PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November

2012

Illumination Condition and Work Efficiency in the Tropics

Study on production spaces of Ready-made garments factories in Dhaka
MD. MOHATAZ HOSSAIN1, PROF. DR. KHANDAKER SHABBIR AHMED1
1

Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT: The Ready-made garment (RMG) sector of Bangladesh employs a large number of people who labour in the
production spaces of garments factory buildings throughout the day. The economic viability of this sector largely depends
on the performance of the workers. Demanding compliance standards of buyers from various countries and a challenging
energy supply and demand scenario in the sector poses questions of sustainability and building design. Appropriate
Illumination conditions of these production spaces, quality as well as quantity of lighting suitable for the production
processes, is a major requirement of a proper working environment. Industrial processes in such indoor environments are
becoming highly complex; workers working under poor lighting conditions are usually exposed to a range of visual
problems with operating machines, textile sewing activities, ironing and other activities. Visual comfort for various
illumination levels has impact on total physical comfort condition and any physical discomfort influences the human
behaviour and their work efficiency. The paper focuses on causality to identify the effects of the illumination condition of
production spaces on the work efficiency and to recommend illumination ranges that would facilitate optimum work
efficiency.
Keywords: Illumination condition, Work efficiency, Production space, Visual comfort, Ready-made garments.

INTRODUCTION
The readymade garment (RMG) sector is a fully exportoriented industry [1] and Bangladesh is one of the largest
RMG exporters in the world. It plays a pivotal role in the
economy of Bangladesh by accounting for approximately
76% of the total export earnings and nearly 10% of GDP
[2]. Bangladesh, being a labour-abundant country, started
the process of industrialisation in the sector by
concentrating on labour-intensive products such as
clothing [3]. Hence, the economy of this sector depends
on the production by the workers. However, the
readymade garments have been heavily criticized during
1970 - 2000 for the poor working conditions particularly
in the production spaces. The poor luminous
environment in production spaces was one of the
concerns affecting the workers. Among the
environmental compliance factors Illumination condition
remain an important which
must be ensured by the
factory owners. Illumination condition includes the
quality as well as quantity of the lighting. However, in
the production space (Sewing, Cutting, dyeing and
finishing), where illumination condition is very
important, the total luminous environment usually varies
with the type of lighting sources and location of the
sources. Poorly designed and maintained lighting can
result in glare and flicker that may cause vision
problems. When the lighting meets both quantity and
quality needs, it adds better working performance and
productivity [4]. Therefore, appropriate illumination

condition should be maintained not only for the visual

comfort but also for facilitating production targets..
The luminous environment acts through a chain of
mechanisms on human physiological and psychological
factors, which further influence human performance and
productivity [5]. Many factors, such as skill, education
and previous experience can affect productivity.
However, lighting is one of the least expensive and the
most important influences on human performance in the
work environment [6]. Providing workers with sufficient
light to perform visual tasks improves their accuracy,
thus increasing production speed and reducing waste of
materials and time. Total production process in the
garments factory constitutes several discrete stages of
activities which are linked in a progressive manner
forming a chain of labour intensive production process.
Therefore it is necessary to maintain an excellent work
environment for maximizing productivity [7]. While
considering the typical working environment of a
garments worker, light sources and illumination level at
the horizontal work plane are notable issues for this
research. Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC)
and the local laws do not mention the means of achieving
recommended illumination levels. Since for compliance
needs, RMG factories in Bangladesh are increasingly
aiming to raise the lighting levels for various functional
needs like sewing, this is likely to increase energy
consumption substantially. Whereas, the general

PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

requirement of these workers may, in reality, be much

lower.
Incidence of eye troubles

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Figure 1: Eye trouble by occupation Category of workers

(Source: Zohir and Paul-Majumder 2008)

