Irrigation Engineering

Main
>igric.
Lib.
Dept.
WORKS OF
H.
M. WILSON
PUBLISHED BY
JOHN WILEY & SONS,

Topographic,
Trigonometric and
INC.
Geodetic
Sur=
veyinjc.
Including Geographic, Exploratory, and Military

Mapping, with Hints on Camping, Emergency SurThird Edition, Revised.
gery and Photography.
Illustrated by 18 engraved colored plates and 205
half-tone plates and cuts, including two doublepage plates.
8vo, xxx + gi2 pages.
Cloth, $3.50.
Irrigation Engineering-.
Part
I.
HYDROGRAPHY. Part II. CANALS AND
CANAL WORKS. Part III. STORAGE RESERVOIRS.
Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged.

625 pages; 38 full-page plates and
cluding many half-tones.
$4.00.
8vo, xxix -\195 figures, in-
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
BY
ARTHUR POWELL
Mem.
Ant. Soc. C.E.; Director

A utJior "
of
DAVIS, D.Sc
and Chief Engineer
U. S. Reclamation
Irrigation IVorks Constructed by

the United States," etc.
AND
HERBERT
Mem. Am.
M. WILSON, C.E.
C.E.; Former Chief Engineer and Irrigation

Engineer, U. S. Geological Survey; Author of
"
Topographic Surveying," etc.
Soc.
SEVENTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
TOTAL ISSUE TWELVE THOUSAND
JOHN
NEW YORK
WILEY & SONS, INC.
LONDON:
CHAPMAN &
1919
HALL, LIMITED
COPYRIGHT, 1896, 1903, 1905, 1909
By
HERBERT
M. WILSON
COPYRIGHT, 1919
By
ARTHUR P. DAVIS and HERBERT
PRESS OF
BRAUNWORTH & CO.

BOOK MANUFACTURERS
BROOKLYN,
N. Y.
M. WILSON
PREFACE TO SEVENTH EDITION
THE
edition of
first
"
Irrigation Engineering,"
and quickly took

ard therein, as indicated by
in its field,
was a pioneer
its
place as the recognized stand-
its
passage through six successive
editions.
At the date
of the first edition
and
in fact,
some time
later,
the large irrigation works of engineering interest were mostly

Mr. Wilson's familiarity with those works,
in India and Egypt.
based largely on personal contact with them and their builders
and operators, gave the early
editions of his
work a
special
value as contributions to western knowledge of this subject.

The subsequent activity in irrigation in other parts of
the world, especially in the United States, together with similar
developments in related lines of municipal water supply and
hydro-electric construction, have presented new problems and
evolved new solutions of old ones to such an extent that what
might almost be called a new science has been developed, requirMoreover, social, political and ecoing different treatment.
nomic conditions in America are radically different from those
in the Orient, and this imposes very different conditions and
limitations
Sir
upon the practice
of irrigation engineering.
William Willcocks, on his
visit to
America, said he was
upon the irrigation industry as one absolutely dependent upon cheap labor like that of Asia and Africa,
and that his chief interest in examining American irrigation
accustomed
was
all
to look
to learn
in
how
was that irrigation could be practiced at

American irrigation practice therefore is
from that of India, and has been largely developed
it
America.
very different
quite recently.
394095
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION
VI
When
for a
.the undersigned was requested to revise this work

seventh edition, he undertook the task under the handi-
cap of having his time very fully occupied by

without fully realizing the magnitude of the task.
The material
and
irrigation
liberally used.
of the sixth edition relating to
and
official duties,
sewage disposal
subterranean water supply has been

few other portions have been used in part,
to
and about 40 per cent of the illustrations have been utilized.

In the main the work has been rewritten and rearranged, and
much new material has been added.
The
principal
difference
introduced
is
the
treatment of
soils, plant food, operation and maintenance, and other lines

of work where the duties of the irrigation engineer come in
contact with the irrigator, such as the preparation of land,

No attempt
the duty of water and its application to the land.
made
any other branches

of the subject exhaustively, which cannot be done within the
limits of such a work as this.
It is hoped the results justify
their publication, and will continue the usefulness of the work
has been
to treat these nor indeed
by Mr. Wilson.
In writing and compiling this work much assistance has
of course been drawn from existing literature, and references
are made to the same at the ends of chapters, and in the text.
so well pioneered
A. P. D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
1.
2.
3.
X vii
History
Extent of Irrigation
Malarial Effects of Irrigation
4
5
CHAPTER
II
SOILS
Residual
2.
Alluvial
3.
Eolian
4. Glacial
5.
Injurious Salts
a.
b.
6.
Percentage in Soils
Resistance of Various Crops
Remedies
9
1 1
for Alkali
12
12
a.
Leaching
b.
Plowing
c.
Growth
d.
Mulching
14
e.
Gypsum.
14
13
of Suitable Plants
13
CHAPTER
SOIL MOISTURE
III
-
16
1.
Free Water
16
2.
Water
Hygroscopic Water
16
3.
16
Capillary
5.
Capillary Movement
Optimum Water Supply
6.
Wilting Coefficient
7.
Water Required
4.
for
17
18
20
One
20
Irrigation
vii
CONTENTS
Vlll
CHAPTER
IV
PAGE
PLANT FOOD
22
1.
Functions of Water in Plant Growth
22
2.
Mineral Foods
23
3.
Fertilizing Effect of
Sediments
25
CHAPTER V
WATER SUPPLY
27
1.
Causes of Rainfall
2.
Types
a.
.
3.
4.
5.
6.
b.
of Rainfall
32
Pacific
Type
Rocky Mountain Type
32
35
Stream Flow
Laws of Runoff
a. Drainage Area
37
40
40
b.
Rainfall
40
c.
Character of Rainfall
41
d.
Evaporation
41
e.
Topography
41
/.
Soil
41
g.
Geologic Structure
41
h.
Vegetation
41
Discharge of Western Streams

Subsurface Water Sources
a.
7.
27
Rate
42
45
of Percolation
46
b. Permeability of Soils
Artesian Wells
47
48
a.
Examples
b.
Capacity
51
c.
Storage of Artesian Water
51
d. Size of
e.
50
Well
Methods
52
of Drilling
/.
Varieties of Drilling
g.
Process of Drilling
53
Machines
53
54
Capacity of Common Wells

Tunneling for Water
Other Subsurface Water Sources
61
Character of Water
61
h.
8.
9.
10.
CHAPTER
EVAPORATION
1. Measurement
2.
3.
Amount
57
59
VI
.'
of
Evaporation
of Evaporation
Evaporation from Snow and Ice
65
66
68
68
CONTENTS
ix
PAGE
4.
5.
Evaporation from Earth

Effect on Water Storage
69
70
CHAPTER
VII
PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION

1.
3.
73
Ground- water Supply

Windmills
74
75
Water-wheels
a.
78
Undershot
b.
Overshot
79
81
c.
Turbines
82
d Pelton Water-wheels
84
4.
5.
Internal Combustion Engines

Hot Air, Gasoline and Alcohol
6.
Steam Power
7.
Pumps
8.
Direct
9.
Hydraulic
84
Pumping Engines
86
86
90
Pumping
Ram
91
10. Air-lift
11.
Pumping
Hydro-electric Pumping
12.
Humphrey
13.
Rice Irrigation
92
92
Direct-explosion
Pump
95
97
CHAPTER
VIII
IRRIGABLE LANDS
1
85
99
99
Topography
101
2.
Soil
3.
Preparation of Land
Survey
104
a.
Clearing
104
b.
Leveling
107
c.
Ditching
no
CHAPTER IX
APPLICATION OF
1.
Methods
WATER TO THE LAND
of Irrigation
b.
Free Flooding
Border Method
c.
Furrow
d.
Corrugation System
e.
Leveling
a.
112
Irrigation
3.
Sewage Disposal
Sewage Irrigation
4.
Fertilizing Effects of
2.
in
in
in
117
119
1 20
123
127
Sewage
128
CONTENTS
5.
Effects of
Sewage Irrigation on Health
129
130
7.
Duty of Sewage
Methods of Applying Sewage
8.
Sub-irrigation
133
6.
130
CHAPTER X
DUTY OF WATER
137
2.
Length of Season
Natural Rainfall
3.
Soil
4.
Crops Raised
139
5.
Preparation of Ground and Ditches
140
6.
Skill of the Irrigator
7.
Care with which Water
1.
138
138
Conditions
139
140
is
Used
140
Cultivation
140
141
10.
Utah Experiments
Agricultural Department Experiments
11.
U.
12.
Inquiry of American Society of Agricultural Engineers
8.
9.
S.
143
Reclamation Service
144
148
CHAPTER XI
MEASUREMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER
2.
Gaging Streams
Use of Current Meter
3.
Hydraulic Formulae
4.
Measurement
5.
of
Water
153
153
157
163
to the
User
164
Measuring Devices
a. Weirs
165
166
168
b.
Orifices
c.
Hanna Meter
Azusa Hydrant
Foote Measuring Box
Dethridge Meter
Hill Meter
Grant-Mitchell Meter
Venturi Meter
Venturi Flume
73
73
75
d.
e.
f.
"g.
h.
i.
j.
CHAPTER
DRAINAGE
73
.176
177
177
1
78
XII
184
1.
Signs of Seepage
185
2.
Classification of Drains
191
3.
Design of a Drainage System
193
CONTENTS
xi
4.
Location of Drains
5.
Depth
6.
Capacity
195
7.
Form
196
8.
Manholes
197
9.
Wooden Drains
198
10.
11.
193
.195
of Tile
Cement Pipe Drains

Drainage Works of U.
S.
198
200
Reclamation Service
CHAPTER
XIII
CANALS AND LATERALS

1
2.
3.
202
Capacity of Canals
Design
Alinement
202
205
212
Velocity
Lateral Systems
215
5.
6.
Design of Laterals
220
Capacity of Laterals
Location of Laterals
Abnormal Leakage from Canals
221
10.
Construction of Canals
227
11.
Canal Losses and their Prevention
233
12.
Seepage Losses
234
4.
7.
8.
9.
217
222
224
235
14.
Seepage Formula
Canal Lining
15.
Amount
245
13.
of
236
Return Seepage
CHAPTER XIV
CANAL STRUCTURES
1
2.
3.
4.
247
Classification
247
Location of Headworks
247
Canal Headgates
Turnouts
263
248
Canal Spillways
Checks, Drops and Chutes
271
6.
7.
Protection against Erosion
290
Drainage Crossings
Flumes
293
5.
10.
Behavior of Various Metals in Presence
11.
Culverts
12.
Pipes
284
299
of Alkali
308
314
.
13.
Tunnels
14.
Highway
15.
Sand Traps
323
330
Crossings
.335
337
CONTENTS
xii
CHAPTER XV
PAGE
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
342
2.
Classes of Storage Works

Selection of a Reservoir Site
3.
Geology
1.
4.
5.
6.
7.
342
343
of Reservoir Sites
344
Leakage from Reservoirs

Survey of Reservoir Sites
346
353
Spillway Provisions
Outlet Works
354
358
CHAPTER XVI
SEDIMENTATION OF RESERVOIRS
1. Measurement of Sediment
2. Sediment Rolled on Bottom of Stream
3. Removal of Silt from Reservoirs
370
371
373
376
CHAPTER XVII
DAMS
1.
2.
381
Conditions of Safety
Diversion Dams or Weirs
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
/.
g.
h.
381
382
Timber Dams
382
Rectangular Pile Weirs

Open and Closed Weirs
384
Flashboard Weirs
388
Indian Type Weirs

Automatic Gates
390
Automatic Drop Shutters

French Type of Weir
392
386
392
394
Dams
Crib Dams
k. Submerged Dams
Storage Dams
/.
Roller
394
401
i.
3.
402
404
'
a.
Earthen Embankments
b.
Foundations
Springs in Foundations
c.
405
408
Safe Slopes
Slope Protection
409
Percolation
417
g.
Methods
424
h.
Hydraulic
d.
e.
/.
4.
405
.
Rockfill
Dams
of Construction
Fill
413
426
436
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
xiii
XVIII
PAGE
MASONRY DAMS
442
1.
Classification
443
2.
Methods
44
3.
Pressures in
4.
Failure
5.
Failure
6.
Miscellaneous Forces
450
453
8.
Design of Gravity Dams

Design of Arch Dams
9.
Masonry
7.
of Failure
Masonry
Overfall
10.
Hollow Concrete
1 1
Steel
a.
444
by Sliding
by Overturning
447
449
469
Dams
Dams
475
478
Dams
Steel
487
Dam, Ash
Fork, Arizona
Masonry Dams
12.
Foundations
13.
Exploring Foundation
for
487
490
493
CHAPTER XIX
WATER RIGHTS
Water
1.
Nature
2.
3.
Riparian Doctrine
Doctrine of Appropriation
4.
Appurtenance
of Property in
to
496
496
496
496
Land
500
CHAPTER XX
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
1.
Personnel
502
502
a.
Manager
502
b.
502
c.
Canal Superintendent
Canal Riders
d.
Hydrographers
503
e.
Cooperation with Water Users
503
504
504
3.
Economy of Water
Wanton Waste
4.
Rotation Delivery
512
Basis of Charges
Cultivation
515
2.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
511
514
Winter Operation
Maintenance
Erosion of Canal Banks
519
Silt
520
Deposits
11. Alkali
516
518
521
CONTEXTS
XIV
PAGE
Aquatic Plants
Wind Erosion
521
525
15.
Noxious Plants
Burrowing Animals
16.
Land
526
12.
13.
14.
524
525
Slides
CHAPTER XXI
INVESTIGATION OF A PROJECT
1. Reconnaissance
528
Surveys
Estimates of Cost
528
2.
3.
528
531
a.
Bias
531
b.
Influence
532
c.
Inaccurate Data
532
d.
Omissions
532
CHAPTER XXII
SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION
1.
2.
Specifications for
Arrowrock
534
Dam
535
Contract Specifications of the Reclamation Sendee

a. General Requirements
b.
547
547
Special Requirements
554
Standard Paragraphs for Purchase of Material

Earthwork on Canals
555
4.
5.
Concrete
559
6.
Structural Steel
561
7.
Steel Reinforcement Bars
562
8.
Gray Iron Castings
563
9.
3.
556
Malleable Castings
564
10.
Steel Castings
564
1 1
Cement
12.
13.
14.
565
Wood Stave Pipe

Machine Banded Wood Stave Pipe
Laying Machine Banded Wood Stave
Continuous
15. Steel
16.
Pipe
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pipe
1 7.
Metal Flumes
18.
Steel
19.
Tunnels
20.
Telephone System
566
569
Pipe
571
-572
574
576
Highway Bridges
21. Vitrified Pipe, for
579
'.
584
586
Culverts
590
CONTENTS
xv
CHAPTER XXIII
PAGE
TABLES
1. Extreme Flood Discharges
2.
Table of Reservoirs
3.
List of Earth
4.
List of
Dams
High Masonry Dams
and
Rockfill
592
,
593
598
.'
599
600
5.
Velocity Tables
602
6.
Tables of Area and Hydraulic Radius
611
7.
Velocity
8.
Weights of Various Substances

Convenient Equivalents
9.
Heads
614
615
616
PAGE
FIG.
1.
Mean Annual
2.
Percentage of Annual Precipitation Occurring between April ist and
Precipitation in the United States
29
September 3oth
30
Mean
Precipitation Occurring between April ist and September 3oth.

4. Diagram Showing Effect of Topography on Rainfall in California
5. Discharge of San Joaquin River at Herndon, California, 1900
3.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
31
33
33
Discharge of Neosho River near lola, Kansas, 1900

Discharge of Boise River at Boise, Idaho, 1899
34
Discharge of Salt River at McDowell, Arizona, 1899

Discharge of Green River at Green River, Wyoming, 1899
35
Types
of
Monthly Distribution
of
34
35
Precipitation in the United States.
(After A. J. Henry.)
36
11. Ideal Section Illustrating
Condition of Artesian Wells
12. Ideal Section Illustrating
Thinning out
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
of
49
Water-bearing Stratum
50
Portable Artesian Well Drilling Rig
55
Subterranean Water Tunnel and Feed Wells, California

Gathering Cribs, Citizen's Water Company, Denver, Colorado
60
61
Evaporating Pan
Windmill and Reservoir near Garden City. Kansas
Yakima
67
88
88
19.
Battery of Hydraulic Rams,

Undershot Waterwheel
20.
Current Wheel or Noria, Lifting Water from Salmon River for Irrigation
18.
21.
22.
23.
Valley,
Washington
89
89
Diagram Illustrating Principle of Hydraulic Ram

Scoop Wheel Lifting Water 3^ Feet 60 per Cent Efficient
Direct-explosion Pumping Plant to Raise Irrigating Water 37 Feet
91
94
95
100
25.
Shoshone Desert before Irrigation

Shoshone Desert after Irrigation
26.
Slip Scraper
106
27.
Adjustable
24.
28.
29.
for
Making Head Ditches
Leveling New Lands, Idaho

Fresno Scraper
30. Float for Leveling Irrigable

31.
101
Using Canvas
32. Steel
107
108
.-
109
no
Lands
Dam
113
"3
Dams
33. Diverting
Water from Head Ditch, Canvas Dam, Shoshone
Valley,
Wyoi
ming
xvii
XVlll
34.
Drawing Water from Head Ditch through Small
Pipes, Riverside, Cali-
fornia
j i
1 16
Prepared for Irrigation by Checks
116
36. Border Irrigation in Nevada
37. Diagram Illustrating Flooding in Rectangular Blocks or Checks.
Cowgill. 1 1 7
118
38. Orchard Irrigation by Furrow Method, Yakima Valley, Washington.
35. Field
39.
40.
Furrow
Furrow
Irrigation of Cabbages,
Irrigation
on Terraced
Yuma, Arizona
119
1 20
Hillside, California
Orchard by Terraced Basins on Hillside

Orange Trees Irrigated by Check System, Salt River, Arizona
Furrow Irrigation of Orange Grove, Riverside, California
Extent of Percolation from Small Furrows: A, in Loose Loam;
121
41. Irrigating
42.
43.
44.
B, in
Impervious Grit
Irrigating with Large Head by Border Method from Cement Head Ditch,
Salt River Valley, Arizona
Hardpan; C,
45.
122
122
in
23
24
46. Irrigating
125
47.
125
59.
Corn with Sewage, Plainfield, N. J

Furrow Irrigation of Apple Orchard, Idaho
Haskell Current Meter
Price Electric and Acoustic Meters
Water Stage Recorders
Cable Gaging Station with Automatic Continuous Recording Gage
Cable and Car Gaging Station
Wire and Boat Gaging Station
Rectangular Measuring Weir
Foote's Measuring Weir, A Water Devisor. B
Australian Water Meter
Venturi Meter and Recording Device on Lateral Head
Curve Showing Fluctuation of Ground Water and Application of IrrigaAfter Burkholder
tion Water in the Rio Grande Valley.
Curve Showing the Seasonal fluctuation and Yearly Rise of Ground Water
After Burkholder
188
60.
Curve showing Rise
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
in Boise Valley, Idaho.

of
Ground Water before Construction
Effect of Drains. Boise Valley, Idaho.
of
After Burkholder
Excavating Trench for Tile Drain, Montana

62. Dragline Excavator on Drainage Work, Idaho
North Platte Valley, Nebraska

Varying Bed Widths
63. Cross-sections of Interstate Canal,
Canal Cross-sections for
65. Various
156
160
161
161
162
173
174
177
177
187
Drains and
61.
64.
155
189
192
192
204
206
206
Canal Cross-sections
Rock Cross Section, Turlock Canal

Rock Cross-section, Umatilla Canal
207
208
68. Cross-section of
211
70.
Galloway Canal in Sand, Showing Sub-grade

Lined Canal
Tunnel and Canal Sections, Tieton Main Canal
211
69. Typical Section of
71.
Diagram
66.
67.
Illustrating Distributary
System
73.
Cavity Developed in Canal Bed, Flathead Reservation, Montana

Cave Developed in Bottom of Canal, Flathead Indian Reservation
74.
Building Lateral in
72.
Montana with Ditching Machine
213
218
225
226
228
xix
PAGE
FIG.
Building Irrigation Lateral in Montana with Elevating Grader

76. Building Canal with Elevating Grader
77. Building Canal with Fresno Scrapers
228
75.
229
233
Santa Ana Canal, Lined with Boulders Set in Cement.

237
Interstate Canal
79. Check Gates and Canal Lined on One Side.
239
80. Semicircular Concrete Lined Section of Main Canal, Umatilla Valley,
Oregon
239
Concrete Lining Truckee-Carson Canal, Nevada

82. Reinforced Concrete Lining, Tieton Canal, Washington
83. Transition from Rock to Earth Cross-section Lined Canal
ST.
240
241
242
Canal with Concrete, Idaho

Cross-section of Corbett Weir, Shoshone Project, Wyoming
Plan of Corbett Dam and Headworks, Shoshone Project, Wyoming.
Wooden Gate, Leasburg Canal Regulator, Rio Grande, New Mexico.
Iron Regulator Gate, Minidoka Canal, Idaho
84. Lining
244
85.
248
86.
87.
88.
89. Cast-iron Sluice-gate, Interstate Canal,
Nebraska- Wyoming
Line with
95.
250
252
253
254
in
Dam
255
Gates and Sluice Gates at Right Angles to Each Other,
Main Canal, California

Whalen Diversion Dam and Headgates, Normal
River,
250
251
Works, Lost River, Oregon

Regulator Gates, Laguna Weir, Colorado River
Inclined, Falling Regulator Gates, Goulburn Canal, Australia
Sunnyside Dam, Canal and Headworks, Yakima Valley. Headgates
90. Diversion
94. Regulating
249
Yuma
256
to
Dam, North
Platte
Wyoming
257
Sprague River Dam, Klamath Indian Reservation, Oregon

258
97. Plan and Elevation of Headworks, Interstate Canal, North Platte River,
96.
Wyoming
98.
Jackson Lake
Dam, Downstream
Face,
259
260
Wyoming
Headgates and Sluice Gates, Montrose and Delta Canal, Umcompahgre

Obtuse angle
260
Valley, Colorado.
100. Division Gates and Drops on Tsar Canal near Byram Ali, Murgab Valley,
99.
Turkestan
101.
Headworks
of Sultan
261
Yab Canal
at Sultan
Bend Reservoir on Murgab
River, Turkestan
261
and Elevation of Regulator Gates, Folsom Canal

Wooden Head to Lateral, Sun River Canal, Montana
Concrete Check and Farm Turnout with Inclined Valve
Cast-iron Valve on Small Lateral Turnout
262
102. Cross-section
103.
104.
105.
Standard Turnout, Vitrified or Concrete Pipe, U. S. R. S\

107. Standard Turnout Box Concrete, U. S. R. S
108. Reinforced Concrete Turnout with 10 Foot Drop, Garland Canal,
263
264
265
266
106.
267
Wyo268
ming
Gates for Laterals, Interstate Canal, Wyoming-Nebraska. 269

no. Reinforced Concrete Turnout for Lateral
270
in. Lateral Headgates, North Platte Valley, Nebraska
271
109. Cast-iron
112.
Standard Spillway, Length of Weir
less
than 100 Feet. U.
S.
R. S
272
XX
PAGE
FIG.
Standard Spillway, Length of Weir over TOO Feet. U. S. R. S

273
114. Keno Canal Spillway, Klamath Falls, Oregon
274
115. Plan and Section of Siphon Spillway, on Canal in Colorado Valley, Cal. 276
113.
116. Spillway, Fort

117.
1 1 8.
Shaw Canal, Montana
277
Standard Sluiceway, Lower Yellowstone Canal, Montana

Waste way, Lower Truckee Canal, Nevada
119. Tieton
Main Canal, Lined Section

Drop with Water Cushion, Truckee-Carson
120. Concrete
121.
278
279
281
Canal,
Nevada 283
Notch Drop, Chenab Canal, India

284
Bear River Canal
285
Notch Drop, Interstate Canal, Wyoming-Nebraska
286
Timber Drop, Lower Yellowstone Laterals, Montana
287
By-pass Feeder from Upper to Lower Canal, Umatilla Project, Oregon 288
Cylinder Drop on Franklin Canal, Rio Grande Valley, Texas
289
Series of Concrete Drops on South Canal, Uncompahgre Valley, Colorado. 290
Concrete Chute and Stilling Basin, Boise Valley, Idaho
291
122. Cross-section of Fall.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129. Reinforced Concrete Chute,
Okanogan
Project,
Washington
294
Coulee, Lower Yellowstone Canal, Montana

294
131. Elevation and Cross-section of Iron Flume on Corinne Branch, Bear
Reno
130. Pipe Inlet,
River Canal, Utah
295
Concrete Flume, Reclamation Service

296
133. Circular Reinforced Concrete Flume and Trestle, Tieton Canal, Wash132. Standard, Reinforced,
ington
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
297
Head works
Cavour Canal, Po River, Italy

Brick Aqueduct Carrying Cavour Canal, Po Valley, Italy
Bench Flume, High Line Canal, Colorado, Spillway in Foreground.
View of Solani Aqueduct, Ganges Canal, India
Cross-section of San Diego Flume, California
Cross-section of Stave and Binder Flume, Santa Ana Canal, California.
140. Section
of
through Reinforced Concrete Aqueduct, Interstate Canal,
298
298
300
301
302
302
Wyo-
ming-Nebraska
Creek Flume, Steel Frame and Bridge, Santa Ana Canal, Cal.
Steel Flume, Tieton Distribution System, Yakima Valley, Washington.
Steel Flume Crossing Eight-mile Creek, Boise Valley, Idaho
303
141. Mill
304
142.
306
143.
144. Half Longitudinal
Canal,
Section, Reinforced
Wyoming-Nebraska
308
Concrete Aqueduct, Spring Canyon, Interstate Canal,
145. Reinforced
307
Concrete Aqueduct, Interstate
Wyom-
3 10
ming-Nebraska
Flume, Spanish Fork Valley, Utah, Showing Warped Transition
from Canal to Flume
310
.-
146. Concrete
147.
148.
View
of Ranipur Superpassage, Ganges Canal, India

311
Continuous Wood Stave Pressure Pipe, Idaho Irrigation Company's
Canal
312
149. Elevation
and Cross-section
150. Reinforced
151. Burn's
152. Inlet to
Concrete
Creek
of
Culvert,
Superpassage,
Rawhide Siphon,
Nadrai Aqueduct, Lower Ganges Canal. 313

Lower Yellowstone Canal, Montana. 315
Lower Yellowstone
Interstate Canal,
Canal,
Wyoming-Nebraska
Montana. 316
317
XXI
PAGE
FIG.
Siphon Crossing under Rawhide Creek, Interstate Canal, WyomingNebraska

317
154. Reinforced Concrete Twin Siphon, Interstate Canal, Wyoming-Nebraska. 319
155. Reinforced Concrete Twin Siphon Fox Creek Crossing, Lower Yellow153.
>
stone Canal,
156.
157.
158.
Main
Montana
320
Canal, Concrete Lined,
Okanogan Project, Washington

Happy Canyon Steel Flume, Uncompahgre Valley, Colorado
Steel Bridge and Wood Stave Pressure Pipe, Yakima Valley near
Washington
Forms and Reinforcement
159. Steel
321
322
Prosser,
327
for
Concrete Pressure Pipe, Boise Valley,
Idaho
1 60.
161.
328
Removing Inside Steel Forms from Concrete Pressure Pipe

Manhole and Concrete Collars on Concrete Pressure Pipe, Boise
Idaho
162.
163.
329
Valley,
329
High Line Canal, Spanish Fork Valley, Utah, Covered to Protect Against
Land and Snow Slides
336
Headgates, Sluicegates and Sand Basins, High Line Canal, Spanish Fork,
Utah
336
Sandbox, Santa Ana Canal
338
Sandbox, Leasburg Canal, Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico
339
Standard Sluiceway and Sandgate, Lower Yellowstone Canal, Montana-
165.
1 66.
North Dakota
340
Curves of Seepage from Deerflat Reservoir Showing Improvement with
Use
348
168. Gatehouse Conconully Dam, Washington
360
169. Vertical Lift Outlet Gate, Fay Lake Reservoir, Arizona
361
-
167.
170.
A, Sweetwater, and B, Hemet Dams

362
Lahontan Dam, Carson River, Nevada
363
Section of Balanced Valve, Arrowrock Dam, Boise River, Idaho
365
Outlet Conduit Keechelus Dam, Washington, Showing Concrete Cut-off
Collars, Core Wall and Track for Backfilling on Left
366
Butterfly Valve, Minatare Dam. Nebraska
366
Elevation and Section of Butterfly Valve
367
Needle Valve in Outlet Conduit, Needle Dam, North Platte Valley,
Valve Plugs:
171. Outlet
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
W orks
T
Nebraska
Trap for Measuring Sand Rolling on Bottom of Stream
Folsom Canal, View of Weir and Regulator
Folsom Canal, Plan and Cross-section of Weir
Plan and Section of Laguna Dam, Colorado River
Cross-section of Lower Yellowstone Weir, Montana
Kern River Diversion Weir, Head of Galloway Canal
183. Cross-section of Open Weir, Galloway

184. Cross-section of Indian Weirs
185. Cross-section of Shutter
1
86.
Canal
on Soane Weir, India
Automatic Drop Shutter, Betwa Weir, India

Soane Canal, India
View of Open Weir on River Seine, France
368
375
383
385
385
:
387
389
390
391
392
393
187. Falling Sluice Gate,
395
188.
396
xxii
PAGE
FIG.
189.
190.
View
View
Goulburn Weir, Australia
of
397
Dam. Grand River, Colorado

through Body of 7o-foot Roller Dam, Grand
through Driven Hand 7o-foot Roller
of Rolling
191. Section
192. Section
398
River, Colorado. 399
400
Bear River Crib Weir

Upper Coffer Dam. Arrowrock Dam, Boise River, Idaho
195. View of San Fernando Submerged Dam
196. Sections of Owl Creek Storage Dam, Belle Fourche Valley, South Dakota.
401
402
403
406
Lahontan Dam, Carson River, Nevada

408
and Cross-section of Strawberry Dam, Utah
Elevation
410
198.
414
199. Section of Kachess Dam, Yakima Valley, Washington
200. Profile, Plan and Section of Upper Deerflat Embankment. Boise Valley,
197. Plan of
Idaho
416
Dam
201.
Owl Creek
202.
Upper Deerflat Embankment Showing Beaching

Wheeled Scraper
near Belle Fourche, South Dakota, showing Concrete
418
Paving
203.
of
Gravel Slope
418
425
Cold Springs Dam under Construction, Umatilla Valley, Oregon

205. Grooved Concrete Roller
427
204.
206.
Dam
at Necaxa,
207. Trestles
427
Mexico
428
on Conconully Dam, Washington, Showing Method of Hydraulic
Construction
209. Section of
431
Bumping Lake Dam, Naches
Sherburne Lakes
Dam
River. Washington
433
showing Gravel Core and Drains to
Provide for Seepage Water
434
Conconully Dam, Salmon Creek, Washington

211. Rockfilled Dam, Snake River, Minidoka Project, Idaho
212. Plan and Cross-section of Bowman Dam
210. Sections of
213. Elevation, Plan

214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
and Cross-section
of
Castlewood
435
436
437
Dam, Colorado
Lower Otay Rockfilled Dam, California

Elevation and Cross-section of Walnut Grove Dam
Rockfilled Steel Core Dam, Lower Otay, California
Section of Elephant Butte Dam, Rio Grande, New Mexico
Elephant Butte Dam, Cableways and Mixing Plant, Rio Grande,
Mexico
Elevation of Arrowrock Dam, Boise River, Idaho
Maximum Section of Arrowrock Dam
Plan of Arrowrock Dam, Boise River, Idaho
Elephant Butte Dam showing Construction in Alternate Columns
438
439
440
440
454
New
223. Cross-section of Periar
Dam,
455
458
459
460
462
India
463
Croton Masonry Dam, New York
464
225. Plan, Cross-section and Outlet Sluices, San Mateo Dam, California. 466
226. Plan of Roosevelt Dam, Arizona
467
227.
Maximum
228. Pathfinder
New
Cross-section of Roosevelt
Dam, North
Platte River,
468
Dam, Arizona
Wyoming, Lower Face Showing
Concrete Ladder and 6500 Second-feet of Water Discharging from
Tunnel
470
xxiii
PAGE
FIG.
229.
230.
Upper Otay Masonry Dam, California

Meerallum Dam, India. Plan and Sections
471
of
One Arch
472
Bear Valley Dam, California

232. Plan and Elevation of Bear Valley Dam, California
Analysis of Pressures
233. Shoshone Dam, Wyoming.
473
473
474
New
Holyoke Weir, Mass

235. Cross-section of Granite Reef Weir, Salt River, Arizona
475
476
Norwich Water Company's Weir

Leasburg Diversion Weir, Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico
Cross-section of Old Croton Dam, New York
477
237.
478
238.
239. McCall's Ferry
Used
Dam, Susquehanna
River, Pa., Showing Steel
479
Forms
in Construction
480
La Grange Overflow Masonry Dam,
California
480
Reef Dam, Salt River, in Flood, Showing Hydraulic Jump..
481
242. East Park Reservoir Spillway, Orland Project, California
482
243. Diversion Dam, East Park Feed Canal, Orland Project, California. 482
241. Granite
Plan and Section of Three Miles Falls
244. Elevation,
Dam,
Umatilla River,
Oregon.
245. East Park Multiple Arch Spillway, Orland Project, California
246. Cross-section of Iron Weir, Cohoes, New York
.
247. Cross-section of Reinforced Concrete Weir, Theresa.
Dam, Ash
New York
Fork, Arizona
249. Iron Face Rollerway Weir, Cohoes, New York
250. Standard Horseshoe and Circular Sections of Conduits
248. Steel
483
485
486
486
488
489
612
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
IRRIGATION
is the artificial application of water to soil to

Its most familiar form is
the production of crops.
the sprinkling of lawns in both arid and humid regions, and the
assist in
contrast between the watered and unwatered lawns, even in a
humid
it is
illustrates
climate,
its
benefits.
Wherever
practiced,
supplementary to the natural rainfall.
Scientific irrigation involves
a knowledge of the available
conservation and application to the land, the

water supply,
characteristics and needs of the different types of soil, and the
its
requirements of the various crops to be produced.

In general, irrigation is most extensively practiced in arid
regions where agriculture without it is precarious or impracticable,
but
it
is
also applied to lands of the semi-arid regions
crops in humid regions,

rice, sugar cane, lawns, garden flowers and vegetables.
In fact there are comparatively few regions so free from occato increase the yield,
and
to special
such as
sional drouth that irrigation
would not be profitable
if it
could
be cheaply provided.
The
surface of the earth
is
composed
and water,
the area and not
of land
the latter being roughly three-fourths of

by man. Of the remaining one-fourth or land area,
habitable
more than half is either too cold or too rocky for cultivation,
and of the remainder the major portion is too arid for the production of crops, and only in part useful for grazing or other
Even of the humid area, a very large part is in tropipurposes.
INTRODUCTION
and South America, ill-adapted to civilization and

development by means known at present.
Thus the area naturally available for cultivation is a very
cal Africa
small proportion of the whole, but can in places be increased

by artificially applying water to the soil where nature fails to
do
this.
An
irrigated
region has certain advantages over a
humid
There is much advantage

region in the production of crops.
in being able to apply the w ater at just the time and in just
r
the quantity needed,
and
to withhold
it
at will.
The
soils
of arid regions are apt to be better supplied with the mineral
plant foods which have not been leached out by excessive

and the great promoter of life and growth, sunlight, is
rains,
more intense and constant in an arid than in a humid

If sufficient care and skill be applied to secure the full
region.
benefit
of these important advantages, the acreage yields under irrigation
may
be
made
far larger
than under natural precipitation.
Agriculture by irrigation antedates recorded hisand

is
tory,
probably one of the oldest occupations of civilized
man; but the time and place of its origin are unknown. Various countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and America exhibit
evidences of ancient irrigation works of prehistoric origin and
History.
unknown antiquity.
The earliest records
India, China,
of
Assyria,
Babylon, Egypt, Persia,
and practically every country of antiquity, bear

ancient and well- developed practices of irrigation.
testimony to
At the time of the Spanish conquests in America, extensive
and
well-built irrigation systems existed, antedating the earliest

Traces of such works
traditions of the peoples using them.
were found not only in South and Central America, but also in
Southern Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and California.
As a modern
activity of the Anglo-Saxon race, irrigation

United States seems to have had its origin in the Salt
Lake Valley of Utah about the middle of the Nineteenth Cenin the
tury at the present location of the city of Salt Lake. The early
settlers of California, Arizona and New Mexico extended the
previous practices of the Spaniards and Indians in those States.
HISTORY
American irrigation farmers and

groups of farmers naturally confined their efforts mainly to
diverting small streams upon adjacent valleys, where the slope
of the country and the topography was such as to make the work
During the early history
of
With the values of western land then existing

no expensive enterprise was practicable. Such development
easy and cheap.
proceeding for nearly half a century, widely distributed over

the arid region, irrigated in the aggregate a large area of land.
The farmers employed the cheapest class of construction and

seldom counted their own time in computing costs, which are
hence reported very low.
As land values increased and the easier projects had been

developed more and more difficult ones were taken up, sometimes
As the more difficult problems
successfully and sometimes not.
were attacked, corporate capital and the district system were
employed and such projects as they could handle were gradually
The inherent difficulties, however, did not admit
developed.
of
much
profit to the investor.
In
fact, in a
majority of the
the investors lost a large part of their capital,, to say

nothing of interest and profits, and though the general benefits
in the development of the country were great and lasting,
cases,
the losses
made
it
more and more
difficult to enlist capital in
further irrigation enterprise.
Various National laws were passed from time to time to

encourage the irrigation of arid lands, the Desert-Land Act
and the Carey Act, with their various modifications, being the
most conspicuous examples, but all depending upon the invest-
ment
of private or
great deal
corporate capital for actual construction.

acts in spite of the
was accomplished under these
great and growing difficulties.
The
increasing difficulty of carrying out
led to the passage in 1902 of the
avowed object
of enlisting
of projects not feasible
by
many
large projects
Reclamation Act, with the
National funds for the development

private, corporate, district, or State
enterprise.
The
acts provided for the segregation in a special fund of the

receipts from the sale of public lands in the sixteen Western
INTRODUCTION
States, and the investment of this fund in irrigation works, to

be returned by the beneficiaries in small installments. Under
the operations of this act more than a million acres have be.en
irrigated, the reclamation of
which would not have been
for private enterprise for a long
time
if
feasible
ever.
Extent of Irrigation. The total area irrigated in various

countries is estimated as follows:
France
6,000,000
India
40,700,000
Italy
3,460,000
Russian Empire
8,000,000
Java
Egypt
3,000,000
Japan
7,000,000
5,350,000
Philippines
Australia
450,000
Canada
400,000
130,000
Hawaii
200,000
i
Argentina
Peru
,000,000
640,000
Siam
,750,000
United States
15,000,000
Total
93,080,000
In addition there are millions of acres irrigated in China

Algeria and other countries, probably increasing the total to
nearly 100,000,000 acres.
Returns of
The
returns of irrigation vary greatly

soil, climate, degree of aridity, and the nature and
Thus in the semivalue of the crops which can be grown.
Irrigation.
with the
humid and humid
regions irrigation may serve only as an

insurance on the crops by providing against possible deficiencies
in rainfall.
In Utah and neighboring States where only grain,
hay, potatoes, and kindred crops can be grown, and water is not
economically handled, the returns from irrigation are far less
than in southern California and Arizona, where valuable citrus

fruits can be cultivated.
MALARIAL EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation adds to the general wealth of the country
amount
creasing the
of its agricultural products.
by
in-
It results in
the conversion of barren and desert lands into delightful homes,

in the general development of the other resources of
and aids
the region in which it is practiced, as mining, lumbering, grazOne of the great advantages of irrigation is that it
ing, etc.
becomes practically an insurance on the production of crops.
not be necessary in the semi-humid or humid

regions, but even there occasional drouths occur and crops
Where an irrigation system exists in such cases,
are lost.
Its practice
it
may
may
be called into requisition once or twice in the course of
the year, and may save vast sums which would otherwise be
lost by the destruction of crops.
Malarial Effects of Irrigation.
In some
localities, irrigation
has been denounced as a menace to the health of the community

because of the creation of swamps and their malarial effects.
From
both by a committee to the Indian

Government and by Dr. H. O. Orme of the California State
Board of Health, it appears that these evil effects have been
careful researches,
exaggerated, and
may
be avoided by more sparing use of water
and by proper drainage. Where the natural drainage is of

the best, the soil sandy or gravelly and open to a great depth,
the water used in irrigation sinks into the ground or drains
off, and the use of irrigation water does not breed malarial
mosquitoes. On the other hand, in low-lying, comparatively
level lands where the soil is heavy, the slopes slight, and the
underdrainage poor, it is undoubtedly true that irrigation
developed various disorders, by raising the subsurface

water-plane, thus causing the water to stand in swamps or
has
stagnant pools, breeding malarial mosquitoes.

Malarial effects are not attributable directly to the results
of irrigation
where economically and properly practiced, but

due to carelessly constructed canal works having
are frequently
intercepted the natural drainage, thus forming swampy tracts.

When care is taken to irrigate economically land which has
such slopes and natural drainage as to prevent waterlogging,
no injurious
effects
will
result
from
irrigation;
furthermore
INTRODUCTION
when
malarial influences are developed by irrigation their effect

and can be corrected by drainage.
is local,
wholesome water and not open-ditch water be provided

domestic uses, prejudicial effects of irrigation are largely
In such climates as will encourage its growth it
averted.
appears that the Eucalyptus globulus has proved beneficial
If
for
in mitigating the malarial
effects of
irrigation waters, chiefly
because of the great absorbing and transpiring power due to

its
rapid growth. The destruction of mosquito larvae will enremove the source of malarial disorders.
tirely
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER

FORTIER, SAMUEL.
York.
WIDTSOE, JOHN A.
New
Use
of
Water
Principles
in Irrigation.
of
Irrigation
McGraw-Hill Book
Practice.
Co.,
New
Macmillan Company,
York.
WILSON, H. M.
Irrigation in India,
2th Ann. Report U. S. Geological Survey,
Washington.
JAMES, GEORGE WHARTON.
New York.
Reclaiming the Arid West.
Dodd, Mead
&
Co.,
HENNY, D. C. Federal vs. Private Irrigation. Engineering News, Jan. 15, 1915.
NEWELL, F. H. The Human Side of Irrigation. Engineering Record, August
29, 1914.
CHAPTER
II
SOILS
ARABLE
soils
be divided into four general classes with
may
respect to their origin:
Residual;
(i)
Residual
1.
(2) Alluvial;
soils
(3)
Eolian; and (4) Glacial.
are the product of the disintegration of
rock in place under the action of
air,
moisture, frost and vegeta-
which act upon most natural rocks. As moisture

tion,
and vegetation are most abundant in humid regions, residual
all of
soils are
there
most general
in consequence.
Alluvial soils are the deposits of sedimentation in bodies
2.
water, and of flowing streams upon their banks by overflow, and by the accumulation of sediments in deltas at and
of
still
near their mouths.

3.
wind
Eolian soils are those which have been deposited by

action, and are common in the neighborhood of broad
shallow streams or lakes, whose fluctuating waters leave broad
bare stretches frequently exposed to wind action which removes

and redeposits the surface with a sorting result, different from
that of water.
Glacial soils are the deposits
4.
of glacial erosion
.All
of the
more
by
glaciers of the products
and some other agencies.
these classes differ widely in the methods and results

mixing process, but many soils are the products of two or
of the agencies
mentioned, and the original condition of
by the action of wind

and rain.
rThere are generally certain important differences between
the soils of arid and humid regions, due to the difference of
humidity. In humid regions the abundance of moisture tends
to leach out the more soluble constituents of the soil,'\ and the
the
soil is
generally modified superficially
SOILS
same cause promotes the luxuriant growth of vegetation, so

that the tendency is to remoye the soluble minerals, and to
accumulate vegetable mold. ( As most alkaline minerals are
highly soluble, and are hence easily leached out of the soils
of humid regions, and as the decay of vegetation produces
certain organic âcids, there
in
humid
regions.
is
often a resulting acidity of
soil
In arid regions, on the contrary, the lack of moisture leaves

the soluble minerals largely in the soiLj These-soils are therefore
much
likely to contain
larger percentages of the various salts
and magnesium, as well as the

which are valuable plant foods.
of potassium, sodium,
phosphates, most
The
the arid
of
less soluble
arid condition being unfavorable to vegetable growth,

soils are generally deficient in vegetable mold, or humus,
and sometimes
this
must be supplied before the
soil becomes
and therefore
humid regions, and
fer tile. -j-Most_aJka;Kne_saJjts. are soluble in water,
more generally in arid than in

the soils of arid regions are more likely to be alkaline than
acidjjand the alkalies are sometimes present to an extent injurithese occur
ous to vegetation
harmful.
5.
soils
an excess
of the salts of
Injurious Salts, or Alkali.
has
its
advantages
sodium being especially
While the aridity
of western
in retaining the soluble salts in the soil,
and thus preserving the plant foods, it sometimes happens

that one or more soluble elements occurs in such abundance
as to be injurious to vegetation.
This is most important in the
case of some of the so-called alkaline salts, as the carbonate,
chloride and sulphate of sodium, and a few other salts less
abundant and harmful.
Alkalies found in natural soils are usually
variety of salts,
which possess widely
relation to plant
life.
The most harmful
alkali,
composed
of a
different properties with
and the one which becomes harm-
with the least quantity is carbonate of sodium, Na2COs.

This has caustic qualities, and in the presence of organic matful
ter takes
"
on a dark brown
black alkali."
color,
from which
it is
often called
INJURIOUS SALTS, OR ALKALI
Where
the
predominate, the presence of an

one per cent of alkali in the root zone
carbonates
average of one-tenth of
any soil is disastrous to the growth of most useful crops,

and for the best results the quantity should be much less. A
somewhat greater quantity of chlorides and a still greater per-
of
centage of sulphates can be tolerated.

In general a soil having less than five-hundredths of one per
cent oi soluble salts is acceptable, and one having more than
five-tenths of one per cent of soluble salts
is infertile.
these limits, the fertility depends mainly

of the salts and of the soil.
Lyon and Fippin have compiled from

the U.
S.
Bureau
of Various
analyses
of Soils, the following percentage
Natural
Soils:
TABLE
Between
upon the character
made by
composition
SOILS
10
bonates of the alkalies have a corroding effect directly upon the

plant tissues. An excess of alkaline salts sometimes encourages
various plant diseases, and reduces the efficiency of tillage.
The various crops are differently affected by the presence of
alkali.
Some
alfalfa
are the
native grasses, as salt grass and sacaton, are

the most resistant, and of the cultivated grasses, timothy and
most
tolerant,
of alkali
most tolerant.
and oats next.
Of the
barley
cereals,
more
Sugar beets are
than most other root crops and cereals.

at which alkalies become injurious
The point
and varies not only with the
crop, but
still
acter of the salt, the character of the soil
When
moisture.
is
is
the
tolerant
indefinite,
more with the charand the presence of
the water content of the
soil
is
large
the
an ameliorating effect, and as the soil

dries out the solution becomes more concentrated, and hence
more injurious. Clay and loam soils, by reason of their greater
dilution of the salt has
water-holding qualities,
may
carry
more
alkali
without injury
to plants than a
sandy one.
In general the salts of sodium are more injurious than others,
carbonates are more injurious than chlorides, and chlorides are
more injurious than sulphates.

Potassium, calcium and phosphorus are all valuable plant foods, and it is seldom that salts
of these elements are present in quantities injurious to vegetation.
Alkali
is
with the tissues of the plant, that

zone.
The
when it is in close contact

is when present in the root
injurious of course only
salts
outside the root zone are harmless so long
An excellent fertile soil containing a

as they remain there.
small percentage of alkaline salts may be ruined by the concentration of salts in the surface layers of soil by the prolonged
upward movement of water carrying the salts in solution and
its
is
evaporation from the surface.

raised
Wherever the water
table
by percolation from higher lands and brought within
a few feet of the surface capillarity does the rest, by establishing an upward movement from the water table to supply the
draft of evaporation, and whatever salts the soil contains are
carried to the surface in solution, and left there as the water
evaporates.
This concentration at the surface
may
be fatal
INJURIOUS SALTS, OR ALKALI
11
young plants whose roots are very delicate and are near the
surface, while older plants of the same variety may not be
injured because their roots are deeper where the salts are less
concentrated, and because the older plants are more vigorous.
to
On the other hand, the rising water table may injure deeprooted plants before the salts are sufficiently concentrated at the
surface to Injure those of shallow roots, and thus for a time a
high water table may be fatal to alfalfa, while the cereals thrive
on the same ground. This condition is usually temporary,
however, as the tendency of a very high water table

late soluble salts near the surface.
On
is
to
accumu-
account of the wide variety of possible conditions affect-
ing results it is impossible to lay down exact rules governing

This varies
the amount of alkali that is injurious to vegetation.
with the salt and the infinite combinations of salts, with the
crop, with the character of
with the moisture conditions,
soil,
and with some minor circumstances. Any rule must therefore

be regarded as only a general indication, and not an accurate
The following may be taken as rough limits:
guide.
Sodium carbonate, Na 2 CO 3
Sodium chloride, NaCl
Sodium sulphate, Na 2 SO 4
If
any
crops will
to
indicate
soil is
Alkali.
The
relative
alkali
i.o
some
Salt grass
investigations of
resistance
2.
Salt
bush
10.
of
fruit.
Loughridge and
common
Barley
n. Radish
4.
Date palm
Modiola
13.
5.
Sorghum
14.
6.
15.
Grape
7.
Sugar beets
Hairy vetch
16.
Artichoke
8.
Kafir corn
17.
Olive
18.
Gluten Wheat
3.
9. Alfalfa (old)
12.
"
"
of the ordinary
unsuitable for
roughly in the following order:

1.
"
"
0.5
of these salts exceed these limits
be injured and the
Resistance
others
o.i per cent
Sunflower
Bean
Pea
crops
12
SOILS
19.
Carrot
30.
Onion
20.
Wheat
31.
Pear
21.
Orange
32.
Goats' rue
22.
Celery
33.
Canaigre
23.
Almond
34.
24.
Lupine
35.
25.
Rye
36.
Mulberry
Prune
Peach
26.
Oats
37.
Apple
27.
Fig
38. Apricot
28. Alfalfa
29.
(young)
Lemon
39.
Potato
Remedies
6.
made
for Alkali.
Where a
field
once
fertile
has been
by the rise of ground water, bringing alkaline

salts to the surface, there is no effectual remedy except to lower
sterile
the ground water

a.
Leaching,
by means
If
of
deep drains.
the condition
is
of long standing the alkali
may have accumulated in the upper layers of the soil to such

an extent that the land remains infertile after the water table
has been lowered. Indeed the ground may then become still
more sterile, and plants growing thereon may die, since, as we
have already seen, a given percentage of alkali in the soil is less
harmful with abundance of water than under conditions of less
moisture. In such cases the soil must be leached of its superfluous salts.
This
under drainage,
is
keeping the surface layers of
this
soil
protracted periods, so that there
movement
-If this
first providing adequate

with copious irrigation,
saturated with water for
accomplished by
and following
is
a continuous
downward
water which escapes through the drains.

continued long enough it will effectually and
of gravity
process
is
permanently remove the superfluous

plant food at the same time.
salts,
and
of^
course
much
The time required will depend upon the freedom with which
the water passes through the soil, the amount of salt to be
removed, and some minor conditions, so that no rule can be given,
but
this
some
should not consume more than one year, and under

it may be possible to produce some shallow-
conditions,
rooted crop at the same time.
REMEDIES FOR ALKALI

Once the
years
may
salts are
removed
to a sufficient extent,
be required to bring the
The water-logged
of fertility.
13
one or two
soil to its original
condition
condition and also the presence
of alkali operate to destroy the bacterial activities
upon which
the formation of plant food depends, and time and tillage are
required to restore them.

b.
Plowing.
of alkali has,
Where soil containing only a moderate amount

through bad tillage, had this accumulated at the
surface to an injurious extent, advantage may be derived from

deep plowing, so as to bring fresh soil without excessive alkali
to the surface for the roots of the
more vigorous and

alkali that
c.
resistant
young
plants,
by the time the
which
will
be
roots reach the
has been turned under.
Growth of Suitable Plants. Another practice from which

may be obtained where the excess of alkali is not great
benefit
is
to plant crops that are tolerant of alkali
and consume
or ab-
amount of it, and by repeated cropping

One of the
excess
alkali from the root zone.
remove
gradually
most effective plants which can be grown on slightly alkaline
soil is alfalfa, which when once established brings to bear the
action of deep roots and dense shade, and thus by repression
sorb a considerable
of surface evaporation tends to restore the soil to its natural

condition.
Where mulching is practiced it is desirable
to
grow hoed crops, such as beans, beets, potatoes, corn,

and canaigre, choosing preferably the deeper-rooted of
onions,
these.
Experiments recently conducted by Mr. M. E. Jaffa indicate that Australian salt-bush is likely to prove one of the most
It is readily
desirable forage plants for growth on alkali soils.
eaten by stock, is nutritious, and has been successfully grown
on alkaline land which will produce no other crop. This plant
its drouth-resisting
is remarkable for its productiveness and
power. It is prostrate in its growth, covering the ground with a
green cushion 8 to 10 inches thick, and thus effectually shading
it.
It is perennial, and when cut soon reproduces itself from
the same root.
Its yield per acre is
the same as that of alfalfa.
very large, being about
SOILS
14
d.
An
Mulching.
from the
excellent preventive against evaporation
and the consequent

is a well and
mulch
good
surface
soil
"
of
rise
alkali
is
deep-tilled surface
mulching."
so
stirred
that
a crust is never
is
which
constantly
soil,
kept
allowed to form. As a result evaporation is reduced to a mini-
mum, and
the alkali remains distributed throughout the whole

hard crust at the surface
of the tilled layer instead of as a
where the bulk of the damage is done. Large quantities of straw

produces also an effective mulch, since the straw keeps the surThe depth
face moist and enables the grain to germinate.
or thickness of this protective layer is of the utmost importance
thereby the surface evaporation is diminished. After a
proper plowing to a depth of, say, 10 to 12 inches, it requires
for
a long time for the salts to come to the surface again in

cient
e.
amount
Where
Gypsum.
much
suffi-
to injure the crop.
the alkali
is
mainly carbonate of soda,
be derived by the application of ground

gypsum or sulphate of calcium. This must be thoroughly
mixed with the soil, and the two salts mingling in solution in
benefit
may
same water,
the
ciple,
in obedience to
an elementary chemical prin-
perform the following reaction:
Na 2 C0 3 + CaS0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + CaC0 3
is
is
Forming Sodium Sulphate and Calcium Carbonate. The latter

only slightly soluble in water, and is harmless. The sodium
transformed into sulphate which is far less harmful than the
more easily removed by drainage.

