred to the velocity v2 after
the cross section change.

4 Theoretical principles

HM

122 Fluid Friction

Loss Measuring System

t
rd

lf the velocities are equal, the dynamic pressure

component naturally drops out and a common pipe
friction component is calcuated.

a
I

The resstance coefficient

a
d

"

a
d
a
d

( can be determined

from the measured total loss level

2n""."9
v2'

-r, -(:ilt-t^, *l

[3;)

.'.i1

Without a cross section change ( dl/dz

expression s smplfied

!9

1), the

(5

d
d

.D

t'

4.2,1

Pipe bend

-d

(,
.E

'p

d
=a
J

(,

1
?
(,

d
I

R<d

ffiffitr
Ppe

bend

Pipe

angle

.9)

Fig.4.2

jpe bend

Pipe knee

For pipe bends there is a relatonship of the resstance coefficient ( with the flow diversion angle
and the ratio of the elbow radius of the pipe diameter. The resistance coeffcient is also infuenced by
the shape of the elbow. The fotowing diagram
applies to smooth and rough pipes for the specal
case outlined here of a pipe elbow with gO" deflec_
tion.
ln the case of pipe angles, i.e. elbow radii of Iess

than the pipe diameter (R/d<1), the resistance

coefficients of knee pieces approxmately apply.
For example, a ( of 1.13 appties to a 90" knee

a
-
d
-

piece, and a

of 1 .27 applies to rough pipes.

4
E
E
-

d
d
EI
ra
EJ

4 Theoretical principles

20

HM

122 Fluid Friction Loss Measuring System

O,B

U.t)

.9

-"--nI'?n

3,0.2

--l

fI

Snrooth

+tg

E
(5

Fig. 4

Rato of the bend radus to the ppe diameier B/d

Resistance coefficient ( as a function of the radius ratio B/d

10

Cross secton changes

t'

The cross sectionchanges in the test rjg are

(,E

conti_

nuous wdenings or narrowings in each case" In the

case of a contnuous cross secton change, the
resistance coefficent can be found in special da_
grams (Section 6.2.3).

(,

zt

?
(,

For a discontnuous cross section change, the

Narrowing of the
flow cross section

I
,9

resistance coefficient can be derived from the Ber_

noulli equation and the pulse set.
The followng applies to the Wdening

,=[^+-,j
F9.4.4

Cross sectlonchange

[.s

,l

The following accordingly applles to the narro_

wing

,=[^1-,1=[#

4 Theoretical princjples

,J

=
=

HM

122

Fluid Friction Loss Measuring System

Here, Aoand do is the reduced cross section. Snce

this s normally unknown, we refer to the following
diagram for the resistance coefficient in the case
of narrowing.

=
=

0.6

0.4
o.2

=
J-

e
3
f,

4.2 0.4

.E

surface ratio A2lA1

=
I

Fig.4.5

4.3

(5

zi

io
I
I
3

-a
rJ

Needle valve

d
Slide valve

Fig.4.6

Shut-off organs

J
4 Theoretical princjp,es

J-

Depending on the design, pipeline fttings result in

varying losses. However, a certain function js a jso
ralized with the types shown in Fig. 4.6 ad 4.7.
As a result, a needle valve results in a very hgh
pressure loss due to the marked cross section
narrowing and the diversion of two x 90". However,
for this, the design permits very fine adjustment of
the flow.

. O.S on the other hand occur

when a slide valve is used. The fluid can flow
through the valve almost unhndered_ However,
Very low losses ((n

d
-

{-

Resistance coefiicient ( in the case of

discontjnuous narrowing

Resstance coefficient of pipelne tittngs

--l

08

(,E

06

the slide valve frees a Iarge cross section even with

a very small opening, so that hardly any regulation
is possible.

The straight seat valve and the slanted seat

valve have a significantly higher resistance coef-

HM

122

Ftuid Friction Loss Measuring system

ffi
fcient due to the fissured penetration cross section. However, the slanted seatvalve is significantly more favorable as regards flow than a standard
straght seat valve conformng to DlN, since the
flow s not dverted so much. While a resstance
Slraight seat val-

e
Slanted seat valve
E
(5

It

coefficient of approximately (n = S.O must be expected in the case of the straight seat valve,
eR - 1.5-2.0 can be assumed in the case of a
santed seat valve. Both valves permit condtional
adjustment of the flow. The slanted seat valve
normally requires more installaton space. The ball
valve has a completely smooth and free penetration cross section when opened. This means that
very low pressure losses can be expected with it.

Resstance coeffcients of as low as (n : 0.03 can

be obtained. It even allows very good adjustment
of the volumetric flow.

Flg.4.7

Shut-off organs

4.3.1

Calculation of the resistance coefficient

oE

The resistance coefficients are determned on the

basis of the following formula for the valves

CJ

" 2h"...9
^
gn:
v2--^d'

I
I

.s,

The distance between the measuring glands

used as the length I
4.4

is

Opening characterstics of shut-off organs

f shut-off organs are used for adiusting cerlain
volumetrc flows in pipeline systems, great value
must be placed on good metering capablity especially when opening degrees are limited.