The main health issues of the garments workers

include incidence of illness, reasons for taking leave,
occupational safety and health etc. [8] which are the
indicators of inappropriate illumination and related
conditions. Across job categories, sewing operators,
finishing helpers and quality controllers were found to
suffer most from the eye troubles (Figure 1). As the
workers under these categories do more critical jobs
which need adequate lighting environment, inappropriate
lighting condition may cause such vision problems and
eye pain [8]. Some factories use needle point lighting
(with small LED) for achieving the illumination level at
the work plane. But considering the brightness ratio at
the work environment, this solution conflicts with the
quality lighting environment and may cause visual
problems of the operator. It is therefore important to
derive optimum values needed for performance and
energy efficient.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this research is: a) To document the
illumination condition and identify its effect on the work
efficiency in production spaces of RMG sector and b) To
investigate standard illumination levels and conditions
for maximum work efficiency of the RMG workers in the
production spaces of RMG buildings in context of
Dhaka, Bangladesh.
METHODOLOGY:
Physical surveys are conducted with detailed
experimental study of the selected RMG production
spaces on illumination conditions and the actual
performance of the workers from factories in Dhaka
region. Work efficiency is recorded through observing
the number of defects in production. According to
Bangladesh Garments Manufacturers and Exporters
Association (BGMEA) directory about 2000 member
factories are in Dhaka and its adjacent regions. About
100 factories were shortlisted randomly. After structuring
the initial questionnaire, a limited number of purpose

built factories from the shortlist have been earmarked

randomly on the basis of some selection criteria guided
by BGMEA in Dhaka region for the pilot survey as a
reconnaissance survey in order to explore the spacegeometry and typologies of the production spaces of
garments factories in this region. Three typical example
production units of three different factories were then
selected for detailed investigation of the respective
luminous environment and worker performance
evaluation, representing three different shapes of the
production space which were found including different
ceiling heights and types, depth of production unit,
window height, lighting layout and other relevant
features identified in the pilot survey. The RMG Factory
buildings of the production unit one, two and three are
nine, two and six storied respectively. Among them
detailed structured surveys were conducted at different
levels of the factory building (Table 1) to investigate the
existing illumination conditions of the production spaces.
Table 1: Details of three selected RMG factories
Name of the
RMG
Production
Space

Total
levels in
the
Factory
Building

Location of
the
Initially
Surveyed
Production
Space
(level)

Locatio
n of the
Effecti
ve
window
s*

Average
Depth of
Active
Area (m)

Floor Area
(sqm)

Ceiling
Height
(m)

Production
Unit 1
Production
Unit 2
Production
Unit 3

45.1

2600

3.66

S-E,
S-W
E, W

41.5

4650

N, S

35.4

2250

6.1~10
.7
3.81

*Effective windows include the windows that are not fully blocked by any
obstructions (i.e. AC, Cooling pad, dark curtains etc.)

The sample size of this research was 60. According to

this research, sample of 60 workers was chosen from
each of three production spaces for detail questionnaire
study as well as statistical analysis. Comparison between
the outcomes of the each production spaces was done in
order to crosscheck the outcome. The initial number of
variables of this total research was 19 of which 13 were
independent variables and 6 were dependent variables
(worker feedbacks and production defects in percentage).
But this paper only seeks the causal connection between
the dependent variable (production defects per hour, %)
and some other significant independent variable related
to illumination condition. However, the other
independent variables were observed in the total
population of the production spaces to assign them in a
constant group. Final selection of 60 sample workers was
done from these evaluation sheets or indexes. But all
personal data are input variable or constant. The rest of
the data were collected directly from the workers
working area through consultation, observation and
measured by Lux meter. Criteria of the samples were
determined by making same age group and work type
constant to limit the scope of work. Thus, the results on
workers evaluation gained through intensive field survey
applies to the sewing workers, both male and female,

PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

whose age group is around 18-25 years in common and

who have experiences from 1 month to over 2 years with
an average 9-10 working hours per day.