Experiments have been made by Prof. E. W. Hilgard which
carbonate, and
is
"
black alkali,"
prove the value of gypsum in neutralizing the
In the case of this alkali mulching, deep
or carbonate of soda.
tillage,
suitable plant-growth, or
gypsum is practically
from gypsum in the
does
little
any other corrective except
unavailing. Little benefit is to be expected

"
"
or neutral alkali, which
white
case of
harm, however, under proper
tillage;
but a
soil
heavily tainted with black alkali can be rendered productive

by the use of a ton of gypsum per acre. This is more effective
when
applied at the rate of about 500 pounds per acre per
REMEDIES FOR ALKALI
annum
in
15
connection with some seeding at the same time,
growth aids in shading the ground and prean

injurious release of salts by evaporation.
venting
Gypsum,
cannot
be used on alkali without water; its action must
however,
be continued for several months and through two or three seasons
for the slightest
weeks before immunity is secured,

and therefore the dressing of gypsum should be applied in
ample time before the seeding; and thereafter the soil must be
it
takes, moreover, several
well
cultivated the
gypsum plowed
in,
and water promptly
applied.
The sovereign preventive and cure

however caused,
for alkali
of
any kind,
is
deep drainage, supplemented if necessary

by copious surface irrigation, to produce a downward movement of water from the surface to the drain.
Where
alkali is
are sometimes
accumulated at or near the surface,
made
to
remove
by heavy
it
efforts
applications of
Such efforts seldom yield

off by surface drains.
perceptible benefit, as the water that actually comes in contact
with the salt, enters the soil and remains there or passes downwater, drained
ward, while that which runs
off
the surface carries very
little
salt.
II
DON H. Duty of Water Investigation in Idaho. 8th and pth Biennial

Reports, State Engineer of Idaho, Boise, Ida., 1910-12.
KING, F. H. Irrigation and Drainage. Macmillan Company, New York.
BARK,
ETCHEVERRY, B. A.
Use
of Irrigation
Water.
McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New
York.
W.
Soils.
PIPPIN.
Soils.
HILGARD, E.
LYON &
WIDTSOE,
J.
A.
Macmillan Company,
Macmillan Company,
New York.
New York
Principles of Irrigation Practice.
Macmillan Company,
New
York.
LOUGHRIDGE, R. H. Distribution of Water in the

Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 203.
Soil in
Furrow
Irrigation.
CHAPTER
SOIL
MOST
humid
III
MOISTURE
and many in arid regions

irrigated,
permanently saturated with
and
the
surface
of the saturated mass
water at certain depths,
soils
in
regions,
especially where
is
"
called the
1.
Free
are
water table
Water.
"
When
or the surface of
soil
saturated
"
ground water."
water is
with
provided with perfect drainage, a portion of the water
drawn
off
water
may
2.
by
will
be
and replaced by air. This

"
Free Water," or
Gravity Water."
The soil thus drained will still remain
the action of gravity,
be called
"
Capillary Water.
moist, a considerable quantity of water being held by capillary

attraction in the finer pore spaces, and as films on the particles
"
This is called ''capillary
of the soil.
water; and varies in
percentage with the fineness of the

in clay and loam than in sandy soils.
being more abundant

The space vacated by the
soil,
is at once occupied by air, so that with the gravity

water withdrawn and the capillary water remaining the soil
gravity water
well supplied with both air and water, which is a favorable

condition for the growth of ordinary plants. The capillary
water is gradually taken up by plants or evaporated, and unless
"
a new supply is furnished, the soil becomes what we call
dry,"
and the plants wilt and die for lack of moisture.
is
3.
Hygroscopic Water.
After the
soil
has been as thor-
roughly dried as possible without the application of
artificial
"
"
some water, called
hygroscopic water
that may be driven off by a protracted application of heat,
heat,
it still
retains
which the soil, when exposed to a moist atmosphere, will

reabsorb an equal quantity of water and still appear dry, and in
fact actually be dry so far as plant needs are concerned.
The
after
hygroscopic moisture in
soils varies
16
with
its
texture,
from
CAPILLARY MOVEMENT
17
per cent in coarse sand to nearly 10 per cent in clay, and still
more when certain salts are present. It is not available for plant
consumption and
tion needs.
is
The
properly disregarded in considering irrigamust receive an appreciable addition of
soil
water usually over 50 per cent above
content of hygroscopic
water, before any becomes practically available for plant use,
and every addition above this point makes it more and more
that
easily available;
is,
it
is
more
its
loosely held
until a plenitude of moisture
particle,
by the
soil
reached called the
is
"
maximum capillary capacity," after which additional water

flows off the soil particles under the action of gravity and
drops to lower levels or drier
soil,
down
or passes
to the
water
table, as gravity water.
The capacity for holding capillary water varies with the

density of the soil, from about 12 per cent for coarse sand to
20 per cent for very heavy clay, averaging about 16 per cent
for loam.
The amount
before
it
of
capillary water held
becomes practically available
by the
for plant
soil
particle
consumption
must exceed
i
per cent for coarse sand, 2 per cent for fine sand,
cent
for
3 per
sandy loam and 4 per cent and over, for heavier
loams and clay. Even at these percentages, the water is taken
*by plants slowly and with difficulty, and a larger quantity is
necessary for the best growing conditions. When the amount

of capillary water falls below these quantities, the plant begins
to show signs of distress, growth ceases, wilting begins, and
permanent injury or death will soon ensue unless water is
The point at which wilting begins in any given soil
supplied.
is
called the wilting coefficient of that
same
It is nearly the
for all ordinary crops.
4. Capillary
tion
soil.
Movement.
toward drier
At the water
water.
table
soil
all
Capillary water
moves
in
any
direc-
under the action of capillary attraction.

the pore spaces of the soil are filled with
Just above this level, the
capacity," and the remainder
soil is
wet
to its
"
capillary
of its pore spaces are filled with
air.
The amount of capillary water held by the soil diminishes
from the water table upward at a rate uniform for uniform soil
SOIL MOISTURE
18
and approximates zero at a distance above the water

depending upon the fineness of the soil particles, and
texture,
table,
varying from about

for
heavy
clay.
Its
foot for coarse sand, to 6 feet or over
motion
is
extremely slow in clay, and
relatively rapid in coarse-grained soils.
Lyon and Fippin have given the rate and extent of capillary
movement for the various soils shown in the following table:
TABLE
II.
EXTENT AND RATE OF CAPILLARITY
OPTIMUM WATER SUPPLY
19
escape to the ground water table, or to the soil zone below the
reach of crop roots. All water that escapes to the water table
and passes off as drainage is usually wasted, carries with it in
more or less plant food, and may contribute to raise

For these reathe water table and produce seepage troubles.
sons it is usually better to stop short of the complete capillary
solution
saturation of the
soil in
the root zone than to risk the loss of
It is generally not possible to

water, by excess application.
attain the ideal, for if the soil be charged to its capillary capac-
bottom
ity to the
of the root zone,
and the water table be not
reached, the water will continue to descend under the combined

action of gravity and capillarity, and thus escape beyond the
reach of crop roots and leave the soil in the root zone with
than its full load of capillary water.
less
At
the end of each irrigation, the upper zone of the soil is

saturated to a considerable depth, and the gravity water in this
zone is slowly descending to lower levels. Evaporation from
the surface begins almost immediately, and the moisture of the

is soon reduced by the combined process to a
point
surface soil
below capillary saturation, and shortly after, an upward moveof capillary water to supply the losses from evaporation from the surface.
The zone of saturation is thus slowly
ment begins
sinking in obedience to the force of gravity, and is also being

depleted by capillary action both upward and downward, and
unless an excess has been applied, the store of free or gravity
water is soon dissipated and distributed through the soil as
Thus, after each irrigation, a condition is

soon reached, in which a narrow zone a short distance below
water.
capillary
the surface
is
in a state of capillary saturation,
and the per-
both upward and downward,

at this time the moisture at the
centage of moisture diminishes

at a nearly uniform rate.
If
lower limit of the root zone
is
just a little
above the wilting
water has been economically applied, and none

The water content of the soil decreases gradually from
coefficient, the
wasted.
by evaporation from the surface, and by plant conand

sumption
transpiration throughout the zone occupied by
this point
plant roots.
SOIL MOISTURE
20
As the evaporation all occurs from the surface, the general

movement of moisture is upward soon after the supply of
gravity water is dissipated. The tendency therefore is to
accumulate the soluble portions of the soil at or near the surface, where the pure water is evaporated and the solids are
left
behind.
It is
important that
this
by retarding evaporation through
tendency be combated
When crops
surface may be
cultivation.
are not cultivated, the evaporation from the

nearly as great as the consumption of moisture by the plants,
whereas if the soil is kept pulverized to a considerable depth,
the volume of water taken up by the plants is 5 or 6 times as
by evaporation, which hence becomes almost

and has little tendency to accumulate salts at the
surface, and this is overcome by necessary deep plowing.
Soil which is as dry as it can be made without artificial
processes still contains a considerable amount of hygroscopic
great as that lost
negligible,
moisture adhering to its grain.

The percentage by weight
which this bears to the weight of the soil is called the hygroscopic coefficient, and this must be increased at least 50 per
it becomes available for sustaining plant life.
Wilting Coefficient. The point at which vegetation wilts
and dies for lack of moisture is called the wilting coefficient.
cent before
6.
The water
available for plant consumption, therefore, is that

portion of the capillary water which it contains in excess of the
The water content of the soil upon which
wilting coefficient.
a growing crop depends must never fall as low as the wilting

coefficient, nor be increased above the capillary capacity,
except temporarily.
7.
Water Required.
The amount
of
water required for a
single irrigation depends on the character of the soil, the depth

to which it is desired to moisten it, and the amount of moisture
it
already contains.
Prof. L. J. Briggs, Prof.
others have
made a
large
Loughridge, Prof. Hilgard and

of observations upon the
number
hygroscopic and wilting coefficients of various
number
table,
soils,
and a large
comparisons of these are condensed

which gives also the capillary capacity, the available
of
in the following
WATER REQUIRED
21
capacity or difference between the capillary capacity and wilting

and the total capacity for moisture for various soils:
point,
TABLE
III.
PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT OF MOISTURE CAPACITIES

FOR VARIOUS SOILS
Type
of Soil
CHAPTER
IV
PLANT FOOD
THE
essential mineral elements of plant food derived
from
magnesium, iron
and sulphur. Other elements, equally important, are derived
mainly from air, and water, or from decayed vegetation. These
are nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and carbon.
Magnesium,
iron and sulphur are used in very small amounts, and occur
the
soil
are calcium, potassium, phosphorus,
in all natural soils in sufficient quantity
to
answer ordinary
plant needs, but most soils require for best results the occasional
artificial addition of some of the other elements.
Nearly all
the hydrogen, and most of the oxygen
furnished in the form of water (HÔ).
consumed by plants
is
i. Functions of Water in Plant Growth.

Water is the most
abundant constituent of the body of the live plant, and thus
forms a most important element of the plant's food. In addi-
the necessary vehicle for carrying in solution

the other elements of plant food that are absorbed from the
tion to this,
all
soil
it is
by plant
roots,
and conveyed
in solution to the various
Hence the vital importance

having a constant and sufficient supply of water.
parts of the plant for assimilation.

to the plant of
When
the water has performed its function as a vehicle the

portion not required for food by the plant is transpired by the
leaves, and absorbed by the atmosphere in the form of watery
vapor.
The amount of water consumed by the plant in forming a

unit quantity of tissue varies widely with the character of
the plant and the available plant food.
The results of experiments
to
determine this are found in the following table:

22
MINERAL FOODS
TABLE
IN
23
IV. POUNDS OF WATER CONSUMED BY VARIOUS CROPS

THE PRODUCTION OF ONE POUND OF DRY MATTER
PLANT FOOD
24
alkaline salts, most of which are readily soluble.

Nitrogen is
a rather inert element, having little chemical affinity for any
Hence
other elements.
in nature
it
exists
almost entirely as a
gas in the atmosphere, uncombined with any element.

Pure air is composed of a mechanical mixture of oxygen and
free
nitrogen uncombined chemically, in the proportion of 4 parts
oxygen by weight. The oxygen is vitally

necessary to animal existence, while the free nitrogen, though
This inert
harmless, is unnecessary except as a dilutant.
of nitrogen to
of
when combined with other elements, forms

most useful and necessary foods, both plant and
animal, and in still other combinations forms some of the most
powerful acids and explosives. It has a constant tendency to
revert back to its atmospheric state, and hence the stores of
natural combined nitrogen are rare and limited.
Their pronitrogen, however,
some
of the
portion
stores
the
of
of
solid
nitrates
are
earth
is
negligible,
valuable as
and the existing

and for other
fertilizers
uses.
When
natural rocks are disintegrated and broken up into

fragments and soil particles, the more soluble portions are
gradually dissolved by the rains and pass off with the drainage
water.
It thus occurs that the
and potassium are carried
more
to the ocean
soluble salts of
sodium
and held there
in solu-
tion in large quantities, while the silicates and other relatively

insoluble rock particles remain as soil.
The sulphates, phos-
phates and carbonates of the non-alkaline metals being less

soluble than the alkaline salts, pass away less rapidly, but
being more soluble than the silicates of the same metals, have a
constant tendency to leach out and leave the silica and silicates
in the
form
of the soil.
of
sand and clay to form the main constituents
The tendency
is
thus in
humid
swamps, gradually to deprive the natural
regions except in
soils of their
mineral
plant food, a tendency existing in far less degree in arid regions.

Hence the soils of arid regions are much richer in mineral plant
food than most of those in humid regions, but the latter are
generally better supplied with nitrates, contained in
vegetable mold.
humus
or
FERTILIZING EFFECTS OF SEDIMENTS

3. Fertilizing Effects of
Sediments.
The value
25
of silt-bearing
known.
In the valley of the Moselle,

on
land
barren
without
France,
fertilization, the alluvial matter
deposited by irrigation from turbid water renders the soil
water as a
fertilizer is well
capable of producing two crops a year. In the valley of the

Durance, France, the turbid waters of that stream bring a
price for irrigation several times greater than that paid for the
clear cold water of the Sorgues River.
It has been estimated
that on the line of the Galloway canal in California, land which

has been irrigated with the muddy river water, gives 18 per cent
better results after the fifth year than the same land which has
been irrigated with clear artesian water.

In the Nile Valley the turbid waters of the White Nile are
recognized as far more valuable than the clear waters of the
Blue Nile, on account of the fertility carried by the mud.
The
streams
fertilizing
is
fertilizing
value of the
silts of
shown by the following
some of our southwestern

which compares their
table,
contents with the food requirements of a ton of
alfalfa:
TABLE
V.
FERTILIZING VALUE OF SEDIMENT
PLANT FOOD
26
FORTIER, SAMUEL.
of Crops.
and Water Requirements

Experiment Stations, Washington.
California Soils.
Report of Agricultural
Evaporation Losses
Bulletin No. 177.
in Irrigation
Office of
LOUGHRIDGE, R. H. Moisture in
Experiment Station, University of California, 1897-98.
WIDTSOE, J. A. and MCLAUGHLIN, W. W. Movement of Water in Irrigated
Utah Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 115.
Soils.
LYON & FIPPIN. Soils. Macmillan Company, New York.
BARK, DON H. Alfalfa Growing. Address before Western Canada Irrigation
Association.
Goss, ARTHUR.
Bassano, Alberta, November, 1915.

Principles of
Bulletin No. 34.
FORBES, R. H.
The
Water Analysis as Applied
to
New Mexico
Waters.
New Mexico
Agr. Exp. Station.

River Irrigating Waters of Arizona.
Bulletin
No. 44.
University of Arizona Agricultural Exp. Station, Tucson, Arizona.

FOLLETT, W. W. Silt in the Rio Grande. International Boundary Commission,
Dept. of State.
Z. T.
Bulletin No. 53.
SWINGLE,
HILGARD, E. W.
Bureau of Plant Industry.

Distribution of Salts in Alkali Soils. Bulletin No. 108.
Univ.
of Cal.
WILSON, H. M.
Irrigation in India.
Part II of i2th Annual Report, U.
S.
Geo-
logical Survey.
ETCHEVERRY, B. A.
Company, N. Y,
Irrigation Practice
and Engineering.
McGraw-Hill Book
CHAPTER V
WATER SUPPLY
ALL
by plants is precipitated from the

snow or dew, which in humid regions are
regular and abundant for crop production, but in
the water used
atmosphere as rain,
sufficiently
arid regions are sufficient only for the precarious sustenance of a

limited variety of grasses, shrubs and trees which have the
property of becoming dormant without dying in times of drouth,
and reviving and growing when sufficient moisture comes.

The groups and ranges of mountains in arid regions by
reason of their superior elevation have greater precipitation
than the plains and valleys, and thus become the sources of
such streams as occur, and the snows of winter falling on those
mountains serve as storage
reservoirs,
the moisture
to hold
and summer melt the snow and

needed for irrigatraverse.
These streams
which
the
they
valleys
upon
until the
warm days
of spring
swell the streams at the time their waters are
tion
constitute the principal source of water used in irrigation.

i. Causes of Rainfall.
Although meteorology is a rather
elusive science,
much
progress has been
made
in the study of
phenomena and some general laws regarding the cause and

distribution of rainfall have been evolved.
The capacity of air for holding water in the form of an
a function of
invisible gas
is
retain a large
amount
its
temperature.
Warm
air
can
without any tendency of the

the air be cooled sufficiently a
of moisture
moisture to condense; but if

point will be reached where the water begins to condense, and
separate as particles of vapor or cloud. At this point the air
is
said to be. saturated,
cent.
This
particles of
critical
and the
temperature
relative
is
humidity
called the
vapor are very minute, and they

27
dew
may
is
100 per
point.
The
float
about
WATER SUPPLY
28
as
clouds,
large drops
The
formed rapidly they usually coalesce into
but
if
and
fall
as rain.
principal causes that contribute to
abundant
rainfall
are:
1.
Proximity to the ocean or other large body of water.
2.
Mountain
ranges,
especially
if
their
trend
is
at right
angles to the direction of moisture-laden winds.

3.
Location on or near the track of cyclonic storms.
The North
resulting in a
The
first
Coast combines
Pacific
heavy
three
tendencies,
precipitation.
condition
is
not always
sufficient, as
many
Ocean are arid, as is the Pacific Coast

Mexico and parts of South America.
in the Pacific
California,
all
islands
of Southern
The greatest rainfall usually occurs in belts where moist

winds from large bodies of water are forced to rise and pass
over mountains which forcibly cool them and condense their
Such conditions are most pronounced where a high
mountain range parallels an adjacent sea coast and is at right
moisture.
angles to the direction of the prevailing winds. As the waterladen air rises, the overlying atmosphere becomes less, thus
decreasing pressure, and allowing the elastic air to expand,

in turn causes rapid cooling, condensation and precipitaIf the mountain range is high and extention of the moisture.
which
sive, the
process
is
proportionately complete, and as the winds
descend the leeward slope and

moisture-absorbing
qualities
conditions unless the process
are
increase
again compressed
and they produce
their
arid
repeated by passage over a still

well illustrated on our own Pacific
is
This process is
Coast, where the moist winds from the great ocean are intercepted by the Coast Range, and a large part of their moisture
thereby precipitated. They pass over the Central Valley
higher range.
which
that
is
falls
than half the quantity of rainfall

on the Coast Range. Further inland the winds ascend
thus
left
with
less
the high Sierras and leave on their summits about as much

moisture as precipitated on the Coast Range. Thus depleted
the winds again descend to the plains of the Interior, as an
CAUSES OF RAINFALL
29
in
o
CN
O
m
O
m
o
m
30
WATER SUPPLY
.2
CAUSES OF RAINFALL
m
31
"i
WATER SUPPLY
32
arid atmosphere,
altitudes west
and the region
of the
Whatever the
is
much
drier
than similar
mountains.
direction of the winds the general law of con-
densation, due to
dynamic
cooling, usually causes
of precipitation with increase of
an increase
altitude
provided all other

conditions are similar.
The following table from Prof. D. W.
Mead illustrates this law as manifested in the Vogesen Mountains
and
also
TABLE
shows the
VI.
erratic variations:
RAINFALL IN THE VOGESEN MOUNTAINS
Station
TYPES OF RAINFALL
33
nearly or quite rainless.

Passing southward
the precipitation becomes gradually less, the rainy season shorter
and the dry season longer, until at the Southern boundary of
though shorter,
is
SIERRA NEVADA
47.71 in.
61.18 in
33.06 in
PACIFIC
Cisco.
OCEAN
SACRAMENTO VALLEY
"
23<81 in
22 77 in
.18
.10.60 in I
in.
.41 in.
,10.78
K*
Jaracm
|
ISan FrancieccJF'irficld
Z.//.|j 50
Sea Level 25
FIG. 4.
JK
'
'
Sacramento
miles 50
Diagram Showing
|FolRonif%^
>
| ?1
jgoj^X
100
Effect of
Nevada.
FIG.
5.
125
150
175
:I
200
Topography on Rainfall
225
in California
250
and
After Hamlin.
Discharge of San Joaquin River at Herndon, California, 1900.
California the annual precipitation averages less than 10 inches,

and the climate is distinctly arid, while still retaining the type
form of long dry summers, and short and relatively wet winters.
WATER SUPPLY
34
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
10 20
June
I
10 20
July
Aug.
10 20
10 20
Sept.
10 20
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
10 20
10 20
10 20
Discharge of Neosho River near lola, Kansas, 1900.
FIG. 6.
Sec.-ft
16,000
FIG.
7.
Discharge of Boise River at Boise, Idaho, 1899.
TYPES OF RAINFALL
35
Rocky Mountain Type. A contrasted type of precipitation

distinctly marked, but prevails with some variations
over most of the arid region east of the Cascade and Sierra
is
less
Nevada Mountain Ranges.
FIG.
8.
Those mountains intercept the
Discharge of Salt River at McDowell, Arizona, 1899.
20,000
FIG. 9.
Discharge of Green River at Green River, Wyoming, 1899.
waterladen winds from the Pacific Ocean, and rob them of

most of their moisture during the winter when the temperature
low enough to condense the vapors, but in late summer,

those winds pass over the heated valleys and mountain ranges
and carry their moisture further eastward, where the meteoric
is
36
WATER SUPPLY
STREAM FLOW
37
cause many local showers and thunder storms,

and produce a pseudo-rainy season in the Rocky Mountain
Region in the months of May and June, while the winters are
fluctuations
drier than those of the Sierra
Nevada Range.
The
precipitation
form of snow except in the plains

the south and near the Pacific Coast, where
in winter usually occurs in the
and valleys
of
winter rains occur.
The diagram,
Fig.
Henry, shows several types of western
10,
after Prof. A. J.
rainfall,
contrasted with
various eastern types.

In general the heaviest precipitation is in the mountains,
which in winter is mainly in the form of snow. Notable exceptions
occur,
however, and give
to
rise
contrasting types of
stream flow.
Stream Flow. Where the streams are mainly fed by

snow, they have a comparatively regular habit. The first warm
days of spring melt the snow on the plains, and the advancing
season melts first the snow in the foothills aiid on sunny moun3.
and as summer heat increases the melting increases

and extends to higher altitudes and to more shady
Thus the streams begin to rise in early spring about
slopes.
the time of seeding in the lower valleys, and continue to rise as
heat increases, culminating usually in June on most American
streams, declining as the reserve of snow diminishes, and reachtain slopes,
in rapidity
ing extreme low water in
autumn
or winter.
This process has temporary variations due to occasional

showers of rain, and to variations of temperature affecting the
melting of snow, which
is
accelerated
by bright warm weather,
and checked by cloudy days. There is also a wide variation

from year to year, profoundly affecting the water
in the snowfall
year of scanty snowfall not only furnishes a scanty

supply of water, but the shortage is likely to be concentrated
at the latter end of the flood season.
That is, a scanty snowsupply.
fall
may
furnish nearly as
much water
early in the season as a
abundance, but the small quantity of snow is sooner

exhausted, and the low-water stage arrives earlier in the season.
Where snowfall plays a small part or no part at all in the
year of
flow of streams, which are mainly supplied
by
rains as
some
of
WATER S&PPLY
38
the small streams of the south and southwest, the regimen

of the streams is far less regular than that of those dependent
on melting snow. Such streams constitute a second type

having a wide variety of characteristics and far less susceptible
characterized
The
runoff fluctuates more,
and is
by high and low periods succeeding one another
of approximate prediction.
For these reasons, a much larger storage

in quick succession.
in
proportion to the total normal water supply is
capacity
required on such streams than on streams of the first type.
Streams of the first class, which depend upon melting snows
for their main supply, vary in habit, but to a less degree than
others.
In
general,
since
in the season of irrigation,
the
flood
season
occurs
entirely
very favorable to agricultural

use, and a large proportion can be thus utilized without artificial
Examination of a large number of instances shows
regulation.
it is
the availability of from 40 to 60 per cent of the total supply

normal years without storage, and that the full supply can
in
be utilized by a capacity for storage of about 40 to 60 per cent

volume. This storage would be supplied from the
of the total
winter flow, and from the excess supply during the flood season,
usually
May
and June.
In planning the full utilization of a water supply, the close

study of stream flow records necessary will show that there is a
large variation in the total supply from year to year, in the low-
water discharge, and also in the maximum flood wave that

must be reckoned with. Moreover, these quantities bear only
a very casual and uncertain relation to each other. For these
important that as long a record of stream flow as

be
secured
before final determination is made of the
possible
reasons,
it is
possibilities of irrigation.
It will generally
be found that the extreme low-water periods
waves occur only at long intervals, and

unwise
limit development to the extent of furto
usually
nishing a full normal supply to the lands served in the rare
years of extreme low water, but rather to provide a full supply
during most years, and in the exceptional years of low water,
and the extreme
flood
it is
occurring only at long intervals, be content with 60 or 70 per
STREAM FLOW
supply for a brief period.
better cultivation results can be
cent of a
and
full
39
By more
careful use
obtained which will
approximate the normal, while the total development from the

stream
be
will
much
greater
than
if
such limits were not
allowed.
Where an
enterprise depends largely on a stored water supply,

is foreshadowed by a shortage in the
a threatened shortage
reservoir,
and
in conjunction
this,
with other available indi-
cations, serves as a warning of impending scarcity,
and farm
operations can be modified accordingly.

For this reason it is admissible to tolerate a somewhat greater
shortage in low years under a stored supply than if no storage
connected with the enterprise. For the same reason, if the

conditions are such that the storage to be reasonably expected
comes before the beginning of the irrigation season in which
is
somewhat greater shortage can be tolerated

dependence is placed upon the surplus of May and June,
it is
to be used, a
than
if
which cannot be
certainly
known
before
the various farm
summer are well under way. But even in

be 30 to 60 days notice of a shortage, which is
sufficient to avoid much wasted labor, and a few fields left
fallow on such occasions are not a serious loss.
enterprises for the
this case there will
In most
and manner
importance.
pumping
or
irrigation enterprises the quantity, dependability,

of
by
of the water supply is of first

sometimes obtained from wells either by
occurrence
This
is
artesian flow, which are treated elsewhere.
The
great majority of irrigation systems obtain their supply from

natural streams, supplemented in some cases by reservoirs.
The stream
or streams to be used should be carefully meas-
ured at each point of diversion and at each proposed reservoir

site.
Measurements of many streams of the West have been made

and published by the U. S. Geological Survey, and by some of
the State Engineers, but often these are lacking or must be
supplemented by stations located with special reference to the
plans of storage and diversion under study.
These measurements to be a safe guide must extend over
WATER SUPPLY
40
several years, the
somewhat
for
more the
better,
and allowance must be made
greater extremes than those shown by the records,
highly improbable that any existing records show the

greatest extremes that ever have occurred or ever can occur.
as
it is
The
shorter the record the greater allowance
must be made
for
this purpose.
The misleading nature
of a short record is
shown by the
experience with the Conconully reservoir in Northern Washington, where a record of five years indicated a minimum annual
supply of 29,000 acre-feet, which was followed by seven years

which the maximum was 24,700 and in which there were two
in
years in succession of 19,220 and 15,860 acre-feet respectively.

Where it is necessary to study the
4. Laws of Runoff.
water supply of a given stream in the absence of actual measurements or with a very short record, recourse is sometimes
had to formulae for computing runoff from data regarding rainfall,
evaporation, etc., which have been published from time to

Great caution should be exercised in employing any such
time.
formulae, as the working data for this use
and
is
generally inaccurate,
from the
impossible to allow properly for the variations
it is
complicated conditions upon which such formulae

It
is
necessary to especially
emphasize
are
based.
this caution, as the formulae
or rules referred to are sometimes promulgated with a confidence

that has no adequate foundation.
The
runoff depends not only
upon the
rainfall
and the drain-
but also upon a multitude of other conditions many of

which are variable, and none of which can be accurately deterage area,
mined within reasonable time and
cost.
The
chief elements
affecting the runoff are the following:

a.
Drainage area tributary to the stream above the point

This can be determined with practical exactness
of diversion.
wherever the topographic divide is definite.

b. The Rainfall.
This varies widely in different years, and
in corresponding months of different years, and in different
manner that it can be only

a
basin
roughly approximated
large
by ordinary feasible
methods. It is seldom that in a new country a record suffi-
parts of the basin in such an erratic

in
and
ciently detailed
LAWS OF RUNOFF
41
reliable for use in a
computation of runoff
can be had.
The Character of Rainfall. A slow drizzling rain is more

and later to evaporate than a driving storm
c.
apt to be absorbed
which runs
with every storm, without law, and

the
different
This factor varies
quickly before absorption.
off
varieties.
it
is
impossible to define
residual runoff
The absorption and
also varies with different conditions of moisture in- the
When
soil.
on a dry baked surface it is not readily absorbed,

and largely runs off. The same storm falling on the same surface, moderately moist, is more easily absorbed and the runoff
rain falls
is less.
ceases,
If the soil becomes saturated, however, the

absorption
and the rain runs off.
d. Evaporation.
This differs widely from day to day and
from year to year with weather conditions, and especially with
presence or absence of moisture to evaporate, and the varying
relation of that moisture to the atmosphere.

e.
Topography.
Steep slopes increase runoff, while gentle
slopes encourage absorption

/. Soil.
rock or clay
and evaporation.
Bare rock or clay or a covering
of thin soil over
favorable to heavy runoff, while a deep sandy soil

favors absorption and subsequent evaporation. A given basin
may
g.
is
present a great variety of

Geologic
structure
soil
affects
conditions.
total
runoff
by
sometimes
carrying absorbed water under ground to adjacent drainage

basins.
This influence is sometimes very important.
h. Vegetation.
Other things being equal vegetation retards
runoff and subsequent evaporation.
amount
It also transpires a large
leaves, and this varies widely

with the character and density of the vegetation, and with the
weather.
The
of
water through
its
accurate mathematical
and
such
erratic
and indeterminate facmany
tors is obvious; and the attempt to apply such relations to a
different basin with different conditions borders on the absurd.
impracticability of expressing
relations for so
knowledge
the water supply
of the area of the drainage basin

is
to be drawn,
and
from which
of the rainfall at various
WATER SUPPLY
42
ÔOO^
00
O
<H-
o M
tO
O
CO
CN
fO
(N
CN
CN
CN
O"OOOQO<NOOOQiOMO
O
M
I
S
O O O
ioO ioO
^"
^M
ô
^t"
oj
OO
^fOQ
t^M OOOOO
6
5
02
s
g
IOOO
coroOior^ ^-<N>HO<N<N'^-^-Ttcsu-)^.
<
CN
"S
00
<X
o
aj
fcC
C
O
oJ
fcC
LAWS OF RUN-OFF
43
WATER SUPPLY
44
RUNOFF
SUBSURFACE WATER SOURCES
45
points in the basin extending over
many years may, if inteland interpreted by some actual measurements

the stream, sheds some light on the probable runoff, but can-
ligently 'studied,
of
not take the place of actual records of stream flow extending

over a series of years.
A long record of stream flow of undoubted accuracy on a

stream draining a basin adjoining the one in question, and
similar in area, altitude and topography, may be available
and of great value as indicating probabilities, but even this
should be used with caution, and can by no means take the
place of actual measurements of the stream in question.
Great caution should also be exercised in considering the
reports of old inhabitants regarding the annual occurrence of
great flood discharges, as these are likely to be exaggerated
both in magnitude and frequency. Such floods make deep
impressions on the average mind, while the years that glide by

without them attract less attention, and are easily forgotten.
Subsurface Water Sources. A part of the water which

on the high regions soaks into the soil and entering the pores
and seams of the rocks passes slowly along under ground to the
5.
falls
lower regions, where some of

recovered by means of wells.
Where
it
reappears as springs and some
the water-bearing stratum
is
overlain
is
by tight material
preventing the escape of the water to the

the
surface,
pressure of the water from the hills upon that in the
lower parts of the stratum may become considerable, and by
of great thickness,
piercing the overlying impervious strata by drilling machinery

an outlet is furnished for the confined water and under the
accumulated pressure it rises to the surface,

forming an artesian well, which sometimes discharges its water
with great force, depending upon the pressure.. The great
majority of wells, however, do not flow at the surface, but to
influence of the
be used must be raised by pumping.

Irrigation
effort,
well
is
by means
of wells is well
adapted to individual
where conditions are favorable, as the construction of a

often within the means of an individual, and the area it
will irrigate
no greater than he can
control.
The aggregate
WATER SUPPLY
46
area thus irrigated
of great
is
development
very large in India, and has

in this country, although
possibilities
now
relatively
small as compared with the acreage irrigated from streams and

reservoirs.
The water which
enters
the earth
by
percolation either
from rain or from canals, reservoirs, or irrigation finds its

through the
soil to
structure enables
it
some lower
level
way
where favorable geologic
to again reach the surface, or ultimately

is comparatively saturated.
The surface
reaches a level which

of this
zone
below
the
amount
is
is
called the water table,
and varies greatly
ground surface in different

enormous.
localities.
in
depth
Its
total
This ground water is exceedingly

in
both
slow of motion,
porous sands and in the hardest rocks.
It is known also that this ground or seepage water flows more
a.
Rate of Percolation.
than at low temperatures. At a mean depth of

below the surface perhaps one-third more water will
flow in sand in the warmest than in the coldest part of the year.
Among the most important conclusions on this subject are those
freely at high
feet
Mr. Allen Hazen, which for closely packed sand saturated

with water are expressed in the formula
of
60
where
v is
the velocity of the water in meters daily in a solid

column of the same area as that of the sand, or approximately in million gallons per acre daily;
c is
a constant factor which present experiments indicate
is
be approximately 1000;
the effective size of sand grain in millimeters;
is
to
/ is
/
is
the loss of head;

the thickness of sand through which the water passes;
the temperature (Fahr.).
The formula can be used only

below
five
and
effective sizes
from
for sands
o.i to 3.0
with coefficients
mm., and with the
coarser materials only for moderately low rates.

Mr. Hazen publishes a table in his book showing the rela-
SUBSURFACE WATER SOURCES
47
tive quantities of
water at different temperatures which passed

through experimental filters. Taking as unity the quantity
passing at 50 F., 0.70 passed at 32 and 1.35 at 71; or for every
three degrees increase in temperature the quantity of water
passing increased by 5 per cent. In the above the effective
size is the size of grain such that 10 per cent
by weight of the
The uniformity coefficient
particles are smaller than this.
is
the ratio of the size of grain which has 60 per cent of the sample
than itself to the size of which has 10 per cent finer than
finer
itself.
An idea of the slowness of flow of ground water may be had

from the studies of Mr. N. H. Darton, who places the rate of
motion in the sands of the Dakota formation at a mile or two
a year. A French engineer gives the same rate, or an eighth
of an inch a minute.
In Arizona a rate of one-fourth of an inch
a minute, and in Kansas three-eighths inch a minute, have been
estimated.
At Agua
Fria, Arizona,
the measured rate of flow
ground water in creek gravels having 28 per cent voids was

4 feet a day.
A thin film of water is held on each particle with extreme
"
and where the
of
tenacity
by a
force called,
surface tension,"
In
the force of capillarity is also strong.
addition to this, the spaces between the particles aê so narrow
and tortuous that water cannot move through them except
particles are fine
Experiments with
materials of the North Dike at Wachusetts
with great friction and extreme slowness.

the
"
"
permeable
Reservoir gave the following rates of percolation through a

cross section of 1000 square feet, with a water slope of 10 per
cent:
TABLE
VIII.
PERMEABILITY OF SOILS
Material
WATER SUPPLY
48
The experiments
of Slichter
on various
soils,
upon the
ity of water at a temperature of
veloc-
50 degrees, flowing upon a

feet
of
100
shown in the following
results
per mile, gave
gradient
table,
compiled by Fortier:
TABLE
Kind
of Soil
IX.
VELOCITY OF PERCOLATION
ARTESIAN WELLS
if
49
a stratum of sand, sandstone, gravel, or other porous

is confined between relatively impervious strata of
material
rock or clay, and

is
is
so inclined that one part of the
exposed to rain, and another part
is
open material
depressed in the form
of a basin, the water entering at the
upper edge will percolate

and accumulate in the basin,
down
the slope of stratification

in the lower levels under such pressure as
corresponds to the hydrostatic head of the water above it. If
and place the water
now
the overlying clay be perforated by a boring, the water

bored well to the same height as the source from
which the pressure is derived, and if this is sufficient to force
will rise in the
we have a flowing well.

The accompanying diagram, Fig. u, illustrates
the water to the surface,
the
geo-
logical conditions of an artesian basin.
FIG. ii.
Ideal Section Illustrating Condition of Artesian Wells.
If the layer of sand be penetrated by a well drilled at D,

the water will rise to a height regulated by the pressure of the
water in the sand above the locality where the well reaches it.
The
source of the water that rises in artesian wells
is
mainly
the precipitation on the edges of the pervious beds where they

come to the surface. In some instances the porous beds are
charged in this
where the water
The
way
is
height to
height to
which
erly
attached
This
is
it
to
at their outcrops, hundreds of miles from
liberated
would
the
rises in
rise in
well,
illustrated in the
drilling wells.
by
which water
an artesian
well, or, the
a tube open at the top,
is
termed the
"
if
prop-
artesian head."
waterworks of towns, where the water
rises in the distributing pipes to
of the water in the reservoir
the same level as the surface
from which
it is
drawn.
Cases also occur of what are termed incomplete artesian

basins, where an inclined bed of open material as sand or
gravel thins out at
its
lower edge, and the impervious strata
WATER SUPPLY
50
above and below approach each other.
This
is
illustrated in
Fig. 12.
be noted that stratification and porosity are two necesand therefore massive, unstratified, crystalline
conditions
sary
rocks such as granite, schists quartzites and diorites, which are
It will
not porous, and are never underlain with porous stratified rocks,
do not present favorable conditions
Where
for artesian wells.
such rocks are exposed or occur near the surface of the ground,
the prospects for artesian water are poor. The original bedding
of such rocks has been generally obliterated by the changes
they have undergone, and there
is
no succession
of pervious
and
impervious layers.
FIG.
12.
Ideal Section Illustrating Thinning
Out
of Water-bearing
Stratum.
The
condition of a flowing well depends on whether the

pressure is sufficiently great to force the water above the surface.
Frequently the water will reach within but a few feet
when an ordinary well or shaft can be excavated

and the water pumped to the desired height. In many other
cases the pressure is such that the water spouts forth from the
In the San Gabriel
well under pressure to considerable heights.
and San Bernardino valleys in Southern California and many
of the surface,
other regions,
it
has been found that after a number of wells
have been sunk each additional well affects its neighbors by

diminishing their discharge. There thus comes a point in the
sinking of wells when the number which can be utilized in
given area or basin is limited.
any
Examples of Artesian Wells. Some great wells have

been sunk in different parts of the world. The celebrated Grinnell well in Paris commenced with a 20-inch bore and is gradually
a.
reduced to an 8-inch bore at the bottom; its depth

and its yield has been as great as 1.5 second feet.
is
1806
feet,
well has
been bored in the neighborhood of Wheeling, West Virginia,
ARTESIAN WELLS
51
to the great depth of 4500 feet, but is dry.

At Sperenberg,
near Berlin, is a well 4170 feet deep, and at Schladabach, near
In St. Louis is a well
Leipsic, is a well 5740 feet in depth.
which reaches a depth of 3850 feet, about 3000 feet below the sealevel.
In San Bernardino and San Gabriel valley in Southern
California
hood
of
and
in the
Bakersfield
upper San Joaquin valley in the neighborare
some extensive artesian
areas,
and
great artesian basins are found in the neighborhood of Waco,

Texas, Denver, Colorado, and the James River valley and the
neighborhood of Huron in the Dakotas.

b. Capacity
The capacities of flowing
of Artesian Wells.
wells are relatively small as compared with the volumes of
water
Of the thousands of wells

required in irrigation.
from
the
arid
reported
region comparatively few are of sufficient
capacity for use in irrigation. The great majority range from 100
to 200 feet in depth, from 2 to 4 inches in internal diameter, and
discharge rarely as much as o.i of a second-foot; though this
volume, if stored in a suitably located reservoir, should irrigate

a small farm. On the other hand there are, especially in
South Dakota and Southern California, some very large flowIn the former State there are reported to be at least
ing wells.
twenty-five wells with discharges ranging from i to 6 second-feet,
in Southern California about thirty wells of similar capacities.
and
The
largest well in South

6.68 second-feet.
Dakota
delivers continuously
about
An artesian well for irrigation

Storage of Artesian Water.
should if possible be on the highest point of the land to be
c.
irrigated,
and
in such a position that it
tributary to the reservoir in

Since
artesian
wells
may
be outside of and
which the water
is
to
be stored.
flow
continuously during twenty-four

hours of the day and three hundred and sixty-five days in the
year, it is desirable to store as much of the water which flows
during the non-irrigating period as possible, in order that the

The volume flowing
greatest duty may be gotten from the well.
continuously from almost any well is usually too small to enable
it to flow over the land in sufficient volume for the purposes of
irrigation, so that a necessary adjunct to nearly every well is a
WATER SUPPLY
52
In the case, howstorage reservoir of greater or less dimensions.

i
about
which
of
a
well
second-foot, or enough
ever,
discharges
to irrigate 100 acres
from unstored flow, such a well
may
be
made
capable of irrigating several times this area if the water

flowing at other times than the irrigating periods can be stored.
Small reservoirs, sufficiently large to retain only enough water
to produce the requisite
head
for flowing over,
may be
built as are
watering-tanks on railways, or they may be cheaply excavated

in the highest ground on the farm and properly lined.
Larger
may be
ones
by making use of the natural configuraand

the country
building a dam across a hollow or
tion of
constructed
ravine.
d.
The yield of a well does not depend entirely

6-inch well will not necessarily discharge
Size of Well.
size.
its
upon
more water than a 3 -inch well perhaps not as much. The
amount of flow depends directly upon the volume of the waterbearing strata and the pressure due to its initial head or source.
Providing this
is
is
dependent on
then the discharge of the well

Other things being equal, a large
sufficiently great,
its
diameter.
more
to drill, but will be more easily and cheaply

cleaned and kept in operation than a smaller one, which is apt to
Further, during and after drilling an accident may ruin a
clog.
well will cost
may be recased with diminished bore

For purposes of irrigation it may
serviceable.
small well, while a larger one
and
still
remain
not be
than 4 inches in diameter should

probable that one with a bottom bore
be said that a well
in general
drilled,
and
it is
less
greater than 8 inches will not be economical.

Nearly all wells which terminate in soft rock, sand, or gravel
discharge more or less of these materials. To prevent this from
clogging the well it is not uncommon to place perforated pipe in

the bottom of the well through the water-bearing stratum. There
are
many
styles of such pipe,
but in general
it
may
be stated that
pipe with circular perforations of uniform diameter
most
serviceable, as
it is
apt to
become
clogged.
is
not the
Some
of the
patented perforated pipes with slots having less aperture on the

outer than on the inner surface are preferable.
In some cases
experience
may show
that
it is
not desirable to insert perforated
ARTESIAN WELLS
but to
pipe,
53
whatever comes to the well be discharged and
let
collected in the storage reservoir.

e.
Manner of Having Wells Drilled. There are many responwho make a business of drilling and boring artesian
and for those who are unfamiliar with the business of
sible firms
wells,
it
well-sinking
is
better to contract with
some such firm
to
perform the work required. On the other hand, the sinking of

a well is not a difficult operation for those who have .any idea of
the process, though by contracting they are certain of having
the well sunk as they desire, within a fixed price, and are relieved
of the risk of accidents.
and gas regions the drilling of wells to tap

gas-bearing strata, which is a process entirely similar
In the
oil-
oil
of drilling wells for water,
and nearly
all
who
is
and
to that
a matter of every-day occurrence,
desire to sink wells perform the
work on
The
principal apparatus coman

engine, boiler, carpenter's rig, and set of drilling tools,
prises
and the common practice is for the owner to provide all except
sort
of
half-contract system.
the tools and fuel and let the drilling of the well at so
who furnishes these and does the
foot to a contractor
putting
down
much
work
a
of
the well.
Wells may be drilled

Varieties of Drilling-machines.
of
chief
which are by cables,
the
various
methods,
among
by
Provided
the
well is to be drilled
and
hydraulic process.
poles,
/.
by
contract,
since the
it is
of little importance
what method
contractor is responsible for
of the work,
and the
style of rig
is
is
employed,
the proper completion
a matter for his
own
choice.
In the Dakotas and some other of the plains regions it has been
found that wells drilled with pole machines have proved most
satisfactory and performed the cheapest work, aside from the
In
of time taken in coupling and uncoupling the rods.
the oil-and gas-bearing regions cable machines are most popular.
There are many patterns of hydraulic, jetting, and rotar^y rigs
amount
which are adopted by
different well-boring firms.
The
latter
upon a rotary motion given to a piston-rod working

by hydraulic power and turning a tubing with cutting edge. In
are dependent
hydraulic jetting machines, which can be used cheaply only in
WATER SUPPLY
54
is employed a short drill-bit having a hollow

shank through which a jet of water is forced from pipe rods,
thus creating an upward current which carries out the drillings.
gravel or sand, there
Some
of these hydraulic
and
jetting
machines have met with
remarkable success.
The
chief
advantage of pole
rigs
over cable rigs
is
in the
certainty of the revolutions given to the drill, as the rods
form
a rigid connection between the drill and the machine above,

and the motion is uniform in the direction of tightening the
screws of the joints. This tends to preserve the connection,
and keep the drill under perfect control. Cable rigs are chiefly
preferred because of the ease with which they can be operated
and the speed with which the tools can be lowered and removed
The chief
bailing apparatus substituted in their place.
in
as
the
with
the
is
disadvantages
compared
greater
pole rigs
and the
produced by the corrugated surface of the cable, the

uncertainty as to whether the striking bar reaches the bottom
friction
of the drill, the likelihood of cutting or
bending the cable, and
the danger of breaking under the strain when tools become fast.
As the cable is rotated both to the right and left there is also
liability of uncoupling the joints at the tools, and there is a possibility that the cable may not produce the proper rotation in
the
drill,
now on
and thus not bore the hole truly
the market a
number
circular.
There are
of excellent portable well-drilling
walking-beam type (Fig. 13), and

also jetting and hydraulic rotary rigs.
These can frequently
be purchased outright at prices which will render them cheaper
rigs,
both of the old
reliable
than any other method of having wells

Process
The
drilled.
process of drilling
consists in having a long, heavy drilling-bar, the lower end of
which is dressed to a cutting edge, which is dropped into a hole
g.
of
Drilling.
general
and by its weight cuts or breaks the stone where it

At each blow this rod is turned a little, thus making
the hole round. The drill is hung from the end of a cable or
series of jointed poles which are raised and dropped by machinery.
After the drill has worked for a short time it is removed, and
in the rock
strikes.
the drillings, or small pieces of rock which have collected in the
ARTESIAN WELLS
and deaden the blow
bottom
of the hole
This
is
fluid
mud
done by pouring water

thus formed is lifted
55
of the drill, are
in the hole
if it
removed.
be dry, and the
long, narrow
These operations of drilling
then cleaning out the mud and drilling again,
to the surface
by a
bailer with a valve at its lower end.
from
3 to 5 feet,
are alternated until the desired depth is reached.

If casing
or lining is to be introduced and the hole is not drilled truly
FIG. 13.
cylindrical, it
is
Portable Artesian-well Drilling Rig.
reamed out by a
steel tool of desired diameter,
weighing about 125 pounds and attached in place of the drill.