4 Theoretical principles

23

HM

122

Fluid Friction Loss Measuring System

I
I

A progressve characterstic is the optimum here,

with whch the opening degree increases at first
slowly and then more and more quckly. ln this
case, adjustment of the shut-off organ by a defined
absolute amount results in a correspondng per_
centage change of the volumetric flow.
For example:

5
3

A valve with a maximum opening of 1 O revolutions

s opened from 1 to 2 revolutions, in other words
10% absolute, then the volumetric flow will ncrea-

q
.9

F9.4.8

Open,ng characterisiics o,

shutolf organs

se reatively by 1O%, e.g. from 1 to 1.1 /min.

This so-called "equal percentage', characteristic is
shown with the progressive in the dagram opposite. Next to t is a linear and degressive charac_
teristc, of the type whch occurs with typical
shut-off organs.

l
E
(5

Pitot tube

a-

rl

Both the static pressure and the total pressure are

measured with the ptot tube. The difference be_
tween these two values gives the dynamic pressure pdyn-

tz

t(,

Payn=Pges-Pstat

,9

The dynamic pressure is proportional to the square

of the flow velocity and can be calcujated as fol_
lows:

-J
{
-d

PaY'

9r' v2

p: Specific density of water

=
{

4 Theoretical principles

24

HM

122 Fluid Friction

Loss Measuring System

EgI

5.2

Resistance coeffcents of specal ppeline elements

5.2.1

Method
Connect the double manometer to the measuring
glands of the pipeline elements being measured
and perform the measurements as outllned in
Chapter 2.5. Note the displays of the double manometer or the differential pressure sensor and
flow meter. The pressure losses at each element
and any combinations can be recorded via the ring
chambers. They are always installed in the section
with the same measurement length, so that the
results can be directly compared with each other.
The measuring section is made up of a the following elements:
- 1 : angle 90', R=12mm, di=16 mm, Cu

(,
-g

t'
oE
(l

z,

(,
=
E

.p

Fig. 5.3

2: angle 90", R=12mm, d=16 mm, Cu

3: angle 90', B=1 2mm, d=16 mm, Cu
4: bend 90., R=22 mm, di=16 mm, Cu
5: long bend 90", R=28 mm, di=16 mm, Gu
6'.2x bend 45', d=16 mm, Cu
7: reducing sleeve 18-15, Cu
8: reducng sleeve 15- 18, Cu
9: angle 9O', Ft=15 mm, d=19 mm, SVZn
10: angle 9O', R=15 mm, di=1 9 mm, SVZn
'12:

13: long bend 9O', R-42 mm, di=1 9 mm, St/Zn

l\leasuring section. pipeline elements

5 Experiments

90', R=15 mm, di=19 mm, SVZn

bend 90', R=32 mm, di=19 mm, SVZn

11: angle

HM

122

Ftuid Friction Loss Measuring System

,- 2hvgesg .
'----.--^d'

The pipe tength between the measurng gtands

referred to the ppe center lne is used for j
_

Calcuaiion variables

for

The following is obtained f rom the caleulation va-

(,
e

rables:

e ("2")= t -z+

E
(5

U")=o.t+

Both resistance coefficents are above the figures

quoted in the literature (rough pipe knee for the
angle: (rough=1 .27; in the case of a bend wth

(,

tz
i(,

R/d=1 .375, (rough=O.4 is read off n the diagram).

The deviation s due to dirty transitions between

the pipes and the angle or bracket.
I
,9

5.3

Pressure losses of pipeline fxtures

5.3.1

Method
This experment is intended to record the pressure
losses of the different ppeline fXures. To do this,
connect a double pressure manometer or differen_
tial pressure sensorto the measurng glands ofthe
relevant f ixture, and carry out the measurement as
outlined n Section 2.S. The installaton of fxtures

5 Experiments

ae

HM'122 Fluid Friction Loss Measuring System

double
manometers or sensors and flow meters in a table.
is shown in Fig. 5.8. Note the dspays of the

Needle
Fig.

5.8

valve

slide

valve

straight seal valve slanted seat

lvieasurng seciion, Pipeline filtings

valve

ball valve

The pressure loss was recorded with the valves

fully opened and therefore maximum possible

flow. The measurement results are shown in Table

E

5.6. Their quality is n line with expectations.

o
i
c0

t'
E

(5

.E
,

(,

t1

?
(,
I
,9

Fitting

pressure loss

Needle valve

680 mbar

Slide valve

8 mbar

Straight seat valve

104 mbar

Slanted seat valve

18 mbar

Ball valve

Tab.

5 Experiments

5.6

^p

mbar

Pressure losses of pipeline fiiiings

eo