main reason behind it can be the overall artificial lighting

layout (figure 2), higher window lintel height which was
observed only in this production space, location of the
windows, outdoor illumination level, depth of the
production space and any other features impacting the
luminous environment. But variation (uniformity ratio)
of the lighting levels also can be observed in this
production space.
Table 2: Illumination level measured at horizontal work plane
Production
space

Location or zone

Average
Illumination
level
(Daylight),
Lux

Production
Unit 1

Near the window (Party Daylight)

Centre of the half depth of space
(Mostly Artificial Lighting)
Furthest from the Window
(Completely artificial Lighting)
Near the window (Party Daylight)
Centre of the half depth of space
(Mostly Artificial Lighting)
Furthest from the Window
(Completely artificial Lighting)
Near the window (Party Daylight)
Centre of the half depth of space
(Mostly Artificial Lighting)
Furthest from the Window
(Completely artificial Lighting)

166
3

Average
Illumination
level
(Daylight +
Artificial
Light ), Lux
873
588

532

258
9

953
672

581

287
6

1088
792

696

Production
Unit 2

Figure 2: False coloured 3D visualization showing the lighting

layout of the production space 3 (Software: DIALux)

Production
Unit 3

Table 3: Average Uniformity and Diversity of Luminance

Production
Space 1
(435/664)=0.66
(1150/435)= 2.5 :
1

Uniformity of Luminance:
Diversity of Illuminance:

Production
Space 2
(420/735)=0.57
(1050/420)=2.5
:1

Production
Space 3
(390/805)=0.48
(1490/390)=3.5
:1

Table 4: Measured illumination levels and standards

Average illumination in survey
Produc
Productio
Productio
tion
n space 2
n space 3
space
1

Figure 3: Illumination condition of selected production spaces

EXISTING ILLUMINATION CONDITION

Illumination levels were measured at different positions
within the selected production spaces. One set of
measurement was taken with the artificial lights switched
on (Figure 3), before the lunch break, and another with
lights switched off during the lunch break to test the
daylight penetration and its contribution to the
illumination condition of the production spaces during
day. All data were measured at the height of horizontal
work plane at 2.5 feet (0.76 m) above floor level. The
surveyed production spaces were divided into grids with
reference to column or structural grid. Then the points
gained in the 2D plan of the production spaces were
selected for recording of the overall lighting levels as
well as lighting levels where only source is daylight. It is
observed that the illumination level in production space
type-3 is a bit higher than the other spaces (Table 2). The

Minimum
Illuminatio
n level at
work plane
(lux)
Maximum
Illuminatio
n level at
work plane
(lux)

Internatio
nal
Standards
( IESNA)

Internatio
nal
Standards
(IES
Code)

Local
Standa
rds
(BNBC
2006)

435

420

390

300

600

300

1150

1050

1490

1000

900

1500

While considering only the daylight in the production

spaces and uniformity ratio, it can be easily observed that
the uniformity ratio of daylight is very low in all the
production spaces. Hence, supportive artificial lights are
installed in the indoor spaces. These three production
spaces used florescent tube lights. Uniformity of
luminance, Diversity of Illuminance and Spacing Height
Ratio were calculated based on recorded illuminances
and other records during the surveys in the production
spaces. The mounted lights were at 7 feet (2.13 m) from
floor level at all the selected spaces. The Table 3 reveals
a uniformity of luminance of 0.48 in production space-3,
which is considered low. The diversity of Illuminance at
the work planes was also found high in production space3. The workers of the production space-3 may face more

PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

To understand the causal relationship between these

two variables (dependent: number of defects per hours
(%) and independent: illumination level) the Scatter pot
chart with regression line and Detail regression analysis
were used. Relationship between the two variables can
also be exhibited graphically by scatter diagram. Figure 4
illustrates the linear relationship between the independent