The apparatus which goes to make a drilling-machine com-
an engine and boiler

drilling- tools, and cable or
prises
spoken of as the
rig.
It
is
of
about 20 horse-power, a set of

These latter are generally
poles.
also necessary to provide tubing or
casing to line the well through such
cause the loss
water which
is
permeable strata as might

of water or through such strata as may provide
undesirable for the purposes required. It is some-
times necessary to line wells with tubing throughout their entire
WATER SUPPLY
56
and in such cases it is usual to begin with a large bore, say

and after sinking this to a given depth, say 200 or 300
to
reduce
the diameter of the tubing by an inch or two.
feet,
The " set of tools " which compose the drill for the latter
is not a solid bar, but several pieces
weigh about 2500 pounds,
length,
8 inches,
and
consist of a steel
"
bit
"
or
"
drill," of the size of the
bore
"
desired, screwed into the lower end of the

auger stem," which
To
latter is a steel rod 30 feet long and 3 inches in diameter.
"
the upper end of this are screwed
jars," and above them the
"
sinker-bar," which
and
is
15 feet long
and
3 inches in diameter,
The
jars by slacking together in falling cause the

sinker-bar to act on and through them to the drill as a hammer.
The term " rig " generally includes, in addition to the set of tools,
the woodwork and necessary iron fittings forming a derrick to
of steel.
carry a sheave at a sufficient height, perhaps 50 to 80 feet, to

swing the drilling- tools clear of the ground; also, both wheels
and shaft on which the
drill
cable
is
wound; the sand-reel
for
winding up the smaller rope used in cleaning out the drillings;

a walking-beam to give vertical motion, and a band- wheel for
transmitting power from the engine to the moving parts.
After the engine has been started and the walking-beam is
to rock up and down at the rate of 20 to 30 strokes a minute,
made
lifting the tools
with
it,
the length of stroke being adjustable
from 15 inches to 3 feet, the rope is then twisted by means of a

stick, first in one direction for a while and then in the opposite
direction alternately.
This twisting of the rope turns the
"
"
and the driller who handles the rope knows by the feel
drill,
how
the tools are working, the texture of the rock, and the occurrence
of an accident.
Occasionally the temper and set-screws are
turned out a little, thus lowering the tools. After the drilling
has gone on to a depth of 4 or 5 feet the tools are hoisted clear
of the floor, the bull-rope swung off to one side, and the bailer
or
sand-pump
is
swung over the
hole
from the sand-reel, and
allowed to drop by its own weight, and upon reaching the

bottom is filled with mud and sand through the valve at its lower
is
end and
is
repeated
if
then drawn up and emptied; this process being

necessary to clear the hole before drilling is again
ARTESIAN WELLS
The
resumed.
57
rate of drilling depends partly upon the character

but averages from 15 to 50 feet per working
of strata encountered,
day.
A method of deep-well construction employed in California

and known as the stovepipe method is admirably adapted to
conditions where the material to be drilled consists of coarse
debris.
Casing from 10 to 14 inches in diameter is put down,
reaching in one instance to 1300 feet in depth. A starter is used
consisting of a length of 15 to 25 feet of No. 10 riveted sheet steel
with a sharpened
The remainder
steel shoe.
of the casing
above
2 feet, each following

of No.
section being smaller than the last so as snugly to telescope for
12 sheet steel in lengths of only
is
foot of length, thus forming a double shell of stovepipe casing.

is sunk by the ordinary oil-well type of machinery, the casing
This
being forced down, however, by hydraulic jacks. After the well

is sunk a cutting knife is lowered into it and vertical slits are cut
in the casing opposite water-bearing strata.
The advantages
screw- joints
flush
methods are: absence of short fragile

outer surface which does not catch in clay or
of these
projecting rocks; its elastic character permits it to adjust itself

to obstacles and stresses; its cheapness for large sizes of casing;
the short sections permit the hydraulic jacks to force it down;

the ability to perforate the casing at any depth with a large size
of perforation inside.
The
$40
100
first
50
cost of such wells averages about $i per foot for casing;

and for the drilling 50 cents per foot for the
for the starter;
feet, thereafter 25
cents additional for each succeeding
feet.
Common
The supplying capacity

increased
considerably by irrigafrequently
As water is applied to the soil through a period of years
tion.
the subsurface-water plane rises, and it may be reached at lesser
h.
of
Capacity
common
of
wells
Wells.
is
depths than previously. In this way irrigation water may be

used over several times; by pumping it from wells it may find
its way by seepage back to the streams, from which it may be
again
diverted.
The
capacity
depends on the degree of fineness
of
surface
or
common
wells
of the water-bearing stratum,
WATER SUPPLY
58
fine-grained material yielding water
amount than
The
more slowly and
of less
depends on the
head or depth below the surface of the water-table at which
coarser material.
yield also
the flow takes place; also upon the size and shape of the excavation and character of the well walls or casing. The yield
is directly proportional to the freedom with which the water-
bearing material permits the movement of water, and also to the

head or depth by which the water-table is lowered. Of a series
Rio Grande valley near Las Cruces, N. M.,

those near the river, in fine compact deposits of the valley bottom,
have a small yield compared with the greater capacity of wells
of wells across the
some distance from the river, under the mesa foot in the coarser
mountain debris. If the well is shallow, increasing the diameter
increases the flow; but if deep and relatively small in diameter,
as a pipe, increasing the diameter does not appreciably increase
the flow.
The
extent to which
common
wells
may
be used as a source
not appreciated in the United States,

where as yet irrigation is practiced only in a large way and
irrigators are but just coming to a realization of the advantages
of supply for irrigation
is
whereby but a few acres are worked by a

in
but
the
most thorough manner possible. In a
single farmer,
few portions of the Far West, notably in Central and Southern
of intensive cultivation,
California,
where Italians and Chinamen are engaged

employed to some extent
in market-gardening, wells are
supply of water.
In such cases the water
is
raised
chiefly
for the
by one
of
several processes, chiefly by windmills, and by mechanical lifts

worked by horse-power, and similar to the Persian wheel of
Asia.
It
is
to India that
we must
the extent to which wells
Central Provinces of India
may
1
look in order to gain an idea of

In the
furnish irrigation water.
20,000 acres are irrigated from wells.
In Madras 2,000,000 acres are irrigated from 400,000 wells.

In the Northwest Provinces 360,000 acres are irrigated from
wells.
Some
sunk to depths as great as 80

some cases through hard rock, and are capable
of these wells are
to 100 feet, in
in ordinary seasons of irrigating
from
to 4 acres each.
These
TUNNELING FOR WATER
59
may really be said to supplement irrigation from canals

and reservoirs, for after the waters of the latter have been used
and have seeped into the soil they are caught by the well and
Thus wells as an adjunct to
are again used for irrigation.
canals may be said to add materially to the duty of the latter.
wells
8.
Tunneling for Water.
sloping
or
sidehill
country
Tunnels are sometimes driven in

to
tap
the
subterranean water-
These are practically horizontal wells, differing from

wells
chiefly in that the water has not to be pumped
ordinary
to bring it to the level of the surface, but finds its way by gravity
supplies.
flow to the lands on which
it is
to be utilized.
Near the Khojak
a great tunnel of this kind. This is run near the

bed
of
a
stream
into the gravels for a distance of over a mile.
dry
Pass in India
The
is
bed is 3 in 1000, its cross-section is 1.7X3 feet,

and its discharge about 9 second-feet. The Ontario Colony in
Southern California derive their water-supply from a tunnel 3300
feet in length, run under the bed of San Antonio creek through
slope of
its
gravel and rock. Its cross-section is 5 feet 6 inches high,

It
3 feet 6 inches wide at bottom, and 2 feet wide at top.
partly timbered and partly lined with concrete, having weepIts discharge is about
holes in the upper part of the tunnel.
is
second-feet.
The supply from
several subtunnels has been
such as to average nearly 10 second-feet per linear mile of tunnel.
The Spring Valley Water Company which

Francisco, California, has recently made some
supplies
of the
San
most
extensive developments of water from subsurface sources yet

recorded.
One bed of gravel in a stream valley having an area
200 acres absorbs practically all the drainage of 300 square

Into these gravels were sunk 91 wells which yield 36
Another similar bed has been
acre-feet of water per day.
of
miles.
developed by drifting over 14,000 feet of tunnel 5 feet 6 inches X

5 feet 6 inches with nearly as great a length of smaller branch
Into this drain several hundred driven wells (Fig. 14)
which yield over 45 acre-feet of water per iay.
tunnel.
Underground Cribwork. Submerged cribs were planned

American Water Company on Cherry Creek in Colorado,
and have been used by the Citizens' Water Company on the
a.
for the
WATER SUPPLY
60
South Fork of the Platte River in Colorado.
The former
enter-
prise contemplated a submerged open crib sunk in the gravel

bed of Cherry Creek, and resting on blue clay which is 73 feet
below the surface of the stream, rising to a height of 70 feet,

with its crest 3 feet below the bed of the stream. This was not to
be a dam, but to stop the movement of that portion of the subsurface water which might enter the cribwork.
It would consist
of timbers 14 inches in dimension at the bottom, decreased to
FIG. 14.
Subterranean Water Tunnel and Feed- wells: California.
inches at the top, placed 4 feet apart across stream, and planked
on both faces with interstices of 3 inches on the upper face.
The water caught
in this cribwork
was
to
be pumped to the
surface.
The
Water Company develops the underground

waters of the Platte River by means of a series of gathering-galat
leries, consisting of perforated pipe and open cribwork laid
Citizens'
a depth of from 14 to 22 feet below the surface of the gravel bed

of the stream.
The cribs (Fig. 15) are 30 inches square, and
about a mile of these have been built running up the bed of the
OTHER SUBSURFACE WATER SOURCES
61
stream, besides about a mile of perforated pipe 30 inches in

diameter. The average daily yield obtained by these galleries
is nearly 10 acre-feet of water, which is led off
through the pipes
by natural 'flow.
Earth waters may be
9. Other Subsurface Water Sources.
gathered for irrigation by other means than springs, common
or artesian wells, or tunnels.
In the dry beds of streams
in California submerged dams have been built which' reach to
some impervious stratum and cut
FIG. 15.
off
the subterranean flow, thus
Gathering-cribs, Citizens'
Water
Co., Denver.
bringing water to the surface. In portions of the plains region,

especially in Kansas, subsurface supplies have been obtained
by running long and deep canals parallel to the dry beds of

streams or in the low bottom lands and valleys. These canals,
acting Hke drainage ditches, receive a considerable supply of
water and lead it off to the lands. It may be generally stated
that the amounts of water to be derived
by such means are

by the advocates
very limited and do not approach those claimed

"
underflow."
of so-called
10.
Practically all waters found in

dissolved mineral matter.
Spring and
Character of Water.
nature contain some
WATER SUPPLY
62
well waters usually contain
and those
of the arid region
more than surface storm waters,

more than those of humid regions
This follows from the fact that the
soils of arid regions
contain
more humid climes, because

the latter have generally been more thoroughly leached.
Cases are numerous -where small streams fed by mineral
more
soluble salts than those of
springs carry injurious

for irrigation,
and
salts in
such quantity as to be unfit
to seriously impair the quality of rivers into
which they flow. The amount of mineral which water may

carry and still be suitable for plant consumption depends of
course on the character of the salt, and in general the salts
sodium are most to be feared, in the order

chloride and sulphate.
of
As a
of
carbonate,
result of his investigations in northern Africa,
Thomas H. Means
states that the
amount of
Mr.
soluble matter allow-
able in an irrigation water has been greatly underestimated, and

that many sources of water which have been condemned can be
used with safety and success with proper precautions. The Arabs
Sahara he says sometimes grow vegetables with water
in the
containing as high as 800 parts of soluble salts to 100,000 parts

sometimes 50 per cent of the salts being sodium chloride.
The Arab gardens consist of small plots 20 feet square, between
of water,
which are drainage ditches dug to a depth
of
about 3
feet.
This
Irrigation
ditching at short intervals insures rapid drainage.
by the check method and application made at least once a
week, sometimes oftener.
large quantity of water is used at
is
each irrigation, thus securing the continuous movement of the

water downward, permitting little opportunity for the soil water
to become more concentrated when the irrigation water is applied,
and there
does occur
salt from the evaporation at

concentration or evaporation accumulation
quickly corrected by the succeeding irrigation.
is little
the surface.
is
accumulation of
What
Under average
conditions, however, where the total soluble

exceed 300 parts in 100,000, water is objectionable for
irrigating most crops, and if carbonates are present a lower limit
salts
is
be
imposed, and
set.
if
they predominate, a
still
lower limit must
CHARACTER OF WATER
63
Waters which contain a moderate amount of salts may be

entirely suitable for irrigation on soils having good drainage,
but if irrigation with such waters is long continued and no
measures are taken to prevent the accumulation of salts in the
soil, they may in time impair its fertility.
Deep drainage and
occasional copious irrigation is the preventive and the remedy.
These are treated at greater length in Chapter XII.
ALEXANDER, W. H.
view, 1901, p.
V
Monthly Weather Re-
Relation of Rainfall to Mountains.

6.
MEAD, DANIEL W.
Part
Hydrology.
II.
University of Wisconsin.
TALBOT, A. N. Rates of Maximum Rainfall. Technograph, 1891-2.

HOYT, J. C. Comparison between Rainfall and Runoff in the Northeastern
United States. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LIX, New York. Discussions
of Above.
KUICHLING, EMIL. Unusual Flood Discharges. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol.
LXXVII, p. 650.
HENSHAW, LEWIS and MCCAUSLAND. Deschutes River and
W. S. P. 344, U. S. Geological Survey.
LARUE, E. C.
Colorado River and
W.
Its Utilization.
S.
Its
Utilization.
P. 395, U. S.
Geo-
W.
S. P.
logical Survey.
FOLLENSBEE and DEAN.
Water Resources
of the
Rio Grande Basin.
358, U. S. Geological Survey.
HENSHAW and DEAN.
Surface
Water Supply
of Oregon.
Geological Survey.
HENRY, A. J. Climatology of the United States.
W.
S. P. 370,
Bulletin Q, U. S.
U.
S.
Weather
Bureau.
ALVORD,
Co.,
J.
W. and BURDICK,
New
HOYT and GROVER.

- Report
C. B.
Relief from Floods.
McGraw-Hill Book
York.
John Wiley & Sons, New York

Committee on Flood Prevention. Trans. Am. Soc., C.
River Discharge.
of Special
E.,
Vol. 81.
CHAMBERLAIN, T. C. The Requisite and Qualifying Conditions of Artesian Wells.

Fifth Annual Report, U. S. Geological Survey.
Washington, D. C., 1884.
DARTON, N. H. Preliminary List of Deep Borings. U. S. Geological Survey,

Water Supply Paper No. 61. Washington, D. C., 1902.
New York, FebENGINEERING NEWS.
Sewage Purification in America.
ruary 23, 1893; July
HALL,
WM. HAM.
18, 1894.
Irrigation in Southern California.
Part
II,
Annual Report
of State Engineer.
Sacramento, 1888.
HAMLIN, HOMER. Underflow Tests. Water Supply Paper No. 112, U.
logical Survey.
S.
Geo-
HAY, PROF. ROBT., and Others. Geological Reports on Artesian Underflow

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.. 1892.
vestigations.
In-
WATER SUPPLY
64
Same
HILL, PROF. ROBT. T., and Others.
JACKSON, Louis D'A.
MANNING, ROBERT.
NETTLETON, E. S.
as preceding.
Hydraulic Works. W. Thacker & Co., London, 1885.

Sanitary Works Abroad. E. & F. N. Spon, London, 1876.
Artesian
and Underflow Investigations.
Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1892.

NEWELL, F. H. Artesian Wells for Irrigation.

ORME, S. H. Sewage Irrigation.
POWELL,
J.
W.
Artesian Wells.
logical Survey.
U.
S.
Department
Census Bulletin No. 193.
Engineering News. New York, July

Part II, Eleventh Annual Report, U.
Washington, D.
of
5,
S.
1894.
Geo-
C., 1890.
RAFTER, GEO. W., and B/KER, M. N. Sewage Disposal in the United States.
D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1894.
SLIGHTER, C. S. The Rate of Movement of Underground Waters. U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper No. 140.
SPON, ERNEST. Present Practice of Sinking and Boring Wells. E. & F. N.
Spon. London, 1885.
HAMLIN, HOMER. Water Resources of the Salmas Valley, California. U.
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper No. 89, pp. 41, 42, 1904.
McAoiE, A. G. Rainfall of California. California Univ. Pubs., vol. i, No.
p. 179, Feb. 19, 1914.
S.
4,
CHAPTER
VI
EVAPORATION
ALL
the moisture that
falls
from the heavens must at some
previous time have been taken from the earth by some form of
Conversely, all the moisture absorbed by the
evaporation.
again in the form of rain, snow,
Hence in the long run, taking the earth as a whole,
atmosphere
hail, etc.
is
destined to
fall
evaporation and precipitation are practically equal.

tion
Evaporadepends mainly upon the wind movement, and the tem-
perature and relative humidity of the atmosphere. It also

depends of course upon the presence of moisture to evaporate.
An important form of evaporation is the transpiration of

moisture from the leaves of plants, in the process of growth.
A growing crop usually transpires several times as much moisture
as would evaporate from the same soil if no vegetation were
Hence the importance of destroying weeds which
present.
not only consume the moisture but the plant food needed by the
crop.
The evaporation from the surface of the earth varies widely,

but the precipitation varies still more widely. In a region of
prevalent fogs, evaporation is low, being zero during a fog,
which may in fact precipitate some moisture. Where the
atmosphere is very warm and dry the potential evaporation
correspondingly high. In a hot arid region, such as Southern
Arizona, and Southeastern California, evaporation is at its
is
maximum, and may reach 100
inches
per
annum.
In the
relatively cool and foggy regions such as Labrador, it may fall

below 10 inches per annum.
Evaporation from a moist soil surface may be two or three
times greater than from a water surface, by reason of higher

temperature, if exposed to the direct rays of the sun. Shading
65
EVAPORATION
66
the
soil
decreases the evaporation 25 to 30 per cent, and a

straw, leaves, or other loose material still more
mulch
of
reduces
it.
Experiments in Southern California by the Department of

Agriculture showed that evaporation from the bare soil could
be reduced 57 per cent by a 3 -inch mulch, 81 per cent by a 6-inch
mulch, and 87.5 per cent by a g-inch mulch.
soil
mulch with
similar effect
may
be produced by care-
fully pulverizing the surface soil, or in other words,
by cultivaThe experiments showed a saving of 15 to 40 per cent

the evaporation by such cultivation.
The advantage of reducing soil evaporation by cultivation
tion.
of
or mulching
is
not alone the saving of water effected but there
are two other advantages that may be still more important.

Rapid evaporation causes rapid rise of soil moisture, which
brings with
water, and
face,
it
the soluble salts carried in solution
by evaporation
where they
By
holding the
soil
the
soil
leaves the salts on or near the sur-
in time, concentrate to a
may
by
moisture in the
harmful extent.
soil until it
can be taken
given time to dissolve a larger amount of plant

up by plants,
food, and thus greatly nourish the plants when absorbed by them
whereas, if evaporation is given full play, it soon exhausts the
it is
soil moisture, and fresh water must be more often applied, so

that the water taken by the plants has not so much time to
collect plant food

i.
and
Measurement
of
is less
conducive to plant growth.
Evaporation.
Several
methods have
been devised for measuring evaporation, which are more or

Elaborate and expensive apparatus has
less
satisfactory.
been employed in evaporation measurements made by Mr. Des-
mond
Fitzgerald, chief engineer of the Boston Water Works,

Mr.
Charles Greaves of England, and others. A simple
by
apparatus and one quite successful as a means of measuring
evaporation
is
that employed
by the U.
S.
Geological Survey.
It consists of a pan, Fig. 16, so placed that the contained
water
has as nearly as possible the same temperature and exposure

as that of the body of water the evaporation from which is to be
measured.
This evapora ting-pan
is
of galvanized iron 3 feet
MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
67
square and 18 inches deep, and is immersed in water and "kept

from sinking by means of floats of wood or hollow metal. It
should be placed in the water in such position as to be exposed
as nearly as possible to its average wind movements.
The pan
must be filled to within 3 or 4 inches of the top, that the waves
produced by the wind shall not cause the water to slop over, and
FIG.
it
should float with
surface, so
its
1 6.
Evaporating-pan.
rim several inches above the surrounding

The
this shall not enter the pan.
that waves from
device for measuring the evaporation consists of a small brass

The graduations are on a
scale hung in the center of the pan.
series
of inclined crossbars so proportioned
that the vertical
heights are greatly exaggerated, thus permitting a small rise or

an inch, to cause the water surface to adfall, say of a tenth of
EVAPORATION
68
vance or retreat on the scale

plying the vertical scale
by
.3
of
an
three,
By
inch.
it is
this device, multi-
possible to read to .01 of
an inch.
In 1888 a
series of observations
evaporometer by Mr. T. Russell

ascertain the
amount
were made with the Piche
of the
U.
of evaporation in the
S. Signal Service to
West.
While
it is
probable that results obtained with this instrument are not particularly accurate, comparisons of these results with those ob-
by other methods
tained
in similar localities
show such small
discrepancies that they may be considered of value until superseded by results obtained by better methods.
Observations
were made with
this
instrument in wind velocities varying from
10 to 30 miles per hour, from which it was discovered that with

a velocity of 5 miles an hour the evaporation was 2.2 times that
from one
4.9
in quiet air;
20 miles,
times;
miles,
2.
6.3
Amount
the
5.7
times;
25
miles, 6.1
times;
15 miles,
and 30
times.
of evaporation
of
10 miles per hour, 3.8 times;
West
of Evaporation.
In Table
is
given the amount
by months
in the year 1888 in various sections
derived
from experiments with the Piche
as
apparatus.
As in the case of precipitation, evaporation decreases with
the altitude because of the diminished temperature in high mountains.
Experiments were made to determine the amount of
evaporation in different portions of the West by the hydrographers of the U. S. Geological Survey. These were made with
the evaporating-pan, and the results are probably (Table XII),
reliable than those obtained with the Piche instrument.
more
These experiments were unfortunately conducted
for a relatively
short space of time.
Evaporation from Snow and Ice. Some experiments were

conducted at the Boston Water Works to determine the amount
3.
from snow and ice. From snow it amounted to

an inch per day, or nearly 2\ inches in an ordinary
season.
From ice it amounted to .06 inch per day, or about
The evaporation from snow
7 inches in an ordinary season.
is greater than this in the arid
regions of the West, especially
of evaporation
about
.02 of
EVAPORATION FROM SNOW AND ICE
69
on barren mountain-tops such as those in Arizona, Nevada, and

Utah, where they are exposed to the wind and the bright sunshine.
TABLE
X.
DEPTH OF EVAPORATION, IN INCHES PER MONTH IN

1887-88
Stations and Districts.
EVAPORATION
70
and 1875. From these it appears that the amount of evaporation

from ordinary soil is about the same as that from water, sometimes exceeding it a little and sometimes being a trifle less, though
TABLE
XI.
DEPTH OF EVAPORATION PER MONTH,
IN INCHES
EFFECT OF EVAPORATION ON WATER STORAGE
71
Storage
deficiency chargeable to evaporation is about 20 inches.
reservoirs in the West are frequently at high altitudes in the
mountains, where evaporation is less than in the hot lowlands.
At Arrowhead
reservoir,
CaL, altitude 5160
feet,
the measured
evaporation averages 36 inches per annum, of which about

40 per cent occurs between May and August, the irrigation
season.
The
erratic
stream flow in arid regions makes
abundant years
it
desirable
use in dry years,

and these extremes are often many years apart, and the water
held in storage is thus subject to evaporation throughout the
to store the waters of
for
In hot countries, where the rate of evaporation is

a serious handicap on the complete utilization
high
of the water supply.
interval.
this places
In 1909 and 1910, the U.
S.
Weather Bureau made a
series
of careful observations of evaporation at several stations, the

results of
which are given
in table
XII, page
72.
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER VI

WIDTSOE, J. A. Factors Influencing Evaporation and Transpiration. Bulletin
No. 105. Utah Agricultural College, Logan, Utah.
BUCKLEY, R. B. Irrigation Works in India and Egypt. E. & F. N. Spon, London.
FORTIER, SAMUEL, livaporation Losses in Irrigation and Water Requirements
of Crops.
Bulletin No. 177.
Agriculture.
BIGELOW, F. H.
Office of
Experiment Stations.
U.
S.
Dept. of
Records of Evaportaion at 23 Different Stations. Engineering

No. 24, June 16, 1910, New York.
DURYEA, EDWIN, JR., and HAEHL, H. L. Evaporation from Lake Conchos,
Mexico. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 80, New York.
News,
vol. 63,
72
EVAPORATION
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CHAPTER
VII

THE
practice of lifting water from a lower to a higher level
for use in irrigation is doubtless as old as the art of irrigation
and was probably the first form oi irrigation tried. In

China, India, and other Oriental countries it is still customary
to irrigate lands higher than the canals which conduct the water
itself,
to them, lifting it a few feet by human or animal power.

Many
various devices of a primitive nature are still employed for
this purpose.
They are of course possible only where the lift
is slight and labor very cheap.
The
familiar
processes
of
pumping water
for
stock
and
domestic farm use, and on a larger scale for a city water supply
is apt to mislead many persons when considering problems of
for irrigation, owing to the relatively large quantity
water required for irrigation and the corresponding low unit
value of irrigation water. For example a city of 30,000 inhabitants, covering say 1000 acres, might well afford to expend a
pumping
of
million dollars or
more
for a
domestic water supply, while an
water would be necessary to irrigate 1000

an expenditure of one-tenth that amount
and
acres properly,
for the water supply might for this purpose be prohibitive.
equal quantity of
In other words, the value of water for domestic purposes is

often more than ten times as great as the value of. the same
quantity of water for irrigation. In fact, domestic water supply
being indispensable, it must be obtained at any cost, and the
value of irrigation water is limited by the value of the crops
raised, in
which
Pumping
it is
only one element of cost.
for irrigation
where the water supply
is
therefore generally feasible only

ample, the lift moderate and power
is
73
74
Exceptions to this combination occur only where the
cheap.
products of irrigation are exceptionally valuable.
Ground-water Supply. Where an irrigation supply is to

be obtained from the ground-water by means of wells, a careful
study must be made of the quantity of water that can be made
available from each well, and also the total supply, and the
i.
system carefully planned to accord with the facts developed
by that
One
study.
of the
commonest
errors
made
in irrigation
the overestimate of the dependable supply of

engineering
water from a well of given design. The total supply of ground
is
water available in a given locality is also frequently overestimated, and seldom underestimated.
of
The ground-water supply depends not only on the presence

ground water at the site of the well, but also upon the facility
with which additional water reaches the well as water
by pumping, and
this in turn
is
removed
size of the openIf the

the
well.
particles surrounding
in
material
sand
or
which
the
is
coarse
water-bearing
gravel
will
spaces occupied by water are relatively large, the water
ings between the
move toward
depends upon the
soil
the well with comparative freedom as the water

and the yield from the well may be
level in the well is lowered,

large, while
the water-bearing
medium
is clay or fine silt in

are
which the interstices filled with water
very minute, the
friction of moving is so great that the water moves through it
if
with extreme slowness, so that the yield of each well
is
very
small, although the total voids in the clay or silt may be and
usually are greater in volume than those in coarse sand or
gravel.
The pore space
in soils of the arid region will average nearly

50 per cent, varying from about 40 per cent for clean sand, to
55 per cent for clay.
much
well-graded mixture, however, contains
open space, and may have below 30 per cent. Each

under field conditions is enveloped by a very
thin film of moisture which will not drain out, and can be driven
less
particle of soil
off
only by heat.
The area
of these surfaces
great in clay as in coarse sand, and the

similar ratio.
is
number
6 or 7 times as
of particles is in
WINDMILLS
and
this is
great deal of irrigation has been done

systems by the employment of the power of the wind,
still in extensive use for lifting water from wells
Windmills.
2.
in primitive
75
domestic use, stock water, and to irrigate gardens and small

Wind power comes next to animal power not only
orchards.
for
but
in cost.
Although the power is free, pumping
on the average more expensive than any other
methods except those employing animal power. This is due to
the relatively small amount of power developed by any one
historically,
by windmills
unit,
is
the inconstancy of the wind, and the large
amount
of
For these
attention and repairs required by the windmills.
water
for
reasons, the cost of pumping
irrigation by windmills
is generally prohibitive except for intense cultivation of small
tracts
the
lift
from which large returns are expected, and in addition

must be low and other conditions favorable. Even then
the cost
is
seldom
well, storage
less
than $100 per unit for
first
tank and pumping machinery, and
times that amount.
installation of
may reach several
Besides this the cost of maintenance
is
high, averaging over $10 per year, while the area which one
windmill can serve is generally less than an acre, and may
be much less.
Windmills of standard make can be purchased of any large

dealer in agricultural implements, but representations concerning the power to be developed by them should be usually discounted to eliminate optimistic assumptions, and liberal allow-
ance should be
made
for the inconstancy of the wind.
Notwithstanding its relatively high cost a windmill plant

may be the most advisable and economical plant where the
requirements or the water supply limit the irrigation to less
than one acre. Many farms on the great plains devoted mainly
to grazing or dry farming are thus furnished with a reliable
supply of vegetables and small fruits which contribute materially

to the support
and the health
of the family.
Windmills are extensively used in the San Joaquin valley in

California, on the great plains east of the Rocky Mountains
and in other portions of the West, for pumping water for irrigation.
The
chief objection to windmills for this
purpose
is
their
76
unreliability, as they are wholly
dependent upon the force
of
the wind for their operation. This objection is not so serious

on the great plains between the Rocky Mountains and the
Mississippi River, where there is generally a wind to keep mills
In most other places they are less certain in their
turning.
and
action,
may fail the farmer at the very time when he is most
in need of a water-supply.
Because of their uncertainty of operation, windmills should
never be used for purposes of irrigation without providing as an

adjunct an ample tank or reservoir for the storage of sufficient
water to irrigate a considerable area. Ample capacity should be
provided to store the water of several days' pumping when

This storage capacity may be
irrigation may not be necessary.
obtained by using one of the various forms of elevated tanks
which are supplied by windmill makers; or, if the windmill
can be located at a high point on the farm, an artificial reservoir
may be excavated at this point and suitably lined, which shall
have capacity to contain a larger amount of water.
on an average a wind velocity of 5 or 6 miles an

hour to drive a windmill, and on an average winds exceeding
this velocity are to be had during only eight hours per day.
Hence, about two-thirds of the total time is lost for work. The
reports of the U. S. Weather Bureau indicate that the average
wind movement of the entire country is 5769 miles per month,
It requires
or about 8 miles per hour.

These averages are somewhat exceeded on the Great Plains,
where the average hourly velocity is 10 miles.
The following
tables give roughly the force of the
TABLE
Miles per
Hour
XIII.
wind
for ordinary velocities:
WIND VELOCITY AND POWER
WINDMILLS
TABLE
XIV.
ENERGY OF WIND ACTING UPON A SURFACE OF

SQUARE FEET
Velocity of
Wind
77
100
78
WATER-WHEELS
mill
is
an important element
79
in the
arrangement of its vanes.

vane and the plane of the
wheel is termed the weather angle, and to obtain the greatest
torque at starting the weather angle should be the complement
of the best incidence angles, or between 70 and 55 degrees.
In
practice it is found that the weather angle is never as great as
The angle between any portion
of a
being in the best examples about 43 degrees.

XVI gives the results of Mr. J. A. Griffiths', experiments for the five American-made windmills tested.
this,
Table
3.
two
Water-wheels.
wheels.
Water-wheels
may
be subdivided into
and (2) horizontal waterOf the former we have the more common of the old-
classes:
(i) vertical water-wheels
fashioned wheels:
1.
Undershot water-wheels.
2.
Breast- wheels.
3.
Overshot water-wheels.
Hurdy-gurdies.
Tangential water-wheels.
The latter is a modern adaptation of the old-fashioned
4.
5.
hurdy-gurdy, and is properly an impulse wheel.

wheels are turbines of various types, and in these,
wheels, water
may
act both
by pressure
Horizontal
like vertical
or impulse, or
by
combination of the two.

a.
Undershot Water-wheels.
The word water-wheel
is
usually
applied to the various old-fashioned vertical wheels, undershot,
Undershot wheels may be classibreast, and overshot wheels.
fied as
midstream wheels, the common "undershot wheels, and

In midstream wheels the motive power is
Poncelet wheels.
due to the velocity or impulse of the current of water in the*

stream in which the wheel is set, and such wheels are employed
almost exclusively for the elevation of water for irrigation.
They
are very simple in construction
and operation, and may be
advantageously employed w here water

streams having low velocity of flow.
r
is
abundant, even in
In rivers where the water-level fluctuates, the axle of the

is made movable on its supports to render it capable
wheel
of being raised or lowered at pleasure to suit the height of water-
80
and
level,
of the axle
may
by resting one or both extremities

The horse-power of a midstream wheel
this is effected
on
floats.
be calculated by the following formula from Mr. P. R.
Bjorling:
HP =
in
which
v is the velocity of the
stream in feet per second,
mean
velocity of the float-boards in feet per second,

the immersed area of the float-boards in square feet.
the
v-v
Numerous wheels
of this class
vi
and
have been successfully em-
pumping water for irrigation in various portions of

ployed
In some cases these wheels have attached to their
the West.
in
outer rim a row of buckets (Fig. 20), which dip into the water
as the wheel revolves, are thus filled, and then as they reach
the upper portion of their revolution spill their contents into
a trough which leads to the irrigating ditch.

Other forms
of midstream wheels are connected by means of gearing or
belting with pumps which elevate the water for irrigation.
The average diameter of

the West varies from 10 to 20
of the paddle
from 6 to 10
the
feet
feet.
midstream water-wheel of
and the length of the blade
Some wheels
of this variety
have been successfully employed notably

large
in Colorado which are from 20 to 30 feet
River
on the Green
These are hung on wooden axles 5 inches in
in diameter.
but
of
size
diameter, while their paddles dip 2 feet into the stream. On

their outer circumference are buckets of wood having an airhole in the bottom closed
suitable leather flap-valve which

rapidly by forcing out the air. These
by a
permits the bucket to fill

buckets are 6 feet in length and 4 inches square, and have a
capacity of a little less than a cubic foot each. The largest
of the wheels on the Green River have 16 paddles and lift 10
cubic feet of water per revolution, and as they make two revolutions a minute, though they spill a large portion of their contents,
each wheel handles about 4000 cubic feet per day, or
approximately i/io of an acre-foot.

Common undershot water-wheels,
midstream wheels, are the best where a
as
distinguished
fall of
from
convenient height
WATER-WHEELS
81
cannot be obtained, and the velocity of the water

These are confined in a channel which
great.
the width of the wheel
and
is
yet relatively
is
made about
wider at the inlet than at the wheel
is
so as to give freedom of access to the water
and to increase its

These
wheels
velocity.
operate most satisfactorily where the
fall is from \ to 2 feet in the course of the race.
The paddles
are similar to those for midstream wheels, though sometimes
they are curved and of iron. The number of float-boards or
paddles for such a wheel
may
be determined by the formula:
the number of float-boards and d the diameter of

These wheels vary in diameter from 10 to 20 feet,
and are usually constructed of from 30 to 40 paddles, varying
which n
in
is
the wheel.
from
1 to i\ feet in depth, their length being from 3 to 6
feet.
Poncelet wheels act rather on the turbine principle, their

paddles being, curved. They are usually immersed to the
height of their axes, and the water is screened from them with
the exception of a few inches near their under surface, so that
it
impinges by impulse against the under side of the wheel and

much as does a turbine.
acts
Breast-wheels are placed where there is a considerable fall

manner similar to Poncelet wheels, so that the level of
in a
water
is
about at the height of their axes.
They have
usually
curved paddles or buckets, and the water impinges against

them both by weight and impulse at a point below the axial
line.
fore
Overshot wheels are more economi-
Overshot Water-wheels.
b.
cal
than undershot wheels
in their use of water,
employed where water
delivered above the wheel

stock,
is
scarce.
by means
and are
there-
In these the water
is
of a flume, race, or pen-
and they are so constructed that the water may be deon the near or the far side of the wheel, according
livered either
to the arrangement of the outlet gates controlling the supply.
82
On
the outer circumference of the overshot wheel
is
a series of
buckets into which the water pours and by its weight causes
the wheel to revolve. As the wheel turns each bucket fills
as
it
passes the inlet and empties as it approaches the bottom,

on one side are always a certain number of buckets
so that
with water. In order to lose as little of the fall as possible

the bottom of the wheel should approach close to the lower
water surface, but should not dip into it, as by drowning the
filled
wheel
its
power
is
The buckets
diminished.
of overshot wheels
may
be made
of straight
boards or sheets of metal having two or three bends in them, or

may be curved. The number of buckets may be calculated by
the following formula given
to 20 feet in diameter,
by
n=
and
for
2.
Bjorling:
For wheels from 12
id;
wheels 25 to 40 feet in diameter,
n=
The depth
2.$d.
of shrouding for these wheels
and the bucket opening
is
about 12 inches,
about J of a square foot for each cubic

foot of bucket contents, or is about 7 inches in width.
Overshot water-wheels may be employed to operate through
is
gearing or belting any of the usual forms of reciprocating or
pumps, and will elevate volumes of water to heights

proportioned to the power they are capable of developing.
Turbine wheels may be divided
c. Turbine Water-wheels.
into two classes, according as they are acted on (i) through
Pressure wheels have curved
pressure and (2) through reaction.
centrifugal
Reaction wheels
float-boards along which the water glides.
consist of an arrangement of pipes from which water issues
tangentially.
To
this latter class really
belong Pelton wheels,
which are vertical reaction wheels.

While pressure and reaction wheels are similar in construction, they differ in that in the former the passages between
the vanes are not completely filled with water, while in reaction
wheels the water fills and flows through the whole section of
WATER-WHEELS
83
Turbines are again distinguished as (i)

inward-, and (3) mixed- or parallel-flow turbines.
the discharge-pipe.
outward-, (2)
The former receive the water at the center and deliver
of
the
it
at the
the
revolving wheel,
regulating apparatus
consisting of a ring inserted between the outer periphery of the
guide-blades and the internal periphery of the revolving wheel.
periphery
In inward-flow turbines the motion of the water, as the
name
implies,
practically the reverse of that for outward flow.
Turbines possess an advantage over vertical water-wheels in
is
that they
several
and
be used with any
may
hundred
vertical
The
fall
of
water from
foot to
between turbines
water-wheels are that the turbines may be drowned,
feet.
chief differences
but vertical wheels must be elevated above the water
in the tail-
the turbine takes its supply at the bottom of the fall

and the water-wheel at the top or beginning of the fall, and
therefore the former obtains nearly the whole pressure due to
the head or height of the fall; turbines work without material
loss of energy when drowned and move with a greater velocity
than vertical water-wheels, and hence may be reduced in size
and weight for equal power.
Mixed- and parallel-flow turbines may be fixed at any
convenient distance above the tail-race, and must have sufficient water above the guide-blades to allow it to enter freely
race;
without eddies.
Of the American makes of water-wheels probably the two

most extensively employed are the Victor turbine and the
Leffel turbine, though a number of other types are manufactured.
These wheels have been extensively employed for all the various
purposes to which power may be applied, and a number of
pumping plants
by such turbines have

in sizes and
diameter under a head of
for irrigation operated
been erected in the West.
These turbines come
powers ranging from a few inches in

but a few feet, and capable of developing as
power, up to the enormous
sixes
little
as one horse-
which have recently been
which are capable of developing as much as 20,000 horsepower, and which may be operated under several hundred
built
feet of head.
84
d.
Pelton
Pelton
Water-wheels.
water-wheels
are
simple
and not liable to be clogged or to get out of

order, and can be worked under great heights of fall.
They
are vertical, tangential reaction wheels, and pow er is derived
from the impulse of the head of water supplied by a pipe which
discharges upon the wheel-buckets on the lower side of the
wheel through a nozzle. The buckets which are on the periphery
in construction
of a Pelton wheel are of metal, cup-shaped,
two compartments
such
and divided into
develop the full force of

the impinging stream, while in passing out the water sweeps the
curved sides with a reactionary influence, giving it the effect
in
way
as to
The power of this wheel does not depend upon

but
its diameter,
upon the volume and head of water supplied.
Pelton wheels are not recommended for heads less than 50 feet,
of a long impact.
as below this
above 200
feet
head turbines are usually more efficient. But

head and up to 2000 feet a Pelton wheel is best,
as no other wheel produces like efficiency or works with equal

These wheels are adapted to a wide range of consimplicity.
power under the most varyis accomplished by simple

change of nozzle-tips, by varying the size of stream thrown
upon the wheel, or by shutting off one or more of the multiple
nozzles, the power of which may thus be varied from maximum
ditions of water-supply, producing
ing conditions with efficiency.
This
25 per cent without appreciable loss. The buckets being

open, there is no uncertainty or annoyance from derangement
to
of the parts, or stoppage
by
driftwr ood or other substances in
They are relatively cheap of installment, and may

water from a small spring or creek as well as from
the largest source of supply. These wheels admit, by varying
their diameter, of being placed directly on the crank-shaft
the water.
utilize the
power pumps without intermediate gearing or connections.

The development of the
4. Internal Combustion Engines.
gas and vapor engines actuated by internal explosions are not
of
only relatively economical of fuel, but are adaptable to small

units, and are so nearly automatic as to require only occasional
keep them running properly, and when out of order

merely stop until the difficulty is remedied. These important
visits to
AND ALCOHOL PUM PING-ENGINES
HOT-AIR
85
advantages have given them a prominent place in the field of

pumping plants. Their most important handicap
individual
is the high grade of fuel required, generally either gasoline, or

other volatile oils called distillate. A greater economy in the
fuel used by such engines is sometimes obtained by producing
or coal in the plant itself.

The lignite
outcropping abundantly in some regions is well adapted to this
the gas consumed from
oil
use.
5. Hot-air,
Gasoline, and Alcohol Pumping-engines.

for
air
pumping-engines depend
developed by the expansion of
tion of steam or other agency
Alcohol and gasoline-engines
their
heated
operation
Hot-
on power
without the interposito convert the heat into motion.

are
air
likewise
operated
without
converting the heat produced by combustion into steam, but

depend upon the expansive force produced by the explosion of
alcohol or gasoline converted into gas when brought into contact
with
air.
They have, under
certain conditions, decided advan-
tages over water- and steam motors in that they can be employed
where there is not a sufficient water-supply to operate a water-
motor,
utilizing, as
being able to
they do, practically no water, and therefore
pump
all
that
is
available for irrigation.
They
may be employed where steam-pumps cannot be, both because

of their economy in water consumption and because of the kinds
which they may use; gasoline and alcohol being serviceable in arid regions where transportation of fuel is expensive
and hot-air engines being capable of utilizing any variety of fuel.
They are compact, and simple of erection by comparatively
of fuel
unskilled machinists,
for
supervision.
and can be operated at the
Denatured
alcohol
is
utilized in a specially designed alcohol engine, of
several successful
made on
makes on the market.
least
efficient
expense
fuel
when
which there are
Such alcohol can be
the farm from waste or refuse vegetables, fruit, or
grain.
Hot-air engines are constructed almost wholly as pumpingengines, and the motive power and pumping apparatus are
in one machine inseparably connected.
Many thousands of these machines are in use, chiefly for pumping small
combined
86
quantities of water in
cities for manufacturing or domestic

a
few
uses, only
being employed in pumping water for irrigation.
are simple of construction and there is no possibility of

explosion, as may occur through carelessness with a gasoline-
They
When once started they require no further attention

engine.
than the replenishment of fuel.
Gasoline- and alcohol-engines are used extensively in some
portions of the West, notably in Kansas, for pumping water for
irrigation.
They
are
made
of various dimensions,
pumping a
corresponding volume of water, and they are constructed as

combined motive and pumping plants or as separate motors to be
attached to various forms of pumps.
which these machines have are
their
The
chief
advantages
compactness and simplicity
and operation, and their cheapness.

6. Steam Power.
Some of the largest irrigation pumping
in
in
existence
plants
point of power developed and water pumped
In the Hawaiian Islands large
are actuated by steam power.
steam pumps are employed to lift water as much as 550 feet for
the irrigation of sugar cane. The crop must be very valuable to
justify any such lift.
Very large steam plants for low lifts
and large quantities of water are employed upon the rice plantations of Louisiana.
The large plants have employed the
reciprocating engine and pump direct-connected, or steam pump.
For some cases a higher efficiency may be obtained by the use
of steam turbines which are especially, on account of their high
speed, adaptable to the actuation of electric generators, which
of installation
number of pumps installed at

Where the water is to be obtained from
numerous wells, this method of distribution is especially advantageous. A steam plant to be economical must be large, as it
requires continuous attendance and must have elaborate provisions for economy of fuel.
The investment in such a plant and
the area irrigated are usually beyond the means of the individual
in turn
may
furnish current to a
different localities.
irrigator,
by
and most successful plants
of this character are
handled
large corporations or municipalities.

7.
pump
Although other types are used, the centrifugal

dominates the irrigation field.
Pumps.
PUMPS
87
Centrifugal pumps lift water by means of a disk bearing

curved blades which revolves rapidly within a chamber, which
fits as closely as possible to leave clearance for rapid motion.
The
blades force the water through the delivery pipe.

They
are sometimes submerged in the water to be pumped, or may be
placed a few feet above the water, in which case they require
priming to start them. Centrifugal pumps are of several varie-
but acting on the same principle.

The centrifugal type of pump is the favorite where large
volumes of water must be lifted through a moderate elevation.
ties, differing
Its
in
form or
main advantages
freedom from
detail,
are simplicity, reliability, low cost,
serious
trouble
with
silt,
leaves,
etc.
and
When
properly designed for the conditions under which it is to operate

it shows efficiencies above 80 per cent for heads between 30 to
60 feet, with somewhat less outside those limits. The loss
at entrance of suction pipe is over 90 per cent of the velocity
head at entrance, and at the exit of the discharge pipe the loss
These losses can be greatly diminthe entire velocity head.

the
to
pipe
larger section in both directions
by tapering
To
be fully effective, however, the taper
from the pump.
is
ished
must be very gradual,
especially at the discharge end.

B. Gregory gives the following table as an illustration of the advantage of expanding the suction and discharge
Prof.
W.
pipes in directions away from the pump. It also illustrates the

fact that this is more important at the discharge than at the
suction side:
TABLE
Form
of Pipe
XVII.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP,
FEET LIFT
88
KXEMBB
jgjjflggj^jj|
FIG. 17.
FIG. 18.
Windmill and Reservoir near Garden

City, Kansas.
Battery of Hydraulic Rams, Yakima Valley, Washington.
PUMPS
FIG. 19.
FIG. 20.
89
Undershot Water-wheel.
Current Wheel or Nona, Lifting Water from Salmon River for

Irrigation.
90
It is especially adapted to low

screw, working inside a pipe.
it does not require the water to move with as high a
heads, as
velocity as the centrifugal pump requires, and may achieve

efficiencies of 70 per cent for heads as low as 6 or 8 feet.
Another type of pump advantageous for low heads is the

scoop wheel, a view of which is shown in Fig. 22. It is an adaptation of the old-fashioned paddle wheel used on river steamers. The
paddles push the water up a curved trough fitting them closely
without touching. It moves the water so gently that its efficiency
is
almost independent of the
to high
lifts.
lift,
but
it
cannot be well adapted
Efficiencies of over 60 per cent are attainable.
Direct Pumping. It often happens that the location of

a canal on the adopted grade reaches a point where it encounters
8.
topography so rough that economy requires it to be dropped

to a lower level, and there may also be irrigable land at higher
near by, which it is desirable to reach. In such a case
may be possible to utilize the power generated by the falling
level,
it
water at the drop, to raise a portion of it to a higher level.

Where this is done at the same point with one installation of
machinery, this is called a direct-pumping plant. Several such
plants have been installed by the United States Reclamation
Service, a typical one being that on the Huntley Project, Montana, where the main canal carries 200 second- feet of water,
which descends a vertical distance of 34
feet, through a pressure

pipe into a casing enclosing a centrifugal pump mounted on a
vertical shaft above a turbine water-wheel on the same shaft.
One hundred and
second-feet of the water passes through

the turbine into the canal below, thus turning the shaft and
fifty
actuating the centrifugal pump which lifts 50 second-feet of

the water to a level 45 feet above that of the main canal. This
machine was built under a requirement of 51 per cent efficiency
and approximates
It
same
is
for
this in practice.
seldom that the velocity of highest efficiency is the

both water-wheel and pump, and hence it sometimes
occurs that higher efficiency can be obtained by a separate

installation of these two machines, connecting them by gearing
or belting to secure the best velocity in each.
HYDRAULIC RAM
9.
Hydraulic Ram.
The commonest form
91
of direct
pumping
This uses a large volume of water

falling a moderate distance, to pump a smaller quantity of water
through a greater head. In this device, a pipe (A) leads from
the source of supply to a valve box (B) and sends a branch to an
plant
is
the hydraulic ram.
chamber
from which the delivery pipe (D) leads to the

in the valve box opens downward,
and is made heavy enough to remain open with a moderate
flow of water but closes suddenly when the velocity of the escapWhen the valve closes the
ing water reaches a certain point.
air
(C),
higher level.
The valve
is suddenly checked, producing a water hammer

which opens the valve into the air chamber and compresses
rushing water
FIG. 21.
Diagram
Illustrating
Principle of Hydraulic
Ram.
and is relieved in part by flowing into the delivery pipe.

the pressure equalizes, the air chamber valve closes,
and the flow through the delivery pipe is continued for a brief
period, by the expansion of the compressed air in the air chamber.
the
air,
When
As the air in this chamber is gradually absorbed and carried

out by the water, provision must be made for its renewal, or the
When the water in the
efficiency of the ram will decrease.
supply pipe is quiet, the valve in the valve box (B) falls, the
flow of water begins again, and the process is repeated.
Thus, the flow from a hydraulic ram is a series of pulsations,

and each impulse has to overcome the inertia of the column
If two such rams are connected
of water in the delivery pipe.
with the same discharge pipe, and their pulsations do not coincide, the discharge is more nearly continuous, and less energy
92
is
of
wasted; and this becomes
rams
is
increased.
An
still
more the
case, as the
number
rams
installation of eleven hydraulic
Yakima
Valley gave an efficiency of over 71 per cent

quite old, while a single ram will seldom give better than
50 to 60 per cent efficiency. Like other mechanical appliances,
however, the hydraulic ram is susceptible of great ranges in
in the
when
efficiency,
and a battery
are reported
TABLE
Strokes
of
two
2-inch rams installed at Seattle,

efficiencies as follows
by Carver to have shown

XVIII.
TESTS OF 12-INCH HYDRAULIC RAM,

SEATTLE, WASH.
AIR LIFT-PUMPING
93
generated, electric power may be generated at the drop, and

transmitted over wires to one or several points where pumping
Such pumping may be from canals, or from wells

drawing upon the ground water, and opportunities for their
installation are very numerous in irrigated regions, and in fact
is
required.
occur on nearly every large irrigation system.
The
largest existing hydro-electric installation for irrigation

pumping is at the Minidoka dam on the irrigation project of
same name
the
and operated by the United States govern-
built
ment.
At
this point, a
dam was
built in
Snake River to
water into canals on each side of the
bed
of the river.
and
earth,
and
The main dam
its
is
river,
38
feet
of loose rock faced
raise the
above the
with gravel
south abutment at the river bank merges into
a concrete weir built on the lava bench, which serves as a spillway, about 3000 feet long. The weir is surmounted by a series
which are placed
of buttresses against
movable
flash
boards to serve as a
crest to store flood waters for irrigation.
The
available
storage capacity above the level necessary for diversion pur-
poses
is
about 54,000
Below
acre-feet.
this
dam about
300,000
acres of land are irrigated, the water for which must pass the
dam and is available for the development of power under such
head as the
The
dam
affords,
which
present development
vertical turbines,
is
about 46 feet on an average.
consists of five 2ooo-horse-power
direct connected to
1500 k.v.a. alternators,

generating 3-phase 6o-cycle current at 2300 volts. The turbines
operate under a normal gross head of 46 feet at a speed of 200
r.p.m.
The
current from the alternators
is
transformed from 2300
volts to 33,000 volts, by five transformers of 1500 k.v.a. capacity

each.
This current is transmitted over duplicate copper trans-
mission
lines,
nearest
a distance of
pumping
At the lower end
first
pumping
miles
by
the shortest line to the
station.
plant,
of the south side gravity canal is located the
which consists
of four centrifugal
with capacity of 160 second-feet each, and one
pump
pumps
of 75
second-feet capacity, or a total capacity of 715 second-feet.
94
The
31 feet net, and at this level a canal carries water to

cover about 10,000 acres. Another canal runs in cut to a suitable
lift is
location for the second
four
pumps
pumping
station which
of i6o-second-feet capacity each,
is equipped with
which lift the water
31 feet higher, from which level about 15,000 acres are irrigated,
and the balance of the water is carried to the third pumping
station,
and one
which has two pumps
of i6o-second-feet capacity each
of 75-second-feet capacity,
The
acres of land.
FIG. 22.
lift
and supplies about 23,000

is about 31 feet and
at each station
Scoop Wheel, Lifting Water 3!
feet,
60 per cent
Efficient.
the average lift is about 64 feet. All the pumps are of the
vertical shaft type submerged, with both top and bottom suction,
located in separate concrete chambers, 16 by 17 feet, protected
by steel trash racks. The larger pumps have impellers of 44

inches diameter and discharges 48 inches diameter, giving a
discharge velocity of 10.4 feet at rated capacity, and a speed of
300 r.p.m.
The
impellers are of
casing of the
steel plate
pump
is
of cast iron,
with cast-iron shroud
discharge pipes gradually enlarge to
and the
rings.
The
66 inches diameter and are
THE HUMPHREY DIRECT-EXPLOSION PUMP
95
merged into reinforced-concrete pipe, reaching to the top of the

lift, where it is equipped with a steel flap valve which remains
open while the pump is operating, and closes when it stops.
The motive power
for the
pumping unit
is
furnished
by a 600-
horse-power 3-phase synchronous motor, wound for 2200 volts,

to which pressure the current is transformed from the transmission voltage of about 30,000.
All the
pumping
stations are
housed in buildings of reinforced concrete.
The
electric current
pumping
stations
feet to cover a
where
is
also transmitted to
it is
necessary to
few hundred acres.
lift
This
numerous small
water from 3 to
accomplished by
steel scoop wheels with an efficiency of about 60 per cent.
12. The Humphrey direct-explosion pump is used at Del
Pumping
FIG.
23.
is
Station
Direct explosion
Pumping Plant
to Raise Irrigating
Water.
about 60 cubic feet per second to a height

of 37 feet from the Rio Grande.
This type of pump has few
moving parts and combines the prime motor and pump in one
Rio, Texas, to
pump
structure, consisting mainly of a simple system of pipes, valves,
and tanks, as shown
To
in Fig. 23, using gas
produced at the site.

air and gas is forced
pump, the proper mixture of

by a small air compressor of the two-cylinder
one
type,
cylinder pumping air and the other pumping gas.
After the proper mixture of air and gas is forced into the
start the
into a cylinder
cylinder
spark,
all
the compressor, the charge is fired by an electric

the valves being shut at the instant when the explosion
by
96
The charge of gas and air is exploded directly over

the surface of the water, no piston or moving parts being used.
The increase in pressure resulting from the explosion, all valves
occurs.
being closed, drives the water in the pump-head downwards

and sets the whole column of water in the play pipe in motion.
This column of water attains kinetic energy during the period
when work
is being done upon it by the expanding gases.

By
the time the gases resulting from the explosion have expanded
to atmospheric pressure the water in the play pipe is moving
at a very high velocity. As the motion of this column of water

cannot be suddenly arrested the pressure in the explosion
falls below atmospheric pressure.
When this occurs,
a quantity of water enters through the suction valves, most of
chamber
which follows the moving column in the play pipe and the
rises in the explosion chamber.
As soon
rest,
it
as the
starts to
column
of water in the play pipe
move back towards
the
rest
comes
and
pump
gains
to
in
velocity until the water reaches the level of the exhaust valves
which are shut by impact. A certain quantity of the burned

products mixed with the scavenging air is now imprisoned in the
cushioned space and the kinetic energy of the moving column
expended in compressing this gas cushion to a very much
is
greater pressure than due to the static pumping head. As a

result of the energy stored up in the entrapped compressed gases,
the column of water is again forced outward.
The pressure
in the gas
head
is
again reduced to atmospheric pressure and
below, at which a fresh charge of gas and air is drawn in to

the explosion chamber.
Again the column of water returns
under the pressure in the play pipe, compresses the charge of gas
and air which is then ignited to start a fresh cycle of operation.
The period of cycle of the pump is determined primarily by

the length of the reciprocating column of water in the play pipe.
As a general rule, assuming the column to be of a uniform section,
the period of vibration is almost proportional to the square root
of the length of the water column.
The Del Rio pump will
average about twelve complete cycles per minute.

The thermal efficiency of the pump is guaranteed to be not
RICE IRRIGATION
97
less than 20 per cent.

English pumps of this type have reached
a thermal efficiency of over 22 per cent.
The irrigation of rice in Louisiana is
13. Rice Irrigation.
an important industry, and this has become one of the staple

crops of the state. It was formerly customary to place flumes
in the levees of the Mississippi River to admit water to the rice
fields, but the menace to the safety of the levees led to the
prohibition of this practice, and thereafter siphons have been
At low water it is generally

the water from the river to supply the siphons.
Large quantities of rice are also produced on the uplands, to
which water is pumped to various heights, sometimes more than
used to
lift
the water over the leeves.
necessary to
50
feet.
pump
The quantity
varies with the season
averaging about 2\
TABLE XIX.
of irrigation water applied in a season
and the
soil,
from
to 3 feet in depth,
feet.
PRODUCTION OF
RICE,
1917,
IN UNITED STATES
98
and Texas, the motive power being

in
while
steam
Louisiana,
gasoline is frequently employed
usually
in Texas.
These two States produce over three-quarters of the
irrigation of rice in Louisiana
produced in the United States, most of the rest being grown

Arkansas and California. Over 90 per cent of this is irrigated
rice
in
by pumping, and
this
mainly by centrifugal pumps.

According to Gregory, the largest irrigation pumping plant
in the rice country is that of the Neches Canal near Beaumont,
Texas, which has a capacity of about 440 cubic feet per second,
pumping against a head of 30 to 35 feet. This is accomplished
by
six
rotary chamber wheel pumps.
and
reliability,
good efficiency
have given considerable trouble.
lar
discharge velocity,
chambers near the pump.
a higher grade of
is
skill in
These pumps have shown
but some plants of
One complication
is
this
type
the irregu-
making it necessary to provide air

This and other characteristics require
their operation and maintenance than
necessary for the centrifugal
pump.
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER VII

C. The Windmill, Its Efficiency and Economic Use. W. S. P.
and 42 U. S. Geological Survey.
GREGORY, W. B. Evolution of Low-lift Pumping Plants in Gulf Coast Country.
American Soc. Mechanical Engineers, New York.
MURPHY, E.
41
DAVIS, A. P.
Sons,
New
Irrigation
ETCHEVERRY, B. A.
New
Works Constructed by United
States.
John Wiley
&
York.
Use
of Irrigation
Water.
York.
FLEMING, B. P. Practical Irrigation and Pumping. John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
TAIT, C. E. Use of Underground Water for Irrigation, at Pomona, Cal. Bulletin
No. 236, U. S. Office of Experiment Stations.
MAHAN, F. A. Water Wheels. E. & F. Spon, New York.
SCHLICHTER & WOLF. Underflow of South Platte Valley. W. S. P. No. 184,
U.
S.
Geological Survey.
NEWELL &
MURPHY. Principles
Book Company, New York.
of
Irrigation
O'SHAUGHNESSY, M. M. Irrigation Works

News, April 15, 1909.
WILSON, HERBERT M. Pumping Water for
Geological Survey.
HUMPHREY, H. A. Direct-Acting Explosion
1909.
in
Engineering.
Hawaiian Islands.
Engineering
U.
S.
Engineering News, Dec.
2,
Irrigation.
Pump.
W.
McGraw-Hill
S. P.
No.
i,
CHAPTER
VIII
IRRIGABLE LANDS
ONE of the first and most important fundamentals to determine regarding a proposed irrigation project, is the area and
character of the irrigable land.
Simple as this may seem, it is a
frequent cause of failure of such projects, that only cursory
was given
attention
this
important element in planning the
projects.
For successful irrigation the land should

have some slope in order that the water may be induced to run
over it in gravity canals and farm ditches. When the water
in a canal is quiescent, and no current can be detected, its surface
i.
Topography.
is level,
or practically so,
siderable slope
sive plain,
and
must be given
in order to induce a flow, a conits surface.
perhaps an ancient lake bed,
nishes no considerable slope in
any
Sometimes an extenis
so flat that
direction
it
fur-
on which to build
a canal with natural slope sufficient to carry the irrigation water.

This water must therefore be provided at the edge of the plain
at sufficient elevation so that
it
by confining
can be held above the level of the land with
it
between dikes
its
surface gently
and must reach each field to be

with the water surface sufficiently above ground so
sloping in the direction of flow,

irrigated
that
it
can be induced to run over the
fields to
be irrigated.
If
the distance through which the canal must be thus carried is

great, the height of the dikes forming the elevated water way
be too expensive, and their maintenance too precarious to

be feasible. In general, extensive tracts of this nature are not
numerous, and when small, they can be treated as above indi-
may
but owing to lack of grade the canals must have small

slope and low velocity.
cated;
99
IRRIGABLE LANDS
100
The
desirable slope of the irrigable land is between 10 feet

per mile and 30 feet per mile in the direction of greatest slope.
Less than the lower limit mentioned involves some inconvenience
water over the fields, and in disposing of waste water,

while more than 30 feet may involve extra expense in providing
drops in canals, or other devices to avoid destructive velocities.
in getting
typical valley usually has a slope parallel with its drainage
FIG. 24.
Shoshone Desert before
Irrigation.
and approximately equal thereto, and also a slope from the

normal to the stream.
While the above limits indicate the convenient slopes, the
line
hills
feasibility of irrigation is
not thus limited by any means.
Water
can be successfully applied where the slope is little or nothing,

and also on side hills so steep that plowing and other farm
operations are difficult; but such conditions require special
devices and expenditures, and great care in the application of
TOPOGRAPHY
101
In countries where land and its products are of low

a
limit of slope of 10 per cent is sometimes adopted, and
value,
land with greater slope than this is classed as non-irrigable.
water.
Where land values
are higher, however, a greater slope can be
and successfully irrigated, by the use of small heads of

water and by handling it with care.
While the ideal plain for irrigation is a smooth gentle slope,
this is seldom encountered in practice, and the country to be
tolerated
FIG. 25.- -Shoshone Desert after Irrigation.
irrigated
may
be rolling and traversed with drainage
lines.
very large or frequent, they will greatly increase

the cost of the system by the necessity of providing structures
If these are
for drainage crossings.
If
the natural drainage lines are not too
large or numerous, they may be advantageous in furnishing

natural escapes for storm and waste waters.
The fertility of the soil must, of course,
2. Soil Survey.
be beyond doubt.
one, the fertility
In any country, except an extremely arid

of the soil may be partly inferred from the
IRRIGABLE LANDS
H)2
In general the growth

an excellent indication, as this does not
nor on that impregnated to a harmful extent
character of the natural vegetation.

of thrifty sage brush
thrive on poor soil
with
is
In some cases, however, sage brush land with soil

may be dotted with frequent spots of rock
alkali.
otherwise excellent
having enough
soil
on the surface and
to produce a fair
in crevices
of sage brush,
but unfit
and pockets
for profitable
growth
Care should be taken to ascertain that
cultivation.
land classed as irrigable has at least 2 or 3 feet of

rock or hardpan that may underlie it.
The presence
soil
all
the
over any
greasewood generally denotes that for some

reason the conditions are not favorable for sage brush, unless
some of the. latter also occurs. Frequently, the reason is a heavy
soil,
of
or the presence of alkali in too great
an amount
for sage
brush.
The freedom of the passage of water through sand is fairly

good assurance that sandy soil contains no injurious amounts
of alkali, and this is generally true.
Unless the
character
the sandy nature of

of
the
of vegetation carried
soil
is
harmful amounts of alkaline

survey made
soil
by a
tract, or
such as to assure the absence

salts, it will
to determine the
be well to have a
depth and character
of the
soil.
samples at varying depths may best be obtained by

a soil auger, which can be made by any blacksmith.
Soil
means
of
It should be
about
that can be
and should have a
inches in diameter,
extended
to a total
length of 5 feet, so
shaft
that
if
The samples
desired samples at that depth can be 6btained.
obtained should be kept separate and carefully labeled as to
locality
and depth at which obtained.
All samples should be
At least
10 per cent of the samples
tested as to total soluble salts.
taken at each foot of depth should be quantitatively analyzed

for
carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride and sulphate of sodium r

of magnesium, and at least 10 per cent of the
and sulphate
remaining samples should be subjected to simple tests to show

whether the indications of the analyses are safe guides, and
which
salt
predominates.
The number
of
samples taken must
SOIL
SURVEY
103
depend upon the degree of doubt existing as to the quality of

the soil, and should be determined as the inquiry progresses.
uniform, fewer samples are necessary
than if they vary greatly. If little alkali is found, fewer samples
are necessary than if the alkali is so abundant as to stimulate
If the results are fairly
doubt of the arability of the soil.

Sandy areas are sometimes so rough as to be expensive in
There is often a tendency for the sand to drift about
leveling.
desert shrubs, and if the dunes or hummocks are numerous
they
too
may occupy
them, and the cost
much room
to
permit farming between
them may be prohibitive. Even

the casual observer appears smooth often requires
land that to
of leveling
considerable
leveling
water applied
will seek the
for
proper irrigation. Otherwise, the

low places, and soak them too heavily,
while the high points are left dry. Neglect to properly level
the ground is one of the commonest failings of agriculture under
It often happens that depressions or sinks occur
irrigation.
which
in their natural state
may
be rather more
fertile
than the
surrounding land, but that owing to lack of surface drainage

are likely under irrigation to become ponds or bogs, too wet to
cultivate.
It may be possible to provide drainage, but the cost
of this
must be
considered,
and
if
prohibitive the areas
must be
eliminated.
All areas found to be non-irrigable or of doubtful fertility
must be liberally measured and carefully eliminated from- the
irrigable area,
and the extra length of canals and laterals necesmust be liberally allowed for. Allow-
sary to reach a given area
ance must also be
made
for the
canals, railroads, drainage lines,
ground to be occupied by roads,

and any other areas that cannot
be actually cultivated.
Consideration must be given to the cost of clearing the land.
If heavily timbered, under circumstances in which the timber
cannot be marketed, the cost of clearing plus the cost of irrigation may nearly equal or even exceed the value of the cleared
land.
The
cost of clearing smaller brush
may
often be an
important element in considering the feasibility of the project.
IRRIGABLE LANDS
104
Preparation of Land for Irrigation. a. Clearing. In the

preparation of raw land for irrigation, the first step is the
3.
removal from the surface of the native vegetation. If this is

simply a sod of grass, rabbit brush or other small vegetation,
it may be plowed under, by means of a strong team attached
when possible, is very desirable,

in the soil where by decay
matter
as this retains the vegetable
But if the
it forms valuable plant food, generally much needed.
to a breaking plow,
ground
is
and
this
wholly or partially covered with larger shrubs or
must be removed or burned.

Sagebrush and Greasewood. The commonest grade
trees,
these
of clearing
required is sagebrush, greasewood, creosote brush, and other

shrubs too large to plow under, and too coarse and woody to
decay readily.
In
many
worth saving for

prevent erosion by wind
cases such brush
is
riprapping sandy banks to

These shrubs cover a large proportion
fuel, or for
or water.
lands in the
Rocky Mountain and
range from 3 to 6
of the irrigable
Pacific States,
and usually
They may be easily broken

off at the ground surface by means of a device formed of three
railroad rails, with the heads interlocked, and firmly bolted
feet in height.
together, leaving the flanges projecting, so as to form dull edges.

may be dragged across the brush by eight horses and
This device
very effective in breaking down the brush, which may then be

Sageeasily collected, and either burned or piled for future use.
is
brush when not very large is sometimes plowed out by heavy

teams or traction engines, and as the plowing is often desirable,
the method is a good one, although more expensive than the
rail method, which has been done for $2.50 to $3.50 per acre,
while the plowing method costs from $1.00 to $2.00 more. The
roots of these shrubs give little trouble in tillage, and soon decay.
Mesquite is an abundant native of the Southwest, is larger

and tougher than sagebrush and has much heavier stumps and
roots.
It is commonly removed by hand, and makes excellent
firewood, and trunks of sufficient size and straightness are used
as fence posts.
The stumps and roots do not decay rapidly
and are generally grubbed by hand, which is laborious and
expensive.
PREPARATION OF LAND FOR IRRIGATION
105
Juniper and Pinon trees are numerous in middle latitudes

altitudes, and merchantable pine trees sometimes occur on
and
land destined for irrigation.
saw
logs of value,
The
but the Pinon
long leaf pines may furnish

of value only for fuel.
is
Juniper (sometimes called cedar) often sends many heavy

branches from one root at the ground, and all these must be cut.
The stumps do not readily
decay, and are difficult to grub. The

cost of clearing is therefore greater than in the case of pines.
Juniper is much used for fence posts, which are very durable.
Where the soil is sandy and likely to blow when the brush
covering is removed, the clearing must be performed with great

It should never be attempted in the spring
care and caution.
any season when high winds are
to be expected.
In most
the best season in this respect. Not
all of the ground should be cleared in one season, but where the
topography will permit the land should be divided into strips
or at
localities late
about 40
summer
feet wide,
left
is
and only alternate
being
As soon as cleared, each
possible,
and immediately
are good crops to seed

quickly,
possible,
strips cleared, the
brush
on the intervening
grow
strips as a protection against wind.

strip should be leveled as quickly as
irrigated
first,
late in the fall,
immediately
and seeded. Rye or wheat

and cover the ground
as they sprout
and
start early in the spring.
If
after seeding a liberal sprinkling of straw
should be spread over the ground and a disk harrow run over it,
with the disks vertical. This will force the straw partly into
the ground, leaving the ends sticking up like a stubble. This
tend to prevent drifting until the grain can cover the ground.
Alfalfa may be seeded at the same time, and the rye or
will
wheat then serves as a nurse crop, to protect against drifting,

and by the time the grain matures the alfalfa should be large
enough to care
for itself.
One year
later
than the
first
seeding
the intervening strip on which the brush was
may be cleared,
Water must be used
leveled and seeded in the same way.
left
rather freely the first year or two, and means should be provided for using this in large heads, so that it may be run over
the ground quickly, before that first applied sinks below the root
zone.
In such sandy regions
it is
well to cover the ditch banks,
IRRIGABLE LANDS
106
some
and
other unoccupied areas, with vegetation of

kind to prevent drifting of the sand. Rye is excellent
roadsides,
all
it stands drought well, reseeds itself, and

never becomes a pest. Alfalfa serves the purpose even better
than rye, but requires more water, especially in youth. As
soon as a good stand of alfalfa is secured, no further trouble
for this purpose, as
need be encountered with that particular land, but
it
may
still
be subject to danger from the drifting of sand from neighboring

fields.
One or two ignorant, careless or unskillful farmers can
cause their neighbors immense damage
their land and leaving the soil to drift,
and covering other
fields
and plowing
laterals and roads,
clearing
filling
with unwelcome sand dunes.
FIG. 26.
legal
by
remedy has been provided
No
Slip Scraper.
for such offenses,
and
it is
neces-
sary to give timely expert advice and exert all possible moral
pressure to see that the advice is carefully followed.
The
cost of clearing mescjuite, pines, juniper, cottonwood,

varies
etc.,
widely with the size and density of the growth,
and the thoroughness with which it is done. Where the growth
is
small and sparse, and grubbing
is
unnecessary, as on arid
benches, mesquite and pinon may sometimes be removed for

$10 per acre, while the heavy timber may run in some cases
considerably above $100 per acre. While some use can
usually be
cost
of
thereof.
made
clearing,
of the
and
value rarely approaches the

generally but a small percentage
wood,
is
its

b.
Leveling.
It is
seldom that in
its
107
natural state irrigable
land has an entirely smooth and even surface, and though to the
unpracticed eye it may appear smooth, it generally has undula-
which, however
slight, interfere with the even application

In attempting to irrigate such land without leveling, the farmer will find that the water tends to accumu-
tions,
of irrigation water.
and over-irrigate them, while the elevated spots receive little or no water. Much labor is expended
in trying to secure uniform distribution of the water, and the
late in the depressions
results
are not satisfactory.

Failure to properly level the
one of the commonest errors of beginners under irriga-
land
is
tion,
and
is
often fatal to success.
FIG. 27.
Adjustable
It is not desirable to
for
make
Making Head
Ditches.
the land a dead level, but to
generally a smooth plane surface with slopes either

uniform or varying to suit the mode of irrigation adopted. If
the natural slope is considerable, and the furrow method of
give
it
irrigation
is
to
as with other
be used, perfect smoothness is not so important

of irrigation, but is still desirable.
methods
Apparent smoothness sometimes leads the farmer to believe

leveling is necessary, but this is seldom the case.
More frequently the cost of proper leveling is the most important
that no
item in the preparation of the land for irrigation, and
it is
IRRIGABLE LANDS
108
mistake to plant orchards, alfalfa or other perennials until this

thoroughly done, or to plant any crop without a fair degree of
is
leveling.
If
any great amount of

off and the
mounds must be scraped

and
after a year of irrigation, it
ground has
settled,
satisfactory results.
leveling
may
is
used to
soil
necessary, the
the hollows,
fill
be found that the new
and further work must be done to achieve

For this reason, it is often best to plant
FIG. 28.
Leveling
New
Land.
Idaho.
some annual crop, as grain, or still better a row crop like beans,
on which the furrow method of irrigation can be used.
The amount and character of leveling required varies
somewhat with the method of irrigation proposed. The furrow
method can be used with less careful leveling than any of the
flooding methods, provided the slope is ample to force the
water through the furrows, and provided some pains are taken
to
make
and making
it
more uniform
in slope than
the
furrow
across
mounds,
by deepening
shallower across depressions.
the bottom of the furrow
the ground surface,
When
109
used, the ground between borders

should have a uniform slope parallel to the borders, and perThis will make each border a
fectly level transverse thereto.
the border system
is
miniature terrace, to correspond to the slope of the head ditch,

and will minimize the labor of irrigation. If the check system
is
to be used
it
will result in
It will be seen that
it is
miniature terraces in both directions.
important to have in mind the system
to be used, before the leveling
The
scraping
down
of
is
done.
mounds and
the
filling of
hollows
is
best accomplished with the Fresno scraper, shown in Fig. 29.

adjustments are such that it may be made to take off a
Its
FIG. 29.
thick or thin coat of earth,
Fresno Scraper.
and
in
dumping the
load,
it
can be
made
to spread the earth in as thin a layer as desired, and to
leave
it fairly level.
distance, but
it is
These are important advantages peculiar

for hauls of any
The Fresno can be used
to this implement.
not very advantageous for long hauls.
It is
making ditches, dikes, and any other scraper

work where the haul is not great enough to require wheels.
also suitable for
may be accomplished by a cheap device

drawn by three or four horses. (Fig. 30.)
Where the leveling is merely local and no haul required,
the ordinary road machine on four wheels carrying an adjustable blade is sometimes used, and is very useful where available.
The
final
called a
"
leveling
float,"
IRRIGABLE LANDS
110
The
cost of leveling varies from a few cents per acre to the
maximum amount
amount
of dirt
that can be afforded, and depends on the
and the distance
localities the cost of leveling
or non-irrigable,
acre
it
has to be moved.
determines whether land
and cases occur where from $60
In some
is
irrigable
to $75 per
spent on leveling alone. On steep hillsides successful

may require the surface to be graded into terraces,
is
irrigation
and
Southern California several hundred dollars per acre
in
sometimes spent on
FIG. 30.
c.
Ditching.
is
.such preparation.
Float for Leveling Irrigable Lands.
Farm
laterals
must be provided
to lead the
water from the irrigation system to the high point or points on

the farm, and a head-ditch must be provided to conduct the
water along the upper edge of each field. Then if the check
or border methods of irrigation are to be used, it will be necessary to provide the levees needed.
Some work on
the larger
be done by means of the slip scraper, illustrated

in Fig. 26, but most of it can best be performed with a plow
and a V or crowder, which is a wooden A -frame, shod with
laterals
iron
may
and
steel
drawn by two
made on
and
well.
is
or three horses.
It
can be easily
the farm of standard materials found in any town,

very useful not only in irrigation, but for road grading as
See Fig. 27.
CHAPTER IX
APPLICATION OF WATER TO THE LAND
IN A few
cases,
under special conditions water
is
sprinkling or otherwise,
plants through pipes,

irrigation of city lawns,
by
and some
flower
applied to
as in the
and vegetable or
iruit
few orchards are supplied from subterranean pipes

gardens.
with a spigot at each tree. These methods are expensive and
exceptional and are employed only on a relatively small scale.
More than 99 per cent of the application of water in irrigation
is from open canals and laterals, although the conveyance of
water in cement pipes to avoid percolation losses is growing

as the value of water increases in various localities under special
conditions.
The usual methods of applying

into
be
divided
two general systems namely:
may
the flooding system and the furrow system.
Each of these
general systems may in turn be subdivided into two special
i.
Methods
of Irrigation.
water to land
methods,
thereby
constituting
four
methods,
more
or
less
distinct, as follows:
1.
Free Flooding.
2.
Flooding between Borders.
4.
Furrow Irrigation.
Corrugation Method.
a.
Free Flooding.
3.
This method
is
the earliest and crudest
applying water. When carelessly employed it is

wasteful of water and secures indifferent results, being apt to
method
of
and over-saturate other parts;

but when applied with skill and care good results can be secured.
This system is applied by providing sublaterals on contours
slight certain parts of the field,
across the field

leveling the
on a fall of from i to 3 feet per thousand, and

between these sublaterals. To apply the
field
ill
112
water, a temporary
dam
wood
of
to overflow
or canvas
is
inserted in the
on the lower
ditch, causing
side, or to discharge
its water through openings in the lower bank; and shovel in
hand, the irrigator coaxes the water to all parts of the ground,
it
leading
it
checking
to the dry places

it
by
away
clearing
with shovels of dirt where
it
obstructions,
runs too
freely.
and
If
the field be carefully leveled, the ditches carefully located and

constructed, and the irrigator uses sufficient skill, large heads of
may be used, very good

may be thus irrigated very
water
results
field
quickly.
may
be obtained and a
In a modification of the free flooding method commonly used

on steeper ground than the method just described, a series of
dikes on contours are provided roughly parallel to the lateral,
and the ground above the dike is leveled so that it can be
Another dike below the first facilitates the

readily flooded.
This
flooding of a lower level, each dike forming a small terrace.
may be
extended
drawn from one

or carried
down
down
b.
hill to
several levels, the water being
in a small sublateral.
the terrace system
and China, and
the
level to the next lower
common
through a pipe or tile,

This system merges into
in hilly countries, especially in India
to a Limited extent in
Flooding between Borders.
In
are provided running nearly normal
Southern California.
this
to the
system parallel dikes

farm laterals, generally
down
the steepest slope of the field, which, however, should

not exceed 4 or 5 feet per thousand. These dikes, usually called
"
"
are from 40 to 60 feet apart, and 5 to 8 inches high,
borders
with gentle side slopes, forming gentle undulations over which

machinery can pass with ease. The border should not be more
than 400 or 500 feet long, to the next cross lateral below, and in
country may be from 200 to 300 feet. The steeper the
"
"
land," or
strip."
slope, the longer and narrower may be each
flat
To apply the water the lateral

dam at the second " border " at
is
obstructed by a temporary
the top of the field, causing

the lateral to overflow uniformly between the first and second
borders.
If the ground is properly leveled and an ample
is used, the water flows slowly and uniformly several
inches deep between these borders as in a broad shallow canal to
head
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
the lower end of the
strip.
When
a sufficient
113
amount
of
water
has been turned on to the strip to thoroughly wet it to the

lower end, the temporary dam is removed from the head of the
FIG. 31.
Using Canvas Dam.
second border, and placed in the lateral at the head of the

third border, causing the lateral to overflow between the second
and third borders, and
this process is repeated across the field.
FIG. 32.
Steel
Dams.
Experience will soon teach the irrigator to judge closely when

enough water is started down the strip to accomplish its mission
without the waste of much water, or the over-irrigation of any
114
part of the strip. Skillfully employed, with large heads of

water, land properly leveled, and laterals properly constructed,
this method secures good results, and is the most expeditious of
the methods here described, provided the topography and
slope are favorable.
all
To
careful
secure good results economically, this system requires

and thorough preparation of the field. There should
be no side slope between the borders, so there
FIG. 33.
of the
Diverting Water from
will
be no tendency
Head Ditch by Canvas Dam, Shoshone

Wyoming.
water toward one side of the
strip.
Valley,
Provision should
always be made so that the waste water at the lower end of the
strip shall be received into the next cross lateral and utilized in
irrigating the lower lands.
and the head
of
The
strip should
be of such length,
water used of such volume that the water will
reach the lower end of the strip before
much water has
time to
waste into the subsoil on the upper end where it is turned on.
Thus the details must be worked out with reference to the
character of the
soil,
the slope, and the head of water available.
The border system
is
especially
because
115
recommended
for the irriga-
the system best adapted

soils,
to the safe and economical use of large irrigating heads.
If
tion of open sandy
it is
small quantities of water are turned on very loose sandy

the rapid downward movement absorbs so much water that
to flow to the lower
is left
end
of the field,
and
it
soils,
little
moves along
the ground so slowly that the major portion of the water is lost
by dropping below the plant roots.
larger quantity -applied
FIG. 34.
Drawing Water from Head Ditch through Small
Pipes,
Riverside,
California.
to the
but by
same ground percolates downward as fast but no

its volume, moves rapidly over the field, and the
faster,
irriga-
accomplished before much water is lost, provided the

ground is well prepared and the irrigation performed with
tion
is
Previous preparation, however, is very important.

Experiments on sandy land near Hermiston, Oregon, in the
skill.
Umatilla, Valley illustrate this fact:
same
size
on similar
soil
Two
tracts of land of the
were irrigated by the same man, using
116
35-
Field Prepared for Irrigation
FIG. 36.
by Checks.
Border Irrigation in Nevada.
117
a head of 3^ cubic feet of water per second. To the first plot

3.5 inches of water was applied in one hour, and it was well
To the second tract 16.8 was applied, which required
irrigated.
4! hours of labor, to accomplish the irrigation. The first
was bordered and well leveled, with turnouts of good
The second
was
field
and
gated by
not
leveled.
Its irrigation cost
been
had
for labor
as
properly
II
and water, 4! times
much
and the
PLAN
irri-
free floodings,
field
size.
the
as
first
field,
;
were not so
results
= I
good.
Furrow
c.
This
of
specially
the
irrigation
system
to
adapted
crops growing in
though
in
Irrigation.
is
rows,
can be also ap-
it
It provides
plied to others.
for turning the water into

furrows which run across
the field
the
in
direction
of greatest slope unless this

is
excessive, in
which case
they should follow the grade

on which a furrow full of
water
run freely without
will
FlG
u
The furrows should
mi
erosion.
be from
2 to
Diagram
Illustrating
n Rectangular Block.
tight,
If
soil.
the
they must be
slope
closer
is
Flooding
Cowgill.
slope
and
steep and the
soil
4 feet apart, depending upon
the nature of the

relatively
37-
the
than under the reverse
conditions, as the subsurface of the ground between the furrows

must all be thoroughly wetted by the time the irrigation is
completed.
The water
is
allowed to run in each furrow until
run through to the lower end, which is

of
200 to 400 feet to the next cross ditch.
generally a distance
Furrow irrigation is better adapted than the flooding methods
there
is
sufficient to
118
i
1
to undulating fields and steep slopes,
follow such lines as will secure the
119
upon which the

most desirable
furrows' can
grades.
It
also secures a thorough wetting of the root systems of the crops,
without wetting the top of the ground except in the furrows

and thus to some extent avoids baking. It has a tendency to
encourage deep rooting, and does not promote shallow rooting
as do flooding
methods
FIG, 39.
it is
Furrow
of application.
After furrow irrigation
Irrigation of Cabbages,
Yuma,
Arizona.
practicable to get over the ground sooner with a cultivator,

For these reasons if skillfully used
is very desirable.
which
more economical of water than the flooding methods.

and length of the furrows will depend upon the soil
and slope, the closer soils and steeper slopes permitting longer
furrows between cross laterals.
it
is
The
d.
size
Corrugation System.
This
is
a modification of the fur-
row system that combines some of the features of the flooding

methods also. It is generally an adaptation of furrow irriga-
120
tion to crops not planted in rows, such as grain
and is more applicable

methods proper.
to rolling
and
alfalfa,
topography than the flooding
After proper leveling of the minor inequalities of the surface, usually immediately after planting, while the ground is
a series of parallel grooves are
soft,
made with a machine
con-
structed for the purpose, resembling a short wide sled with

several runners, each of which makes a groove in the soft ground,
FIG. 40.
Furrow
Irrigation
on Terraced
Hillside, California.
from 2 to 3 feet apart, depending on

closer
the
spacing being required by tight
slope,
and steep slope. The grooves are longitudinally given a
several inches in depth,
the
soil
soil
and
gentle grade, so as to conduct the water gently along in the

direction required, and prevent it running down the steepest
slope, so as to avoid erosion.
e.
Leveling.
All these
require thorough and
methods
of
applying water to land
careful preparation for the best results,
especially the leveling of the surface inequalities.
121
122
FIG. 42.
Orange Trees Irrigated by Check System, Salt River Valley, Arizona.
FIG. 43.
Furrow
Irrigation of
Orange Grove, Riverside,
California.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL
123
One of the most important and

which
difficult problems with
municipal engineers have to
In the humid regions where
deal in that of sewage disposal.
Sewage
2.
Ft.
Disposal.
FIG. 44.
f,
12
10
11
10
11
10
12
11
13
14
12
13
17
16
15
14
13
15
14
16
15
18
19
18
17
1C
20
17
19
20,
IS
Extent of Percolation from Small Furrows: A, in Loose Loam; B,
Hardpan; C,
in
in
Impervious Grit.
the large cities are usually found very close to rivers of some
magnitude or near the ocean, the sewage has usually been disposed of by discharging it into the natural waterways and
allowing
it
to be carried off to the ocean,
more or
less of the
im-
124
SEWAGE DISPOSAL
FIG. 46.
Irrigating
FIG. 47.
Cora with Sewage,
Furrow
Plainfield,
125
New Jersey.
Irrigation of Apple Orchard, Idaho.
126
purity being removed

this
method
of
first,
disposing
In the arid regions,
in
many
is
not so easy of accomplishment,
cases.
because of the lack of waterways into which to discharge it.

Difficulties have also been encountered in the older inhabited
portions of the country, because of the large amounts of sewage
contributed by the dense population at short intervals along
the waterways carrying small quantities of water.

Because of the difficulties of disposing of sewage
by dilution
some cases with the idea of utilizing
the fertilizing properties of sewage, other methods of disposing
of sewage have been employed, most of them recently developed.
just referred to,
and
However, the use
of
for
for
and
in
sewage for irrigating land has been employed

of Edinburgh has been so used
The sewage
an unknown number of
centuries.
in the Craigentinny
years, certainly several hundred,
meadows,
originally a waste of
sand
dunes, 250 acres irrigated with sewage have been yielding crops
of
hay and
Italian rye grass for one
hundred and
fifty years.
In
sewage was
made in England, and a number of English towns began to
construct sewage farms. One of the areas was at Aldershot,
constructed in 1864, where the sewage of 20,000 people is used
1858 the
first scientific
for irrigating
investigation of this use of
about 120
acres.
The
soil
here
is
coarse sand
with a very fine sand subsoil.

In this country irrigation was employed in a number of
Eastern cities shortly after 1870, but has been practically aban-
doned in the Eastern
On
States.
the other hand,
it
has been
increasing in arid sections of Western ones. At the present time

(1918) there are known to be thirty cities and towns in California that dispose of their sewage by irrigation, one in Arizona,
In the
one in Kansas, two in Oregon, and three in Montana.
Eastern States there are believed to be only eighteen cities or
towns where sewage irrigation

one in Massachusetts, one in
is
two in Pennsylvania, and two
in Virginia.
practiced, three in Connecticut,

York, nine in New Jersey,
New
A process very similar to irrigation is used for disposing

sewage known as ''intermittent filtration"; in fact, it is
In interdifficult to draw the line sharply between the two.
of
SEWAGE IRRIGATION
127
mittent filtration the sewage is run over the land for a short
period and then the flooding ceases while the land absorbs
digests the sewage already received; then, after a brief
Ordinarily no crops
rest, the same land is again flooded.
are grown upon such land, but the top soil is kept loose so as to
and
In intermittent filtration the

readily absorb the sewage.
controlling purpose is to dispose of the sewage in a sanitary
more
manner and
to produce an acceptable effluent; in the case of

or
irrigation
sewage farming, on the other hand, the controlling
purpose is to utilize the sewage to the best advantage in raising
crops, purification of the sewage being a secondary purpose.

The utilization of sewage by broad
3. Sewage Irrigation.
requires the employment of a much larger tract

than for intermittent filtration, one acre of land being sufficient
to utilize the sewage of from 50 to 200 people, while intermittent
irrigation
on favorable
filtration
soil
per acre can be purified.

in irrigation than that
the sewage from 500 to 1500 people

If it is desired to use more sewage
above, this is possible, but

generally only at some sacrifice to the best results from the crops.
The water returned by the soil to the natural drainage
named
pure enough to be harmless for any purpose, except

for human consumption, wherever all of the sewage passes
through the soil; although, of course, if any of it runs over the
channels
surface
is
into
obtained.
of
the
One
most
sewage by irrigation
the sewage at
and
it
all
is
such purification is not

serious objections to the disposal
channel,
drainage
of the
the fact that the farmer
times, even though he has
injures his land, unless it
must take
more than he wants

for him to waste
be possible
It has been found,

the sewage directly into drainage channels.
above
methods, in which
however, that a combination of the
intermittent filtration
tion,
is
used as a supplement to broad
satisfactory
method
of
irriga-
advantage and is the most

and utilizing sewage on land.
of
disposing
practically overcomes
this
done by laying out a small portion of the land as a filter

bed, and discharging the sewage onto this at such times as
Where this plan is practiced
it is not needed in irrigation.
it is necessary to turn the sewage onto the filter beds for a few
This
is
128
hours at a time, about once a week, in order to keep alive in the

the purifying bacteria.
soil
America has been practiced in two ways, by

and by subsurface irrigation; most instances
Irrigation in
broad irrigation
of the latter use
The
4.
having occurred in the Eastern States.
Fertilizing
irrigating acts in
Sewage. Sewage used for

supplying water to the soil, as in
Effects
two ways
of
the case of water irrigation; and, besides, contributing fertilizing

soil.
Sewage contains varying amounts of nitro-
matter to the
gen, potash and phosphates, different authorities calculating

that the amount of such chemicals in 1,000,000 gallons of sewage
would have a theoretical value of from $40 to $125. Some of
these constituents, however, may be only partly available for

manurial purposes, or may be carried on beyond the reach of
growing crops by the water that is drained from the soil. Others
may
be retained at or near the surface and later penetrate
very slowly if at all. Sewage generally contains more

or less grease, which tends to clog the pores of the soil, and also
filaments of cloth and paper, match sticks and other insoluble
materials that collect on the surface and form a sort of mat.
the
soil
be dug under, but doing so is of doubtful value.

Experience on European sewage farms, notably at Paris
These
may
and Berlin, appears to indicate that farmers are willing to pay

more for land irrigated with sewage than for that which is not.
In this country, the conclusion seems to have been generally
reached that sewage is of little if any more value for irrigating
than is plain water, but on the other hand, it is not considered
to be less valuable; and in arid districts where water is needed
for irrigating and where sewage can be used for this purpose
at no greater expense than that required for obtaining other
water, irrigation with sewage is being adopted more and more
generally.
One
of the latest
was Tucson, Arizona, where,
towns to take up sewage irrigation

after using sewage in this w ay on
r
a small scale for seventeen years, arrangement was made in 1918

to irrigate 483 acres of farm land with the sewage of the city,
for
which the city is receiving about $10 per acre per year.
All kinds of vegetables, grains, and trees that are raised
EFFECTS OF SEWAGE IRRIGATION ON HEALTH
129
can be grown on sewage farms;
but lettuce,
and other edible vegetable products that are
eaten raw and could in any way come in contact with the sewage
should not be grown on such farms because of the danger that
by
irrigation
radishes, berries
germs in the sewage might cause typhoid fever

of the products of the farm.
of
An
in the
consumers
epidemic of sixty- three cases
typhoid fever at a Massachusetts insane asylum was traced
to celery fertilized
On
the Paris farm the cultivaand other vegetable products

the sewage and then eaten raw is
by sewage.
tion of strawberries, salad crops
that are freely exposed to

prohibited.
5. Effects of
Sewage
Irrigation
on Health.
Fears are some-
times expressed that sewage farms would be dangerous to the

health of the neighboring districts and that crops grown on them
would be unwholesome. These fears, aside from the danger
of direct contact
with the edible parts of vegetables referred to
above, have proven groundless and sewage farming, while it

satisfies the sanitary conditions, at the same time gains for
agriculture a source of fertilizer as well as of water which would
The crops themselves, in utilizing the
otherwise run to waste.
sewage, transform
all of
the dangerous and objectionable matmanure and other fertilizing
ters, just as they do in utilizing
There is therefore no danger from sewage matters

absorbed by the plants.
It has bsen quite fully demonstrated that there is no danger
materials.
to health in
any odors,
gases, or vapors that
may
arise
from
sewage on a sewer farm. It is conceivable that disease germs

might be carried from the sewage by flies or other insects,
but experience indicates that such danger is very slight, there
being no cases on record of disease which has been communicated
in this way.
As
to
the surface of the
sewage matters which

soil,
thorough
tilling
may
be deposited on
each
of the soil after
flowing of sewage is essential, and it is by the creation of a

proper tilth that the aeration of the sewage and incorporation
This prevents
of the solid matter with the soil is accomplished.
the accumulation of sewage matters on the surface and furtherto the salubrity of the surrounding country.
more any danger
130
When
and
run on the land, there
at times a perceptible
faintly disagreeable odor, especially under certain atmosis
sewage
is
pheric conditions, but this odor is not perceptible more than a

few hundred feet away, and as soon as the soil has been culti-
vated
6.
it
entirely disappears.
Duty
of
of 6000 people
Sewage. At Pasadena, California, the sewage

used in irrigating about 40 acres of the land,
is
about i acre to each 150 inhabitants. At Los Angeles

(previous to the abandonment of the farm and the carrying
of the sewage to the Pacific, due to the spread of the city over
the land available for irrigation) the entire sewage, which
or
averaged 105 second-feet flowing constantly, was used in irrigating 17 acres. This is the sewage of 50,000 people and it was
therefore employed at the rate of about 30 individuals per acre;
about 40 acre-feet per acre per annum. On

the average, possibly, western irrigated land uses during the
irrigation season about 10,000 gallons per acre per day, or the
also at the rate of
sewage
of
about 80 persons per
acre.
Wilson has stated that with few exceptions the irrigating duty of sewage is less than that obtainable with clear
water, raw sewage seldom serving more than one-third to oneProf.
half as
much
area as the same quantity of clear water, owing to

soil being clogged by the solids in the sewage,
the surface of the
which causes much
water to run
without soaking in.

This disadvantage can be removed to a considerable extent by
of the
off
previously clarifying the sewage, removing all of the coarse

suspended matter. The objectionable reduction of duty by
clogging may not interfere with the use upon the land of as
much sewage
may become
desired for crop irrigation, but this limitation

objectionable only when the problem is one of
as
is
disposing of sewage on the
minimum amount
of land.
7.
Laying Out Sewage Farms and Applying
Sewage. In preparing land for sewage irrigation it must be
remembered that the sewage cannot be disposed of continuously on the same piece of land with benefit to crops, but that
it must be rotated from one plot to another so as to give each a
rest and permit of the soil being cultivated and the crops handled.
Methods
of
METHODS OF LAYING OUT SEWAGE FARMS

With
this
end
in view,
it
has been found that the most
131
'satis-
out a sewage farm is to divide it into

factory way
or
tracts
small
plots of about one acre in extent each,
many very
so arranged and subdivided by distributing channels that the
of laying
applied to them separately and independently.

that first of all the soil must be of suitable
has
shown
Experience
should
be taken to choose a location in which
and
care
texture,
sewage
may be
may
be found a deep and light surface
sible
by
gravel.
soil, underlain if posa deep and porous subsoil, preferably of sand and
If the slopes of these are such as to furnish good natural
drainage, no difficulty is likely to arise in utilizing such land

for a definite period of time under proper treatment.
After a suitable soil has been chosen and the land has been
under drained or otherwise suitably prepared,
it
should be
divided by open drains, preferably lined, into plots of from

200 to 400 feet on a side. The sewage should be brought to
the limits of the farm in closed sewer conduits, which
must
be properly ventilated. It is desirable at the outlet of the

conduit at the entrance of the farm to construct a small storage
reservoir, suitably lined, since it
may
be necessary to retain the
at least twenty-four hours, and certainly over a

at
times
when it is not possible to use it. There should
night,
also be, at the entrance to the farm, a coarse screen to keep
sewage
for
out the larger matters in the sewage; and it is very desirable

there should be in addition either a fine screen or a tank adapted
and shape to secure sedimentation of the suspended

matters which would cause the clogging of the surface of the
in size
irrigated field.
may
The matters
the fine
collecting behind the coarse screen
dry and then burned, and that from

screens or settling tank may be removed at intervals
be placed in
piles to
plowed under the soil or dried and burned. The

storage tank and sedimentation tank (these may be combined
as one in many cases) are frequently covered to prevent dissemination of odors, but this is not generally necessary unless
the sewage reaches the farm in a stale condition, or the tank is
and
so
either
constructed or operated as to permit deposits to collect
about
it
and putrefy.
132
The most
satisfactory way of applying sewage for irrigation

furrows
between rows of vegetables, the simple
through
furrow method of irrigation (page 117) being employed. In
some cases, however, the emb nkment or check method has
is
been employed, more especially, in the cultivation of grain

and forage crops. After applying sewage to crops it is left
only so long as to permit it to become dry enough to work
when the land is thoroughly tilled and all solid matter is turned
under before the next application of sewage, while such a variety
of crops must be employed as to make the irrigation season as
long as possible.
farm, the sewage
days and
In irrigating walnut groves on the Pasadena

is allowed to run on one area from four to ten
then turned upon another area, the former area

being thoroughly cultivated or plowed as soon as it is sufficiently
dry to work, which is usually within two or three days. The
top
soil is
is
plowed under -occasionally, but not
after each flooding,
only a thorough stirring with a cultivator being necessary as a

regular treatment.
During the non-irrigating period (the winter months),

the sewage may be flooded in rotation over various plots of
land and be permitted to filter through this and find its way
back to the natural drainage channels. It is desirable, however,
to use precaution and not overcharge the land, and this may be
tilling it
As soon as
prevented by
of winter.
times during the more open days
e crops are to
be sown in spring
it is
desirable, should too great an accumulation of solid matter

appear on the surface, to rake this off or plow it under before
the season's crops.

Ordinarily sewage reaches the
land
at
a
irrigated
sufficiently high temperature to permit it
to remain unfrozen and to find its way by filtration into the soil
planting
even during the winter;
but in Northern climates
this is
not
always the case, and should the top soil once become frozen
To
is almost impossible to thaw it again before spring.
is
weather
cold
it
is
when
desirable
anticipated
prevent this,
it
to
plow the farm into furrows about 18 inches apart.
This
prevents the rapid chilling of the sewage that occurs when it is

spread in a thin layer exposed to the air, and should the surface
of the
sewage
freeze, the
bottom
of the furrow
would
still
remain
SUBIRRIGATION
133
unfrozen and would be protected from the freezing air above

by the ice that would span the furrow from ridge to
ridge.
8.
The term
Subirrigation.
subirrigation denotes the under-
application of water to
ground
the
roots of
plants, as
dis-
tinguished from its application to the surface of the ground.

There are two radically different methods of accomplishing
One is to apply water to a portion of the surface

such quantities as to bring up the ground water to an elevaThis
tion where it can be reached by the roots of the plants.
this result.
in
is
called
"
up the sub."
bringing
It is a pernicious practice,
very wasteful of water and ruinous to the land. It leaches

out the plant food, it waterlogs large areas of land and brings to
the surface whatever alkali the
tend to destroy the

in the Valley of the
soil
is
very coarse,
quantities of water
soil
contains.
fertility of the soil.
On
All these results
the Egin' Bench,
North Fork of Snake River in Idaho, the

and requires frequent irrigation and large
if
surface irrigation
is
practiced.
The water
supply is copious in May and June, but the river declines

rapidly in July producing a shortage in August. The farmers
on this bench have formed a practice of " bringing up the sub."
every spring. Water is applied copiously in large ditches
and by surface irrigation during May and June, while water

abundant, and after the river has declined the ground water
is
remains high for several weeks, furnishing water for the plant
much longer period than if surface irrigation had
roots for a
to be
to the
depended upon. As the subsoil

bottom lands and into drainage
is
open, and has outlets

the ground water
lines,
drains out to the early fall, and the fall and winter precipitation
passing downward, counteract any tendency to rise of alkali.
The peculiar conditions on the Egin Bench .render this

method a success although of course much plant food is carried
away by the excess waters.
known to the writer where
This, however, is the only case

"
bringing up the sub," can be
considered anything but a pernicious practice.

In the San Luis Valley in Southern Colorado, where bringing
up the ground water by copious irrigation was deliberately
practiced for years, the result has been the ruin of hundreds of
13-4
thousands of acres of fertile land by water-logging and alkali,

and has depopulated many towns and rural districts like a
A cure will involve an expensive drainage system,
pestilence.
and the adoption of more rational methods of irrigation.
regions ground water is raised 'by wasteful methods
any intent to subirrigate, but the result
the same, the rise of alkali and the swamping of the low-
In
many
of irrigation, without
is
lying lands; in such regions there may be considerable areas

where the ground water is nearly stationary, at about the right
elevation to serve the plants without the surface application
be convenient for a time, but the constant

upward percolation of water from the level of saturation to
supply the draft of plant consumption and evaporation soon
This
of water.
may
brings to the surface whatever alkali is in the

considerable eventually destroys its fertility.
soil,
and
if
this is
a. Pipe Irrigation.
The application of water to the roots of
plants underground, without bringing up the ground water,
by means of pipes, is the true method of subirrigation, and may
be made more economical of water than surface
irrigation,
from the surface, and also obviates

due to percolation from unlined ditches.
for it reduces evaporation
the losses
In regions where water
more the
is
valuable,
and
it is
becoming more and
with cement, or to
use pipe for distributaries instead of unlined ditches, which
often waste large quantities of water by seepage, especially
practice to line canals
laterals
sandy ground. The tile method of subirrigation is merely

an additional step in this method of water conservation.
"
The head ditches or " mains may consist of vitrified clay
in
4 or 5 inches in diameter with bell joints, sealed with cement.

They should be located along the upper side of the field, or
tile
should follow the crest of a ridge, so as to irrigate

in both directions.
Branches which are to conduct the water
better
still,
to the plants, are of smaller vitrified
tile,
usually about 3 inches
with open joints so that the water can

Each joint should be protected by
the
escape through
joint.
gravel or cinders, from entrance of sand or loam that would
in diameter,
clog the pipe.
and
laid
SUBIRRIGATION
135
At each point where an open joint lateral takes out from the
main, there should be a stop-box. This consists of a joint of
larger pipe placed vertically with the bottom end closed, and
the upper end open. Where two laterals join the main at one
point, the stop-box should be placed in the main, but where
only one lateral takes out, the stop-box should be at the side,
and not interrupt the continuity of the main. Where the

main takes water from the stop-box, a plug or
lateral or the
should be provided to shut off the water when desired.

laterals should have grades not over 4 inches nor less
slide
The
than
inch per 100
feet,
and should be from
12 to 15 inches
below the surface, or joint beyond the reach of the plow, and in
Both the depth and the
parallel lines 15 to 20 feet apart.
hori-
zontal intervals should be determined experimentally for each

combination of soil and topography. Where the grade is more
than
or 2 inches per 100 feet,
it is
in the lateral at intervals of 200 to
best to place stop-pockets

400 feet so that the water
can be checked and pressure produced to force the water out

the joints.
The checking is best performed with sliding
at
gates of galvanized iron.
water
the
soil,
correct
great
The
length of time and
amount
required for a proper irrigation varies of course
of
with
the slope and other elements. To accomplish the

degree of saturation without overdoing it requires
care
at
first,
but experience with
particular
field
system soon makes it much easier. It should be the aim to

bring the moisture within a few inches of the surface, but not
quite to the surface. Very young plants require the moisture
nearer the surface than older ones with deep roots, and as the
object of subirrigation
is
to avoid over saturation,
economy
must be taken
the water downward.
of water, care
and escape
of
In Florida and other humid regions, where .irrigation is

practiced, this and similar methods are used for irrigation during
drought, and for drainage in times of excessive rainfall. For
such double use it is necessary to place the tiles considerably
lower in the ground than when used for irrigation alone.
Underground application
extensively practiced.
of
water from pipes has not been

and has not achieved
It is expensive,
136
the
economy
ject to
of water expected
an important practical
by some.
difficulty.
It
is
The
moreover, sub-
roots of growing
plants are apt to seek the openings in their search for moisture,
and to clog them and cause trouble. This is less apt to occur
with annual than with perennial plants and with row crops
set at some distance from the pipes than with those sown
broadcast.
In some valuable orchard tracts where water

costly, it is
delivered
scarce
and
conducted in iron pipes to individual trees and there

or a spigot, above the surface of the soil
by a branch
near the root of the

roots.
is
tree.
This avoids clogging the outlet with

is used in numerous localities,
modification of this
mainly in humid regions for truck or small fruit gardens, where

the water is applied under pressure to the pipes, and discharged
in
an overhead spray.
In other cases a hose
is
used manipulated
by hand.
As may be readily seen, all pipe systems of irrigation are

expensive, and practicable only for intensive cultivation of
valuable crops. The chief benefits of subirrigation, however,
can be obtained more economically by the furrow method of
irrigation from lined laterals, or pipes, and hence this combinathe one most generally in use in the citrus groves of
California, where irrigation water has the highest value attained
tion
in
is
any important
district.
By
this
means the water
is
applied
the entire root zone, without wetting any of the surface
except in the furrows and immediately adjacent to them.
to
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTERS VIII AND IX

STANLEY, F. W. Irrigation in Florida. Bulletin No. 462, Office of Public Roads
and Rural Engineering, Washington, D. C.
TEELE, R. P. Preparing Land for Irrigation. Year-book, Dept. of Agriculture,
1903.
FORTIER, SAMUEL.
New York.
ETCHEVERRY, B. A.
New
Use
of
Use
Water
in Irrigation.
Water.
of Irrigation
York.
Use of Underground Water for Irrigation at Pomona, Cal.

TAIT, C. E.
Bulletin
CHAPTER X
DUTY OF WATER
IN order properly to plan a canal system, the designer must
"
"
decide upon the probable
Duty of Water in the locality
under consideration.
first
By
"
Duty
of
Water
"
is
meant the area which can be served
by a unit quantity of water. This may be expressed in two

different ways.
The most common practice is to speak of the
area that can be served by a running stream of a unit volume,
"
as
one cubic foot per second will serve 100 acres." It may
be expressed as the depth of water in one season required

the land in question. The former relation is the one necessary
to determine the area that can be served by a natural stream
also
by
without storage, and also dictates the necessary capacity of the

canals.
But when water is dra\vn from a storage reservoir
the latter relation determines the area that can be served
by a
given volume of stored water.

The duty of water has been the subject of a vast amount
study and much valuable data has been published regarding
of
it.
Various factors affect the duty of water, the principal ones being
these
1.
Length
of season.
rainfall,
2.
Natural
3.
Soil conditions.
4.
Crops
raised.
and evaporation.
6.
Preparation of ground and ditches.

Skill of the Irrigator.
7.
Care with which water
8.
Cultivation.
5.
Most
is
used.
and are not susceptible

Nevertheless, some deci-
of these conditions are variable
of accurate determination in advance.