Surveyed unit

Table 5 Correlation coefficients among illumination levels,

lighting environment and production errors per hour

Production unit 1

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The two main variables were taken from same samples at
the same time and correlation analysis with other
available evidence was done by Microsoft Excel Data
Analysis. Here, the independent variable is the
illumination level and dependent variable is the number
of defects per hour (%). While doing statistical data
analysis to observe correlation among the variables
(Distance between luminaire and work plane (ft), Product
Colour at work plane, Number of Errors per hr (%),
Illumination (at work plane), and Lighting Environment),
limited degree negative correlation were found between
Illumination at work plane, Lighting Environment,
Number of Errors per hr (%). Limited degree positive
correlations were also found between Lighting
Environment and Illumination level (at work plane).
Table 5 revealed that the number of defects per hours
(%) has limited degree negative correlation with
illumination level in all surveyed production spaces. The
correlation coefficients (r value) in production space 1, 2
and 3 are -0.6,-0.5 and -0.5 respectively. On the other
hand, the correlation coefficients number of defects per
hours (%) and Lighting environment or zone in
production space 1, 2 and 3 are -0.3,-0.4 and -0.5
respectively. When considering the correlation between
lighting environment and lighting level, the value of the
coefficients (0.5, 0.7 and 0.6 in the production space 1, 2
and 3 respectively) show that they have limited degree
positive correlation which reveals that inclusion of
daylight can cause increasing of total illumination.

Production unit 2

Table 4 gives comparison between International

illumination standards' and local recommendations' for
sewing or equivalent works which was then compared
with the illumination measured in the surveyed
production spaces. The illumination level comparison
shows that in the surveyed cases the highest levels are
reached in the work planes, though international
standards require less lighting in the work plane areas.
The usually recommended uniformity of luminance
should not be less than 0.8. But none of the production
spaces met this standard. On the other hand, while
considering the diversity of Illuminance, all the results
were within the standard of 5:1.

variable (illumination level) and dependent variable

(Percentage of production defects per hour) within two
Axis X and Y respectively. From the comparison
between these individual scatter pot charts of three
production spaces, it can be observed that the mode of
the line, the slope of the equations have the similarities
and the illumination levels have moderate effect on the
efficient production. The Regression analysis statistics
can be shown by Table 6 where the values of R Square
were identified. In production space-1, R square value
reveals that illumination level had about 36% (0.362 out
of 1) causal effect on the production defects (output
variable). Rest of the cause could be other environmental
variables and personal factors. In production space-2 and
3, R square values shows that illumination level had
about 25% (0.251 out of 1) and 20% (0.201 out of 1)
causal effect on the production defects (output variable).

Production unit 3

glare or contrast problem than other production spaces.

The value of SHR is low in the production space-1 which
indicates good and glare-free artificial lighting
environment.

Variables

Distance between
Luminaire and
work plane
Product Colour
at work plane
Number of
Errors per hr
Illumination
level (at work
plane)
Lighting
Environment
Distance between
Luminaire and
work plane
Product Colour
at work plane
Number of
Errors per hr
Illumination
level (at work
plane)
Lighting
Environment
Distance between
Luminaire and
work plane
Product Colour
at work plane
Number of
Errors per hr
Illumination
level (at work
plane)
Lighting
Environment

Distance
between
Luminaire
and work
plane

Product
Colour
at work
plane

Number
Illumination
of
level (at work
Errors
plane)
per hr

Lighting
Environm
ent

1.000
0.618

1.000

0.314

0.270

1.000

-0.025

-0.098

-0.611

1.000

0.265

0.074

-0.323

0.450

1.000

1.000
0.116

1.000

0.145

-0.091

1.000

-0.070

0.038

-0.514

1.000

-0.149

-0.162

-0.441

0.680

1.000

1.000
0.035

1.000

-0.264

-0.049

1.000

0.219

0.040

-0.463

1.000

0.047

0.223

-0.476

0.591

1.000

From Regression of these two variable (independent

variable: Illumination level and dependent variable:
Production errors), coefficients (B value) were found as
well. It can be observed that increasing 1 unit of
illumination level, causes 0.009 units less defects in
production space-1, 0.007 units less defects in production
space-2 and 0.005 units less defects in production space 3(

PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

Percentage of Production defects

per hour (%)

Table ). In terms of percentage, it can also be said that

increasing 10 unit of illumination level causes 9% less
defects in production space-1, 7% less defects in
production space-2 and 5% less defects in production
space -3. Frequency analysis of independent variable
(illumination level) of the samples with bin ranges from
200 lux to 1200 lux and more reveals that high frequency
samples had 401-1000 lux at their work-plane in
production space-1, 2 and 3. Frequency analysis in bar
charts explain that for production unit 1 and 2, the
desired lighting for effective production is 601~800 lux,
while for production unit 3, it is 801~1000 lux.
Production defects vs Illumination level (Production unit 1)
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

y = -0.0091x + 10.979

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

Percentage of Production
defects per hour (%)

Illumination Level at work plane (Lux)

Production
unit 1

10.979
1.154
-0.009
0.002
Production
Intercept
8.157
1.054
unit 2
-0.007
X Variable 1
0.002
Production
7.608
0.992
Intercept
unit 3
-0.005
0.001
X Variable 1
* Independent variable: illumination level and dependent variable:
defects per hours (%)

Table 8: Descriptive Statistics of effective lighting levels

Illumination level (at work plane) with low production defects, Lux
Production unit 01

Mean
Standard
Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
Count

y = -0.0071x + 8.1569

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

9.518
-5.876
7.740
-4.563
7.669
-3.975
production

On the other hand, while considering location of the

sample workers in terms of lighting environment or zone,
highest numbers of the samples had low production
defects within partly natural light in the production
space-1. In production space-2, low production defects
were observed in mostly artificial lighting environment,
while in production space-3, low production defects were
notices in partly natural environment. The production
space configuration in terms of window location,
available daylight inside the production space can be one
of the reasons behind this result.

Production defects vs Illumination Level (Production unit 2)

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Intercept
X Variable 1

Production unit 02

Production unit 03

835.9
159.6

724.8
145.6

898.8
265.9

520.0
1150.0
20.0

425.0
1028.0
35.0

390.0
1490.0
33.0

1100

Percentage of Production defects

per hour (%)

Illumination Level at work plane (Lux)

Production defects vs Illumination Level (Production unit 3)

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

y = -0.0049x + 7.6085

300

500

700

900

1100

1300

1500

Illumination Level at work plane (Lux)

Figure 4: Scatter pot chart showing correlation between the

two variables with linear regression lines and linear equations

On the other hand, while considering location of the

sample workers in terms of lighting environment or zone,
highest numbers of the samples had low production
defects within partly natural light in the production
space-1. In production space-2, low production defects
were observed in mostly artificial lighting environment,
while in production space-3, low production defects were
notices in partly natural environment. The production
space configuration in terms of window location,
available daylight inside the production space can be one
of the reasons behind this result.

Table 6: Regression Statistics of two variables

Surveyed Units
Production unit 1

Production unit 2

Production unit 3

Regression Statistics
Multiple R
0.611
R Square
0.373
Adjusted R Square
0.362
Standard Error
2.296
Observations (N)
60
Multiple R
0.514
R Square
0.264
Adjusted R Square
0.251
Standard Error
1.982
Observations (N)
60
Multiple R
0.463
R Square
0.214
Adjusted R Square
0.201
Standard Error
2.747
Observations (N)
60

Table 9: Frequency of only those lighting environment with low

numbers (0%~3%) of defects using bin function

Independent and
Dependent Variables*

Coefficients
(B Value)

Standard
Error

Bin*

Production
unit 01

Production
unit 02

Production
unit 03

Completely Artificial
lighting environment
Mostly Artificial lighting
environment
Partly Natural lighting
environment

-2

13

-1

18

21

22

*Here,-2,-1 and 0 are the dummy variables (bin ranges within -2 ~0) for the
convenience of statistical analysis.