137
DUTY OF WATER
138
on duty
sion
of
water must be reached,
if
we
are to build an
irrigation system.
Length of Season. The arid portion of North America

be
divided roughly into three general types as regards
may
length of season and requirements for irrigation water, based
i.
thereon.
The northern
1.
division
with short season, cool nights,
and cold winters, comprising Canada, Montana, Wyoming and

the Dakotas.
The southern
2.
division,
with growing season nearly or
summers and mild

Southern Arizona and Mexico.
quite the year round, long

prising California,
The
3.
months,
central
division,
warm summers and
winters,
com-
with growing season of 5 to 7

mild but frosty winters, comprising
the greater part of the rest of the arid region.

Of course, these divisions merge in each other,
and two
classes
For example, the San

are often represented in the same State.
Luis Valley in Southern Colorado belongs distinctly in the
first division by reason of its high altitude, while the other
principal valleys of the State, although further north, are milder,
and belong to the third division. Similarly, other localities
not belong in the division their latitude would indicate.

division, because of short season, requires
may
The northern
water than the others, but in the middle of the season

requires a greater quantity within a short period while the
less
crops are making their most rapid growth, due to the long days
of midsummer, while the hours of sunlight are at their
maximum.
Experience
shows that
in
northern
delivery capacity of the irrigation systems

is required in the more southern climes,
quantity
of
water
delivered
during
must be
regions
the
larger than
although the total

the season is much
less.
2.
Natural
Rainfall.
Any
precipitation
occurring
in
the
growing season takes the place of a certain amount of irrigation water that would otherwise be necessary.
Unless the
shower occurs just after an irrigation so as to be largely superfluous, or is so heavy that much of it runs off the surface or
SOIL CONDITIONS
passes
139
the subsoil, the rainfall replaces an equal

In humid regions the natural
irrigation water.
away through
quantity
of
mature good crops without irrigation.

In semi-arid regions the same is true in a less degree, but irriga-
rainfall is sufficient to
In the arid
feasible, can greatly increase the yield.
zero
and twenty
be
between
the
rainfall
may
anywhere
regions
and the
its
amount
and
of
course
inches in the growing season,
if
tion,
time and manner of
occurrence profoundly affect the quanEven the precipitation of the fall
its
tity of irrigation required.
and winter months has an important effect on the soil moisture

available in spring and summer, especially if suitable precautions
are taken to conserve this
by proper
cultivation.
But
as the
natural rainfall varies from year to year, both in quantity and

in time of occurrence, it is necessary to consider chiefly the years
of
lowest precipitation
when planning
The water evaporated from

for plants,
Soil
soil is
and varies widely with climate, and with precautions
to conserve
3.
the
the irrigation system.

of course not available
it
by
cultivation.
As we have seen (Chapter
Conditions.
III),
sandy soil will not hold as much water as one of closer

texture, and if the subsoil is also coarse it may be difficult to
apply sufficient water for plant needs without large losses
loose
through the subsoil.
Where
the subdrainage
is
very free and
sandy and coarse, the temptation to over-irrigate is

very great, and instances are known where farmers have applied
sufficient water to cover the land to a depth of over 20 feet in
a single season when the actual needs of the crop were perhaps
the
soil
only 10 or 15 per cent of that amount, the balance escaping to

the ground water table, carrying with it much valuable plant
food,
and injuring neighboring
lands.
Some
crops require less water -than others.

Grains, for example, require less water for best results than
It is therefore necessary to
alfalfa, and more than some fruits.
4.
Crops Raised.
make some assumption
as to
what proportion
each crop adapted to the region.

cannot be accurately predicted, and
with time in a manner impossible to
of
will be planted
This proportion manifestly
is,
moreover, sure to change
foretell.
DUTY OF WATER
140
If the fields be not properly leveled, an

must be applied to some of the land in order to
wet the remainder, and much may be wasted.
If the sublaterals and farm ditches are not of adequate capacity or the runs
5.
Preparation.
excess of water
much water before

many ways the manner
are too long, the upper ends will receive too
the water reaches the lower ends.

of preparation for the use of
In
water
will affect the
economy
of
such use.
is
Closely related to the preparation for irrigation

with which the existing facilities are handled. This
vary with the experience of the farmer or of the help he may
6.
Skill.
the
skill
will
employ.
Care. Even with adequate facilities and skill, the water
be
wasted by carelessness if the necessity of care be not
may
realized.
Where water is abundant, its wasteful use is universal.
7.
The
best insurance against careless handling as well as against

is to vary the water charges with the quantity of
poor facilities
water used.
Cultivation.
the surface of the
is kept loosened
kept clear of weeds
which would consume a great deal of water, a much higher
duty of water can be attained than if the cultivation of the soil
8.
If
to a considerable depth,
is
neglected.
It will be noted that
and the
soil
fields are
except the first three of these condepend mainly upon the individual irrigator, and consequently cannot be predicted, and will vary with different
all
ditions
irrigators,
The duty
First,
and with the same
irrigator as he improves his practice.

water must, moreover, be considered in two stages:
"
the
net duty," or the quantity actually used on the
of
land.
"
Second, the
gross duty," or the quantity that must be
diverted from the stream, or stored in a reservoir in order that
the net duty may be fulfilled at the land.
It, therefore, includes
all losses
is
from evaporation waste and seepage to which the water
subject before
it
reaches the farm.
The first question to be considered

actually needed by the various crops.
is
the quantity of water

Elaborate experiments
U TA II EX PERI MEN TS
under various conditions of
made by
the U. S.
soil,
Department
141
crops and climate have been

and the various
of Agriculture
State Experiment Stations on this subject.
Utah Experiments. The following table shows the average results from a large number of experiments at the Utah
Experiment Station, Logan, Utah, on fine sandy loam:
9.
TABLE XX. ACREAGE YIELD OF VARIOUS CROPS FOR VARIOUS

QUANTITIES OF IRRIGATION WATER
Inches
of
Water
DUTY OF WATER
142
other hay crops produce a greater percentage of woody material

worthless for food as water is increased, potatoes and beets
are
made more watery and woody, and an
cotton
is
TABLE XXL
WATER
WATER
Depth
Water
of
in
Inches
excess of water
upon
distinctly hurtful.
YIELDS OF VARIOUS CROPS, PER ACRE-INCH OF

APPLIED, FOR VARIOUS QUANTITIES OF IRRIGATION
AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT EXPERIMENTS
143
portion of the winter precipitation as is retained in the soil

withm the zone of plant root feeding. The amount thus retained
depends partly upon the natural soil and climatic conditions,
and partly upon the
which are made through cultivation

and retard evaporation.
efforts
to facilitate its absorption
TABLE XXII. YIELDS OF DIFFERENT CROPS FROM THE APPLICATION OF 30 INCHES OF IRRIGATION WATER TO VARIOUS
ACREAGES
DUTY OF WATER
144
TABLE
OPTIMUM QUANTITIES OF WATER FOR VARIOUS

ON RETENTIVE SOILS, WITH GOOD CULTIVATION
XXIII.
CROPS,

r^
145
OOOwOf^
O O ^Ô
POt> O)Vor>.'NCOfO
<N
ooO
O
OO
CO 4-
-10
vO \O
<N
v-
oo
^t-
Tf-
M O
MM<N(N<NLOOOOMM
00
CO
M O
M
CN
MrO'^C >'^t'MMOM
s
&
a,
^ "e
Sill
O
CO
Ol
Tt loco
t^CO
O<^
voooo<N<NTtO<NOOoco<NOtoiorÔO
<N
Ô-^M>O ^J-^-loO
fOOO
lO
Tj-
t^
DUTY OF WATER
146
Q
W.
X
u
2
O O
Q 2

and greater
147
At Yuma, however, a high ground water

down the quantity of water needed.
rainfall.
table assists in keeping
Altogether, without
much
question, considering all conditions,

Salt River Valley shows the best practice in water economy
This is due to the evenness of surface
of any of the projects.
an excellent system of rotation, and to frequent

the
cultivation,
outgrowth of the high value of water and ex-
and
slope, to
perience in its use.

The best practice of
any Northern project on the list is

on the Huntley, although the high duty there is partly due to
favorable climate and soil. The most wasteful practice is upon
the Rio Grande project, where with shorter season, and somewhat greater rainfall, more than twice as much water is applied
This is the less excusable as most of the
as at Salt River.
Rio Grande Valley has a high water
and some
is
actually
water-logged; nor is there any very open soil, requiring much
water. The main explanation is the community operation of
laterals in which no control is exercised over the amount of
table,
It
primitive methods of irrigation.
made
are
is fast ruining the land, and strenuous efforts
being
surrender
to
small
communities
men
to
induce
the
the
leading
by
water
used,
and
the
the canals to the Government, and to establish rigid control and

severe penalties against water waste.
Next
in order of reckless waste
which uses
in seven
is the Uncompahgre project,

months more than twice as much water as
Although the valley has a steep slope

and good natural surface drainage, the excessive application of
water has water-logged considerable areas of land, and this
Salt River does in twelve.
area
of
is
by
increasing.
the acre-foot
The
is
sale of
water by the second-foot instead
one of the leading causes, as
it
offers
no
inducement to economy except at the peak of the season. This

practice is the outgrowth of local habit, and efforts are being
made
to
change
it.
Excessive quantities of water are also used on the Umatilla

Project, but this is due to open sandy soil with very coarse subsoil,
through which the water readily sinks beyond the reach
of crop roots,
and frequent
irrigation
is
required.
The same
is
DUTY OF WATER
148
true on a large part of the Minidoka and Orland projects, and

on parts of the Boise and Truckee-Carson Projects. The Sun
River, Milk River, Lower Yellowstone, Belle Fourche and
Klamath Projects are in semi-arid regions, receiving the major

portion of their rainfall in the growing season, and crops are
often raised without irrigation. They therefore use only small
quantities of irrigation water.
12.
Committee on
Agricultural
Engineers
Irrigation
from the American Society
addressed
of
a questionnaire to several
hundred leading men concerned directly or indirectly with

irrigation, whose opinions on the subject were deemed important.
The
replies concerning the
duty
of
water are condensed in the
following table:
TABLE XXVI.
AMOUNT OF WATER USED ANNUALLY
149
In a decision by the Supreme Court of Arizona in 1910, the

of water for Salt River Valley was fixed at 48 miner's
This
inches, or 1.2 second-feet, for each quarter section of land.
duty
equivalent to 133! acres to the second-foot. It should be

noted that this use is in a very hot and very dry climate, where
for months at a
time no rainfall appears to assist in
is
moistening the crops, the

8 inches.
mean annual
rainfall
being about
This rule limiting water usage has been in force for about
seven years, and has aroused no complaint of shortage, as experience shows this quantity to be ample even for those crops of
In fact the records
greatest requirement, and on sandy soil.
of water, delivery show an average use throughout the year
only about 3 feet in depth on the land actually irrigated, although
the irrigation season is twelve months in length.
only about one-half the full use of the above allowance as an average, so that it is evident that this full use is
This
is
invoked only in mid-summer, and that the demand is reduced

to an average of about one-half in spring and autumn, and one-
The marked improvement over
fourth in winter.
the water
duty of other regions, and of the same valley in former years,
is due to the increased value of water, and a charge in pro-
portion to quantity used, leading to more careful and more

skillful use.
The leading practices developed by this condition
are:
1.
eight,
An
system of rotation, delivering only a day in
efficient
and use
of large heads.
2.
Careful preparation of the land.
3.
Re-use of waste water for irrigation, by picking
lower end of the

4.
it
up at
field.
Cultivation of the land soon after each irrigation.
Even with these practices considerable areas in Salt River

Valley have become waterlogged, and these areas are growing.
Of course there remains much room for improvement in these
and
similar practices, so that the high
made
practicably
done as the value
of
much
higher.
water advances.
This
duty
will
of
water can be
undoubtedly be
DUTY OF WATER
150
That such a hope

irrigation practices in
well
is
founded
is
demonstrated
by
Southern California, where nearly double
this duty is obtained, by more thorough employment of the

above precautions and by the use of pipes and lined canals,
cement head ditches and other devices for saving water. Per-
haps the most important measure that has led to such a high
duty and such successful results from irrigation in Southern
is the habit of thorough cultivation of the surface
as
soon
as
possible after each irrigation and each heavy shower
This provides a soil mulch which conserves the moisof rain.
California
weeds which has the same tendency.

Arizona are easily reached in any region
by the adoption of the simple measures enumerated, which are
good in themselves, and should be applied nearly everywhere.
ture
and
The
results obtained in
The
also destroys all
results
in
Southern California furnish the goal towards
which Arizona and
all
the rest should strive.
Agricultural College has done much useful work

in teaching and spreading information in favor of greater care
In conjunction with the State Conservain the use of water.
The Utah
Commission
tion
it
has
widely
promulgated
the
following
twelve rules for the use of irrigation water:

1.
Store the Rainfall in the Soil.
enables the
water.
water
2.
to absorb
The more
Deep, thorough plowing

and retain most of the rain and snow
rainfall is stored in the soil the less irrigation
be needed.
will
Cultivate
from
lost
soil
soils
this
Thoroughly. Water is easily

Stirring the top soil reduces
evaporation.
The soil should be thoroughly cultivated
Frequently
by
and
evaporation.
early in the spring, as soon as possible after irrigation, and
usually once or more between irrigation. Thorough cultivation
will
reduce the water needed in irrigation.
3.
Keep
the Soil Fertile.
The more
fertile
soil is,
the less
water is needed to produce a pound or ton of the crop. Plow

deeply, cultivate thoroughly, use barnyard manure, and less
irrigation water will be needed.
4.
Plant
in
Well-moistened
Soil.
Well-moistened
soil
at
planting time permits better root development, and delays the

time of the
first
for
sufficiently
and thus saves irrigation water

and snow do not moisten soils
irrigation,
during the summer.
If rains
planting,
151
irrigate
in
or in early
fall,
spring,
before planting.
Irrigate
5. Don't
too Early.
By postponing as long as
the
first
after
irrigation
possible
planting, a better root development is secured and less irrigation water is needed to produce
the crop.
Where water is plentiful,

method may be used; where water is scarce, the
furrow method only should be employed. Lead the waste
Irrigate by the Correct Method.
6.
the flooding
water from the furrows to other
crop
fields.
Irrigate at the Proper Time.
7.
is
When
in real need.
Withhold water
irrigating,
apply enough water
to supply the crop for at least ten days.
when potatoes
are in bloom;
until the
Irrigate thoroughly
corn in tassel or
silk;
lucern just
beginning to bud, and grains forming seed.

8. Use Water in Moderation.
The acre yield of a crop
increases as more water is used, up to a certain limit, beyond
which more water causes a decrease in the
yield.
The yield of crop

more water is
added. The less water is used in irrigation, the more crop is
obtained for the water used. In Utah land is plentiful, water
is scarce;
it is more important to get a large crop for each
9.
Spread
the
Water
over Larger Areas.
per unit of water always becomes smaller as
acre-foot of water than for each acre of land.

10. Kill the
profitable
Weeds.
crops.
It
Weeds use
costs usually
produce i pound of weeds.

water for our crops.
as
much water
as do
many
2000 pounds of water to
Killing the weeds will leave
more
11. Repair the Leaky Ditches.

Tremendous quantities of
water seep from most of our canals and ditches. Stop the
leaky places. It will often pay to cement the whole canal.
Measure the Water. Land is measured carefully, but

Great
water, more valuable than land, is seldom measured.
made
as
will
be
Utah
as
soon
farmers
by
progress
faithfully
measure and keep an account of the water used on the land,
12.
DUTY OF WATER
152
This
is
for the
Principles
BROWN, HANBURG.
New
of
Irrigation
Irrigation, Its Principles
Practice.
and
Cippoletti
of water.
measurement

WIDTSOE, JOHN A.
New York.
Co.,
The
one of Utah's greatest irrigation needs.
Weir may be used by any farmer
Macmillan Company,
Practice.
D. Van Nostrand
York.
FORTIER, SAMUEL.
New York.
Use
of
CARPENTER, L. G.
Duty
of
Irrigation
Water.
Water.
Bulletin No. 22, State Agricultural College,
Ft. Collins, Colorado.
MEAD, ELWOOD, and
Others.
Use and Duty
of
Water

U. S. Reclamation Service. Sixteenth Annual Report.
WILSON, H. M. American Irrigation Engineering, Part
U.
S.
in Irrigation.
II,
Bulletin
i3th Annual Report,
Geological Survey.
MEAD, ELWOOD.
Report on Irrigation on Investigations for 1904.
Bulletin No.
TEELE, R. P. Review of Ten Years of Irrigation Investigations. Annual Report
of U. S. Office of Experiment Stations for 1908.
NEWELL, F. H. Annual Reports on Operation and Maintenance of Reclamation
Projects, 1910-11-12-13, U. S. Reclamation Service.
158, U. S. Office of
DON H. Duty of Water Investigations in Idaho. Parts of 8th and gth

Biennial Reports of State Engineer of Idaho, for 1910-11-12.
BARK,
Inquiry of
Am.
Soc. of Agricultural Engineers.
Reclamation Record, April, 1918.
CHAPTER XI
WATER measurements
system are of two
First are those
in
connection
main classes.
measurements
of the
with
an
irrigation
stream and of the main
canal and larger laterals which are of use in the operation of

the system, and do not bear directly upon the amount of water
delivered to the individual irrigator. The streams or canals
measured are of considerable

in
measurement are
size
and the methods employed
similar to those used in gaging rivers.
The second class of measurements are those designed to

indicate the amount of water delivered to each irrigator.
They
are of relatively small amounts, and to obtain the necessary
degree of precision, require the use of other means than those
usually employed on large streams.

i. Gaging Streams.
The first step in the study of the
water supply should be the establishment of systematic' observations of stream flow at the various points where such data are
and records of the daily flow should be kept. A gage

should be provided by which to observe the height of the surface of the water in the river and should be observed daily or
required,
oftener so as to obtain correct results of the daily mean.
The
simplest form of gage is a wooden rod-, graduated in feet and

tenths so as to be easily read, with the graduation made permanent with nails or otherwise, so that the action of the water
will
not obliterate them.
position should be selected for the
be protected from driftwood, and yet be

and
show
the
true height of the water in the river.
easily read,
If no better plan presents itself, the rod may be laid on the
gage rod where
it will
ground sloping up from the

or posts.
river,
and fastened firmly to stakes

located on it by means
The graduations may then be

153
154
of a
level.
will give fair
Such a gage may be read twice a day, and

results on most streams.
this
Somewhat more
reliable results may be obtained by prothe

river above high water, the bottom of
a
well
near
viding
which extends somewhat below low water, and connecting the
bottom of the well with the river by a horizontal pipe, so that
the water in the well will always stand at the level of the water
By this arrangement difficulty with driftwood is

and
observations
avoided,
may be accurately taken with a hook
in the river.
If greater
gage.
to
sudden
desirable, or
is
accuracy
fluctuation,
it
may
be
if
the river
advisable
to
is
subject
a
install
mechanical self-recording gage, of which several are on the

market. They require frequent attention to keep them in order,
but by making continuous record give much greater accuracy

on a fluctuating stream than periodic observations of a gage.
Measurements
made
of the actual discharge of the
stream should be
upon the character of

permanent character, a complete
measurements taken at high, low, and intermediate
at frequent intervals, depending
the stream bed.

series of
If this is of
stages will serve to establish approximate values for the various

gage heights, and permit the construction of a curve of discharge;
and thereafter measurements need be made only sufficient to

check the stability of the cross-section and to confirm the
There are few river chanstability and reliability of the gage.
however, except those in solid rock, that are naturally so
stable that they do not undergo material modification in times
nels,
of flood, so that in practice it is usually necessary to take a
measurements every year. Especially is it important

secure measurements of extreme high and low water, so as
series of
to
to control the extremities of the curve of discharge.
The
discharge of the stream should be measured in the

no appreciable gain or loss can occur
vicinity of the gage, so that
between.
The depth may be measured by a rod or sounding line at

measured intervals across the stream, each sounding representing half the distance to the next sounding adjacent on each
side.
The frequency
of
the
soundings should depend upon
GAGING STREAMS
155
the roughness of the channel, a few soundings being sufficient
where the stream
of nearly
is
uniform depth, and only roughly

For convenience, the sound-
results are required.
approximate
may be made equidistant, and each sounding should be
multiplied by the width of the section which it represents.
ings
will give the area of that cross-section, and the sum of all
these cross-sections will give the cross-section of the stream,
This
by the mean
and
this multiplied
the total discharge
velocity of the water will give
rough preliminary measurement of velocity may be made

surface
floats, timing their passage over a measured course.
by
The mean velocity will be about nine-tenths of the average
surface velocity in ordinary streams with
FIG. 48.
somewhat
less, for
of surface float
make
make
it float
is
smooth bottoms and
Haskell Current Meter.
rough gravelly sections. A convenient form

tall bottle, with just enough water in it to
upright,
and a white rag attached
to the cork to
Several such floats should be passed

conspicuous.
over the course at different parts of the stream and the time
it
carefully taken.
eddies
or
material
straight course should be selected free

changes in section. More, reliable
accurate measurements of velocity
may
from
and
be made with a current
meter, of which several efficient types are obtainable. Those

most used are the Price meter, Fig. 49, and the Haskell meter,
Fig. 48.
The Haskell meter has a
advantage in responding
only to the component of water motion parallel to the axis of
slight
156
FIG. 49.
Price Electric
and Acoustic Current Meters.
GAGING STREAMS
157
the meter, but will not register velocities as low nor as high as
the Price meter, and if the shaft on which it revolves becomes
rust, or otherwise, it seriously affects the
roughened by
slightly
and hence the rating of the meter.

The electric meter which has been found to work most
satisfactorily under nearly all the varying conditions of depth
coefficient of friction,
and velocity by the hydrographers of the U. S. Geological Survey

and U. S. Engineer Corps is the small Price electric-current
meter
and
It
(Fig. 49).
is
accurate for streams of nearly any velocity,
Each
practically standard with both organizations.
revolution of the wheel is indicated by a sounder, consisting
is
by a small battery cell. Two

small insulated wires, attached to the stem and to the contact
spring in the head, are connected with the sounder through the
of a telephone receiver excited
suspending cable.
The
Price acoustic current meter
Price electric meter.
is
a modification of the
It is especially desirable for its portability
and ease
of handling as it weighs but little over a pound.

In
shallow
streams
it
the
most
accurate
of
results
very
gives
any
meter, and is held at the proper depth by a metal rod in the
hands
It is designed especially to stand hard

be received in turbid irrigation waters, and
of the observer.
knocks which
may
can be used in high

is
counted.
(Fig. 49)
velocities,
as only each tenth revolution
Its head, like that of the electric meter, consists
of a strong
which revolve
wheel composed of
air
and
oil in
cups holding
water or gritty matter.
six
conical-shaped cups,
bearings run in two

such manner as entirely to exclude
in a horizontal plane;
its
Above the upper bearing is a small

air-chamber, into which the shaft of the wheel extends. The
water cannot rise into this air-chamber, and in it is a small
worm-gear on the
shaft, turning a wheel with twenty teeth.

This wheel carries a pin which at every tenth revolution of the
shaft trips a small hammer against the diaphragm forming the
top of the air-chamber, and the sound produced by the striking
hammer
transmitted by the hollow plunger-rod through a

rubber
tube to the ear of the observer by an earconnecting
piece.
is
The plunger-rod
is
in 2-foot lengths,
and
is
graduated to
158
feet
and tenths
of feet, thus rendering it serviceable as a
sound-
ing or gaging rod.
Use
2.
A bridge spanning a stream

the most convenient provision
Even one or two piers in the stream
Current Meter.
of the
without piers in the channel

for using a current meter.
is
they are not clogged with drift, and do not

If the
greatly interfere with the smooth flow of the water.
stream is sufficiently shallow, a resort to wading may be practi-
be tolerated
may
if
cable at time of low water, but obviously will not do at high

water, nor at any time when the velocity is high, as the body
of the observer will cause eddies
and
vitiate the results.
In the absence of a bridge without piers in the stream, the

best provision for gaging
and from
is
to stretch a cable across the stream,
suspend a small car in which the observer can

propelling the car by pulling on the cable, and stopping
ride,
this
at certain points indicated
The diagram,
Fig. 52,
by a tagged wire
shows such a
parallel to the cable.
station.
In the absence of
the car a boat may be used, anchored to the cable, but this
somewhat interferes with the current, and is apt to swing about
during the observation and impair its accuracy.

In lowering a current meter into a deep stream in time of
flood, the strong current tends to carry it
downstream, and to
reaching the bottom or any considerable depth.

To remedy this tendency, a heavy wire may be stretched across
the river 50 or 100 feet above the gaging section, and upon this
prevent
its
wire a small pulley is carried from which a smaller wire extends

to the meter line, to which it is attached just above the meter
and prevents
its
deflection
downstream.
flowing stream has a sloping surface, and moves under the

action of gravity, retarded by friction on the bottom, the banks,
and in a small degree on the air. The lowest velocity is at
and near the bottom and

effect.
The maximum
on account of their retarding

velocity is just below the surface, in
sides
the central portion of the channel, unless a deeper part exists,

In order to find
in which case the depth may vary that law.
the
mean
velocity of the water in
methods are
in use.
any
vertical line,
several
USE OF THE CURRENT METER
159
The
integration method is the moving of the -meter

and
regularly from surface to bottom, and to surface
slowly
This
must be done so slowly that the vertical motion
again.
of the meter will be an insignificant fraction of the horizontal
1.
motion
may
of the water, otherwise the correctness of the record
be affected especially with the cup type of meter such as
the Price meter.

2.
The measurement
of velocity at six-tenths of the depth,
has been found to generally give results approximating the
mean
velocity of the vertical line passing through the point
measured.
3.
In deep streams the
surface,
mean
mid-depth and bottom
mean velocity.
Good results from
of
measurements
will give
of velocity at
a close approximation
to the
current meter measurements cannot be
obtained except at reaches where the channel
and regular, and practically

back currents.
An
for
dam
free
is fairly
straight
from whirlpools, eddies and
an excellent opportunity
measuring the discharge of a stream, if it is fairly smooth
overflow
or weir furnishes
and regular along its crest. If it has a large bay of nearly

quiet water back of it, the discharge may be computed by one
or other of the empirical formulae, by measuring the height of
the water above the crest of the weir at a point above the line
where the measurement gives the general
of accelerated velocity,
height of the still bay.
pond above the dam has been
with sediment, the

various weir formulae are not applicable, but the weir may be
calibrated by measuring the stream with a current meter a
short distance above or below the weir, and when once this is
If the
well done, for
all
filled
stages from extreme low water to extreme
flood stage, the stability of the weir,
if it
be of masonry, insures
accurate results as long as no change occurs in the shape or

elevation of the weir crest.
Where the section measured is sandy and constantly shifting,

the gage readings cannot be depended upon as indications of
discharge unless checked frequently by actual complete discharge
160
161
*-'
u'
FIG. 51.
Cable Gaging Station, with Automatic Continuous Recording Gage.
FIG. 52.
Cable and Car Gaging Station.
162
measurements. Such streams are the Colorado, Rio Grande,

Arkansas and Platte after they leave the mountains.
These streams scour their channels at time of high water
and fill them again at low stages, and at all times are building
bars or cutting banks, and their channels are thus constantly
shifting, so that unless a fixed weir can be used, it is necessary
in order to get accurate results to
make very
ments, ranging from daily in times
53.
Wire and Boat Gaging
weekly or weekly at low
stages.
frequent measuresemi-
of high water, to
Even
Station.
these results are not as
accurate as less frequent measurements on streams with gravel

channels.
Where
the channel
is
of coarse gravel or bowlders
and hence
relatively stable, the principal changes occur at times of flood

and a measurement or two at or near the peak of the flood
and at extreme low water, with a few at intermediate
stages,
163
generally give a good rating curve to serve till the next -flood
The rating curve at such places is often very stable,
stage.
but should be checked carefully at and after each flood stage.
Streams through clay regions are apt to be more shifting than

those with gravel sections, but are generally susceptible of fair
determination by the methods just described, with somewhat
No
more frequent measurements.
section
entirely free
is
change unless of rock, or of concrete or other
artificial
from
con-
struction.
In cold
Canada
sented
countries
like
the
Northern United States and
problems and considerable

measuring frozen streams. In
special
in
are pre-
difficulty
the
early
winter
needle and anchor ice are apt to form in rapids and flow in
masses, sometimes even clogging the stream where frozen over,
and causing back water.
The
surface of the stream
may
freeze
at the edges, leaving the center of the channel open, thus complicating the work of measurement.
are
After the channel freezes over the discharge measurements

made through holes in the ice, large enough to allow the
current meter to pass through freely. The depth of the stream

taken as the distance from the bottom of the ice to the bottom
is
The
of the stream.
velocity
is
taken by the vertical velocitymay be described
curve method, which as adapted to winter use,

as follows:
The meter
held just below the lower surface of the ice,

and the velocity at that point recorded. This is repeated at
different depths throughout the vertical.
These results are
is
plotted with velocities in feet per second as abscissae, and their

corresponding depths in feet as ordinates, and a curve is drawn
through the points. The mean velocity is obtained by dividing

the area included between the curve and its axis, by the depth.
be measured by planimeter, or estimated by squares.

approximation may be more easily obtained by dividing
the depth into a number of equal parts, taking corresponding
This
may
close
velocities
from
the curve
velocity multiplied
discharge.
by
and averaging these. The mean

as measured will give the
the depth
164
In 1775, Chezy, a French engineer,

3. Hydraulic Formulae.
developed a formula for computing the flow of water in conduits,
either
open or
closed.
Where F = the mean velocity of

R = The hydraulic radius
the water;
stream obtained by dividing the area of cross-section of the stream by the

wetted perimeter;
of the
5 = the tangent of the angle of slope;

C = a coefficient then supposed to be
known
vary with several
to
constant, but
factors,
now
especially
the friction of the channel.
The
researches of Ganguillet and Kutter produced important

modifications of the above formula, in which the factor C is
replaced by an expression which takes into account the roughness

the channel, and certain functions of the slope and the
of
hydraulic radius. The friction is represented by the variable

"
."
This formula, which is in general use for open conduits,
and
also to
some extent
for closed conduits,
is
expressed thus:
.0028
1.81
h4i.6+v.rs.
The value
of
the factor
"
"
is
empirical and must be

to the difficulty of
assumed largely upon judgment, owing
defining with accuracy the multitude of details which effect the

retarding influence of the channel.
4.
Measurement
measurement
of
Water
to
the
User.
The accurate
water to each irrigator is a prime necessity of

every irrigation system. Where the water supply is limited,
and the area
of
thereby limited, as is generally the

case, it is important that the most economical use of water be
secured, in order that the largest area may be irrigated and the
of irrigation
is
greatest production thereby secured.
It
is still
more important
MEASUREMENT OF WATER TO THE USER
165
to prevent excessive application of water, because where permitted it is almost certain to cause an injurious rise in the water
and the resulting injuries from rise of alkali, water logging

etc., which are more likely to occur where water is plentiful
than where it is scarce. It is thus very important to limit the
table
amount
water supplied to that actually required for plant

consumption, as nearly as this can be attained in practice.
of
This requires great care, both in preparation of the land and

in the application of the water, and no measures have been
found more
efficient
than those which engage the direct financial

by charging for water service by the
interest of the irrigator
quantity of water used. To do this requires careful and systematic measurement of the water to each irrigator.
The standard
unit for the
measurement
of flowing
water
in English-speaking countries is the cubic foot per second.
This
be defined as a stream of such velocity and volume that

one cubic foot of water passes a given point in a second of time.
may
mean
velocity of the stream
is one foot
per second, and the
the
flow
cross-section
is one cubic foot per
foot,
For brevity the cubic foot per second is called a
second.
"
"
"
in India, and in America it is called a
cusec
second-foot."
If
the
is
American
one square
often use another unit having its origin

"
miner's inch," from the discharge
of a square inch orifice under a given head.
The varying values
of this unit under the wide variety of conditions of flow created
irrigators
in placer mining, called the
such confusion that legislative attempts have been made to

define the miner's inch in terms of the standard unit, the secondfoot.
In Colorado the statutes provide that 38.4 miner's inches

one second-foot. In Arizona, California, Montana
shall equal
and Oregon, a miner's inch
is
one-fortieth of a second-foot,
New Mexico, North Dakota

and South Dakota it is one-fiftieth of a second-foot, and in other
States no definite values have been assigned.
while in Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska,
This variation unfits the miner's inch for use as a

standard, and we are forced
common
to adhere to the second-foot as the
standard unit for expressing the volume of flowing streams.

Where volume is considered independent of the element of
166
It is the quantity
time, the acre-foot has been generally adopted.
of water that will cover an area of one acre to the depth of i
and
foot,
is
hence 43,560 cubic
feet.
As a
subdivision of the acre-foot, acre-inch is often used,

onetwelfth of the acre-foot, or 3630 cubic feet.
The
being
acre-foot is an especially convenient unit of volume from its
ready applicability to land areas, and its simple relation to

the second-foot. A stream flowing at the rate of i cubic foot
per second will discharge about 2 acre-feet, or more exactly,
1.9835 acre-feet, in i day of 24 hours. In i hour it will discharge
about
acre-inch.
Measuring Devices.
5.
The
devices
most used
irrigation water are weirs, submerged
orifices,
for
measuring
and current
meters, all these being accompanied by gages showing the

Where
stage or head of the water in the stream measured.
there is sufficient available fall the weir is the most convenient
and almost universal measuring device. Where there is less
fall, and the quantity of water to be measured is small, some
form of orifice can be used and is less affected by temporary
variations of head than the weir, but must be kept free from
trash.
Where
head
is
the quantity of water
gaging station
Weirs.
a.
is
too large or the available

a current meter
insufficient for the use of the weir,
be employed, as described on page 158.

weir may be defined as a wall over which a
may
stream of water flows.
Experiments have shown that where
the conditions are well defined the quantity of water discharged

over a weir bears a definite relation to the depth of the flow,
and by keeping
this constant, or by noting its variations, the

quantity of water passing in a given time may be accurately
measured. This relation, however, varies with the length,
shape and other conditions concerning the weir. Weirs are of
two general types, namely, free weirs and submerged weirs.

A free weir is one where the downstream water elevation
is
lower than the crest of the weir.
A
tion
submerged weir is one where the downstream water elevahigher than the crest of the weir. A free weir is some-
is
MEASURING DEVICES
167
times converted into a submerged weir by increasing the discharge sufficiently or by obstructing the stream below sufficiently
to cause the
downstream water elevation
above the
to rise
level
of the weir crest.
Where
the sides of the weir are placed so as to contract the

is situated, it is called a contracted
channel in which the weir
and where the
weir,
stream
called a suppressed weir,
is
it
sides of the weir are coincident with the
the contractions being
in this case suppressed.
When
it is
the sides of a weir are perpendicular to the crest,

In a trapezoidal weir, the sides
called a rectangular weir.
make obtuse
zoidal weir
is
common form of trapeangles with the crest.

called the Cippoletti weir in which the sides slope
outward from the

It
is
crest in the ratio of
horizontal to 4 vertical.
so designed in order that the ratio of the
end contractions
water to its depth shall be constant.

For the accurate measurement of water, weirs should be
of the sheet of
constructed with the following characteristics:

1. The crest and sides of the weir should be sharp and
smooth, and should be distant from the bottom and sides
respectively, both
above and below the weir, not
less
than three
times the depth of water on the weir.

2. The crest should be level from end to end.
3.
4.
5.
The upstream
face of the weir should be vertical.
Air should circulate freely under the overflowing sheet.

The cross-sectional area of the stream above the weir
should be not
less
than seven times that of the overflowing
sheet of water.
6.
The depth
one- third
its
of
water on the weir should be not more than
length.
The measurement
elevation of
head on the weir should be the actual

the water surface above the weir crest, from 5 to 10
of the
upstream from the weir. Where the surface velocity of

is more than 3 feet per second at a point upstream
from the weir a distance of ten times the depth on the weir,
or where the area of its cross-section is less than six times
feet
the stream
that
of
the overflowing
sheet,
correction
must be made
168
velocity of approach, which increases the

the weir.
for
discharge over
From
experiments on rectangular weirs, Francis developed

the formula
:
In which
Q = the quantity discharged in second-feet;

Z, = the length of weir in feet;
and
H = the head on the weir in feet.
The
sons
Cippoletti weir permits a simpler formula for the reaabove given, and Cippoletti's experiments indicated a
slightly higher coefficient, resulting in the following:
Where
conditions encountered indicate a velocity of approach

may be computed from the
sufficient to affect the result, this
following formula
In which
and
of
V = the velocity of approach;

Q = the discharge in second-feet;
A = the area of cross-section of the channel
of approach.
To adapt this to the formulae, V should be converted

head by the following formula:
to terms
In which h = the head due to velocity of approach.
Where
may
this results in a considerable value for
//,
that value
be substituted for h in the following formula proposed by
Francis for cases requiring correction for velocity of approach
The corresponding formula
for Cippoletti weirs
is:
MEASURING DEVICES
169
Measuring Orifices. Where the amount of floating debris

negligible or can be thoroughly controlled and the quantity
water to be measured is not too great, some form of orifice
.
is
of
is
perhaps the best and most accurate of the cheaper forms of

It can be used with smaller loss of head
canal measurement.
than required
and the
for a weir,
errors in observing the head.

it is liable
An
to be clogged in
It
any
orifice, as the term
is
is
to vertical,
degree.
air.
may have any position from horizontal

water may discharge either into water or
If it
discharges into air
discharges into water,
it
is any form of opening

below the surface of the con-
wall
and the
into the open
When
The
by
worthless, however, whenever
here used,
in the wall of a channel entirely
tained water.
results are less affected
has
it is
it is
called a
said to be free.
submerged
orifice.
perimeter located far enough

orifice
from the bounding surfaces of the containing channel, so that
the filaments of water approaching the orifice are sharply
contracted
deflected
issuing
its
passing out, and

stream to a smaller
in
by
their
inertia
than
diameter
contract the
that
of
the
orifice.
A suppressed orifice has its perimeter so nearly coincident

with the bounding surfaces of the channel of approach, as to
eliminate
this
contraction.
Between these
limits
are
many
degrees of partial contraction.

If the opening is cut in a wall of considerable thickness, or if a
discharge tube is attached, it requires entirely different coefficients from a simple orifice.
The most suitable orifice for
sharp-edged rectangular,
measurement
is
the vertical
contracted, submerged orifice.
type can be accurately reproduced and

has been carefully determined.
its
This
discharge coefficient
The thin, sharp edges which form the boundaries of the orifice,
must be at sufficient distance from the boundaries of the containing water prism, so that the filaments of water in passing
will have the maximum deflection from a straight line, as
out
they enter the
orifice,
of the issuing stream.
and thus cause the maximum contraction
To
accomplish
this,
the orifice
must be
170
at a distance from the bounding surfaces of the prism, at least
twice the least dimension of the
The upstream
orifice.
face of
the orifice should be vertical, and the sides should be vertical.

The top and bottom edges of the orifice should be parallel and
The
horizontal.
on each
25 feet
area of the
putation
The head on
orifice.
is
the
actual
convenient to
it is
their height.
elevation
in
much wider than
make measuring
To
simplify computations
have the cross-sectional area of the
it is
orifices longer
well,
orifice
if
their
than
practicable,
an even number
with a height of 6 inches, for

square foot, which is the most con-
length of 2 feet
of square feet.
example, gives an area of
venient area of all.
The formula
between the
surfaces.
irrigation channels are usually
depth,
to
the orifice to be used in com-
difference
upstream and downstream water
As
area of the water prism for

be at least six times the
cross-sectional
side of the orifice, should
for
computing the discharge of the standard
rectangular submerged orifice follows:
Q = o.6i\/2gHA.
will
It
be noted that the discharge of the
orifice varies
with the square-root of the head, while that of a weir varies as

For this reason the
the cube of the square-root of the head.
former is more accurate, especially under conditions where the
head
may
be
subject to temporary unrecorded
For the same reason

approach to sensibly
this
is
formula
considerable,
fluctuations.
requires considerably more velocity of

affect the discharge of an orifice, but when
it
it
may
be allowed for by the following
symbols having the same significance as heretofore.

This need seldom be used where the conditions of accuracy
the
are properly met.
When it is necessary to place the orifice at the bottom of the

channel or otherwise to suppress a portion or all of the contrac-
MEASURING DEVICES
tion of the orifice, the discharge
may
171
be approximately obtained
by the following formula:
Q = o.6i(i+o.i$r)\/2gHA,
where r ratio of the suppressed portion of the perimeter to
the whole perimeter of the orifice, and the other symbols have
the same significance as heretofore given.
The coefficients in this formula are not well determined, and

cannot be made as exact as those in the standard orifice, which is
more accurately reproducible.
Notwithstanding
its
theoretical accuracy, the uses of the
orifice are limited in practice
by
three important conditions:
adapted only to small quantities of water.

2. Unless very large it is often liable to be
partially clogged
with debris, thus vitiating the results.
1.
It
3.
The
is
necessity of observing both the upstream
and down-
stream head.
For the
sufficient
first
head
two reasons the weir

available and for
is
is
generally preferred where
this reason the free orifice
seldon used as this requires as much head as a weir; it may be

convenient, however, in some cases where it is desired to measure
is
a small quantity of water without trash.

Where the available fall for measuring a canal
amount
is
too small,
sediment too great to permit good results

from the use of weirs or orifices, it may be necessary to establish
or the
of
a current-meter gaging station. This should be located in a

straight uniform section of the canal with clean stable banks
and bed, where
by drops, checks and

other
influence
to
affect the relation of
any
likely
gage height to discharge, upon the constancy of which relation
the value of the results will largely depend.
velocities are unaffected
turnouts, or
The essential elements of the observations are frequent or

continuous records of the gage height at the station, and careful
measurements of discharge taken at various stages of canal
height, to indicate points of control
plotted which
shall
height to discharge.
show
by which a curve may be
for all stages,
the relation of gage
172
The best provision for current-meter measurements is a

bridge spanning the canal without any disturbance of the flow
by piers or abutments. This should be divided into permanently
and less intervals
At each station the depth and velocity are
for small ones.
carefully measured, and an assumption made that each measured
result is the mean for equal distances on each side thereof, so
marked
sections of 10 feet for large canals,
that each measurement represents one of the sections. The

velocity in feet per second, multiplied by the depth in feet,
multiplied by the width of the section, will give the discharge in
second-feet of that section, and the sum of the discharges of
the sections will be the discharge of the canal.
all
As a temporary makeshift the velocity of the canal may

be measured by means of floats, but where measurements are
to be made frequently, both accuracy and economy require
that the current meter should be employed.
their use are described on page 157.
Whether measurements
are
made on
weirs,
The meters and

orifices or
with
current meters, they require records of gage height in order to

determine the discharge. In a canal wherein the discharge is
kept practically constant, it is sufficient to read the gage twice

a day, with additional readings whenever the quantity of water
changed. Where changes are frequent, either from
the
position of the headgates or from changes in the
changing
quantities taken out by laterals, an automatic instrument should
flowing
is
be employed to make a continuous record.

Various forms of water meters have been extensively used
where greater accuracy is required than can be obtained with
weirs and orifices, or where conditions make their use convenient.
In general they are too expensive for practical application to
the measurement of irrigation water, except where this
is
very
valuable.
Where a
small quantity of water
delivered through pipes,

the ordinary water meter used for city supplies is the most
convenient and suitable. It consists of a set of blades caused
is
to revolve by the passing water, and an indicator recording the

revolutions of the blades.
MEASURING DEVICES
When
173
mechanically perfect they are very accurate, but
they are too complicated and expensive for irrigation use, and
are not suitable for measurement of the large quantities of water
required in irrigation.
The
rate of discharge through the weirs
depends upon
and
orifices
described
the head of water above, and in the cases of
submerged weirs and orifices, the elevation of the water below

must also be known. It thus becomes necessary to keep a
record of these elevations, and this attention is the principal
part of the cost of water measurement by these methods. If
the gages are read only at intervals by an observer, no account
between observations, and serious inacDevices are therefore employed to
make and keep a continuous automatic record of the gage
is
had
of fluctuations
curacies
may
be involved.
FIG. 54.
height,
Rectangular Measuring Weir.
and these again involve expense, and complicated clockliable to disarrangement, and
work and recording apparatus
Several recording devices

requiring considerable skill for repair.
of reasonable simplicity and efficiency are obtainable from
instrument makers, all dependent upon the rise and fall of the
water as indicated by a float controlling a pen on a dial or
cylinder driven by weights and regulated by clockwork.
F. W. Hanna has invented a recording
c. Banna Meter.
device designed not only to record the height of the water but to
translate this into discharge
which
it
indicates
and
on a counter.
to give the results in acre- feet,
This machine
is
also controlled
float, driven by weights and regulated by clockwork.

by
Its advantage over the standard automatic gage is that it
eliminates the need of using a table for interpreting the record.

It
is
however, more complicated, of course.
174
To
obviate the necessity of keeping and recording gage

heights, and also to secure uniformity of flow, various devices
have been proposed to keep the head constant over weirs or

orifices, some of which are in limited use.
d.
The Azusa hydrant

which
of different sizes
simply a series of submerged orifices

may be opened or closed at will, in
is
accordance with the quantity of water desired.
FIG. 55.
Foote's Measuring Weir, A.
Water
To keep a
Divisor, B.
provided in the canal just below the

as to keep the water
hydrant, and an opening in this so adjusted
constant head, a weir
in the canal just
is
above the
crest of the weir.

rise of
If
the weir
water in the canal
is
made
will
mostly
with very long crest, any
increase the discharge
somewhat
also
will
but
the
over
weir,
pass
through the
orifices.
The Foote Measuring box is a device adjustable to cause

and so
any desired quantity of water to flow nearly constantly,
e.
MEASURING DEVICES
175
arranged as to measure this in miner's inches. It consists of a

box flume fitted into the ditch from which the water is to be
This flume
divided longitudinally into two comunequal sizes, and the entrance of water into each
partments
is controlled by flash boards, so that in use, the water stands
measured.
is
of
3 or 4 inches higher in the small
one.
The
small
compartment
is
compartment than
in the large
closed at the lower end,
and
provided with a spillway into the large one, over which the
water flows when it reaches a certain depth. On the opposite
compartment is a long horizontal slot 4 inches

which is 4 inches below the crest of the spill-
side of the small
high, the center of
way, and closed by a gate sliding horizontally, adjustable to a

scale, so that the opening may be adjusted to any length from
zero
up
The area of the openthus four times the length of the opening
the water stands at the crest of the spill-
to the entire length of the slot.
ing in square inches

as adjusted,
is
and when
way, or 4 inches above the center of the slot, the area of the
opening expresses the discharge in miner's inches. The successmeasuring device requires the loss of 4 or 5 inches
head in the supply lateral, and about a foot into the receiving
It is therefore not adapted to use where such heads
lateral.
are not available, but is otherwise convenient and reasonably
ful use of this
of
accurate.
similar devices have been proposed and used to some
are merely more or less ingenious combinations
which
extent,
of weirs and orifices some of which are described in detail in
Many
Bulletin No. 247
of
the Agricultural Experiment Station of
Berkeley, California.
All such weirs
and a great deal
and
orifices require
considerable loss of head
of attention to the stage of water, involving
an
automatic time register if any great accuracy is required. To

avoid these objections, several devices have been invented to
measure the quantity of water more directly, without so much

loss of head, and with increase of simplicity of mechanism.
/. The Dethridge meter is a paddle wheel consisting of a drum
on a horizontal axle, with projecting blades of metal attached

at equal intervals to the periphery of the drum, revolving in a
176
box or flume,
in
which
it fits
closely without touching, so that
water can pass without moving the blade and turning

very
the wheel. The bottom of the box is curved to correspond to
little
the circular path of the blades, so that in passing, a blade does not
leave the proximity of the bottom until the next blade reaches
it,
and
so that in use, the water always
bottom
of the
fills
the box
up
to the
drum.
By recording the revolutions of the wheel, information is

obtained which can be readily translated into terms of flow.
The
axis of the wheel can be attached directly to a counter
by
reading which the revolutions are obtained, and by multiplying

the velocity thus obtained by the cross-section of the space
through which the water passes under the drum, the discharge
obtained directly, affected, however, by the leakage past the
vanes, which in turn is affected by the friction involved in
is
turning the wheel.
well-made instrument of
this
and measures the water with a very
very accurate,
kind
slight
is
fall,
depending on the quantity passing. It will give satisfactory

results with quantities varying between maxima and minima
in the ratio of 5 to
i.
In practice the box,
if
of
wood,
is
liable
warp slightly, and thus vary the clearance around the blades,
or the friction of turning, or both, which changes the coefficient
For this reason, the direct method of inferring
of discharge.
the discharge from the cross-section and wheel readings is sometimes rather rough and it is better to have a rating for the
to
coefficient
of
discharge
at the various stages.
conditions
by actually measuring the discharge

This rating should be renewed whenever
change perceptibly.
It
is
best
to
construct
the
box surrounding the wheel of rich concrete carefully smoothed,

and if this be properly founded, little change need be expected.
This meter can be built of any size desired. It is moderate in
cost, is extremely simple in principle, in construction and in
It gives satisfactory results, with very small loss
but requires attention to prevent interruption if much
operation.
of head,
floating drift
g.
is
The Hill
passing.
meter, devised
by Louis
C. Hill, consists of a
short box or pipe in the form of an inverted siphon, through
MEASURING DEVICES
177
which the water to be measured is made to pass, the issuing

end being vertical and lower than the other and somewhat
As the water
rises through the issuing end of the

a
set
of
inclined vanes attached to a central
passes
siphon,
drum revolving on a pivot, and the flowing water striking the
smaller.
it
inclined vanes turns the
so arranged
on a
in acre-feet.
accuracy of
drum, the
axis of
which drives a counter
dial as to register the passing
water directly
single opening and meter can be used with an

about 2 per cent, over a range from i minimum to 5
maximum.
Unless the entrance of the siphon
is
liable to
When
very accurate, reliable and simple.

of
well screened the meter
It requires
very
is
little loss
head in the measured water.
The Grant-Mitchell
h.
extent in Australia, and

It
is
be choked by floating weeds or other drift.

kept free from drift and properly built, this meter
is,
is
used to some
similar in principle to the Hill meter.
however, more expen-
and seems
sive,
or Australian meter
is
to
have no
special advantages over that
but
instrument,
said
is
to
Both are
give good results.
patented.
The
i.
Venturi
meter
is
a very simple and accurate

device for measuring water,
much used on
city
water
introsupply, and recently

J
duced to some extent on irri-
gation works.
passing
water
of
The water
is
FIG. 56.
Australian
Water Meter.
conducted under pressure through
gradually and gently contracted, and then

more gradually returns to its normal dimensions. In
a pipe which
still
is
is
contracted throat, the velocity of the

increased in the same ratio that the cross-section
the
through
the pipe
is
head
diminished.
By
this
means a portion
of the
pressure
velocity head, and by
a
before
the
at
contraction begins,
measuring
pressure
point
is
converted
into
178
and
may
also at the contracted throat, the quantity of water passing
be computed from the following formula:
Q = Ca
in
which a = the area at the throat;
A = area of the pipe before contraction;

h = pressure head at A
same at a;
C = a coefficient usually from .97 to .99,
dependent on
the perfection of the meter.
Chart Recorder
continuously Records
cubic feet per second
FIG. 57.
Venturi Meter and Recording Device on Lateral Head.
The only complication about this meter is the measurement

and registration of the pressures, a and A. Elaborate electric
devices are sometimes used for this, which are very accurate
but too expensive for irrigation uses. Floats can be used in
connection with the ordinary automatic gages, which will give
approximate results if kept in order.

Mr. D. C. Hermy has proposed a simple
j. Venturi Flume.
and cheap modification of the Venturi meter, called the " Venturi
Flume."
In this flume a contraction
is
effected
by a curved
metal or reinforced concrete sheet placed between the sides of

the flume, depressing the surface of the water. At the point
the sheet is for a few inches parallel
of greatest depression
MEASURING DEVICES
floor of the
with the
flume and
179
pierced by several holes allowOne gage is installed in

ing water to rise above the sheet.
the flume above the measuring device, and the second one
in the
still
is
water pond formed by the curved sheet and the sides

"
From
H"
the reading of these two gages

is
found, from which the flow may be calculated by the above
of the flume.
formula.
The
device was tested in
1915 in various forms on four

projects of the Reclamation Service, the flow being checked
by weir measurements. The quantity of water varied in these
experiments between
second-foot and 7 second-feet, and the
These showed
throat velocity from i to SyV feet per second.
deviations from correct results varying from about i to about
ii per cent of the quantity of
results
being
generally
water measured, the more accurate

with the larger quantities
obtained
of water.
The
foot
loss
and
of
head through the throat varies between

being greater for the higher velocities and
.05 foot,
.03
for
The loss varied from 13 per

the smaller quantities of water.
cent to 56 per cent of the velocity head.
Losses exceeding 40 per cent of the velocity head at the throat
occur only for height of throat less than 3 inches. With a
throat height of 4 inches or over the losses are from 24 per cent
down, the tendency being to a reduction of percentage as the
velocity increases, although the actual loss of head may be
greater.
This measuring device, especially in the smaller sizes, is liable

to clog with large weeds, but passes leaves and other small trash.
It has not been commercially manufactured.
In 1915 Mr. V.
M. Cone
of the United States Department of

and
Agriculture designed
experimented with another form of
"
"
in which contraction is effected by drawing
Venturi Flume
in the sides of the flume, leaving the water surface free.
Experitype of flume were made in connection with some

of those of the Henny flume above described.
The experiment
showed that below a flow of 2 second-feet the coefficient fluctuates
ments on
erratically
this
with
unreliable
results.
Above
this
amount
the
180
TABLE XXVIL DISCHARGE OF STANDARD RECTANGULAR SUBMERGED ORIFICES IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND, COMPUTED
FROM THE FORMULA Q = o.6iV^H. A
Head H,
Feet
MEASURING DEVICES
TABLE XXVII.
Head
//,
Con tin ncd
181
182
accuracy is about the same as that for the Henny flume. It

has the disadvantage that the formula by which the flow is to be
calculated
must take
into account not only
"
H"
but also
Stilling boxes
separately the depth at either of the two gages.
are necessary with high velocities to permit accurate observations
of the surface of the swiftly flowing water.
however, of being
surface
The
is
less easily
It has the advantage,
clogged with
drift,
as the upper
from obstruction.
free
and practical meter for measuring water to

each farm must be both simple and cheap. It is used so fresuccessful
quently that any complication or trouble with each one aggregates a large amount and hence the importance of simplicity
and reliability. This extends also to the formula for computing
It is important to have these computations worked
out and tabulated for all possible cases, not only for convenience
results.
and economy
One
of time,
but
also to eliminate liability to errors.
measurement
of water is the use of the rotation system, by which each irrigator takes a much larger quantity of water than he would be
entitled to continously, and shortens the time of use proporBy this means
tionately, allowing his neighbors to do the same.
it is necessary to measure the quantity used by all those who
rotate together, and the length of time this volume is received
of the greatest economies possible in the
by each indicates the total quantity each receives. This reduces

the number of measurements to be made by meter, and is more
accurate than meter measurements to individuals, as the time
of delivery to each user can be easily determined to a second if
desired,
which
measurement.
is
This
much
is
closer
measurement than any meter
one of the minor advantages of the
rotation system.
In the present state of the art, the weir, either rectangular
or Cipolletti, is the most practicable meter for irrigation pur-
great accuracy is required, the mechanical register is

employed to record the head, and if the forebay is kept clean
good results are obtained.
poses.
If
MEASURING DEVICES
183
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XI

Measurement and Division
CARPENTER, L. G.
of
Water.
Bulletin No. 27, State
Fort Collins, Col., 1894.

Agricultural College.
CHURCH, IRVING P. Mechanics of Engineering: Fluids.
New
FANNING,
&
Sons,
D. Van Nostrand
Hydraulic and Water-supply Engineering.
T.
J.
New
Co.,
York, 1890.
W. D. The Cippoletti Trapezoidal

XXXII. New York, July, 1894.
FLINN, A. D., and DYER, C.
Am.
Soc. C. E., Vol.
FLYNN, P.
Irrigation Canals
J.
in Irrigation Canals.
GREEN,
&
John Wiley
York.
J.
and Other
Denver,
Irrigation
Works, and Flow
Trans.
of
Water
Col., 1892.
Fourth Biennial Report State Engineer
S.
Weir.
of
Colorado.
Denver,
Col., 1889.
HORTON, ROBERT E.
Weir Experiments, Coefficients and Formulas. U. S.

and GROVER, N. C. River Discharge. John Wiley & Sons. New
Geological Survey,
HOYT,
J. C.,
York, 1907.
MULLINS, Lieut.-Gen. J. Irrigation Manual. E. & F. N. Spon, New York, 1890.

MURPHY, E. C. Accuracy of Stream Measurements. U. S. Geological Survey,
MURPHY, E. C., HOYT, J. C., and HOLLISTER, G. B. Hydrographic Manual,
U.
Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., 1904.
S.
NEWELL,
F.
H.
Part
II,
nth and
i3th Annual Reports U. S. Geological Sur-
vey, Washington, D. C., 1890 and 1892.

WEISBACH, P. J. Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors.
by A. Jay
HANNA,
DRAKE,
F.
W.
E. F.
Translated and Edited
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1891.

Measurement of Water for Irrigation, U. S. R.
Du
Bois.
Report of Hydrometric Surveys
for 1916,
S.
Handbook.
Dept. of Interior, Ottawa,
Canada.
SCOBEY, F. C.
Flow of Water in Irrigation Channels. Bulletin 194, U. S. Office

CONE, V. M. The Venturi Flume. Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. IX,
No. 4. Washington, D. C.
of
MEAD, DANIEL W.
Water Power Engineering.
McGraw-Hill Book
Co.,
New
York.
BARK,
DON H.
Experiments on the Economical use of Water in Idaho.

Roads and Rural Engineering.
Bulletin
339, U. S. Office of Public
Some Measuring Devices used
in the Delivery of Irrigation Water.

Bulletin 247,
Agr. Exp. Sta., University of California, Berkeley, Cal.
MORITZ, E. A. Flow of Water in Pipes, Eng. Record, Vol. LXVIII, page 667.
CHAPTER
XII
DRAINAGE
FOR
the health and vigor of the most useful plants, the roots
they require water. If the soil in
require air just as certainly as
the root zone
is
saturated with water this excludes the
air,
and
any considerable length of time the plant

suffers and eventually, unless this is corrected, it dies.
There
if
this continues for
is
much
difference in the rapidity with
which various plants
are so affected, and a few water-loving plants require their

roots to be in saturated soils for the best results.
The tules,
rushes, water grasses
growths
and willows are the commonest spontaneous

and several varieties of coarse grasses
of this kind,
wet places. The principal useful plants which

in
best
saturated
grow
ground are rice, cranberries, and some
varieties of dates.
also thrive in
It is difficult in
most
localities to
apply to the surface of the
land in irrigation, sufficient water for the maximum crop production, without allowing a considerable quantity of the water
applied to escape to the underlying water table. In addition
to this, every irrigated region is traversed by numerous canals
and
laterals,
continually
wet during
the
irrigation
season,
from which water steadily percolates downward to the water

table in considerable quantity unless the canals are well lined
with concrete.
For these reasons
it
generally occurs that after a large valley
has been irrigated for a few years, the ground water begins to
rise,
and unless there
is
free escape
through coarse subsoils to
the water table rises to a point where it

injures vegetation, and wherever it continues to rise, it eventually kills all vegetation except aquatic, or water-loving plants.
deep drainage
lines,
This generally occurs
first in
low places, and ponds and marshes

184
SIGNS OF SEEPAGE
185
are apt to form which gradually increase in area unless means

This result is so
are taken to prevent or cure the trouble.
that there is scarcely a large valley in the world

that has been irrigated for several years that does not have
trouble with seepage, and a problem of drainage. In many
universal
places this result is wide-spread and disastrous.

It is said that large areas in India, formerly subject to occasional famines caused by failure of crops on account of drouth
were relieved by irrigation works to counteract the drouths

only to find that the mortality from malaria induced by the
marshes resulting from irrigation was greater than that formerly
due to famine. Large areas in Egypt have been abandoned
on account of the rise of ground water and accompanying
alkaline conditions.
In the Murgab Valley in Turkestan the irrigated lands have

rise of water and
been largely abandoned on account of the

alkali, and the canals built to new lands.
Large areas in the Valley of California have had their

reduced or destroyed from the same cause.
fertility
In the San Luis Valley of Southern Colorado, where
irriga-
tion has been widely practiced, nearly 400,000 acres of land
have been waterlogged.

The Rio Grande Valley in
New
Mexico and Texas shows
extensive results of high water table and alkali.

Many of the projects recently built by the U. S. Reclamation
Service already show similar problems which have been or are
being met by the construction of drainage works.

It is thus evident that the subject of drainage and swamp
reclamation is a necessary branch of irrigation engineering
and should be studied as such.
i.
No
Signs of Seepage.
to indicate
where seepage
irrigation proceeds.
conditions
may
likely to occur,
is
definite rules
likely first
can be formulated
to appear or to develop as
careful study of soil
and topographic
furnish evidence to indicate whether seepage is

it is seldom that the movements of ground
but
water can be foretold with any certainty, and trouble is often

experienced where least expected. For this reason it is impracti-
DRAINAGE
186
cable to wisely plan and construct drainage works for irrigated

lands in advance of their actual irrigation.
It
is
of the
nevertheless very important that the rise and movement

ground water be closely observed from the time that
irrigation begins, for the rising
surface
if
any
available in the
is
water
the longer it will require to

The
will be the expense thereof.
lates,
will bring alkali to the
soil, and the longer this accumureclaim the lands and the greater
first
surface evidence of a
ground water may be a temporary increase in

dangerous
induced
crop production
by the abundant and constant water
supply not yet excessive. Numerous cases have occurred
rise of
where the
rising
continuing
water table has produced large crops, and the

the crops matured has so softened the ground
rise as
too boggy to permit machinery to harvest the

Usually, however, the progress is much slower than this.
crop.
In order to have proper warning of the approach of dangerous
as to render
it
seepage, it is necessary to keep close observation on the position

of the ground water by means of wells located at suitable interIt is usually found that there is an
vals over the irrigated tract.
annual oscillation of the water level, which rises during the
and begins to decline slowly soon after the water

If this decline is each year back to
canals.
out
of
the
shut
irrigation season
is
began the irrigation season, and this level

may be that the ground water has ample escape
Its moveto neighboring drainage lines through the subsoil.
be
however.
ments should
carefully watched,
Fig. 58 shows the fluctuation of ground water in the Rio
the level at which
is
not too high,
Grande Valley,
of
water in
it
it
New
Mexico, and
irrigation.
its relation to
The ground-water curve
the application
is a composite
showing averages in twenty representative wells scattered over

an area of 8500 acres. The net irrigated area was 5300 acres, on
which the average seasonal application was 4.3 feet in depth, which
would cover the gross area of 8500 acres to a depth of 2.7 feet.
Fig. 59 shows the seasonal fluctuation and continual yearly
ground water in an irrigated section of the Boise Valley,

Fig. 60 shows for another portion of the Boise Valley,
the fluctuation of the water table before and after drainage.
rise of
Idaho.
SIGNS OF SEEPAGE
187
above the water table by capillary attraction,

the height to which it will thus rise varying from a foot in sandy
When the capillary water
soil, to a maximum of 8 feet in clay.
Moisture
FIG. 58.
rises
Curve Showing Fluctuation of Ground Water and Application

After Burkholder.
tion Water in the Rio Grande Valley.
of Irriga-
approaches the surface, evaporation takes place, and in coarse

soil this may prevent moisture from showing on the ground
until the
happens
water table actually reaches the surface. When this

water will appear in pools, unless the rate of seepage
free
DRAINAGE
188
than the evaporation, in which case the free water does not
appear although the water table may be practically at the
is less
surface.
taking frequent and careful observations of the position

ground water it is possible, in most cases, to predict the injury
By
of
of
the
These observations
also
accurate
of the
land.
An
purpose.
19/3
knowledge
19/4
serve
another useful
ground-water level
/9t7
J9/
to
18
ceL
PX
FIG. 59.
Curve Showing the Seasonal Fluctuation and Rise
over a considerable tract
may
of
Ground Water
After Burkholder.
in Boise Valley, Idaho.
indicate the
movements
water,
by
down
hill,
flow.
This knowledge will often show the origin of
the seepage, and suggest
response
may
fall of
of
of cutting off the supply by

Alluvial streams with shallow
channels often feed the water table as shown
and
much
means
providing intercepting drains.

to the rise
of the
applying the simple rule that water tends to flow

the slope of its surface showing the direction of
the stream.
by
If the subsoil
be quick and complete, but there
its
response
be coarse,
is
this
always a lag
SIGNS OF SEEPAGE
189
DEPTH OF GROUND WATER BELOW GROUND SURFACE-FEET
SNOW MZLTL
MAR
flPff
do
DEPTH OF GROUND WATER BTLOW GROUND SURFACE -FEET

FIG. 60.
Curve Showing Rise
of
Ground Water before Construction of Drains and

and Keeping it Below
Effect of Drains at Considerable Distance in Lowering
the
Danger Point.
Idaho.
Record from a well
in a drained district of the Boise Valley,
DRAINAGE
190
and elevation. That is, a water table controlled by a

stream never reaches so high a maximum elevation as the stream,
and reaches its culmination at a later date than that of the
in time
Where
stream.
tion, it
and
may
this
maximum
be necessary to
by a
canal.
so high as to injure vegeta-
an intercepting drain near

conditions are sometimes
In fact the canals and laterals always
parallel to the river.
fulfilled
is
install
The same
contribute a considerable portion of the seepage water unless
they are lined with concrete, and where water users are reasonably careful in the application of the water in irrigation, the
canals and laterals in open soils may contribute the major part
of the seepage water.
On the other hand, if water is lavishly
applied in irrigation, its contribution to the ground water may
greatly exceed the seepage from canals.
ascertain the source of seepage water.
Where
the
soil is
fine-grained
It is
important
to
and the water table remains
permanently 4 to 6 feet below the surface, the capillary action

may keep the soil moist in the root zone, and good crops may
be produced by means of the ground moisture without surface
If
irrigation.
constant
the
soil
contains injurious salts, however, the

its evaporation from the
water from below and
rise of
surface will accumulate those salts at or near the surface in the

soil
occupied by plant roots, gradually injure the
make
soil,
and
perhaps entirely barren.

The rise of alkali is sometimes the most serious phase of the
seepage problem. In an arid region nearly all except very
coarse soils contain alkaline salts and a high water table is sure
eventually
it
to bring these toward the surface.

If the salts are abundant
the destruction of fertility may follow closely after the rise of
the seepage, and accumulate in the upper strata of soil in such
quantity as to
make
the reclamation of the land a long
and
expensive process.
The remedy
is to provide drainage followed by irrigation.

the
former
the
water table is lowered, and the irrigation
By
water applied to the surface and descending to the water table
is
carried off through the drains.
through the
soil it carries
In this journey downward
the alkali in solution, and
it is dis-
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINS
charged through the drains.
upward movement
which
it will move from
by
reverse the
the salts with
may
must be to
and produce conditions
effort, therefore,
of water,
the surface downward, carrying
it.
2. Classification of
drains
The
191
With
Drains.
be divided into two
respect to their functions,
classes:
Relief drains, or those furnishing ready escape for ground

water to the most available natural drainage line, in order to
1.
lower the water table.
They
are generally built on the lowest
available ground.
Intercepting drains, or those designed to intercept seepage

waters between their source and the lands to be protected.
They are often built on higher ground than the land they are
2.
designed to protect, but

lands above them.
may
also serve as relief drains for the
These two classes of drains are by no means distinct, and the

two functions are often combined to some extent in both.
With respect to their form, drains are of two classes:
drains are those designed to act as open channels,
to traverse the water table and conduct the surplus water away.
1.
Open
2.
Closed drains consist of
in the water table
tiles laid
and covered with
end to end in a channel
earth, so that farming or
other operations can proceed over the ground without disturbing

the action of the drains.
Where they
will
answer the purpose, closed drains are of
course preferable, but their use
is
restricted
by
their limited
Where
the slope of the country limits

capacity and
the grade available for the drain to a very moderate amount,
their cost.
drain, restricted by the size of the tile, carries only a

amount of water, unless the tile be made very large.
The sizes most commonly used as main drains are 10 inches
the
tile
small
and 12 inches
in diameter,
but larger
sizes
up
to 18 inches in
diameter are sometimes employed. Above 18 inches in diameter the standard tile sometimes fails under the overburden
of 10 or 12 feet of soil, and larger sizes than 18 inches are seldom
used except when
made
extra heavy for this purpose, in which

Where the capacity of an 1 8-inch
case they are very expensive.
DRAINAGE
192
FIG. 61.
FIG. 62.
Excavating Trench for Tile Drain, Montana.
Dragline Excavator on Drainage Work, Idaho.
DESIGN OF A DRAINAGE SYSTEM

tile
if
is
insufficient, it is generally best to build
193
an open drain,
practicable.
The work of designing

3. Design of a Drainage System.
such a system of drains as to remove the menace of a high
water table and of rising alkali, and to leach from the upper
strata of soil the accumulations of alkali, in the most effective
and economical manner, is generally complicated, and requires
long and close study of the positions and movements of both
surface and ground water over several years.
Moreover,
this study must continue until the construction of the drainage
system has been practically completed, so as to note the
of drains after they are in service,
and correct any
effect
errors of
assumption that may have been involved in the original plan.

Every such plan should therefore be considered tentative, and
subject to modifications as the work progresses.
To decide the position and direction
4. Location of Drains.
of the drains to
be
built, it is
important to know the various
sources of the seepage water, and also to know the surface

topography and underground structure of the land to be drained.
In the treatment of underground waters, page 45, it is shown

that the flow of percolating water varies with the slope of its
Also that the movement of water on a given grade
surface.
is
many
clay or
Hence,
clay, it
times more rapid through sand and gravel than through

loam having smaller openings between the particles.
a drain be located entirely in a fine-grained soil like
can lower the ground water only a very short distance
if
back from the drain; for no considerable quantity of water

can travel through the clay soil except on a steep grade,
and this brings the gradient quickly to the level of the water
table.
Therefore,
if
a drain
is
to
be
effective, it is necessary that it
stratum of sand or gravel, or at least some medium

which
water can travel with reasonable velocity on a
through
It frequently happens that a clay or loam
slight gradient.
shall tap a
soil
needing drainage extends to a depth too great for a drainage

and although the water table may stand several feet
ditch,
above the bottom
of the ditch, it will drain only
a few rods
DRAINAGE
194
on each side owing to the steep gradient maintained by the

percolating waters in the tight soil.
In such case, relief is often found
intervals in the
wells at frequent
of the drain until a coarser stratum is
bottom
by boring
tapped, and in these wells the water rises from the open stratum
into the drain and flows away.
This draws on the ground
water from a distance, and lowers the water table accordingly.
Whenever such an open stratum

region,
it
conducts
having
is situated under an irrigated

receives the gravity water from the soil above, and
it
down
the slope frequently under tighter
insufficient outlet for all the
water
lates pressure equal to the hydrostatic
minus the
loss of
head due
head
to friction.
it
soils,
and
can carry, accumu-
of its source of
Acting under
supply
this head,
upward through the overlying clay and loam and

the
waterlogs
land, which may not have been irrigated at all.
This roughly describes many artesian basins, which are
"
located in
cienegas," or swamps formed in this manner. The
head
hydrostatic
may be insufficient to bring the water to the
it
percolates
surface of the ground but ample to cause it to flow into the

bottom of a drain if a well be provided as an outlet.
of
The foregoing illustrates the need of a thorough knowledge

the subterranean structure of the country to be drained,
be so located as to take advantage

of water-bearing materials that may be available to a properly
in order that the drains
may
located drain.
It
is
important to build closed drains on as steep a grade as
possible in order to increase their discharge capacity and to

keep them clear of detritus. Whether a drain be open or closed
In the
usually desirable to give it all the grade available.
case of the open drain, a good velocity tends to keep it scoured
out, and to prevent the growth of aquatic plants which are the
it is
bane
of drainage ditches.
sluggish velocity not only encour-
ages aquatic growth, but it promotes clogging by other means.

Tumble weeds often blow into the ditches, forming shoals where
weeds can
start,
and sand or
silt,
either
from dust storms or
caving banks, accumulate in the ditches if the velocity be low,

whereas a swifter current would carry out both weeds and silt.
DEPTH
The
its
small quantity of water usually carried
rough perimeter make
enough
195
it
seldom possible to give
to permit destructive erosion,
should generally be given

For the same reasons
by a drain and
and
it
grade
for these reasons it
the grade available.

desirable to avoid abrupt turns
in the alignment of the ditch, and to avoid inverted siphons,
and to give necessary culverts liberal openings, and in all respects
all
it is
to avoid sacrificing grade, or introducing structures
which
may
promote obstruction by sand or floating debris.

To obtain the requisite grade for the ditches
it is generally
necessary to build them in the direction of the greatest slope
of the country.
5.
The ground water on
Depth.
5 feet or
kept
plish this the
more below the surface

bottoms
lower, in order to
1.
deducts that
2.
of the ground.
of drainage ditches
make allowance
The depth
irrigated land should be
for three principal factors:
of water in the ditch
much from
its
To accom-
must be considerably
when
in service,
which
drawing depth.
The gradient which the water
table
must assume
to dis-
charge
surplus water.
The
inevitable decrease in depth of the ditch due to
3.
its
sloughing and accumulation of detritus.

It often occurs that in excavating a drain sand
below the water
table,
is
which under the influence
encountered
of inflowing
water oozes into the ditch, and it becomes impossible to excavate

to the required depth without holding the banks by artificial
This is the only remedy where tile drains are being
and
greatly retards the work and increases the expense.
placed,
Where such material is encountered in constructing an open
means.
drain, the best plan
is
to
make
the ditch as deep as practicable,
and to go over it again a few weeks or months later. In the

meantime the water table will have been lowered by the drain,
and it becomes possible to make the drain considerably deeper,
and perhaps deep enough, although sometimes a third effort
may
6.
be necessary.
Capacity.
One
of
solved in designing a drain
the
is
most
difficult
problems
to
be
to determine the necessary capac-
DRAINAGE
196
which depends of course on the amount of water to be

No general rule can be given as a safe guide to the
ity
removed.
solution of this question.

Some waterlogged lands yield very
little water to drainage works.
In other cases, where the soil
is
open where seepage from canals
is
large,
and water
is
lavishly
applied in irrigation, leading to heavy accretions to ground

water, the land may discharge into the drains more than half of
the water brought to it by canals. These conditions, moreover,
not be permanent.
may
Canals which at
first lose
heavily
by
may and often do improve with age by silting their

channels, or they may be lined in the worst places to save water.
Irrigators who apply water lavishly at first may learn the
seepage
folly of this practice
and use water more sparingly.

and possibilities must be taken into
All these conditions
account in estimating the capacity of the drains.

the open drain, which
is
sure to deteriorate,
it is
In the case of
safe to
make
its
capacity liberal and let it suffer deterioration to the necessary

If provision is
capacity, thus saving in maintenance costs.
made in advance for future enlargement this is easily accomplished with open drains, so that foreknowledge is not absolutely
essential.
Not
so with closed drains.
not large enough to
If the tile is
discharge the necessary water, it cannot be enlarged without

If it is too large considerable
entirely rebuilding the drain.
extra expense is wasted, but as this is much less serious than if
too small, it is best to make the capacity liberal.
The bottom width of an open drain should be fixed according
to the required capacity with
tion
by machinery
due allowance
to
rough construc-
so that its coefficient of friction
is
large.
# = .03,
is
about an
factor of roughness in the Kutter formula,
average for new ditches, but to preserve such a factor the maintenance must be fairly well cared for.
7.
Form
mouth
of Tile.
The
best form of
tile
used for drainage
the vitrified clay tile, cylindrical, without the bell

employed for sewers. These tiles are laid end to end as
purposes
is
and a
paper 3 inches wide, with a

length one-half the circumference of the pipe, is laid over each
close as possible,
strip of tar
MANHOLES
joint to prevent the entrance of sand
The water can then
enter
197
which might clog the
the joints below
tile.
the horizontal
diameter.
board of a width nearly or quite as great as the diameter

of the tile should be laid in the bottom of the trench to keep
the
tiles
well to
As the tiles are laid,

settling out of line.
them
to hold them in
some
earth
against
pack
from
horizontally until the trench
is
it is
line
backfilled.
quicksand it is best to use a better

foundation than the board above described. This may conIf the
drain
is
laid in
sist of two pieces of 2 inch by 4 inch lumber spaced parallel

with a space between about half the diameter of the tile, and
nailed together by three or four cross-pieces, forming a ladder.
This
the
with the cross-pieces underneath, and

are fitted into the space between the sides of the ladder
laid in the trench
is
tiles
which holds them
When
in place
convenient
it is
both horizontally and

best to
allow the
vertically.
tiles to
place a few days before backfilling, and to inspect

that they have not become displaced.
The
backfilling should be
them
is possible, it
displace the tiles,
place the coarsest material available next to the tiles.
is
to see
performed carefully so as not to
and where a choice
drain
remain in
improved by placing gravel next to the
tile
is
well to
Any
tile
before back-
filling.
8.
Manholes.
At
intervals of about 100 feet
it is
advisable
an open well to serve as a manhole. This can be lined

with lumber, and the drain from above can discharge into the
These wells
well, and the lower drain carry the water away.
to provide
have several uses. They may serve as sand traps, to catch

any sand that may be traveling down the drain which might
For this purpose, the bottom of the well should be
clog it.
2
or 3 feet below the grade of the drain,
cleaned out.
The
and should be kept
well should be at least 3 feet in diameter
Such wells serve to show

so as to permit a man to work in it.
whether the drain is operating under a hydrostatic head, in
which case the water
of the
tile.
will stand in the well higher than the top

Such a well should be placed at any point where
DRAINAGE
198
the grade of a drain changes in such a way as to check the

velocity of the drainage water, for at and below such critical
points there is a tendency to deposit sand, and it is desirable to
remove
this
by means
of the well.
In case of a broken
tile or other derangement of the drain,

in locating the trouble.
assist
manholes
Where the
frequent
it
the
of
to
reduce the
ground changes, making
slope
necessary
drain
is
laid, the size of the tile should be
slope on which the
increased so as to give it at least a greater capacity than the

portion of the drain above. Such a change is most conveniently
made at a manhole. The manhole or well is a convenient loca-
measure the discharge of the drain, a record

of which should be carefully kept, as it is of great value in
denoting the action of the drain, and its effect on the ground
tion for a weir to
water.
Where earthen drain pipe is very

9. Wooden Drains.
expensive on account of freight charges, and lumber can be
cheaply obtained locally, wood has been used instead of clay
tile.
tain
The economy
that the wood
generally doubtful, unless it is cerwill be continuously saturated.

Otherwise,
of this
is
early decay will require its replacement so soon as nearly or

Where wood
quite to neutralize its advantage in low first cost.
its
be formed into a square box, of such length as

convenient, and if the box is large, the top should be laid with
is
used,
it
may
the grain transverse to the length of the drain, to give it the

required strength. Each board forming the top should be
each end, so that
slightly gained at
it will fit
prevent their collapse from lateral pressure.

tion may be taken with the bottom, so that
to the sides,
and
similar precau-
little
dependence
need be placed upon nails to hold the parts of the box in place.
The bottom should break joints with the sides, to preserve the
alignment.
10.
Cement Drains.
cheaper than clay
tile,
alkali is present.
If
sulphates,
especially
there
if
is
some cases cement pipe may be
In
and
the
it
soil
answers the purpose well unless

contains
much
alkali,
especially
danger of the cement pipe disintegrating
not running
full
continuously.
CEMENT DRAINS
The U.
Bureau
199
Standards in cooperation with the

Reclamation Service has made a series of tests on the use of
S.
of
cement pipe as drain tile, exposed to soils containing alkaline

salts, and draws these conclusions:
1. The use of cement tile in soils containing alkali salts in
is
experimental.
to the use of lean mixtures or relatively
are
consistencies
subject to disintegration.
dry
are under certain conditions subject to
Some
dense
tile
3.
large quantities
Porous
2.
tile
due
surface disintegration.
is
Disintegration
4.
manifested
by
physical
disruption
caused by the expansion resulting from the crystallization of

salts in the pores and by softening, resulting from chemical
action of the solutions with the constituents of the cement.
While
5.
ment
results obtained will not
permit of a definite state-
as to the relative effect of the various constituents of the
indications are that the greater the quantity of sulphate

magnesium present and the greater the total concentration
salts,
and
be the disintegrating effect.

the process commonly used, which allows
the removal of forms immediately after casting, are subject to
of salts the greater will

6.
Tile
made by
where exposed to soils or waters containing TO per

cent or more alkali salts similar in composition to those encountered in this investigation.
disintegration
7.
The hand- tamped
tile of plastic
consistency as
made
in
not equal in quality to machine-made tile

same mixture, and they do not resist alkali action as well.
8. Steam-cured tile show no greater resistance to alkali
action than tile which are cured by systematic sprinkling with
this investigation are
of the
water.
9.
action
Tile
made
than the
of
sand cement have
tile
made
less resistance to alkali
Portland cement of the same
of
proportions.
10.
The
tar coating as used
is
absorption of alkali salts from the
No
not effective in preventing the

soil.
advantage is found in introducing ferrous sulphate

into the cement mixture.
12.
DRAINAGE
200
If
cement drain
tile
are to be used in alkali soils or waters
containing o.i per cent or
more
of salts they should
good quality aggregate in proportions of not

Portland cement to three parts aggregate.
less
be made of
than one part
The
consistency
should preferably be quaking, which has proved the most resistent of all mixtures used.
ii.
Drainage Works
of the U. S.
Reclamation Service.
TABLE XXVIII. OPEN DRAINS
DRAINAGE WORKS OF THE
U. S.
TABLE XXIX. CLOSED DRAINS
Project
SERVICE
Continued
201
CHAPTER
XIII
CANALS AND LATERALS

i.
Capacity.
irrigation canal,
main
To
it is
which control
factors
The acreage
The duty of
1.
2.
decide upon the necessary capacity of an

necessary to know approximately the three
:
be served.
of land to
water.
3. Seepage losses to be expected.

Unless great care is exercised in considering each of these factors
and conservative estimates are made, much danger exists of
serious error in the determination of each one.
upon which
decisions
The
principles
are given in the preceding
must be based
pages.
The data
for
such decisions are not accurately determinable
advance, and careful consideration must be given to the

margin of safety to be allowed to guard against unavoidable
errors both in the data and the conclusions drawn from them.
in
Having determined the three

of the canal
Let
factors
above
listed,
the capacity
be conveniently found by the following formula:
may
= capacity required in cubic feet per second;
a = area to be irrigated in acres
d = average depth of water in feet required on the
in the 15 days period of maximum use;
=
p percentage of loss by seepage and evaporation.
c
Remembering that a stream flowing
at the rate of
per second carries 29.7 acre-feet of water in 15 days,

c
ad
i-
29. 7 \
Example
p\
-I
land
cubic foot
we have
(i)
loo/
Required the capacity at head of main canal, necessary

where the maximum requirement
to serve 10,000 acres of land,
202
CAPACITY
crops for a
irrigable area of
of
is
5-day period
.3
and the
foot,
203
an average depth over the
losses in canals
when operating
at full capacity will be 20 per cent of the water diverted, or
a =10,000,
d--3,
p = 20.
Then by
(i)
.3X10,000 = 3,000 =
7
29.7X80
126.26.
23.76
In the design of the canal some excess capacity should be provided to allow for possible errors in the assumptions which must
be made from uncertain data. Excess capacity is not wasted,
for a canal begins to deteriorate as
frost
and the trampling
tend to
fill
soon as
built.
Wind, rain,
work the banks down and
and trash, and the capacity thus
of animals
the canal with dirt
gradually diminishes unless restored by annual repairs. This

is especially true where the water contains much silt.
In such
cases, it is
always best to provide considerable excess capacity
so that a substantial lining of silt may be allowed to remain

in the canal, as this not only saves the cost of removing the
same, but improves the canal by rendering it less pervious and

decreasing its coefficient of friction. Unless such excess is
allowed, especially in laterals, the silting may so decrease the
capacity as to make it impossible to deliver sufficient water
for the needs of the crops while it may be impossible to close
the canal for cleaning without heavy loss to the farmers requiring the water. The requirement for a large excess capacity
is most advisable on the small laterals, where the tendency
to deposit
silt is
often great, and where the cost of constructing
such excess is generally small. It may sometimes even be

advisable where water is very silty to build the laterals of two
or three times the capacity absolutely necessary for service,
and allow them to accumulate silt until the capacity diminishes
both better and cheaper than frequent

removal of small quantities of silt. Larger quantities can be
to that required, as this
removed at a lower unit
is
cost.
CANALS AND LATERLAS
204
V=2.95
Q=1418
0.2o
S=.OC017
-45;5-
V=
0.25
2.87
Q = 1415
S =.00016
Scale of Feet
15
FIG. 63.
15
30
45
Cross-sections of Interstate Canal, North Platte Valley, Nebraska.
DESIGN
205
Design. The problems of canal design and location

be
divided into two general cases:
may
1. Cases in which the water supply is greater than the avail2.
necessary to give the canal the least practicable grade, in order to command by gravity canal the maximum
area of land, or to reach a sufficient area without undue length
able land,
making
it
of canal.
Cases in which the area of good land readily commanded

by the canal is in excess of the available water supply, or the
configuration of the country is such that abundant fall is
2.
available.
Where
very desirable to save grade, as in case i, the

canal should be given a section such that it will have a large
it is
hydraulic radius, and hence have a reasonably high velocity

on the gentle grade given. In a rectangular channel, the
hydraulic radius, and consequently the velocity, is a maximum
when
the depth of water
for trapezoidal channels
is
is
one-half the width.
rough rule
that the depth should be about half
the bottom width, to give maximum capacity, but this rule is

generally modified by considerations of economy of construction
and operation, which require less depth and greater width,

except on side hills; especially is this true of large canals. The
advisable section lies somewhere between the cheapest section
and the one affording the highest velocity. It must be determined in each individual case by a consideration of all details
affecting the problem, such as the value of the land to be gained,
and whether the water
carries
silt,
making a good velocity
necessary to prevent silting of canals.

In the second case cited where ample grade is available,
it is generally desirable to give the canal as much velocity as
the earth will stand without erosion, and where rock, gravel, or
hardpan must be excavated economy may often be promoted
by increasing the grade and velocity of the canal so as to reduce

the cross-section and thus save excavation. It should be remembered, however, that in such places there is often danger of
seepage through the seams of the rock or gravel, and where
velocities are high it becomes impossible to close such crevices
CANALS AND LATERALS
206
by the process
of silting,
and
may
it
be necessary to
line the
section with concrete, in which case a further increase of velocity
due
to the greater
may
smoothness
then be further reduced.
FIG. 64.
secured,
is
In fact
Canal Cross-sections
for
and the cross-section

where it is necessary
Varying Bed-widths.
any great distance the cost may often

the cut with concrete, which so reduces the
to cut through rock for
be reduced by lining
friction that the higher velocity permits a reduction in cross-
This
section sufficient to save the cost of lining.
the case with deep cuts or side
is
especially
hill location.
SIDELONG GROUND-W.L. ABOVE
G.L.
6'0"
vr
46
GTround
May
require Puddle Wall

as indicated
SOD REV.EJMENTS
WITHOUT BERMS-W.L BELOW
G.L.
Level
W.L--
WITH BERMS-W..L. BELOW
G.L.
Ground
FIG. 65.
Various Canal Cross-sections.
In the construction of
earthen canals, economy requires

embankments be utilized to assist in forming the waterway,
and the most economical form is that in which the excavation
is sufficient to form the embankment with a small allowance
for wastage and shrinkage, usually assumed about 10 per cent
that
for small canals,
and
per cent for large ones.
On
level or gently
DESIGN
sloping ground, a wide
embankment
and shallow canal
207
which excavation
in
for a given cross-section cheaper
than a
narrower and deeper one. It has a greater perimeter and less
hydraulic radius, and hence requires more grade for a given
velocity, but if this is available a wide canal may be advisable.
equals
is,
must be studied.
In general the seepage from a canal is roughly proportional
to the wetted area, and therefore in uniform material more
This, however, introduces another element that
seepage may be expected from a wide than from a narrow canal.

If the material is naturally porous, this result may be emphasized,
FIG. 66.
for in such cases,
an
Rock
Cross-section, Turlock Canal.
artificial
bank can often be made
tighter
than the natural material, and the narrow canal with its greater
proportion of embankment may be tighter than the wide one.
Local
conditions,
It often
however,
may
happens that the upper
greatly modify this result.

soil which contains loam is
better adapted for making a tight waterway than that which

underlies it, and the narrow canal with its deeper cut may
expose a coarse gravelly subsoil, into which seepage may be so

rapid as to overbalance the decreased surface of percolation.
For these reasons it may be advisable to adopt varying types of

cross-section on different parts of the same canal in accordance
with the
On
soil
and
subsoil conditions.
nearly level ground a given canal cross-section requires

less excavation if wide and shallow than if narrow and deep.
CANALS AND LATERALS
208
given amount of material is required for the formation of

of a certain height, and the wider apart these are placed
banks
the
greater
location
is
the
on a
cross-section
of
the
side-hill slope, this rule
difference in elevation
between the two
waterway. Where the

does not obtain, as the
sides of the canal requires
a high bank on one side and none on the other. Further widening requires a still higher bank on the lower side, and a heavier
cut on the upper side, so that on hillsides, the narrow, deep
section is generally cheaper, and this is the more emphatic as the
becomes
Where
the side hillside slope is very

steep, the slope of the canal section will intercept the surface
hillside
steeper.
ry Rubble
SECTION
=37.7
W=.012
ROCK
IN
P = 15.4
s =.00124
r=
2.44
U=7.96
Q=SCO
A
FIG. 67.
B
Rock
Cross-section; Umatilla Canal.
slope of the ground at some distance above the canal, and to

prevent excessive cost it becomes necessary to make the canal
make them
same time
At
the
masonry
on the
to
make
lower
bank
of
earth
be
advisable
the
may
slopes as steep as possible

of the character of a
it
and
in extreme cases to
retaining wall.
usual slopes, giving rise to cases where the two sides of the
waterway have different slopes. The economic section will

depend also, to some extent, on the character of the material
In hard rock the cost of excavation makes
to be excavated.
yardage predominant, and a lined channel is generally economiIn open or porous material, the area exposed to seepage
important, and may require the minimum attainable wetted
cal.
is
perimeter.
DESIGN
Where
is
plants
because
the water to be carried
209
is clear,
and growth
of aquatic
to be anticipated, the deeper canal has advantages,

permit the growth of such plants. They
less likely to
require bright sunlight, and deep waters shade the

the canal too much for their fullest development.
bottom
of
Large canals on nearly level ground are sometimes constructed with a berm, or level width of natural ground between
the excavated channel and the banks.
This has the advantage
and therefore low velocity next

to the banks and less tendency to erode them, but this also
encourages the growth of weeds and aquatic plants, and the
provision of berms is not usually advisable practice.
of affording a shallow section
The
flatter
side slopes of canals in earth should be
made somewhat
than the natural slope of repose of the material, in order
add to their stability and diminish their tendency to slough

and to work down the slope. Slopes of two horizontal to one
vertical are common, and are good practice in average ground.
Banks of sandy soils are sometimes made flatter, and very firm
soils may be left steeper, especially in cut, which may sometimes retain stability on steeper slopes than the same material
In deep cuts economy demands
requires in embankment.
that the banks be left as steep as safety will permit. In loose
sand and gravel this is about i| horizontal to i vertical, being
very little flatter than the angle of repose. Firm clay may stand
to
much
steeper than this, as may also indurated material of all

kinds.
Fairly firm rock will stand practically vertical, except
in very
sand,
cuts, and between this limit and the slope given for
other materials find their safe slopes.
top width of canal banks should vary with the size of the
deep
all
The
Where
large canals follow nearly on contours, with

on
one side, and lower ground on the other, the
higher ground
be
rather light, as its rupture will not threaten
bank
may
upper
while
the lower bank must be made much
serious damage,
canal.
heavier to give necessary security against disastrous breaks.

It is generally advisable to make the lower bank of a large canal
wide enough to form a wagon road.
This facilitates the patrol
of the canal, saves other land necessary for such a road,
and
CANALS AND LATERALS
210
and security
Such a road should not

be less than 10 feet in width, and a greater width is better,
Turnouts for passing teams
especially in light sandy soil.
should be provided, which can be done without extra expense
at points where excess cut furnishes considerable surplus
adds
stability
The lower
material.
above the water
or
to the canal.
main bank should be
at least 3 feet
level of the canal in large canals,
but
may
be
small canals.
less in
The lower bank
of the canal
must be
and
carefully built,
the
if
excavated material available for canal building is coarse, care

must be taken to place such fine material as it contains on the
water slope, and the coarser material on the outside. If not

enough fine material is found in the canal prism for this purpose,
it may be necessary to haul clay or loam from a distance for
some cases it may be advisable to line with

bank of coarse gravel or broken rock on a good
an ideal bank, provided the water slope is made
this purpose, or in
concrete.
foundation
is
practically impervious with clay or otherwise.

In light soils
Cross-section with Subgrade.
advantageous
and
and
to
to 2 feet
it
has been found
below the original
The
canal bed.
ellipse
to dig a subgrade
cross-section gradually approaches that of the

tends to keep the current in the center of the channel
keep up
seepage when
its
flow with the least exposure to friction and
the volume of water in the canal
is
low.
The
given by practically designing the canal

subgrade (Fig. 68)
as if it were to have a trapezoidal cross-section with berm, and
is
off the slope by removing the berm and continthe

slope from the bottom of the canal toward the center.
uing
It is sometimes necessary to locate a conduit, along a steep
then evening
hillside,
where the material naturally
lies
about the angle
of
repose, so that the excavation of a canal would so weaken its

support as to cause such a tendency to slide that the canal would
be unsafe.
1.
To
Several alternatives are then presented.

excavate a bench and build a flume upon
it.
It
may
be that this will too greatly weaken the hillside, and invite
sliding, especially in the presence of the water of the canal.
2.
Without disturbing the natural material, build a flume
DESIGN
on a
trestle,
211
elevated sufficiently to permit rolling rocks to pass
to be of concrete, it would be expensive.

would be rather short lived.
3. A pipe may be built and buried, leaving the slope in its
This would be the safest, but most exoriginal condition.
of
the
pensive
solutions, and might be prohibitive.
under.
If of
If this
wood
FIG. 68.
flume
or steel,
is
it
Cross-section of Galloway Canal in Sand, showing Subgrade.
compromise among the above alternatives sometimes

to excavate a bench and build thereon a concrete
adopted
flume with sufficient strength to support the upper bank like a
4.
is
retaining wall,
and thus
restore the support to the slope, without
involving as heavy expense as the pipe in solution 3.

The lined canal or flume in the Tieton Canyon of Washington may be classed as a case of this kind. Fig. 70. This flume
FIG. 69.
is
Typical Section of Lined Canal.
of circular section, with a
segment cut
off
the upper part,
and concrete chords provided to restore its rigidity. The circular section and the chords were both reinforced.
They were
manufactured in 2-foot sections in the bottom of the canyon,
where ample room and materials were available, and were
hoisted to place and joined in a continuous flume in place
cement
by
joints.
stretches of lined canal are on a very steep grade the

water assumes a correspondingly high velocity, and measures
to destroy this velocity may be necessary at the foot of the
Where
steep grade, and
it
may
also
be necessary to provide a regulator
CANALS AND LATERALS
212
at the upper end, to shut out the water at times.

Such a combination is called an inclined drop, or chute. It is, of course,
located at the point where the necessary fall can be compressed
into
shortest
the
practicable
distance.
It
consists
essen-
trough to conduct the water down

the hill, and a pool at the bottom to receive the water and
destroy its c,ccumulated energy. The inlet structure forming
the transition is provided with splayed wing walls, and well
tially of
an
inlet structure, a
equipped with cut-off walls for the wing walls, floor and sides, to
prevent percolation of water along the structure. At the lower
end, where the water enters the trough, it is provided with conThe trough converges to a narrow channel a short
trol gates.
distance below the gates, to correspond to the increased velocity,
may reach about 40 or 50 feet per second, the section
which
approaches the pool at the bottom. Cutoff walls are provided under the trough at frequent intervals to
prevent erosion by leakage or rain water. These are generally
again increasing as
it
foot deep, except at expansion joints, where they are deeper.

3. Alinement.
Owing to its moderate velocity, the alinement
requirements of canal location are not so rigid as in railroad work.

Location upon the contour that will keep the cut and fill in appr ximate balance
generally the cheapest per foot, but on

may make the line so crooked as to intro-
is
this
ground
duce excessive curvature and to increase the length to such an
rolling
extent as to actually increase the yardage excavated, over a less

tortuous location. On curves there is always a tendency to
erode the bank on the convex side of the canal and unless the
velocity
is
very low this must be carefully provided
the convex side
is
for.
Where
an embankment, as when passing around

it is generally best to throw the location into
the end of a ridge,

cut in order to resist the tendency to erode, and this will also
eliminate part of the curvature. This will shorten the line, im-
prove the alinement and make a safer location, and accordingly

some increase of cost can be justified. A great variety of rules
have been suggested concerning curvature limits, but these are
of little value, as the limits
above discussed.
must be determined by circumstances
straight alinement
is
best,
but curvatures
A LI N EM EN T
213
can be introduced to almost any extent demanded by economy,

and not prohibited by safety.
Various rules have been proposed, limiting the curvature
to certain relations to the
width or depth
of the canal,
but these
bars
2-^"corr.
""10 (fig.
STANDARD TUNNEL SHAPE

FIG. 70.
S.ECTION D-D
Tunnel and Canal Sections, Tieton Main Canal.
appear illogical as the erosion will depend not so much upon the
width nor the depth, as upon the velocity of the water, next to
It is true that the larger the volume of the flowing
the bank.
water, the greater the difference between the
maximum and min-
CANALS AND LATERALS
214
imum
the
velocities, and on curves the maximum tends to approach

bank on the outside of the curve, and in this way to increase
the liability to erosion.

ture increases,
and
This tendency increases as the curva-
also as the velocity increases.
curvature must, therefore, recognize
Any
rule for
these influences, the

Different materials resist
all
greatest of which is the velocity.

erosion in differing degrees, and any rule fitting average earth
must be modified for lighter or heavier soils.
For average loam
R=V
soils,
the following
is
a safe formula:
\/A+40.
In the above equation
R = Smallest
permissible radius of curvature of the center
line of canal
on exterior curves, expressed
F = The mean velocity of

A = The cross-sectional
in feet;
the stream, in feet per second;

area of the stream in square
feet.
The
constant, 40, insures a radius exceeding 40 feet under

circumstances, however small or sluggish the canal.
all
A canal having a mean velocity of 2 feet per second may

have a curvature radius one-half that of one with a mean velocity
of
2.83,
the
since
squares of these velocities are 4 and 8
respectively.
Shorter radii
may
be used on interior curves, and in firmer
material, but the radius should be
made
longer in very light
eroded, and where a break in the canal would be

disastrous, as on steep side hills.
soils easily
especially
The tendency
to erode the
bank on the outer
side
can be
counteracted to some extent by a superelevation of the bottom

of the canal, or in other words, deepening the canal on the inner
side of the curve
and making
it
shallow on the outer side.
This
tends to keep the thread of maximum velocity from the outer

bank. If very sharp curvature is necessary, the outer bank
can be protected by a blanket of gravel, or in extreme cases by
rip-rap of brush or rock.
friction
on the banks, and may require a
to compensate,
and
for
Very sharp curvature increases the
but the amount of
moderate or low
this is
velocities
is
slight increase of
grade
not accurately known,
practically
negligible.
VELOCITY
215
For high velocities some compensation

must be made, varying with the roughness
for
sharp curvature
of the channel.
Where the rolling character of the country requires heavy

cuts through ridges to prevent an excess of curvature, the same
reason suggests fills across low places to utilize the excavated
and further straighten the alinement. But while
the
ridges increases the safety of the canal and reduces
cutting
maintenance charges, the construction of high fills has the
material,
opposite effect, and may be a serious matter in countries where

In such cases,
the banks are attacked by burrowing animals.
therefore, there may be an excess of excavated material which
cannot be
that
utilized,
its utilization
above reason and the long hauls
both
for the
may
involve.
Where
the above circumstances afford a latitude of choice,

generally advisable to make two or more preliminary loca-
it is
tions
and compare
same time the

locations.
their estimates of cost, considering at the
relative
Where one
safety and alinement of the several

location is undoubtedly safer than
another, considerable expense
may
be
justified to secure
such
safety, especially on large canals, not only on account of the

cost of maintenance, but also the security of the water supply
where a break in a large canal may do great damage directly,
and
indirectly involve loss of crops.
4. Velocity.
The
velocity given a canal
must not be
so
great as to involve destructive erosion to the channel, as this

will increase the difficulty of diverting the
for use,
water into laterals
endanger the foundations of bridges and other struc-
and sometimes by progressive cutting
of banks destroy
material will be largely deposited
at points where the velocity slackens, and the regimen of the
canal will be thus deteriorated.
tures,
fertile
It
lands.
is,
The eroded
however, desirable for
many
reasons to give the canal
as high a velocity as possible without destructive erosion, if the

necessary grade is available. Such a velocity will tend to prevent
the growth of aquatic plants, and the deposit of silt and trash
and the necessary water can be carried in a smaller
in the canal,
canal
if
the velocity
is
high than
if it is
low.
CANALS AND LATERALS
216
The maximum
permissible velocity depends on the resistance

to erosion of the banks of the canal, which varies widely with
Where these are composed largely of clay,

adhesion and consequent resistance
considerable
a
have
they may
loosened
to erosion, and any
particles in suspension are easily
different materials.
by a velocity that will not attack the mass of clay

With fine sand or silt the margin is not so great,
becomes a problem of some difficulty to select and attain
transported
in the bank.
and
it
the velocity which will transport all the silt in suspension without cutting the banks. When such a velocity is found for the
canal running at full capacity, trouble may be encountered when
operated at part capacity, when of course the velocdiminished, and the tendencies characteristic of low
the canal
ity
is
is
velocities are all increased.
For
this reason it
is
important to
secure the highest velocity that will not erode the banks, and
even to provide considerable protection at curves to prevent
by erosion. The reduced velocity at part

canals
causes
carrying silt-laden water to deposit silt
capacity
when running part full, and as this may be of frequent occurdestruction of banks
rence such canals are often badly silted and require much cleanFor this reason a canal which is to carry muddy water
ing.
should generally be constructed with considerable excess
capacity, so that a moderate
amount
of silting
may
be endured
without embarrassment, and the cleaning postponed till the

winter season. It is well, also, to permit some silt to remain
permanently in the canal because of its tendency to close the
and pores of the soil and reduce seepage losses from the
and laterals. A thin lining of silt also increases the discharge of a canal by forming a surface smoother than the original,
and decreasing the friction of the water upon its conduit.
crevices
canals
Very few
soils,
unless indurated or gravelly, will
resist
mean
velocity than 3 feet per second, and it is ordinarily

higher
necessary to keep the velocity considerably below this. Most
soils will safely stand a mean velocity of 2 feet per second, and a
general rule is that velocities in earth should be somewhere

between these extremes, varying with the character of the soil and
the requirements for grade, and also with the depth of the canal.
LATERAL SYSTEMS
The
217
depends not upon the mean

but upon the velocity of the film of water
around the perimeter of the prism. This is greater in proportion
to the mean velocity in shallow than in deep canals.
It follows
erosive
power
of a current
velocity of the stream,
that deep canals will stand a higher

same material.
mean
velocity than shallow
canals in the
Lateral
Systems. Every large canal system ramifies

throughout the land to be irrigated somewhat like the branches
of a tree.
Beginning with the main canal, this follows the upper
5.
edge of the land to be irrigated, except in cases where the water

to be pumped to still higher tracts.
It may proceed some
is
distance before
it
reaches any irrigable land.
When
it
does, the
a narrow strip which can be irrigated from a single

in the side of the main canal, but eventually a
box
or
two
tap
wide tract is reached which requires the diversion of a large
land
may be in
lateral, to carry a considerable body of water to a large area

reaching some distance from the main canal. Such a lateral
must also be located on high ground with reference to the land
which
it will
serve,
and must send
off
branches located also on
relatively high ground.
On
typical rolling
ground where the normal system
of natural
drainage depressions occur, the lateral system follows a rule

That is,
generally the reverse of the general drainage system.
the main canal cutting across the country drainage sends out a
main
lateral
down each main ridge, and this lateral sends out

down the subordinate ridges, from which sub-
smaller laterals
laterals diverge
lateral
on each
side.
and bounded on each
The
Thus, every ridge

side'
by a
is
crowned by a
ravine, or depression.
system on such land are relaas

but
the system itself may be
above
indicated,
tively simple
and
difficult
to
design, construct, maintain and
complicated
rules for locating a lateral
number of sublaterals to follow each ridge, with a corresponding number of

turnouts and tap boxes. Each farm must have at least one tapoperate.
The topography may
require a large
box to deliver water at the highest point of irrigable land, from

which it can be led by gravity to lower ground. If the individual
farm is cut by a ravine a second turnout may be needed, on the
CANALS AND LATERALS
218
opposite side of the depression, and conditions may be such that

several of these may be required on a farm of moderate size.
The
may be so great as to induce destructive velociunless drops are introduced, and in some systems hundreds of these are required. Such a system will also have numerslopes also
ties
All these add to the

and
in
complication
expense
design, construction, maintenance
and operation, and demand immense and intense preliminary
study of the numerous alternatives which will present them-
ous drainage crossings of various forms.
selves.
These can be made most
FIG. 71.
Diagram
efficiently
Illustrating Distributary System.
on an accurate topographic map of the entire

suitable scale and contour interval.
From
this
and economically
irrigable area of
conventional topographic condition, with a
defi-
nitely marked system of natural drainage, we have all shades of

variation to the smooth alluvial valley with two main slopes,
one down the valley, and one normal to this, toward the stream.
With such smooth topography, on moderate slopes, the distribution system is greatly simplified and cheapened as compared
with that on more rolling country. In rare cases the slope may
be insufficient to furnish the necessary fall for economical gravity

An illustration of such a case is the Minidoka
irrigation.
Project of the U. S. Reclamation Service, where in order to obtain
requisite slopes for the gravity canals, it was neces-
and keep the
sary to build a diversion
dam
46 feet high, and to build most of
LATERAL SYSTEMS
219
the canals and laterals between high banks constructed from

borrow pits, so that the water surface is held high above the
adjacent country, thus giving slope to make the water run over
Such instances, however, are rare,
the surface of the fields.
most irrigable tracts have ample slopes, and excess slope is

The smoothest valley,
far more common than deficiency.
as
appearing to the eye to be absolutely
enough
for gravity irrigation,
level, generally
and may even have an
has slope
excess.
Perhaps the most difficult type of land surface to supply

with a distribution system is that of eolian origin, where the sura series of sand dunes and depressions,
face, originally
may
be
modified by time but still maintains the character, and is underlain with a subsoil coarse enough to absorb the meager rainfall
promptly, and no surface drainage system is formed. Such

a topography, with its low hills and hollows without law or
system, presents peculiar difficulties to the topographer, and
especially to the engineer designing a distribution system.
Many
of the shallow depressions are
and many
face outlet,
be reached by the
of the
laterals,
if
bowls or sinks without sur-
low mounds are isolated and can
at
all,
only by means of high
fills,
or
low ground. The

by
studies necessary for planning a system for such lands require a
good topographic map with less vertical interval between conpressure pipes to carry the water across
most other
tours than
classes of
map, though expensive,
topography require, and such a
is
imperatively necessary.
depressions in this class of land, having no outlet,
swamps or ponds from the accumulations of surface
The shallow
may become
drainage or the rise of ground water, or both, and the lowest

parts of such bowls should generally be excluded from the area
classed as irrigable.
Many of the isolated elevations will be too expensive to reach,
or the long
nance, and
necessary may be too burdensome in maintethen best to eliminate them, or to postpone their
fills
it is
development until land values have increased enough to

their
reclamation.
running on high
tenance.
fills
It should never be
justify
forgotten that canals
present especial hazard and expense in main-
Not only may they be
subject to slides, especially
if
CANALS AND LATERALS
220
but they are the favorite haunts of burrowand

incipient breaks have such head of water that
ing animals,
they rapidly enlarge, and become disastrous.
of clayey material,
Design of Laterals. In cross-section, laterals should

usually have a greater depth in proportion to width than larger
This reduces the area exposed to seepage and evaporacanals.
6.
and economizes
in drops, bridges and other structures.