Table 7: Coefficients from Regression analysis

Surveyed
Units

Lighting environment

t Stat

The correlation coefficients revealed that there were

causal relationships between the illumination condition
and the work efficiency. Through the regression analysis
the relationship established a linear equation y=mx+c,
where x and y are the two variables, m is the slope
and c is the intercept of y. Slopes are from -0.0091 to

PLEA2012 - 28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture Lima, Per 7-9 November 2012

-0.0049 (Table 10). The minus (-) sign of the slope

indicates that increasing the illumination level decreases
the production errors. The value reveals that increasing 1
unit of illumination level causes 0.91%~0.49% less
defects. Within this scope of research, it was found that
probable efficient illumination ranges was commonly
601-800 lux. As the overall lighting levels in lighting
ranges were bit high in production space-3, the finding of
the ranges became high. Considering the mean values
and standard deviation from the mean values, it can be
said more specifically that the desired illumination level
at the work plane of the worker in production spaces to
achieve effective and quality production should be
around 700 lux (within range of 601~800 lux). However,
there must be no glare, veiling reflection or high contrast
at the work plane. Otherwise it could generate eye related
health hazards and reduce production.
Table 10: Comparative observation of the worker evaluation
Terms
Sample
criteria

Linear
relationsh
ip

Ranges
Mean
Standard
deviation
Quality of
light

Number of Sample
workers
Sex
Age group (Years)
Major Activity Name
(Sewing)
Experience of sample
workers
Total work hour
(hours/day)
Causal relationship
between Illumination
level (x) and percentage
of production defects
per hour (y) , equation:
y=mx+c,
Illuminance ranges for
less defects (Lux)
Mean Illuminance for
less defects (Lux)
Standard deviation
(Illuminance for less
defects)
Major Lighting
environment for less
defects

Production
space-1
60

Production
space-2
60

Production
space-3
60

M: 36%, F:
62%
18-25
Operator
(75%)
More than 2
years
9-10
hours/day

M: 60%, F:
40%
18-25
Operator
(45%)
0.1-0.5 years

M: 59%, F:
41%
22-29
Operator
(43%)
0.6-0.9 years

9-10
hours/day

9-10
hours/day

y = -0.0091x
+ 10.98

y = -0.0071x
+ 8.16

y = -0.0049x
+ 7.61

601-800

601-800

801-1000

836

725

899

160

146

266

Partly
Natural light
(21)

Mostly
artificial
light (18)

Partly
Natural light
(22)

CONCLUDING REMARKS:
From this research, the following specific as well as
some general recommendations can be drawn for
production spaces of RMG factories in context of Dhaka
region, Bangladesh, in order to improve the luminous
environment as well as future study:
The illumination level at the work-plane of the workers
should be within 600-800 lux (average 700lux) especially
for Sewing Operators, Sewing Helper, Quality Controller
and others.
As illumination level and production defects have
negative linear correlations, low illumination level at
work plane must be avoided.
From this research it has been found that about
21~37% (0.21~0.373 out of 1) of the illumination
condition has the causal effect on effective production
capacity of the worker. Other aspects like thermal,
psychological, other environmental features should be

also considered during evaluation of the workers

performance with effective production in future research.
The luminaires layout and their spacing should be
designed by architects or designers in such a way that
uniform lighting and required lighting level with daylight
inclusion should be ensured at any point of the horizontal
work plane in the production space for flexible
production flow design.
Architects should design the production flow layout
within a production space in such a way that the critical
works, which require high lighting level to do the work
comfortably, can be placed near openings of the
production spaces to ensure better luminous environment
for the workers with better productivity.
This research was also conducted only in purpose
built RMG factories where the production spaces
maintain some certain environmental compliance.
Guidelines suggested in this paper can be considered by
the architects or designers while designing a standard
production space with accommodating compliances
possibly for LEED certification process or can be applied
during construction or renovation of the production
spaces.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
The authors acknowledge Bangladesh University of
Engineering & Technology and GIZ for their support.
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