It
for
better
conditions
which
hydraulic
gives
economizing grade,
tion
be important in level country. It also gives less encouragement to the growth of weeds on the margin and of aquatic
In any canal through arable
plants on the bed of the lateral.
may
is
sure to
grow along the margin of the water,

on the waterway, affording a
soil,
vegetation
and
this gradually encroaches
lodgment
for
sand and
carried there
silt
that
by the water
may
roll
down
or the wind.
the
bank
or be
Thus, gradually a
is formed, building farther out into the canal, protected

by
the roots of the grass and weeds growing upon it and forming
a new bank steeper than the original below the water surface
turf
with a berm just above. Where ample capacity has been provided, this may be a desirable development, as it furnishes a
berm
to catch the material that
may
ravel from the bank,
and
has no injurious effects on the waterway if not carried too far,

and if care is taken to prevent the development of noxious weeds
This tendency to steeper banks shows the fallacy of
thereon.
giving lateral sides especially flat slopes for the sake of stability.
Such slopes are often made as steep as 45 degrees or

it
may
be
difficult to
maintain them
much
flatter,
steeper,
and
even
this
if
were desirable.
For the sake of stability previous to the development above

described, it is necessary to provide side slopes not steeper than
11
to
than
or
about 38 degrees from the horizontal, and not

or 30 degrees from the horizontal.
flatter
2 to i,
The height
of
banks above the surface
of the
water in the
vary with conditions. Where the lateral is in fill,

the freeboard must be greater than in cut, and where banks are
lateral will
of light, loose material, liable to
higher than in clay or gravel.
wind
erosion, they
high freeboard
is
must be
not so impor-
CAPACITY OF LATERALS
221
tant where the banks are thick and heavy as where they axe thin.
In any case they should have some allowance for shrinkage and
wear down, and still be high enough to be safe against over-
topping with the most extreme use to which the lateral can be
subjected.
The top
v/idth of
banks
of laterals, should
vary from about 3
Above
feet for small laterals, to 5 or 6 feet for the large ones.

this, it is
for a
generally best to make at least one bank wide enough

least 10 or 12 feet, but this is advisable only for
roadway, at
the largest laterals or main canal.

As the science of irrigation develops, and as the value of
water advances,
it is
becoming more and more common
lateral systems, especially
when
located in porous
soil
to line
such as
sand or gravel where seepage losses would be heavy without such

In such cases, pipes may be freely used where the grade
lining.
abundant without excessive cost, and with important saving in

Lined canals may and should have greater
less
bottom
width, and steeper side slopes than unlined,
depth,
as these differences are necessary to economize in the labor and
material of the lining, and also increase the velocity obtained
which is generally desirable in a lined canal, as tending to keep it
clear of sediment and vegetation.
is
maintenance.
Capacity of Laterals. The capacity of laterals is affected

several considerations, the main one being the acreage to be
7.
by
Of course the larger the tract, the larger the lateral

necessary to serve it, but the ratio is not constant. A small
served.
more likely than a large tract to require irrigation all at

Laterals
once, and hence requires a relatively larger lateral.
should in general have a capacity not less than 10 second-feet, as
tract
is
such a quantity may be necessary for economical irrigation at

Lateral capacity should never
for a single irrigator.
be less than i second-foot to every 60 acres served', nor less than
one time
10 second-feet.
where
Between these
= capacity
irrigated in acres.
limits a
rough rule
of lateral in second-feet,
is:
and a = area
to
be
CANALS AND LATERALS
222
Where
irrigation
in laterals,
it is
water carries
much sediment
necessary to allow a large
likely to settle
margin
to permit the
use of the lateral throughout the season without shutting off the
water for cleaning it. This margin is not included in the above
but must be added to the value
rule,
of
c,
obtained from the for-
mula.
is
In the case of the Imperial Valley, California, where irrigation

required twelve months in the year, and the irrigation water is
silt, an irrigation engineer experienced in its manadvocates

building the lateral system in duplicate, so
agement
can
be used while the other is being cleaned, and
that one system
loaded with
irrigation
water can be delivered without interruption.
This,
however, would require some provision for carrying water from

one lateral across its duplicate, and the complications involved
would hardly be
justified.
It is generally possible to close a
lateral for a time in the slack season,
which varies somewhat
with the crop, but generally occurs in winter, so that cleaning

may be accomplished without detriment to the crops. Various
mechanical devices have also been invented by which laterals
may be economically cleaned without turning out the water,
be more fully treated under the head of
Maintenance," page 518. What has been said, however,
clearly shows that considerable excess capacity of laterals is a
and
this subject will
"
.great advantage,
is
and
is
never a bad investment where sediment
carried in the irrigation water.

8. Location of Laterals.
Laterals
must be
so located as to
deliver water to the highest point of irrigable land
on each farm
and their number and distribution will hence depend in

some degree upon the probable size of farms. Where the
unit,
they should follow property lines so far

as possible, for thus they cause the least inconvenience, and give
topography
will permit,
by reaching the maximum number of holdIn

smooth
ings.
valleys it may be possible to run a lateral down
each section line, thus conforming to legal subdivisions of the
the greatest service,
not always desirable, however, to place lateral headings in the main canal at such frequent
intervals as one mile, as such structures increase the costs of
land,
and probably farm
units.
It
is
LOCATION OF LATERALS
223
construction, maintenance and operation, and are in some degree

a menace to the continuity of service, as they usually constitute
In some cases where
points of weakness in the canal banks.
conditions of topography or land ownership require laterals at

frequent intervals, one turnout is made to serve two or more
by carrying the water parallel to the main canal for the

The objections to this are the increased
losses
from
the
parallel canal and the land it occupies.
seepage
These are in some cases unimportant, and in other cases may
more than offset the disadvantages of additional turnouts.
The bottom of each lateral at its head should be a foot or two
higher than the bottom of the main canal, so that sand moving
along the bottom may be kept out of the lateral, but more than
this should be avoided when possible, as any greater elevation
may require the provision of a check in the main canal to permit
the diversion of water into the lateral when only part capacity
is being run, and checks are to be avoided when possible, espelaterals,
distance necessary.
cially in silt-bearing canals.
Where
the slope of the country is very slight, and the grade

of laterals are necessarily low, it is generally best
each lateral serve the greatest possible area, as the
and velocity
to
make
larger lateral
and
the
on a given grade will have a greater velocity,

of
low velocities may be partly
disadvantages
avoided.
located on fairly level ground, and
can and should in that case be so located when feasible, that the
Laterals are
commonly
material excavated for the channel will be just sufficient to form

the banks, and the channel and banks together, form the waterof
way
required
dimensions and
capacity.
Where
the
is very broken, however, this rule,

strictly followed,
introduce too much curvature, and to secure better aline-
ground
may
the
if
may be advisable to locate partly in cut and partly in

case it is often possible to balance the cut and fill
which
fill,
so that by a moderate longitudinal haulage of material the
fills may be built of the materials taken from the cuts near
ment
it
in
enough so that excessive haulage is not required. In making

such location, it is always best to make the cut somewhat in
CANALS AND LATERALS
224
excess of the
fill,
rather than run
any
risk of
having a balance
the other way.
Abnormal Leakage from Canals. In numerous cases

serious trouble has been caused and some canals have been
9.
rendered
useless,
by
subterranean
cavities
not
previously
observed, which are developed by the introduction
of
water
into the canals.
On
the Flathead Project of the U. S. Indian Service, a series
been constructed, on which bad

sink holes and cavities have appeared without any previous
surface indications.
On one system there is an average of
of systems of small canals has
twelve such holes to the mile, and these average from 12 to 15

deep and 200 feet long. On another small system there
feet
are about four holes to the mile, which average 6 feet deep and
100 feet long. When these canals were constructed, the ground
was
in apparently satisfactory condition for carrying water,

being of stratified clay. In a few places minute cracks occurred
in cuts about 3 feet below the surface, being so small, however,
as to be hardly nc ticeable.
When water was turned in, these
cracks enlarged, and in a short time the substrata seemed to
melt away, and great cavities appeared, absorbing the entire

flow of the canal, which disappeared entirely.
Sometimes by
water flow into the holes for a time they would puddle
themselves, fill with water, and some repair would restore the
letting the
In the greater number of cases, however, no such result

followed, and after developing the holes thoroughly the water
canal.
was turned
restored
by
and the canal

which no trouble was
out, the sides of the holes blasted in,
careful
puddling,
after
experienced.
Many sink holes occurred at the structures along the canal,
where the water followed down the cutoff trenches, and thus
reached the substrata.
They
are
more numerous
in cuts that
reach the substrata than at other places.

The surface of the country in this region
a large
These
number
of potholes
many
may have been formed by
caverns similar to those described.
of
is peculiar in having
which form small ponds.
the collapse of underground
ABNORMAL LEAKAGE FROM CANALS

In the
GRAND VALLEY, on
225
the western slope of the "Rocky

where the soil
near. Palisade, Colorado, is a region
Mountains,
having no abnormal appearance in its natural state, settles from
i to 5 feet vertically soon after becoming thoroughly saturated
with water. Settlers, preparing this land for irrigation, prepare
to
"
settle
"
the land with as
much
deliberation
and matter
of
"
The settlecourse, as in other regions they clear or level it.

"
ment must be performed with care and skill, or great trouble
FIG. 72.
Cavity Developed in Canal Bed, Flathead Reservation, Montana.
will result.
It is necessary to saturate a large area at
order that the settlement
may
once in
be as uniform as possible, and
not result in potholes and undulations that would be expensive

With the utmost care, however, the settlement is often
to level.
uneven and erratic. This tendency, of course, introduces complications into the problem of canal construction, and it is necsary in building large canals to provide 2 or 3 feet of extra bank
Occaheight, lest sudden settlement cause disastrous breaks.

in
canal
or
the
cavities
cracks
perimeter through
develop
sionally
which much water wastes, and which require careful puddling.
226
FIG. 73.
CANALS AND LATERALS
Cave Developed
in
Bottom
or Canal,
Flathead Indian Reservation.
CONSTRUCTION OF CANALS
The main
227
the Reclamation
Project on Spanish
Fork River, Utah, showed settlement of the natural ground in
several places of from i to 2\ feet, the subsidence appearing
canal of
had been
several weeks after the canal
in use for the convey-
ance of water.
side hills on what was
Lake Bonneville, in material varying
sand and gravel to heavy clay containing some
These phenomena occurred on steep

at one time the shores of
from
fine silt
small stones.
The settlement
here seems to be due to the closure
and cavities left by the caving and sliding of the mateon the hillside, where the meager precipitation had never
of cracks
rial
furnished enough water to settle it.

The North Side Twin Falls Irrigation System, Idaho, is built
in a country underlain by lava rock through which the Snake
River flows in a gorge several hundred feet deep.

in the lava, therefore,
gorge, and any water in them readily escapes.

are in evidence on the walls of the canyon.
Many
Any
have ready communication with
cases occurred
Numerous
on the North Side Twin
crevices
this
deep
springs
Falls canals
where annoying leaks developed. These were dug clown to the

rock and the crevices closed with concrete, after which the earth
was puddled back. The canal system as a whole now shows fair
average tightness.
The canal system of the Pecos Irrigation
Company
near
Carlsbad, N. M., where it traverses gypsum formations, was

beset by leaks which enlarged by erosion and solution until they
became so serious that for some distance the canal location had
to be abandoned and the canal rebuilt on a lower elevation.
In other places the leakage was corrected by placing a lining of
concrete in the canal.
10.
Construction of Canals.
Where
large canals are located
sometimes economical to employ heavy

heavy cutting,
as
the
steam
such
shovel, or the drag-line excavator.
machinery,
in
The
it is
long boom, to conditions

where a wide canal in earth requires a long reach. The steam
These are justified
shovel is better adapted to handling rock.
latter is especially
adapted by
only where the yardage to be
its
moved
is
large.
smaller invest-
CANALS AND LATERALS
228
FIG. 74.
Building Lateral in
Montana with Ditching Machine.
FIG
Building Lateral in
Montana with Elevating
75.
Grader.
ment
in plant will secure economical results
229
by using the
ele-
vating grader, which loosens the earth and elevates it into a

wagon alongside, or on a canal of moderate size may deposit the
earth
in
directly
the
bank.
Fig.
75.
work, especially on small
Small
quantities
of
sometimes performed
laterals,
with the common slip scraper, drawn by two horses. But the
great bulk of earthwork on canals and laterals is performed by
means
Fresno scraper
of the
old-time
Buck
in
soil
sandy
scraper.
of
lift
scraper
is
the
especially useful
and short haul, and cheaper work
Building Canal with Elevating Grader.
has been done with
common form
29), a modification of
(Fig.
The Buck
with a low
FIG. 76.
are
it
Buck
than with any other implement.

,
scraper consists of a
working or frond
board with an effective length of about 9 feet and a height of

This board rests horizontally on edge on the ground
22 inches.
and consists
of
two planks each
inches in thickness, below
fastened an iron cutting edge which reaches 7 inches

below (Fig. 194). At either end of the scraper is a cam-shaped
roller 4 inches in height, on which the scraper is turned over.
which
is
is fastened at the back to a tail board 3 feet 9 inches

on which the driver stands, and is drawn forward by
This board
in length,
from two to four horses, the scraper being dumped by the driver
CANALS AND LATERALS
230
231
*O
OO
Ô
co
<
^-
00
00
CO
u~>
iJ">
Qv
Tf
Tj-
-Tt
vo MD
UO O
CNOM
H)C^ rl|N rH|lN
CANALS AND LATERALS
232
CANAL LOSSES AND THEIR PREVENTION
233
merely stepping off the tail board, the forward pull upsetting it.
This implement handles a load of from i to ij cubic yards, while
its average daily capacity is about 130 cubic yards.
For two
horses a scraper of this form is rarely made over 6 feet in length,
and the angle of the face board to the ground is about 28 degrees,
and is regulated by the attachment to the tail board. The
Fresno scraper is most satisfactory in handling tough earth too
heavy to be handled by a Buck scraper, and which would even
Building Canal with Fresno Scrapers.
FIG. 77.
road scraper. This implement is usually

drawn by four horses and may handle 10 cubic yards per hour,
with an average load of ^ of a cubic yard. Its operation is
give
trouble
to
illustrated in Fig. 77.

ii.
Canal Losses and their Prevention.
whether natural or
artificial,
All earthen surfaces,
absorb more or
less
water
when
brought in contact with it. This is the principal cause of the

loss of water carried in a canal.
Though some water is also
lost by evaporation this is generally less than 10 per cent of the
quantity lost by seepage.
The quantity
lost
varies
widely
CANALS AND LATERALS
234
with the character of the material through which the canal runs,
being greatest in coarse sand and gravel, less in loam, and still
less in clay.
The
clay
may have
as great or greater percentage of open
space than the sand, but the passage of water through it is

In
slower, owing to the extreme minuteness of the openings.
the
all
cases
losses
from
an
constitute
nearly
important
seepage
factor to be provided for
and guarded
against.
The few
excep-
where a canal passes through swampy ground, in

which case there may be an actual gain in water, the canal
tions are
somewhat the
Where the canal
serving
function of a drain.
a tendency
to seal the pores of the channel and for this reason the seepage
from a new canal is often much greater than it becomes' after
carries
silty
water,
there
is
a long period of use, the time required for improvement depending upon the rate of silt deposit.
The seepage rate increases with increased temperature, as
the water partakes to some extent of the quality of viscosity
Where conditions are favorable, much
exhibited by most oils.
of this seepage
water finds
its
way back
to natural drainage
lines.
12.
Seepage Losses. In 1912 and 1913, Bark measured 118

Idaho for determination of seepage losses.
sections of canals in
These canals varied in capacity from i to 3200 cubic feet per

second and the tests included 287 miles of length.
Seven of the canals in wet ground showed a gain. From the
109 canals showing a
loss,
the following results were obtained:
SEEPAGE FORMULA
consideration.
235
For unlined canals the following
classification
serve as a rough guide:

Poor, where losses exceed 1.5 feet in depth per day.
Fair, where losses are from i to 1.5 feet per day.
may
Good, where losses are from
where
Excellent,
.5
losses are less
The wisdom and
to
foot per day.
than
.5
foot per day.
character of improvement will depend in
each case not only upon the losses, but also upon the value of
the water to be saved and the damage being done by the seepage,
and whether other economies are to be secured thereby.
The following formula is proposed

13. Seepage Formula.
as representing the results of existing data, to be used in estimating seepage to be expected from contemplated canals:
PL
4, ooo
/
+ 2 ,000 VV
where
>
S = Seepage in cubic feet per second;

C = Coefficient depending on material
d = Mean depth of water in feet;
p = Wetted perimeter in feet;
L = Length of canal in feet
F = Mean velocity of water in canal.
of canal;
C are as follows:
C = i = Concrete, 3 to 4 inches thick;
C = 4 = Clay puddle, 6 inches thick;
C = 5 = Thick coat of crude oil, new;
C = 6 = Cement plaster, i inch thick;
C = 8 = Clay puddle, 3 inches thick;
C = 10 = Thin oil lining; cement grout;
C = 1 2 = Clay soil, unlined
C= 15 = Clay loam soil, unlined;
C = 20 = Medium loam, unlined.
C 25 = Sandy loam, unlined;
C = 30 = Coarse sandy loam, unlined;
C = 40 = Fine sand, unlined;
C = 50 = Medium sand, unlined;
C = 70 = Coarse sand and gravel, unlined.
Values of
CANALS AND LATERALS
236
Care should be taken not to give too much weight to the

depends not only
but
also
to some extent
upon the surface of the canal perimeter,
upon its backing. Any one of the linings above listed will make
above arbitrary values
of C, as the seepage
a tighter canal if placed on a clay or loam soil, than if it has a

backing of sand or gravel, which transmit the water freely.
14.
Canal Lining.
tice to line irrigation
following
1.
2.
becoming more and more the praccanals and laterals, mainly for the reasons
It is
To prevent loss of valuable water.

To avoid softening the lower bank on
side hills,
and con-
sequent sloughing.
3. To avoid waterlogging land and thus destroying
its fer-
tility.
4.
To prevent
erosion of the canal bed where high velocities
are convenient or economical.

5.
To
reduce friction and thus avoid excessive excavation in
heavy rock cuts.

Seepage from canals located on side
safety of canals
slough or slide.
hills
often threatens the
by softening the lower bank and causing it

Where water is valuable the cost of lining
to
is
Such
often less than the value of the water thereby saved.
value.
cases are becoming more frequent as water increases in
cases occur where seepage from canals saturates and waterland at lower levels, and lining may be required to
valuable
logs
this.
Where the topography of the country requires or
prevent
Many
permits a very heavy grade to be given a canal, concrete lining

may be necessary to prevent erosion, and by thus utilizing
In heavy rock cuts it
excess grade the cost of drops is saved.
be found economical to provide a lining to diminish friction

and thus secure a sufficient velocity and discharge with less cross-
may
section so as to save expensive excavation.

The existence of one or more of the various reasons
tify the lining of
has been done by
may
jus-
a canal and lateral system throughout. This

the U. S. Reclamation Service where the land
very sandy, upon the west extension of the Umatilla Project

covering about 10,000 acres. It is also frequently done in
is
CANAL LINING
237
Southern California where water

possible to eliminate
many
is very valuable.
It is thus
drops that would otherwise be re-
quired upon the lateral system, and to employ velocities higher

than earth sections would permit, and thus keep the canals free
and vegetation.
is usually of cement mortar or concrete, but in
some cases other materials have been used. Where a canal is
constructed on a long fill which might settle unevenly and thus
crack a concrete lining, and where seepage would endanger its
safety if unlined, lumber is sometimes used for lining, with the
from
silt,
trash
Canal lining
expectation of replacing this
FIG. 78.
after the
bank
when decayed, with
Cross-section of Lined Channel, Santa
is
well settled.
Wooden
lining
concrete lining,
Ana
may
Canal.
be used where
the ground-water is impregnated with salts to such extent as to

disintegrate concrete lining.
Concrete linings are usually
made from
inches to 4 inches
and joints running across the canal are necessary

at intervals of from 20 to 40 feet, to prevent irregular contraction
in thickness,
It is best to place the concrete in cold or cool weather, to

avoid subsequent cracking, and to build alternate slabs which
are allowed to harden before the intermediate slabs are placed.
cracks.
In cold climates, where hard freezing is common, it may be

advisable to reinforce the slab with steel fabric or mesh to hold
If there is possibility of collection
together against heaving.
of water behind the slabs, this may be relieved by the provision
of one or more weep holes near the center of the bottom slabs,
it
and
in the side slabs near the bottom.
upon
The
joints
to allow the escape of water in their vicinity.
may
be
relied
CANALS AXD LATERALS
238
made 45 degrees or flatter, they may

be
without
forms, by taking care to have the
readily
placed
If the depth
consistency of the concrete suitable to such use.
the side slopes are
If
of cut requires for
economy a
steeper slope than 45 degrees,
be necessary to provide forms for the lining, which will

The outside bank can sometimes be made
increase its cost.
it will
flatter,
and the form avoided.
In countries where the winters are mild, a very thin lining

has sometimes been used made of cement mortar or of concrete
with small aggregates, plastered directly on the earth bottom
and slopes, from f to i| inches thick, without forms, and without
reinforcement.
If this is carefully
placed in cool weather, and
protected from drying until thoroughly set, good results may be

obtained very cheaply. Such linings have been extensively
and
successfully used
Reclamation
Service.
on the Umatilla Project of the U. S.

They would not succeed, however,
where the ground is subject to heaving.

Ir cases where ground-water is strongly impregnated with
alkaline sulphates which threaten to disintegrate the concrete
lining,
the difficulty
for the ground-water,
may
be met by providing
and by placing
2 or 3
free drainage
inches of screened
gravel under the concrete slabs to facilitate the escape of groundwater through tiling placed for the purpose.
In some cases where canals are located on steep side hills,

they may be threatened by slides of snow or earth from the steep
hillside above, and a protective covering may be necessary to
prevent disastrous breaks from this cause. A reinforced concrete arch has been successfully used for this purpose in the
Spanish Fork Valley by the U. S. Reclamation Service.
Concrete lining should be placed only on well-settled banks;
otherwise unequal settlement will be likely to rupture the lining,
thus reducing its efficiency, and hastening disintegration.
The
upon which the lining is built should be carefully

rolled, and if dry it is best to moisten it before
placing the concrete, as dry earth will absorb some of the moisture
earth
smoothed and
which the concrete requires for the chemical process of setting.

The concrete mixture should be about one part of cement to
CANAL LINING
FIG. 79.
239
Check Gates and Canal Lined on One
Side.
Interstate Canal,
Nebraska-Wyoming.
FIG. 80.
Semicircular Concrete-lined Section of
Oregon.
Main
Canal, Umatilla Valley,
CANALS AND LATERALS
240
two
sand and four of gravel. The diameter of the

largest
particles of the gravel should not exceed one-half the thickness
of
and where the lining is less than ij inches

thick,
best
to omit the gravel, and use a mortar of i
usually
part
cement to three parts of well-graded sand.
of the lining
it is
FIG. 81.
typical
California,
Concrete Lining. Truckee-Carson Canal, Nevada.
paved
lining
in alluvial
is
soil,
that given the Santa

sand, and
almost wholly in excavation (Fig. 78)

velocity of 5 feet per second,
gravel.
the water
and the depth
is
Ana
canal in
This canal
is
is
permitted a
as great as 7^
CANAL LINING
feet for a
bed width
order that the lining
of 6J feet
may
be
less liable to bulge, this
of
i \ feet,
are 2
and top width
241
of 12^ feet.
In
have a stable footing and the bottom

is curved downward with a versed sine
forming thus a subgrade of that depth. The banks

feet higher than the water surface, and are built on side
on i. The earth excavation had a bottom width of 7

and the same slopes as above, and was trimmed at bottom to
the lining, which consists of cobbles and bowlders laid in mortar,
grouted and faced with cement plaster.
On the Tie ton canal, Washington, of the Reclamation Service,
the lined sections in earth and loose rock are semicircular (Fig.
slopes of 2
feet
r
\:
~&
;
CANALS AND LATERALS
242
This
its top.
steel canal is 19 feet 8 inches in
diameter with
foot 8 inches straight sides at top, making a total depth of

21 feet 4 inches.
The inner shell of J-inch steel plates is riveted
i
to outer semicircular ribs of
T-rail placed 2^-feet centers.
heavy
The top is braced with 3-inch flat and 3 inch by 2\ inch angle
iron.
The canal rests on a wall of concrete beneath its center
and has expansion
SECTION "A-A"
joints every
330
feet.
A.
Experiments conducted by B.
Etcheverry in Southern Cali-
determine relative percolation from lined and unlined

fornia
to
ditches
showed the following relaUsing un-
tive efficiency ratios.
lined earth channels e

oil
yard, e
cement
6
i.o;
3! gallons per
lining,
heavy
square
= 2.o'
= i.8;
clay puddle, e
concrete 3 inches thick,
y
= 7.2.
Careful
the
records
kept on
Irrigation
System
cost
Orland
both
embracing
unlined
canals,
and others lined with concrete,

show a maintenance cost for the
unlined
Rip Rap
6 "thick
FIG. 83.
canals of
$123 per mile
per annum, and $10
Transition from
Rock
to
Earth Cross-section, Lined Canal,

Reclamation Sendee.
canals.
The
lining
for
has
the lined
also
re-
duced the see page losses, Until this

,.
f
loss from the lined canals is about
,
one-tenth as great relatively as from those that have not been

lined.
On
main canal
of the Carlsbad, New Mexico project,

37,300 linear feet of canal were lined with concrete two- tenths of
a foot in thickness. This
required 7,191 cubic yards of concrete
the
at $13.67
$98,313, or $2.64 per linear foot, or, $13,820 per
mile.
The
lining of the laterals
on the same
project,
was accom-
CANAL LINING
plished at a cost of $10.37
ness of .2 of a foot.
The
lining of the
243
P er cubic yard
of concrete of a thick-
main canal on the Umatilla
project, Oregon,
with concrete, 3 inches thick, in the proportion of i 3.5 5.2,
cost $8. 1 6 per cubic yard, and carried a little more than a barrel
:
of
cement
to the cubic yard.
The
side slopes
were ij to
i,
and
were lined without forms.
The main canal
of the Boise project
was
lined with concrete
4 inches thick, with joints at 16 foot intervals.
show the following
costs:
The
records
CANALS AND LATERALS
244
plowed, and after some weathering was harrowed, the water

turned in, and harrowed again, forming a clay puddle which
was very effective in reducing the seepage. In addition to this
muddy
water was turned into the canal and ponded at points
where seepage was great, and by depositing its mud greatly

reduced the seepage. Similar measures have been employed
in
many
other places with good results.
FIG. 84.
On
Lining Canal with Concrete, Idaho.
the Minidoka project clear water was carried in a canal

through coarse sand in which losses were very great,
built partly
and
it
was
after several years decided to
losses
by depositing
deposit of clay was
pumped from
try to reduce the
To
accomplish this, a
selected near the canal, and water was
silt
in the canal.
the canal through a hydraulic monitor and the

was
this
means washed into a flume and carried into
clay
by
the canal and deposited by ponding or checking the canal
where the puddle was needed. The result of this work was the
AMOUNT OF RETURN SEEPAGE
245
deposit of about 100,000 cubic yards of clay over the perimeter

about 20 cents per cubic yard. Where
this was done the losses from the main canal were reduced from
of the canal at a cost of
no
cubic feet per second in 1912, to 71 cubic feet per second in

1915, besides important reduction of losses in the laterals.
The State Engineer of
15. Amount of Return Seepage.
Colorado conducted measurements of seepage water returned

to the South Platte and Cache la Poudre rivers during the
years 1890 to 1893 inclusive. These showed a constant increase
in the amount of seepage water returned to these streams and
available for diversion below the points of measurement.
Prof. L. G. Carpenter sums up his investigations on this
"
There is real increase in the volumes of streams
subject thus:
as
they
pass
through
sections.
irrigated
This
increase
is
approximately proportional to the irrigated area. The passage

of seepage water through it is very slow.
The amount of
seepage water slowly but constantly increases.
la
Poudre River about 30 per cent
irrigation
is
of the
This seepage
On
water adds to the amount of culturable land.
the Cache
water applied in
returned to the river."
Investigations of a similar nature conducted by the Utah

Agricultural Experiment Station and by others point in the
same
The amounts
water by seepage
indicated in the above experiments must not be taken as a criThe cirterion of what may be expected in other regions.
direction.
of returned
cumstances surrounding these cases were especially favorable

In other regions the amount
for the return of seepage water.
of seepage
water returned
may
diminish to practically nothing,
dependent upon the soil, quality of underlying strata, their slope

and inclination, and the area of drainage basin above and tributary to them.
Observations
made
at storage reservoirs for
Boston and some other Eastern
amount
cities
show
New York
and
that the
clearly
water returned from the surrounding country

to reservoirs which have been drawn down for service varies
of seepage
between 10 and 30 per cent of their

due to the fact that the water plane
capacities.
This
is
of the surrounding
largely
country
CANALS AND LATERALS
246
up from the reservoir as well as from seepage from the

adjacent country. Measurements of volume in the Sweetwater
reservoir in Southern California show that after water ceases
to be drawn from the reservoir it begins to refill while no water
is filled
is
entering from streams,
have occurred
in
other
and
similar additions
reservoirs.
As a
available capacity of a storage reservoir
from seepage
result,
may
the
actual
be found to be
greater than its measured capacity.
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XIII

FORTIER, SAMUEL. Concrete Lining as Applied to Irrigation Canals. Bulletin
MEAD AND ETCHEVERRY. Lining of Ditches and Reservoirs to Prevent Seepage
Bulletin No. 188, Agricultural Experiment Station,
Losses.
Berkeley,
California.
ETCHEVERRY, B. A.
New
Conveyance
of
Water.
York.
CARPENTER, L. G. Losses from Canals from Filtration or Seepage.

No. 48, State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Ccl.
MORITZ, E. A.
Seepage Losses from Earth Canals.
Bulletin
Engineering Neu's, Aug.
28, 1913.
HANNA,
F.
W.
Water Losses
in Irrigation Canals,
Engineering and Contracting, Oct.
FORTIER, SAMUEL.
logical Survey,
Conveyance
of
9,
and Methods
of Prevention.
1912.
Water.
Water Supply Paper
43, U. S.
Geo-
CHAPTER XIV
CANAL STRUCTURES
i.
Classification.
The term
"
Canal Structure
"
is
usually
applied to all structures necessary in connection with the canal,

aside from
may
1.
2.
the earthen waterway

be classified as follows:
Works
itself,
and
its lining,
which
for controlling canal water.
a.
Headworks.
b.
Turnouts.
c.
Spillways.
d.
Drops, and checks.
e.
Measuring devices.
Drainage crossings.
a.
b.
Flumes, and superpassages.

Inverted siphons.
c.
Culverts.
d.
Pipes.
3.
Highway
2.
Location of Headworks.
crossings.
The
first
requirement for a
suitable diversion point is permanence of the stream channel,

so that the stream will not leave the works after they are
nor wash them out. Preferably both sides of the stream

should be rock or hard gravel not easily eroded. It is especially
desirable that the side on which the regulator is built should be
built,
of this character, for the safety of the works,
possible,
be founded upon
which should,
if
rock.
desirable that the ground in which the first few rods of

the canal is built should be of firm material, and so high as to be
not subject to overflow from the stream, so that the canal will
It
is
thus be protected until
it
gets
away from
247
the river.
CANAL STRUCTURES
248
The
diversion works should be located so far as physical

conditions will permit, at such an elevation as to command
the land to be irrigated, with ample grade allowance for the

an excess of grade. The location should permit
canal, without
of the construction of regulating works parallel to the stream

so that the current of the stream may have a clear sweep past
the regulator, and close

and gravel that threaten
It is
to
it,
to facilitate sluicing
away sand
to pass into the canal.
always desirable to secure rock foundation for the

if this is impracticable, a safe dam can be
diversion weir, but
sq.
'$O& ^>
Q&&
UulQ
''*
bars 6"c.to
\"\
c.
El. 1612.0
?.5WP.9'.9.\ft.<5?.-.a.V.'.4
?????.?.?
Ô.S 4nd;< jrfavel^n^
EUCC7.0
Cut
off wall to
SECTION A-A
extend
3 into shal.
FIG. 85.
built
Cross-section of Corbett Weir, Shoshone Project,
by taking proper
precautions,
upon
Wyoming.
gravel, sand,
silt
or
clay.
Canal Headgates.
3.
headgates
Every canal should have one
so located that the quantity of
the canal shall be at
all
or
more
water admitted to
times under control.
On
streams carrying sediment or transporting sand or gravel,

means should be provided for preventing the entrance to the
canal of sand and gravel likely to deposit and clog the canal.
The
which
is easily carried in suspension is not so

can be mostly carried through the canals
and laterals and deposited on the fields, where it has considerable
lighter silt
objectionable, as
it
CANAL IIEADGATES
The heavier
fertilizing value.
silt,
likely to be deposited in the canals
removal, and even
if
249
sand and gravel are more
and
entail great expense for
carried to the fields are nuisances
which
should be eliminated at every opportunity, and if possible

they should be left in the river bed. To accomplish this three
precautions
may
be employed:
10
F IG<
1.
86.
Plan of Corbett
The stream
Dam
velocity
20
30
and Head works, Shoshone Project, Wyoming.
may
be reduced before entering the
in
canal, thus causing the settlement of the heaviest particles
suspension.
entering the canal may be required to flow

in a thin sheet over the top of a long weir so that only the surface water can enter the canal, as the surface carries only the
2.
The water
lightest sediment.
CANAL STRUCTURES
250
3. Means should be provided for sluicing the deposited

sand away from the headworks, and causing it to pass on down
stream.
To
to
secure these conditions, a diversion
form a
and
dam
is
necessary,
head for sluicing it out

The gates through which the water enters the
settling basin,
when needed.
to furnish
canal should be parallel to the stream, so that the water passing

move normal to the river channel. Immedi-
into the canal shall
4 I
7a
NOTE:
-"5'5
"'<*"
*
i
5 gates each
1 feet
,.-"
""*!
"'""
4 11
high
'
---*
SECTIONAL
ELEVATION
CROSS SECT'ON
DETAILS OF GATE
FIG.
87.'
Wooden
FIG. 88.
Gate, Leasburg Canal Regulator, Rio Grande, N.

Iron Regulator Gate, Minidoka Canal, Idaho.
M.
ately adjacent to the entrance of the canal, and at right angles

thereto, at the end of the diversion dam, one or more sluice
gates should be placed, with their
sills
at the normal bed of the
which can be quickly opened and as readily closed. When

opened the water will rush through under the head equivalent
to the difference of water level above and below the dam, and
the high velocity thus generated will scour the channel immediately in front of the entrance to the canal, and thus furnish
river,
CANAL HRADGATES
251
capacity for subsequent use as settling basin, to be again sluiced

out when filled.
The entrance
to
the canal should be controlled
by
flash
boards or some similar device so arranged that the water will

flow into the canal as a thin film from the surface only, and
thus carry on a skimming process, the heavier sediment being
TOP VIEW
&
Cast [ron Shutter
cl
FRONT VIEW
SEC. C-d
252
CANAL STRUCTURES
CANAL HEADGATES
253
254
CANAL STRUCTURES
CANAL HEADGATES
255
256
CANAL STRUCTURES
I
I
CANAL HEADGATES
257
it, the water entering over the top of the gate

a weir, which thus exercises the skimming function.
lifted to close
like
obtained by inclined gates at the head of the

Goulburn Canal, Australia (Fig. 92). Flash boards, though
cheap, are slow and laborious in manipulation, and except on
similar effect
very
silty
is
streams, the practice
is
usually to use ordinary iron
gates as regulators.
Where
the conditions of water supply are such as to require

all the water in the stream most of the time,
the diversion of
Whalen Diversion
FIG. 95.
Dam
and Headgates, Normal to Dam.
River,
there
North Platte
Wyoming.
virtue in the
skimming process. Headgates are

the
usually, therefore,
ordinary type, which .open at the
bottom by raising on a stem, and are sometimes called underis
little
of
shot gates, because the water passes under them.

Sluicing devices are most needed upon streams carrying
much sediment like those of the Southwest, but are also very
useful
upon many Northern streams which may generally run
clear,
but nevertheless carry much sand and gravel by
rolling
CANAL STRUCTURES
258
along the bottom, and if this is allowed to enter the canal,

it causes much annoyance and expense.
Instances are not
rare where the gravel carried into the canal during the June
rise so depleted its capacity that it could not carry the water
for irrigation, and it became necessary to close the canal
and clean it during the height of the irrigation season, at great
expense, and to the great injury of crops.
needed
BB
FIG. 96.
Sprague River
The headworks
Dam, Klamath
Indian Reservation, Oregon.
of a large canal are of great
importance
for
protecting the canal against floods, and for regulating the flow
into the canal.
They should be founded upon rock if possible,
and should be
resist
of
masonry
any tendency
of gravity design,
heavy enough
to shear, slide or overturn
to
when
subjected
pressure which can occur.
They should be
flanked with ample wing walls and unless founded on rock
to the
maximum
should have deep cut-off walls to prevent seepage around or

under them.
CANAL HEADGATES
259
CANAL STRUCTURES
260
Fro. 98.
FIG. 99.
Jackson Lake
Dam, Downstream
Face,
Wyoming.
Headgates and Sluice Gates, Montrose and Delta Canal, Uncompahgre

Valley, Colorado.
CANAL IIEADGATES
261
FIG. loo.
Division Gates and Drops on Tsar Canal near

Valley, Turkestan.
FIG. ioi.
Headworks
of Sultan
Yab Canal
at Sultan
River, Turkestan.
Bend
Byram
All,
Reservoir, on
Murgab
Murgab
262
CANAL STRUCTURES
TURNOUTS
4.
all
Turnouts.
the sublaterals
Each
lateral
down
branch from the main canal and
to the individual
be provided with regulators.
if
farm
laterals,
should
are similar in function to
They
main
the regulator at the head of the

E
263
canal,
but
differ
widely
CANAL STRUCTURES
264
outs are usually located in an
artificial
bank
of a canal,
and must
be carefully designed and built with a view to preventing the

percolation of water around them. They must be provided with
wingwalls with earth carefully puddled against them. The
tendency of percolating water is to follow in straight or nearly
straight lines the
seam formed by the contact
of the structure
with the bank, and this tendency can best be met by providing
numerous abrupt angles
FIG.
ture.
104.
to interrupt the
path around the struc-
-Check and Parm Turnout with Inclined Valve.
If the structure is of concrete,
angular corrugations
may
produced by nailing 2- by 4-inch lumber vertically to the

forms against which the concrete is afterward built, and into
these corrugations the earth fill should be carefully puddled
be'
and tamped.
The
smaller turnouts are often in the form of a box or pipe

Earthen
leading through the bank, with a gate on the upper end.
sewer pipe is best for this purpose, and standard steel gates
TURNOUTS
265
and gate frames are on the market which are conveniently

fastened to such pipes.
Turnouts should be located at or near the bottom of the canal
%
from which they take water, in order that a supply of water

may be drawn when the canal is running at part capacity.
Where
the elevation of the land is too high to permit this, it

be
necessary to locate the turnout several feet above the
may
bottom of the canal, and such cases will require the provision of
FIG. 105.
Cast-iron Valve on Small Lateral Turnout.
a check in the canal below, in order to hold the water up and

enable a supply to be taken when the canal is only partly filled.
Such checks are, however, to be avoided if possible.
In early canal building most of the structures were made of

wood, and this is still common practice with the small lateral
turnouts, which can be replaced with little interference with the
All large turnouts which serve important areas,
water service.
and require considerable time
for
renewal, should be built of
2(>G
CA NA L STRUCTURES
TURNOUTS
267
CAXAL STRUCTURES
268
concrete or other permanent construction.

The capacity of
the conduit should be sufficient to take the required amount of
water at the lowest stage of the canal.
Bars from both side and

-mg walls
round corners. Alternate

bars from both sets in
f fillet.
FIG.
108.
Reinforced Concrete Turnout with lo-Foot Drop, Garland Canal,
Wyoming.
The
velocity of flow may be obtained from the formula

where h is the available head in feet, g represents
the acceleration of gravity, in feet per second, and C represents a
V = C\/ 2gh,
TURNOUTS
269
constant depending partly upon the shape, and partly upon

orifice, and is greater for a bell-shaped approach
the size of the
270
CANAL STRUCTURES
CANAL SPILLWAYS
The capacity
its
271
of the turnout will of course
be the area of
the velocity of
the water, or
cross-section multiplied
by
5. Canal Spillways.
Any large canal system must for safety
be provided with a number of spillways in order to discharge
any surplus water it may contain, and avoid overtaxing its
Also to discharge all the water, when it becomes
capacity.
FIG.
in.
Lateral Headgates North Platte Valley, Nebraska.
necessary to quickly
threatened break.
The break
empty the canal
in case of a
of a large canal discharging its great
break or a
volume
of
water across the country, may be very disastrous, especially if

the canal is on a side hill high above the country threatened,
or
where the torrent crosses valuable improved lands.
Some-
treacherous materials
times these conditions are aggravated by

which the canal is built, in which case the need of adequate
This need is also emphasized where the
spillways is greater.
in
canal receives considerable local drainage into
its
prism, and in
272
CANAL STRUCTURES
ex
C/2
CA NA L SPILLWA YS
273
274
CANAL STRUCTURES
CANAL SPILLWAYS
case
abnormal rains
of
may
275
occasionally
have
its
capacity
overtaxed.
large canal
is usually provided with a

permanent weir
bank immediately below the headgate, the crest
the weir being placed at the elevation of normal water surface
in its lower
of
any water that may enter the

normal capacity. Such a spillway will
not discharge any considerable quantity of water until the water
stands considerably above its lip, and though the discharge
of the canal so as to discharge
canal in excess of
its
increases with the rise of the water surface,
such
The
rise.
Where
it is
it
does not prevent
longer the weir, the less the rise
necessary to
have a
it
permits.
close regulation of the level of
by a spillway, this may be secured

more
siphons, of the type shown in
by
interior
/ is located at the level at which it is
The
lip
Fig. 115.
The intake lip i, is located a
desired to hold the water level.
few inches below the same level. The outlet o is located as far
below the lip as circumstances will permit, and is submerged
the canal or basin controlled
the provision of one or
under water, so that air cannot enter there. When the water
rises above the level of the lip / it overflows into the pool o, and
as
it
falls,
it
entrains the air in the siphon, creating a partial
vacuum, which is filled by water forced in by the outside pressure and this process quickly exhausts the air from the siphon,
and it is soon discharging full, under the head due to the difference of level between the pond c and the pool o, less the loss
of head due to friction velocity head, and any imperfections
of construction.
Velocity and discharge are found by the
following formulas:
and
The discharge continues

permits
air to enter
fill
the siphon.
the
pond
<;,
the siphon,
is
until the decline of the water surface
under the
While
lip
i,
in
such quantities as to
this device is in action, the surface of
depressed by an amount due to the entry head of

this must be allowed for in fixing the elevation
and
276
CANAL STRUCTURES
...,..-.
SF.CTION A-A
FIG. 115.
Plan and Section of Siphon Spillway, on Canal in Colorado Valley,

California.
CANAL SPILLWAYS
of the intake lip
stopped by
otherwise the action of the siphon will be
the entrance of air before the
the level desired.

is
i,
277
The
pond
is
drawn down
coefficient of discharge c in
to
such a siphon
usually between .6 and .7 when in full operation.

Where a large canal is located in rock or other firm material,
or in good soil protected by grass sod on very gentle slope,

spillways are often provided by so locating the canal that the
water surface of the full canal will be just even with the natural
ground
level
on the downhill
side,
and omitting any bank
''8
both
ways^
ao'o-
for a
Kk8"
4^
SECTION
Fro.
1 1 6.
Spillway, Fort
considerable distance.
When
Shaw Canal, Montana.
the water rises above the normal
gently over this spillway, in a thin sheet, without

Care must be taken to prevent condestructive velocity.
level, it flows
would cause damage.

Such a spillway costs practically nothing, and affords important protection to the canal against overtopping of banks where
breaks would be the result.
centration of the water where
it
In addition to those automatic spillways above
described
which are designed only to discharge surplus waters, every large

canal should be provided with one or more wasteways through
CANAL STRUCTURES
278
which the canal can be safely and quickly emptied in case of a

In the absence of such a provision, if the canal should
break.
break the water would rush through the break and continue
to do so until the canal is emptied, after closing the headgates.
This might occupy several hours or even days and cause a large
amount of damage, both to the canal itself, and to the farms
below which
lie
in the path of the flood
Such a spillway
to the river.
One such wasteway should be
in seeking its
way back
usually called a wasteway.

located every 10 or 20 miles
is
according to the needs. If natural drains are crossed that can

carry safely the full capacity of the canal, these furnish good
locations for wasteways, and the necessary structure may be
\o)*7>vPresent Surface
:f^vV^>ô
Kote
FIG. 117.
Ground
Structure to be reinforced
throughout with K'sq. steel
bars spaced 12 c's both
ways
equidist. from concrete faces
Standard Sluiceway, Lower Yellowstone Canal, Montana.
combined with the structure required for crossing the natural

drainage channel. Where no such opportunity exists, location
should be sought where the distance to the river is short, and
it will be necessary to provide a substantial lined channel to
the river, to prevent damage to the lands traversed.
At the head of the wasteway, if possible, the bottom of the
canal should be depressed several feet below the regular grade

of the canal and the sill of the spillway gates should be at the
lowest part of the depression. This will give the water in the
wasteway a high velocity, and enable it to draw strongly from
both directions in the canal, and thus empty it quickly. The
depressed section of the canal will also serve to gather gravel,
silt that may be traveling on the bottom of the
the
and
canal,
wasteway will serve as a means of sluicing such
material back to the river, and thus perform a double function.
sand or heavy
In case the canal
is
heavily silt-laden,
it
may
be advisable to
CANAL SPILLWAYS
279
CANAL STRUCTURES
280
widen as well as deepen the canal at the head of the wasteway,

so as to greatly enlarge the canal section and reduce the velocity
of the canal at this point,
and thus form a
settling basin for
silt.
wasteway located within a short distance below the head

of the canal at a point near the river may be so arranged that
when opened
it will produce a scouring

velocity in the canal
back to the headgate, and be made very effective in ridding
the canal of accumulations of gravel, sand and silt.
In such
cases it is well to provide a set of check gates in the canal just
clear
below the wasteway, so that by closing these, the influence

of the wasteway may be concentrated upon the scouring of the
section above,
be
and
in case of a break in the canal below, the check
gates may
of the canal also.
left
open
to permit the
emptying
of that part
The gates of the wasteway should be of some type that can

be quickly opened, as they are primarily for emergency use.
For this reason it is generally best to provide some form of power
A small turbine wheel acting under the
for opening them.
greatest head available from the canal
may
be thrown instantly
by a small valve operated by hand, or by electricity

from a distance, and this wheel, generating 10 or 20 horse-power,
in action
be made
Where the
may
to
open the gates very quickly.

is located high on a mountain side so that
canal
the great head and steep slope will cause a break to be especially
destructive, a series of spillways may be electrically connected
with automatic floats, so that if the water suddenly rises or
lowers in the canal the floats close the circuit and open the spillslide from above may obstruct the canal,
way, instantly.
and cause
it
way, the canal

Conversely,
if
may
but
the rising water opens the wastebe relieved before much harm is done.
to overflow,
if
the canal water surface
is
lowered by an incipient
break,
opens the wasteway, and empties the canal
before great damage is caused.
type of automatic spillway that has been successfully
this also
employed on the Tieton Canal
in the State of
Washington
is
described as follows:
On
the course of the canal where a spillway was desired, a
CANAL SPILLWAYS
281
CANAL STRUCTURES
282
was
pit
built
about 4
feet
below the grade of the canal.
cast-
operated by a lo-inch vertical

by
outside
the
turbine located just
wasteway pit with its intake
at such an elevation that the sluicegate is entirely opened when
5 feet
iron sluicegate 4 feet
is
the receding water falls to the center of the intake opening.

turbine shaft is connected to the gate shaft by a system
To the turbine gate shaft is attached a drum around
of gears.
The
which a small cable
is
wound, having attached
When
the turbine gate
to its
end a
closed the weight

suspended weight.
is suspended and holds a projecting pin from the handwheel
the
against
magnet
release,
which
is
is
electrically
connected
with floats placed at frequent intervals along the canal. Any

abnormal change of water surface in the canal makes a connection at the float that causes the
magnet
to release;
this
drops
the weight, which opens the turbine gate and starts the turbine,
which opens the wasteway gates. To close the gate the operation
must be
started
by hand
until the water rises in the pit
to enter the turbine intake, after
enough
be thrown
which the clutch
may
and the gate closed by water power.

Where the slope of the
6. Checks, Drops, and Chutes.
canal
is
over
which
a
passes
country
greater than the safe grade
of the canal, it becomes necessary to provide one or more
structures in which the surplus grade can be concentrated, and
in
the canal transferred from a higher to a lower elevation without

Such a structure is called a " drop "
injury to the canal.
and
may
be either vertical or inclined.
falls freely,
carried
while an inclined drop
down an
against erosion
A
above
when
inclined pipe, channel

some form of lining.
or
chute,
protected
a bulkhead in a canal designed to hold the water

at a higher level than it would otherwise stand, so that
Check
it
by
is
In the former, the water

one in which the water is
is
the canal
is carrying only part of its

capacity, water may
be taken into a turnout location above the bottom of the canal.
It
may be desired
at all times to maintain the water level above
the check at a higher level than below it, in which case the check
performs also the function of a drop. Where this is not the
case, and the structure is simply a check to be used only when
CHECKS, DROPS,
the canal
lateral, it
AND CHUTES
283
running part full and water is being taken into the

should be so arranged that practically all of the bulkis
head can be removed when not needed, so as not to greatly

interfere with the flow of water in the canal.
During the time
that the check is

acts of course, as a drop; i.e., the water
stands at a higher level above than below the check, and in falling exerts an amount of mechanical energy, depending upon the
in use,
it
quantity of water and the amount of the fall. Precautions

must be taken to prevent the destructive erosion of the earthen
sides
and bottom
FIG. 120.
of the canal just
below the check.
Concrete Drop with Water Cushion, Truckee-Carson Canal, Nevada.
The necessity of providing drops under various conditions is

a matter of judgment based upon experience. It involves a
knowledge of the erosive power of the quantity of water to be
handled at the velocity to be expected, and the capacity to
resist erosion of the ground over which the water will pass.
Some
of these elements
accurately predicted.
are variable
and others may not be

attempt
It is therefore unprofitable to
any exact rules or fine distinctions. Some of the earlier irrigation works were built without any special provisions for excess
grade, and although erosion was certain, the rule seemed to be
"
These have in some cases resulted in gullies,
let it cut."
which have done no great harm. On the other hand, some
CANAL STRUCTURES
284
FIG. i2i.
Notch Drop, Chenab Canal,
India.
CHECKS, DROPS,
AND CHUTES
285
engineers carry to an extreme the theory that the theoretical

slopes and velocities must be exactly secured regardless of cost.
The true test of the problem is the inquiry " What will happen
if no
If the ground traversed is a loam
provision is made?"
or sand to a great depth, excess velocities will cause the eiosion
FIG. 122.
Crops-section of Drop, Bear River Canal.
and the deposit of the eroded material at some

Even when the channel is straight, slight
lower
down.
point
obstructions or inequalities of material will cause a tendency
of deep gullies,
meander, and to undermine banks on the outside of curves.

proceeds it may destroy good land, and load the stream
with material to be deposited further down to the detriment
to
If this
CANAL STRUCTURES
286
it may become necessary to provide

expensive
the
and
this
and
the
banks,
protection
expense
damage
caused may exceed the cost of the drops that should have been
provided in the first place, and may ultimately still be necessary.
of other property;
to
On
canal
the other hand, cases occur where the alinement of the

straight, and where rock, shale, hardpan or other
is
IJTop of bank
Bottom width
of c&r.al
**,
!'
Riprap canal for

[-Top of bank
varying distances
ELEVATION
FIG. 123.
Notch Drop, Interstate Canal, Nebraska-Wyoming.
indurated material occurs a short distance below the surface,

that will resist erosion, and may be utilized to save expense in
the provision of structures and their subsequent maintenance.
The hard material may be irregular in its occurrence and quality,

and when it is reached by the water, erosion is checked, and a
steeper grade
is
soon established through the hard material
CHECKS, DROPS,
AND CHUTES
287
which becomes permanent. In this way the surplus grade is

taken up, and with some bank protection, stability is secured.
Where the country has considerable slope it may be necessary to provide hundreds of drops in the lateral system, and it
thus becomes important to decide on the most effective and
economical design as a standard for each grade, character of
soil and quantity of water.
Where the slope is considerable
and the soil sandy, careful consideration should be given to
with concrete to prevent erosion, instead of the

The high velocities thus secured will
lining the canal
construction of drops.
m/3"x
4"
x!2'
'
*#'.
'<:':
Gruvel FiUin_^J.L---
-[
v^
'
x!2
F^2"x
FIG. 124.
2"*
x!2
&*j$
Timber Drop, Lower Yellowstone
Laterals,
Montana.
permit reduction of the cross-section of the canal and thus save

in excavation, besides eliminating the cost of the drops;
and
though the lined channel may be more expensive, it may still be

justified on account of the saving of water and in maintenance
both of which are important.
A cheap and efficient drop on a small
cost,
lateral is
formed by
excavating the channel for the necessary distance on a grade

of three or four to one, lining it with concrete, and providing a
depressed basin at the foot of the slope to receive and check
the rushing water.
vertical to
form an
The lower
effective
side
of
this
basin should be
check to the water.
small cutoff
288
CANAL STRUCTURES
CHECKS, DROPS,
AND CHUTES
289
wall should be provided at the upper edge of the lining where

the water reaches it, to prevent under-cutting.
Such simple
in
used
light soils by the U. S.
drops have been successfully
Reclamation Service, and are very cheap, requiring very little

forming for the stilling basin, and none at all for the lining.
For large volumes of water more elaborate structures are

These are sometimes of wood, but are more perrequired.
manent and
FIG. 126.
reliable
built of concrete.
Cylinder Drop on Franklin Canal, Rio Grande Valley, Texas.
The notched
some extent
when
drop, introduced in India and employed to
in this country, has the crest of the fall
by a weir with a
series of
surmounted
notches with their bases level with the
canal bed, and the top of the weir at or above the full supply
The notches are designed wider at top than at base, so
as to discharge at any given level, the same amount of water
level.
that the canal carries at that level at normal velocity, and thus
prevent undue fluctuation of velocity as the volume of water
CANAL STRUCTURES
290
Below each notch
provided a semicircular horizontal

or bracket to receive the falling water and spread it out into
varies.
lip
a semicircular sheet.
of the
is
This has a tendency to dimmish the action
water on the banks below.
The U.
S.
Reclamation Service has used a novel form
of
drop in the Rio Grande Valley, consisting of a concrete structure
FIG. 127.
Series of Concrete
Drops on South Canal, Uncompahgre Valley,

Colorado.
in
which the water
is
by balanced
controlled
which can be adjusted
to such
opening as
proper velocity to prevent scour and deposit of

of canal flow.
See Fig. 126.
7.
arises
1.
it
Protection
2.
silt
at all stages
The tendency
to
erosion
from three main causes:
The impact
falls
some
Against Erosion.
cylinder gates
produce the
will
of the
water on the bottom of the canal as
from the higher to lower
level.
This usually requires
sort of paving.
The
increased
velocity
generated by the surplus
fall,
PROTECTION AGAINST EROSION

which
down
if
291
not somehow checked will persist for some distance

its banks.
This may be counter-
the canal and erode
acted by providing a stilling pool at the foot of the drop with

depressed bottom and larger section than the regular prism
of the stream, in which the energy is dissipated in surges and
eddies, and from which the water flows away at normal velocity.
3.
The waves produced by
the
commotion of the falling

some distance down the
water, and which generally persist for
Fr.
128.
Concrete Chute and
Stilling Basin,
Boise Valley, Idaho.
canal in spite of elaborate control of the velocity of the water.

This generally requires paving or other protection, of the bank
30 to 50 feet below the drop, or in very light soil, a still

This protection may be a lining of concrete
greater distance.
for
or of grouted rip-rap, or other form of paving.
without mortar soon

soil
by
fails in light soils
Open rip-rap
by the washing out of
through the cracks. In many cases sage brush held in place

stakes and wire has been successfully used.
CANAL STRUCTURES
292
The amount and
character of protection necessary depends

upon the quantity of water falling, the amount of the fall, and the
character of the material in which the drop occurs.
Unless
the latter
is
rock or very firm gravel or hardpan, some paving
always necessary. The size and

pool has been much discussed, but engineers
or other artificial protection
is
depth of the stilling

are not agreed upon any general rule to govern these points.
The best practice is to provide a pool depressed from i to 3 feet
below the bottom
below the drop, and having a

cross-section from 50 per cent greater than the normal water
prism, to three times as great, varying between these limits
of the canal
according to the three factors above mentioned, namely, the

height of fall, the quantity of water, and the character of soil
in
which the drop occurs.

In some cases
it is
necessary to carry the water
down
a long
slope requiring either a series of drops or a long chute, consisting

of a lined
channel with a
stilling
basin at the bottom.
The
choice between these types will depend mainly upon the cost,
if
properly built the maintenance of a chute is generally
less than that of the vertical drops that would take its place.
but
The
inclined drop or chute consists essentially of
an
inlet
structure, a trough to conduct the water down the hill, and a

pool at the bottom to receive the water and destroy its accumulated energy.
The transition from the canal to the drop must
be provided with numerous and deep cutoff walls

walls, floor
and
sides, carefully
puddled
for the
wing-
in, to
prevent percolation
Where the water enters the
water along the structure.

trough control gates should be provided. A short distance
below, the trough converges to a narrow channel to correspond
of
which may reach 40 or 50 feet per

Cutoff walls must be provided at frequent intervals
to the increased velocity,
second.
under the trough, and great precautions must be taken to prevent

erosion under the trough, either by rainfall or by leakage from the
structure, as the steep hillside will favor rapid
and destructive
an opportunity occurs.
Trouble was encountered on the Boise Project of the Reclamation Service with the spilling of water over the sides of the stilling
erosion
if
DRAINAGE CROSSINGS
293
basins at the end of concrete chutes and investigation

to find a remedy.
The cause
was that
of the trouble apparently
the structure no allowance was

air carried into these basins
made
in designing
for the great
with the water.
was made
amount
of
Eleven structures
were investigated and the remedy generally adopted was to

raise the sides
and cover the
basin.
The
investigations seem
to indicate that in designing stilling pools, consideration should
be given to the increased volume of the discharge due to mixture

For velocities from 15 to 40 feet per
of air with water.
second, the increased bulk
is
estimated to be from 15 to 35
per cent.
The pool
or check basin at the
bottom
of the chute
must
be of massive construction to receive the shock of the rushing

An excellent form for such
waters, and stop it without injury.
a check basin
Yakima
is
one on the Sulphur Creek wasteway on the

Washington, which is designed to receive
Project in
and stop a stream
500 cubic feet per second flowing at a

This structure is of
velocity of about 25 feet per second.
of
concrete, rectangular in plan 14 by 18 feet, by 18 feet high.

in at one end of the box near the top, and
The water comes
escapes through two rectangular openings in the sides, each

i2j by 4 feet. The water plunges into the basin and dissipates
energy by impact on the water already there, and is turned

This
practically through 3 right angles before it can escape.
its
structure accomplishes its object satisfactorily, as the water

flows quietly down the unlined canal without erosion.
gullies are unsightly and may be dangerous if very
with
precipitous banks, and it requires important saving
deep
of expense to justify the omission of sufficient drops to consume
Deep
the excess grade.

Where the drop can be located in rock
to provide
8.
any
special protection to the
Drainage Crossings.
Where
it
may
bottom
be unnecessary
or sides.
a canal location intercepts
a natural drainage line or torrent, as it is sometimes called, it

necessary to decide what disposition to make of the drainage
water that may be expected, in order that it may not damage
is
294
CANAL STRUCTURES
DRAINAGE CROSSINGS
the canal.
There are four possible methods of dealing with' such
problems, each of which
is
suitable to a certain class of cases.
The drainage may be received into

where it is small in amount and the canal is
i.
_.ZJT_. - -x
FIG. 131.
2.
295
-(,0
the canal, in cases

large.
-x-
Elevation and Cross-section of Iron Flume on Corinne Branch, Bear

River Canal, Utah.
The
canal
may
be carried over the drainage channel in a
upon an embankment provided with a culvert through

drain water passes under the canal.
the
which
be carried under the ravine in an inverted
3. The canal may
flume, or
siphon or pressure pipe, or the drainage may be conducted over

the canal in a broad flume called a superpassage.
CANAL STRUCTURES
296
4. The drainage may be intercepted by a diversion dam

and canal and conducted along and parallel to the canal, to a
point where sufficient drainage is concentrated to justify the
provision of one of the structures above mentioned.

Span varies from
r
-I
rf3355t
14 to 30
DRAINAGE CROSSINGS
297
little at any time.

Where it is necessary to admit
considerable quantities of surface water to the canal, its safety
may be protected by providing in the vicinity a spillway of one
of the types described in Art. 5.
and carry but
Even when
the water brought in may be thus taken care of,

the admission of drainage to the canal is often objectionable
because such drainage usually

:arries sediment and detritus
which
may
be expensive to
4-Square
re-
Care must be taken in
move.
all
cases
of
the
to
the
protect
canal
enters, against
where
the
side
drainage
erosion
of
which destroy the symof

the canal, and fill it
metry
gullies
with detritus.
may
This protection
concrete
consist of a short
retaining wall, over which the

drain water falls into the canal.
The
provision
of
oint
combined
wasteway and settling basin

with bottom opening for sluicing sediment, may justify the
admission to the canal of much
drainage in the vicinity otherwise inadmissible.
Cases sometimes occur where

the collection of drainage water
is one of the important functions
of a canal, the
object being to
increase the water supply above
ill
otherwise available.
that
is
The
133.
crete
Circular
Flume
and
Reinforced
Trestle,
ConTieton
Canal, Washington.
usually so irregular that a storage

necessary to utilize the full benefit of such supplies,
water supply thus obtained

reservoir
rrî
FIG.
is
thus becomes especially important to provide for ridding

the canal of sediment brought in with the drainage to avoid
and
it
filling
the reservoir with solid matter and destroying
its
useful-
CANAL STRUCTURES
298
This
ness.
may
bottom opening
FIG. 134.
FIG. 135.
best be done
for sluicing
Headworks
by means
of settling basins
purposes as described in Art.
of
Cavour Canal, Po River,
with
5.
Italy.
Brick Aqueduct, Carrying Cavour Canal, Po Valley, Italy.
cases the drainage to be admitted should be carefully

estimated, especially as to its probable maximum volume, and
In
all
provision
made
for
such
maximum
with a considerable margin
FLUMES
299
The lower bank of the canal must be of ample height

and thickness, and must be rigidly inspected for the works of
burrowing animals, so that a sudden rise in the water level
of safety.
not disclose a hole to lead water through the bank and
shall
cause disaster.
Where the drainage line intercepted is in a

9. Flumes.
ravine or canyon of moderate depth, but well below the grade of
the canal, the latter may be carried across in a flume.
This
may
best be of concrete, especially
if
very
large,
but on account
of the high cost of the concrete structure, flumes are
built of steel,
are
of
upon wooden
more often
trestles, or entirely of wood.
These
more expensive in maintenance, and will require renewal

the wooden parts in from 10 to 20 years, even when well
cared
for.
In any case the trestle bents should be founded upon

wood and earth at any
concrete or rock, and contact between
point entirely prevented, to avoid quick decay. The most

common form for wooden flumes is a rectangular box, and should
provide for a water depth of about half the width, as this gives
the maximum value of r in the formula and consequently the
maximum
and capacity. For the same reason, the

must be made as smooth as possible. The
lumber should be planed, and placed longitudinally, so as to
have the minimum number of joints across the course of the
water, and every care taken to avoid friction or obstruction to
velocity
inside of the flume
the flow.
The flume must be so constructed that it is firmly held against

the tendency to spread which will develop when filled with
water.
This is accomplished by means of the sills at the bottom,
and the
sides
may
be held at top by means of braces across the

or of heavy wire, or the sides may be
top, either of timber
braced by inclined studs placed upon extensions' of the sills.

A standard form of box flume is shown in the drawing, Fig. 138.
The lumber forming the box of the flume must be carefully
fit well, and some measures must be
proviqled
the cracks water-tight.
This is sometimes secured by
milling a small bead on one or both edges of the lumber which
can by reasonable pressure be made to form a tight seam. Very
milled so as to
to
make
300
CANAL STRUCTURES
FLUMES
301
CANAL STRUCTURES
302
may be secured by caulking with oakum. To

caulking process the lumber may be slightly
beveled on one edge, thus leaving a small opening on the inside
effective sealing
facilitate
the
of the crack for the insertion of the
The
oakum.
may
caulking
'10'-
FIG. 138.
Cross-section of San Diego Flume, California.
require repetition every spring for two or three years after

which longer intervals may be found permissible.
Another means
of closing the
seams of the box flume
is
by
inserting asphalt or coal tar, and holding it in place by means

of a batten along the seam,
or
similar end
secured
by
lumber
so
may
milling
as
be
the
admit
to
and hold the sealing material.
An
objection to the use

on the bottom of
of battens
the flume
that
is
if
fastened
to both planks forming the
seam, the shrinkage

is
FIG. 139.
Cross-section of Stave and Binder
Flume, Santa Ana Canal, California.
likely
water
the
is
to
turned
flume
batten
follow
and
Will
that
when
out
split
cause
of
the
leaks
with no convenient means of repair except by replacing the

batten.
FLUMES
in
303
Coal tar or asphalt should in use be applied hot and preferably

weather, so that all cavities may be penetrated before
warm
the asphalt
solidifies.
of wooden flume is the half circle,

wooden staves supported by iron or steel rods, the
ends of which are held by stringers. These rods are fastened
by nuts which, when screwed up cinch the staves and close all
This means can be used each year to take up
cracks tightly.
the shrinkage of staves and keep the flume tight.
The necessity
Another serviceable form
formed
of
The longitudinal reinforcing rods of

the flume are to be carried W)"iuto
the concrete face of approach
-^
1 Steel
Rods spaced
6 ce
'Floor of flume
SCALE OF FEET
10123456789
FIG.
140.
Section
through
Reinforced
10
Concrete Aqueduct, Interstate
Canal,
Nebraska-Wyoming.
of caulking
may
and
this
thus be avoided,'
if
the staves are carefully
an important advantage of the

milled,
circular over the rectangular form of flume.
The screw threads
must be kept well greased to prevent rust, and keep them
constitutes
available for the annual cinching.
maintained such a flume
is
When
generally more
properly built and

satisfactory than the
box flume.
Steel Flumes.
Closely similar to the circular wooden flume
the steel flume supported on wooden trestles.
The metal
takes the form of the half circle, and is supported by iron rods.
is
The
sheets of steel are purchased in standard sizes, the largest
304
CANAL STRUCTURES
FLUMES
305
obtainable being usually 10 feet in length. A half -circular flume

formed of such sheets has an area of 31.76 square feet, or leaving
i foot freeboard, about 25 square feet of waterway.
If a capac-
becomes necessary to duplicate

some other type. The transverse joints
have been formed in various ways more or less efficient, the
most essential requirement being that they present the least
possible obstruction to the flow of water, and hence be flush
ity greater
than
this is desired, it
the flume, or adopt
with the surface of the flume.

If the
flume
with joints that
is
over 50 feet in length, it should be provided

absorb expansion and contraction due to
will
temperature changes.
If the flume can be conveniently built in cold weather, while
the metal is contracted, fewer contraction joints will be required
placed in summer.
The metal sheets should be galvanized and after construction
the waterway should be treated with two coats of tar paint,
than
if
water-gas tar and the second of coal tar.

flume carries sand or gravel this will quickly wear
through any protective coating, such as tar or zinc, and leave
the
first of
If the
the iron exposed to rust, so that it is very important to eliminate

sand or gravel if present. This may be done by providing a
settling basin and sluice gate at the upper end of the flume,
above its entrance. With such a

and careful attention, a metal waterway may be
either in the flume itself or
provision,
much longer than a wooden one.

All parts of the flume should be amply heavy, so that its load
will not cause notable deflection and develop leaks.
It is of
expected to last
prime importance that the lumber be well seasoned so that it will

not seriously warp and shrink after construction. The life of the
wood may be somewhat increased by some form of treatment

by antiseptic preparations. The cheapest of these is a bath
in hot crude petroleum.
This should be sufficiently prolonged
so as to permit the escape of all confined air,
with
and
its
replacement
oil.
Treatment with creosote or zinc oxide as practiced with

railroad ties prolongs the life of the wood, but where it is kept
306
CANAL STRUCTURES
FLUMES
307
CANAL STRUCTURES
308
away from
from treatment are hardly

Some benefit may be derived by
earth, the benefits derived
commensurate with
its cost.
treating the structure after completion with a wash of any of the

preparations from petroleum or coal tar; or of the
common
more durable
paints.
Painting lumber not seasoned does more
than
harm
good.
Care should be taken to prevent contact with earth, which
it occurs.
Footings and mud sills may
built
of
be
concrete.
generally
Cer10. Behavior of Various Metals in Presence of Alkali.
hastens decay whenever
tain preparations of iron
and
steel
have shown resistance to the
HALF SECTION
SCALE OF FEET
IP
,
iti p
10
20
Half Longitudinal Section, Reinforced Concrete Aqueduct, Interstate
FIG. 144.
Canal, Nebraska-Wyoming.
attacks of acids as shown
by standard
tests,
are often alkaline, and resistance to alkali
The U.
S.
is
Reclamation Service has made a
but western waters

a different problem.
series of
experiments
to test the virtues of various metals in the presence of alkali
such as occurs in
The
many
western
soils.
results of these tests as reported
on three
different projects are
shown
by the
project managers
in the following table.
All the sheets were planted in alkaline mud, the tests samples
being side by side, under conditions as similar as possible. The
results
speak for themselves:
BEHAVIOR OF VARIOUS METALS

TABLE XXXI. METAL SHEETS IN ALKALINE SOILS
Material.
309
310
FlG. 145.
CANAL STRUCTURES
Reinforced Concrete Aqueduct,
Spring
Canyon, Interstate Canal,
Nebraska-Wyoming.
FIG. 146.
Concrete Flume, Spanish Fork Valley, Utah, showing

tion from Canal to Flume.
Warped
Transi-
I
I
311
312
CANAL STRUCTURES
m
&
FIG. 148.
Continuous Wood-Stave Pressure Pipe, Idaho

Irrigation Company'
Canal.
313
and cracks have formed, causing leakage and other

annoyance. This seems to be due to the water penetrating
the indurated shale and removing a portion of the soluble salts
have
settled
FIG. 149.
Elevation and Cross-section of Nadrai Aqueduct, Lower Ganges Canal,

India.
from the seams and crevices which they fill. In many places
where canals are constructed through hard shale requiring
when water was
powder to loosen, they have settled badly
CANAL STRUCTURES
314
turned through them.
In a few instances the shale has swelled,
causing the bottom to bulge.

One of the most important
make
of the necessary provisions is to
which cause
of
the
flume
contraction
structure.
and
This is apt
expansion
the
concrete
between
ends
and
the earth
to cause openings
a leak which will rapidly enlarge under the
filling, and to start
and cause a break difficult to repair,
velocities
generated,
high
safe allowance for changes of temperature
and more
difficult to
The problem
and earth that
is
will
guard against in future.

between the concrete
to devise a junction
permit movement without leakage.
Such
a junction has been successfully used at the termini of the Spring

Canyon flume on the North Platte project, by means of successive layers of canvas saturated with tar, to
make
it
imper-
vious.
ii. Culverts.
Where
the grade of the canal
is
high enough
to permit its passage over the intercepted drainage channel,

and the volume of the torrent to be intercepted is not too great,
the canal may be carried across in an earth fill, and the drainage
water carried through the fill in a cast-iron pipe, or if too great
The fill must be carefully confor this, in a concrete conduit.
structed, observing all the rules of earth
dams
as to water tight-
ness and careful connection at the ends with the natural banks,
and at the bottom with good material for foundation.
The
culvert should have flaring approaches to conduct the

water gently into the conduit, and these should be founded
deeply and provided with wingwalls to prevent percolation

around them. The culvert, whether of iron or concrete, should
be provided with several cutoff collars passing entirely around

them, and well puddled in with good material at least one- third
The central portion of the fill, and all
of which should be clay.
that portion adjacent to the canal water section should be wetted
and rolled, or carefully puddled, to the end that no percolation

from the canal shall endanger the fill. Culverts are sometimes
made
of wood, but this is not permanent work, as the wood in

contact with moist earth does not last long.
Small culverts
of
be
made
iron
where
the fill is
may
galvanized, corrugated
CULVERTS
not too high for this, but care must
be taken to allow for the retarding
influence of the corrugations,
and
to
provide all the precautions necessary

with cast-iron pipes.
Where a
large canal intersects a
large drainage line so nearly at grade

that it is not practicable to carry
canal
the
canal
may
over
the
drainage,
the
be carried below grade in
conduit, or the torrent

may be carried over the canal in a
"
superlarge flume, which is called a
pressure
passage."
The superpassage must be amply

large with a wide
to
margin of safety
the
discharge
largest torrent that
the drainage line
may
bring, without
danger of overtopping and should be

carried upstream on a grade of not
than i in 5000, a sufficient distance to intersect the natural grade
less
of
the
torrent, pass
under
it
to a
depth of several feet, and terminate

in a cutoff or curtain wall carried
considerably deeper unless rock or
impervious or indurated material is
encountered sooner.
No
exact rules
can be laid down except that the

upper end of the bottom and sides of
the superpassage
must be
bonded
the bottom
so
and incorporated with

and sides of the torrential channel
as to leave no danger of the water
working between and passing under
or around the structure, and it must
be remembered that these torrents
315
316
CANAL STRUCTURES
CULVERTS
in
flood, often
erode
under
their
317
channels
far
below
the
them again on the declining flow.

must
deliver the torrent to its natural
The superpassage
channel, or other safe channel in a manner, and at a distance
customary bed, and
FIG. 152.
FlG
Inlet to
fill
Rawhide Siphon,
under
I53 ._si p hon Crossing
Interstate Canal,
Rawhide Creek,
Nebraska-Wyoming.
Interstate Canal, Nebraska-
Wyoming.
to the
from the canal such as to insure against injury or menace
As the concrete superpassage will have a much smoother
canal.
than the channel of the torrent, its effect will be to
surface
accelerate the velocity of the water,
and
it
may
be advisable
CANAL STRUCTURES
318
to provide a protected stilling pool or other means of checking

The provision of a
velocity to avoid destructive erosion.
its
superpassage applies mainly to cases where the torrent to be

controlled is very large, and no loss of grade in the canal can be
permitted.
Where one
both
or
of
these
conditions
is
absent,
it
may be preferable to carry the canal under the torrent in a

pressure conduit in which the pressure of the entering water
forces the water to the
On
certain losses.
same elevation at the
generally necessary to
smaller cross- section than the canal and give
built underground,
it is
greater velocity.
hence
is
tant,
and must
to be avoided
make
it
it
of
much
a correspondor grade, and
This consumes head,

where the conservation of head
ingly
this
issuing end, less
account of the expense of a such a conduit
is
impor-
when comparing
handling such torrents. The canal
be taken into consideration
with other methods of
should be lined with concrete for a short
above the
distance
entrance to the structure, and the section of the conduit gradually

warped from that of the canal to that of the pressure tube, so
as to present no angles, nor sharp turns to the entering water,
that would create eddies or otherwise retard
its velocity.
In
consumed in entry may be reduced to a

way
minimum, but some allowance must still be made therefor,
while due allowance must also be made for the head or fall in
the head
this
water surface necessary to produce the velocity required in the

This head is found from the formula.
pressure conduit.
V = V 2/z,
which
In this case
V=
flowing in the canal
may
be transformed into h =
72
.
the difference in velocity between the water

and that required in the pressure conduit.
As
the water issues from the conduit into the canal it is generally
necessary to change its velocity and section to that of the normal
If the section is changed by warped surfaces
canal section.
so slowly, gently and gradually as to cause no waves nor eddies,
it is possible to recover nearly all the velocity head, so that the
main
losses of
head
will
be the entry head and the friction in
CULVERTS
When
the conduit.
and the
319
the approach and exit are properly warped,

made as smooth as practicable,
inside of the conduit
these losses of head are
small except
all
when
the conduit
is
long, or its velocity very high, in which cases the friction losses
are heavy.
It
is
practicable in
most cases
to secure
an entry
coefficient
between 80 and 90 per cent, by proper construction of the

entrance, and to recover at least 75 per cent of the velocity head
of the conduit at the exit upon grade.
secure these results, the bounding surfaces of the conduit
must be very gently curved, and a distance at entry must be
by proper construction
To
Rods %"x %'haeh abutment

a_Rodajn Cen. WallL
Vertical
66 Longitudinal
Reinforced Concrete Twin Siphon, Interstate Canal, Nebraska-
FIG. 154.
Wyoming.
consumed
in the transition equal to twice the difference between
the greatest dimension of the original water prism, and the

corresponding dimension of the pressure conduit. The issuing
conduit must
consume
in
transformation
about double the
distance required for the entrance by the above rule.

The junction of the structure at both ends must be safe-
guarded by curtain and wingwalls, and the usual precautions

taken to prevent percolation around them.
The pressure conduit must be built well below the grade of
the torrent
it
danger of a washout.
a canal line, it is
on
required
crosses, in order to avoid the
Where a flume
or a pipe
is
320
CANAL STRUCTURES
advisable to give some increased grade, in order to induce an

increased velocity and to force the required quantity of water
through, without building a structure as large as would be
required with a low velocity.

expressed by the equation, Q
The quantity
of water carried
is
= Av, where A is the area of crossand

v
is the mean velocity of the flowthe
section of
conduit,
ing water. Hence, the greater the velocity, the less may be
the area of cross-section, and as a flume or pipe will admit of
CULVERTS
321
322
CANAL STRUCTURES
PIPES
323
high velocities without injury much expense may often be .saved

by increasing the grade, and velocity, at the entrance of such
The high
a structure.
velocity is also desirable to prevent the

deposit of sand or gravel in a pipe.
The
12. Pipes.
use of pipe for conveying and distributing

is nearly universal, and it has the
impor-
water for domestic use
tant virtues of cleanliness, convenience and economy of water.

The great expense involved generally prohibits its use for the
volumes
water handled in irrigation, except in Southern

localities where water has a very great
in
value, and
special cases where pipe may be used as inverted
siphons to carry water across depressions under pressure, or
large
California
of
and such
around steep
hillsides
where canals cannot be
built.
Short
pipes are also used as culverts to carry drainage waters under

roads, railroads or canals.
The material
of construction
may
be cast
or iron, wood, reinforced concrete, vitrified
When
iron, sheet steel
clay,
or cement.
the most
properly constructed,
used
the
Reclamation
by
permanent, and has been successfully
reinforced
concrete
is
no
For heads much greater

Service for heads as high as
feet.
than this, steel, cast iron or wood may be used. For heads below
20 feet clay
forcement.
tile
or
cement
is
sometimes employed without
rein-
Wood pipe is the most widely used pipe for irrigation, but
the use of concrete is increasing, as it becomes better known
of wood increases.
Wood decays rapidly unless
its
saturated
with
and
water,
decay is much hastened by
kept
contact with earth, unless the saturation with water is thorough
and the cost
and continuous. Confinement of water under high pressure

the best means of keeping it saturated, and hence wood pipe
is
should be used only under high pressure, unless it is laid under

water or in ground perpetually saturated. Where pipe is
air, or to dry earth it may require a pressure of
head or more to force the water through the pores of the
wood fast enough to supply the evaporation from the surface.
The head required is of course much greater in an arid than in a
humid region with less evaporation. Where the head is less
exposed to the
50 feet
CANAL STRUCTURES
324
than 100
feet,
the pipe should be
especially in arid regions,
protected from contact with earth, and
its life
may
be greatly
prolonged by keeping it well painted outside. A good practice

is to build a pressure pipe of wood for the distance where its
pressure head exceeds 50 feet, and build the ends of reinforced
concrete where the pressure is less. The pipe should be left
full of water during the non-irrigation season, and any considerable loss from leakage should be replenished.
the most durable
wood
Redwood
but cedar and Douglas fir

are good and many varieties of pine have been used.
Wooden pipe was formerly manufactured by boring the
is
center out of logs,
for this use,
and such pipe
is
reported to have had a

and over 100 years in
durability of over 200 years in England,
Philadelphia, under conditions where

The bored log
saturated with water.
it
was
continuously
very wasteful of
material, and has been superseded by two modern types, both
widely used in irrigation work, namely the continuous stavê
.
and the wire-wound
pipe,
is
pipe.
Continuous stave pipe is built in place of staves carefully

milled from selected lumber, to have concentric circular surfaces
and
radial
edges.
The ends
of the
staves are arranged to
joints, and are joined by metal plates inserted in sawkerfs

in both staves, and slightly wider than the stave.
The staves
are held in place by steel bands, the ends of which are lapped in
a cast-iron shoe, and one is fitted with a screw nut which is used
break
to tighten the band.

Specifications found in Chapter
of this book give in detail the best modern practice.
XXII
Wire-wound wooden pipe is made in joints of convenient

length, by placing the staves in the position desired, and binding
them firmly in that position by winding heavy wire around them
The lengths manufactured vary from 20 feet
in spiral form.
The pipes are
for small diameters, to 8 feet for the largest.
in
to
inches
inches
from
24
4
diameter, though larger and
usually
smaller sizes are sometimes used.
than 36 inches
can best be made on the ground, of the continuous stave
Larger
sizes
type.
Where water
freezes in the pipe during winter
it
should be
PIPES
325
examined for leakage before the opening of the 'irrigation season, and repaired if necessary.
There is little economy in using wooden pipe for pressures
exceeding 200 feet, as above that head the necessary steel in
carefully
the bands
much
nearly sufficient for heavy steel pipe, which
is
Wood
cheaper.
is
thus
pipe, has, however, been used for heads
400 feet, where the short length of such head did not
justify a change in design.
Reinforced concrete pipe may be manufactured in place
up
to
by means
of portable forms,
and good
results
have been obtained
way.
keep the work going continuas
or
concrete
does
not bond well with other
nearly so,
ously,
The difficulty of entirely accomconcrete that has been cured.
It is necessary to
in this
plishing perfect continuity, and of obtaining thoroughly firstclass work under the handicaps of field conditions, led to the
introduction of another method, by which the pipe is constructed

in sections of about 8 feet, in a yard where ideal conditions can
be approximated and the concrete can be made particularly
dense and ideally cured. After thorough seasoning, these are

hauled to the field, and placed during weather as cold as permisisble without freezing the mortar used in forming the joints.
A
movable
mortar
collar
is
form
poured
As soon
is
placed at each joint, and a rich cement
in at the top
and thoroughly rammed.
as the forms are removed, the joints are covered
with wet burlap and kept moist continuously for several days.
placing the pipe in cold weather while it is contracted by
By
any rise of temperature places it in compression and

tends to prevent cracks. It should be backfilled as soon as
Pipe 46 inches in diameter,
possible after seasoning the joints.
made and laid in this manner near Hermiston, Oregon, has
cold,
withstood a pressure of
leakage or
any
Steel pipe
no feet for
several years without notable
repair.
is
often used for heads exceeding 60 feet, but is

It Is commonly formed by
for a less head.
seldom economical
curving a sheet of steel till the edges lap, and riveting them in
If considerable head must be withstood it is
that position.
greatly strengthened
by having two rows
of
rivets,
parallel.
CANAL STRUCTURES
326
Another and more

steel
row
method
wind the
and fasten the spiral lap seam by a single
The transverse seam is formed by forcing the
of riveting is to
a spiral
of rivets.
one joint into another far enough to rivet, or if the pipe

especially heavy, making a butt joint with an exterior sleeve
end
is
in
efficient
of
The life of the pipe is greatly increased by

riveted to each pipe.
with
coated
it
well
paint or tar.
keeping
The smaller sizes of steel pipe are formed by welding the
longitudinal seams instead of riveting, and are joined
the ends into exterior sleeves made to fit.
by screwing
Lock-bar pipe has the longitudinal joint formed by upsetting

the edges of the plate, and inserting them in grooves of a bar
which are then closed by hydraulic pressure. This makes a joint
equal to the strength of the plate if the workmanship
interior roughness caused by rivets.
is
good,
and avoids the
The
use of small pipe in distributing irrigation water is

rapidly growing as water becomes more valuable, and the means
Where this is simply a substitution for
of the irrigators grow.
open ditches it is customary to employ cement pipe, which can

be manufactured in place by machines used for the purpose.
Cement pipe without reinforcement
is
often used to cross undula-
tions involving pressures up to 15 feet, and hao been used for

In these cases, however, it must be built
20-foot pressures.
with especial care, and heads above 10 feet should be avoided

when practicable, or a light reinforcement in the form of a spiral
steel wire
may
lined ditches
is
be used.
The
growing and
is
use of cement pipe as of cementto
be commended and encouraged.
There are many formulae for computing the discharge capacity of pipes, all based more or less on experiment, seventeen of
which are given in the Engineering Record, Vol. LXVIII, p. 667.
The most noted
perhaps are those of Bazin, D'Arcy,

Kutter and Weisbach, which all differ considerably in results.
A careful study of these, and the reasoning on which they are
of these
based, leads to the conclusion that great refinement of computation is useless, and that we can hardly hope with present
knowledge to predict much nearer than 8 or 10 per cent, the

capacity of any pipe in advance of its construction, and that
PIPES
327
328
CANAL STRUCTURES
PIPES
329
L
FIG.
1 60.
Removing
Inside Steel
Forms from Concrete Pressure Pipe, Boise

Project.
FIG.
161.
Manhole and Concrete
Collars
Project.
on Concrete Pressure Pipe. Boise
CANAL STRUCTURES
330
such a margin of safety should usually be provided where the

capacity
is
important.
The U.
S. Reclamation Service has adopted the

following
formulae for the capacity of pipes used in irrigation and drainage
:
Concrete pipe
Riveted steel
Q = 1.35
= i-3i
<2
Q = 1.24
Q = 1.18
Drain
Q=
Wood-stave pipe
Cast-iron pipe
where
tile
Q = Discharge in cubic feet per second

D = Diameter of pipe in feet
H = Available head in feet per 1000.
D 27
D 27
D 27
D 27
D 27
H
H
H
H
H
555
555
555
555
555
13.
Tunnels.
Where
the
canal
location
must leave the
avoid a long detour around a

ridge or hill, or to escape a hazardous location on its steep slopes,
it may pass through the hill in a deep cut, or if this is too
deep,
contour grade
may
line in order to
Whether a cut
tunnel through.
depends mainly upon

material,
and
is
or tunnel is to be preferred
the depth of cut and the character of
chiefly a question of cost.
Other conditions
be preferred, as it will generally give

There is frequently
less trouble and expense in maintenance.
of
going around on a grade line
presented also the alternative
being equal, a tunnel
is
to
in a flume or canal, or a combination of both.
be largely in favor of the latter to justify

side-hill canals
and flumes are expensive
its
The
cost
must
construction, as
to maintain,
and may
be very hazardous. This depends largely on the material,

and is not easv to estimate in advance. Cases are not rare
where a canal located around a

seepage and developing
hill
slides that it
gave so much trouble by

was later abandoned for a
safer location in tunnel.
In a majority of cases tunnels require lining to prevent

caving or swelling of the material in which they are built, and
in many instances where this is not the case lining may be
advisable to present smoother surfaces to the flowing water,
reduce the friction and thus increase the capacity. This is
TUNNELS
331
generally the case where grade is valuable, but where there is a

surplus of grade and the rock is hard and firm, the lining may be
omitted from a tunnel of moderate size. A small tunnel with

good smooth concrete lining will discharge nearly twice as much
water as one with rough rock interior of the same dimensions
and grade. A lining may in some cases be required to prevent
loss of
water through crevices in the rock, but such conditions
are infrequent in material firm enough to stand without lining.

The smallest tunnel in which it is economical to carry on
heavy work is about 4 feet wide and 6 feet high, and there is
little or no economy in making a tunnel smaller than this.
It
is best to leave about a foot of vacant air space above the water
in any tunnel, to prevent waves or any chance obstruction from
causing the water to touch the top of the tunnel, and thus causing
"
it to
seal," that is to fill to the top, and thus increase the friction
which would reduce the velocity and resulting discharge.
It is generally advisable to construct the top of
a tunnel
form of an arch. This shape has a tendency to resist

caving of the top and gives the maximum holding power to any
It also provides an air space that
lining that may be provided.
in the
is
effectual against sealing
for this purpose.
vertical lines,
The
without sacrificing
much
cross-section
sides of the tunnel are generally straight
and the bottom a
straight horizontal line, or a
It is generally considered cheapest

slight curve concave upward.
to make such simple lines, especially in case lining is required,
which forms must be provided. This advantage, however,

not great, and wherever the ground to be tunneled is insecure,
greater resistance to caving may be secured by giving the per-
for
is
imeter of the tunnel a curved form, so as to present arch action

in every direction against outside pressure.
For this purpose
is sometimes provided, but .this is inconvenient of construction and not entirely logical for its purpose.
The first tendency of caving ground is downward in obedience
a circular section
to gravity,
able, a
and where
this
is
secondary tendency
resisted,
is
and the mobility consider-
in a horizontal direction.
It
is
therefore logical to build the top of the tunnel on a curve of

shorter radius than that of the sides or bottom, but to curve
CANAL STRUCTURES
332
these also,
if
outside pressures are to be expected.
logical
and convenient shape conforming to these principles, has become

standard, and is as follows: The top of the tunnel is a half
circle, drawn to such radius as the desired capacity requires,
which may be indicated by the symbol R. From each end of
the horizontal diameter, with a radius 2R, an arc is described
connecting with the half circle and continuing its lines downward.
From
highest point, or apex of the circular top as a center, with

a radius 2R, an arc is described to form the bottom or invert
of the tunnel, intersecting the sides.
Fig. 250,
and
sometimes called a
is
"
This shape is shown in

"
horseshoe
section, for
obvious reasons.
Clay and shale and some other materials have a tendency

when exposed to atmospheric influences and may con-
to swell
tinue the swelling process long after lining has been placed.
Where such tendency exists, it is important to employ a curved
section of lining in order, by arch action, to resist the thrust
"
swelling ground."
Where it is desirable to Duild the tunnel of the smallest
of the
economical
size,
the invert
instead of 2R, and
may
by giving the
be drawn to a radius of
a value of
2 feet,
we
3^
obtain
an extreme height of 6 feet and an extreme width of 4 feet,

which is about the minimum desired. The standard section,
however, Fig. 249, produces a greater hydraulic radius, and
hence involves less friction losses, and wherever it gives a total
height of 6 feet or more, is more convenient and hence more
economical in construction and operation.
The equipment and

widely. They depend
operations for tunnel construction vary

upon the character of material
chiefly
and the length of the tunnel.

Tunnel work at best is quite
restricted that only a few
and
men
slow.
The room
can engage upon
for
it
work
is
so
at one time,
very long it generally is the feature that

determines the necessary time consumed in the construction.
if
the tunnel
is
becomes important and it is customary to work night and day upon both headings.
If any central portion of the tunnel is near enough the surface
The utmost speed
therefore
TUNNELS
to be reached
from a shaft of moderate depth,
a means of expediting
Sometimes
of attack.
333
its
it
this
may
be
made
completion by affording other points

may be entered at the side from a
canyon nearby through a branch tunnel called an adit. In

deciding upon the location of the tunnel it is not uncommon to
deviate from a straight line sufficiently to permit the use of an
adit to cheapen construction and expedite completion.
The length of a tunnel not only increases the time of conIt determines the
struction but greatly increases the unit cost.
distance through which men must travel to and from their
work and through which all the excavated material must be
transported and all of the materials for timbering and lining the
tunnel must also be taken, together with gpwder and other
materials for construction.
be provided with ventilation. The

gases generated by explosives are unfit for breathing and may
be very injurious or fatal if taken into the lungs in considerable
long tunnel
It
quantities.
must
is
also
therefore
necessary
to
provide ventilation
by some means. With a short tunnel it may be feasible to

work only alternate shifts or to provide such intervals between
shifts that the gases will dissipate
themselves so that
artificial
may not be necessary. As the work advances

and farther from the entrance, artificial ventilation
becomes more and more necessary, especially if speed requirements are such as to prevent the suspension of work for conventilation
farther
siderable intervals.
Necessary ventilation is generally provided

from the portal or from a shaft
light sheet-iron pipe
by running
and with a blower
either
pumping
is
air
from the heading or
Usually the suction process

used immediately after the blast to bring out the concentrated
forcing fresh air in to displace
it.
When these are fairly well disposed of the current is

reversed and fresh air blown in next the heading. In this way
only a few minutes need be lost from the work after a blast
gases.
setting the blast off just before meal time the atmosphere
satisfactory for the resumption of work immediately after
and by
is
the meal
There
is
finished.
is
a large variation in the speed that can be achieved
CANAL STRUCTURES
334
constructing a tunnel, even where the best facilities are

provided. Where the material is of shale or of indurated sand or
in
similar
substances
which are
sufficiently
coherent
to
stand
temporarily without much timbering and yet are soft enough

to be cut rapidly with power augers and do not require the slow
process of drilling, the work can proceed rapidly and 20 or 25
feet of progress
may
be made in one day on a single heading.
is hard, requiring much drilling, the process is

slow
.and
may be only a tenth of what it would be
necessarily
under the most favorable circumstances.
Where
the rock
TABLE XXXII. TUNNELS

Project
HIGHWAY CROSSINGS
335
distribution of the injected material, but where this can be

accomplished they help materially in holding the refractory
sand.
The above
table of tunnels constructed
by the Reclama-
shows the entire cost excluding overhead, general

and indirect charges, and show a great variety of unit costs.
The highest unit cost, that of the Gunnison Tunnel, is due partly
tion Service,
the longest in the list, but still more to the

hazardous conditions there encountered.
and
extremely
These included great deposits of mud and gravel which were
to the fact that
it is
difficult
difficult to hold, large quantities of
water,
much
of
it
scalding
with carbon dioxide and explosive

and
liberated by the tunnel work.
in
rocks
the
gases imprisoned
The construction was frequently shut down from these means;
hot,
and numerous
difficulties
heavy pumping, elaborate ventilation and equipment were

quired, and in the process many lives were lost.
re-
Tunneling is a highly developed specialty, requiring for

economical and efficient prosecution a high degree of skill in
the use of explosives, in the timbering and holding of refractory
and in organizing, training, and operating a crew to
material,
work
under cramped and disagreeable circumstances.

Highway Crossings. In general it is necessary to provide
efficiently
14.
highway bridges where

in use at the
irrigation canals cross public
time the canals are constructed.
highways
These should
usually have abutments of concrete or steel cylinders filled with

concrete, as wood will rapidly decay in contact with earth.
The superstructure of small bridges may properly be built of
wood, and the larger bridges requiring trusses may have all
compression members of wood and the tension members of steel.
very undesirable to permit any piers in the water prism
of the canal, as they cause some loss of head, and catch driftIt
is
wood, weeds,
etc.,
and increase maintenance cost
in
several
ways.
Where
company
necessary to cross existing railways, the railway

sure to require a very safe structure, and there is
it is
is
sometimes a tendency to carry this requirement to an extreme.

There should never be reluctance to provide such structures
336
CANAL STRUCTURES
m
FIG. 162.
FIG. 163.
High Line Canal, Spanish Fork Valley, Utah, Covered to Protect

against Land and Snow Slides.
Headgates, Sluice Gates, and Sand Basins, High Line Canal, Spanish
Fork Valley, Utah.
SAND TRAPS
337
with ample margin of safety, as a failure might lead to the wreck

of a railway train, an accident usually far more serious than
Crossings of railways established after the canal
is built should be at the expense of the railway, and should be
of the same character and margin of safety as those built at the
a canal break.
The same
expense of the canal authorities.
highway
crossings
required
after
the
rules
apply to
construction
of
the
canal.
Where the grade of the railway or highway is several feet

above the surface of the canal water, and the canal is not too
large, it is best to carry the road across on a fill over a culvert
provided for the canal water. This avoids interference with the
road in any way, and the earth distributes the pressure upon the
Where
culvert.
of the railroad,
the grade of the canal is about the same as that

seldom that the latter is willing to change its
it is
grade, and it becomes necessary to introduce a pressure conduit

The chief objection to
to carry the canal under the railway.
this is the
tendency to
collect
sand and
silt
in the conduit
under
Where possible the conduit should be given a

the railways.
velocity sufficient to carry through any material the canal
can bring
for
in.
For
this purpose, velocities of 3 feet per
4 feet for sand,
silt,
deposit,
and
but higher velocities
second
5 feet for fine gravel will prevent
may be required to pick up and carry

Where
out material previously deposited.
it is
not feasible to
provide increased velocities, it may be necessary to provide

that the lowest point of the conduit be at one side of the railway,
where it may be cleaned out through a manhole. This is seldom
necessary unless the canal
Sand Traps.
15.
where
it is
devices
called,
by
is
heavily
silt
bearing.
The
frequent presence of sand in canals

often a serious nuisance, requires the employment of
which it may be removed and these are variously
sand traps, sand boxes, sand gates, and sluicing devices.
On p.
250 reference occurs to devices for preventing or minimizing

the entrance of sand into a canal from the river. These are not
always possible, and where provided are seldom completely

effective, and hence, where water is taken from a sandy stream,
it is
usually necessary to employ
some means
to get rid of the
CANAL STRUCTURES
338
sand entering the canal.
In addition to
this,
the canal
may
receive sand from side drainage taken into the canal.

The objections to sand in the canal are several:
i.It. tends to deposit in siphons near the inner bank on

and at other points where the velocity is checked or
curves,
eddies occur, and to form bars which reduce the capacity of the
canal, and cause much annoyance and expense in their removal.
2. Sand occurring in water carried
through siphons, flumes,
or lined channels at high velocities, has a tendency to wear such
channels, or other structures subject to the abrasion of the sand.
FIG. 164.
Cross-section of
3. Sand occurring
wear and destruction
Sand Box, Santa Ana Canal,
Cal.
in
water to be used for power causes rapid
of
water wheels.
4. Where sand, is successfully carried through the canal

system to the farm, which is difficult to accomplish, it soon
fills the farm distributaries, and as it contains very little fertility
it is a nuisance without redeeming benefits.
5.
Sediments of
all
a reservoir tend to
capacity.
kinds and sizes carried in a feed canal to
fill
the reservoir and destroy
its
storage
SAND TRAPS
339
first four of these objections do not apply in the .same

the finer sediment in the form of silt or clay, which
to
degree
have less tendency to deposit and clog the works, and contain
The
much larger percentage of available plant food,

these finer sediments do cause some annoyance
and although
and expense,
they are, when in moderate quantities, much to be desired for

their fertilizing value when deposited in the field, and such
sediments deposited in moderate quantities in the canal system,
and thus
to reduce seepage losses, especially

located in coarse and porous materials.
film of clay over the perimeter of a canal also tends to reduce
friction and thus increase discharge.
tend to seal
it
where the canal
FIG. 165.
are
is
Sand Box, Leasburg Canal, Rio Grande Valley,
New
Mexico.
Fortunately the coarser particles, which are so objectionable,

more easily separated from the water by settlement, and it
thus becomes practicable to eliminate them in a large degree.

The measures available for combating the sand nuisance
may
be divided into two
classes,
one of which
is
essentially
preventive and the other curative:

1.
Processes of settling, sluicing and skimming the water

These are
so as to prevent the entrance of sand into the canal.
preventive measures.
2. Processes of settling the sediments in basins or
depressions
in the canal system, and sluicing them back into the stream,
or into other drainage lines.
The preventive measures

headworks on
p.
248.
the canal waters of sand.
are described in the article on
Various devices are employed to rid
340
CANAL STRUCTURES
In
the
of
vicinity
or
the
of
cross-
drainage
stream the canal
may
parent
be given
an
large
section
abnormally
and a depressed bottom, and

the slow velocity corresponding
to the enlarged section causes
a deposit of the heavier and
coarser solids, which are deposited in the
bottom
larged section.
of gates
is
of the en-
gate or set
provided with
its sill
bottom of the depressed

portion, and when this is opened,
at the
the increased grade induces a

high velocity over the deposited
and
the
sediment,
rushing
waters
it
carry
out
into
the
drainage line utilized, which

by its natural freshets.
is
flushed
The
efficiency of this
method
may be increased by providing

a false bottom to the canal on a
level
false
its normal bed.

This
bottom may be formed
with
of triangular bars with a sharp
edge upward,
spaced a slight
distance apart, so that sand settling will fall
through between
the bars, to the bottom of the
The space below
depression.
this
false
provided
bottom, should be
with curved guide
walls or grooves to guide the

water to the sluice gates.
The
bottom serves to
prevent upward currents and
false
SAND TRAPS
341
eddies that retard settlement of the sand, and the curved guide
walls accelerate the sluicing velocity of the water and facilitate
the
movement
of the
sand under
The channels
its influence.
may be each provided with a separate

be separately sluiced if desired. The
combined capacity of all the gates should be somewhat greater
than the capacity of the canal, in order to achieve maximum
between the guide walls

gate so that they
may
efficiency.
Where
the canal waters are carried across a stream or a large
ravine in a flume, this may be provided with a series of hoppers

reaching below the grade of the flume, in which the sand may
settle,
and a valve
in the
bottom
at proper intervals to let the sand
Some
power
of each
fail
hopper
may
be opened
out.
device of this kind
plant fed
to provide such
by
is generally employed just above a

a canal from a sandy stream. It is also wise
an arrangement
for desilting
above a pressure
pipe or inverted siphon where low velocities occurring at times

when the canal is being used at part capacity might clog the
pipe with deposits of sand if not prevented.
Desilting devices are in successful practical operation in
numerous
localities, and their efficiency is greatly assisted by

the fact that the coarser particles of sand have a tendency to
travel on or near the bottom of the stream.
considerable
proportion of the coarsest are simply rolled along the bottom

in miniature waves or dunes of sand, and are easily deposited
in traps like those described.
In some cases settling basins are arranged in duplicate, side

by side, so that while one is in use the other may be cleaned, and
thus by alternating the closure of the canal is avoided.
CHAPTER XV
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
Classes of Storage Works. Reservoirs are employed to
regulate the flow of water in such manner as to accommodate
i.
the rate of use, and prevent waste when the supply exceeds
the demand, holding it for use at the time the requirements
exceed the natural supply.

The storage of water for ordinary irrigation purposes requires
favorable topographic conditions to make it financially feasible.
Such conditions must make possible the storage of a large

quantity in a broad capacious basin, wholly or partly natural,
where the dam or other structures necessary to complete it
are of moderate dimensions and cost, as compared with the
location where storage can be
quantity of water stored.
obtained at moderate cost

sites
may
be
classified
is
called a reservoir site,
and such
with respect to their topographic features
into four classes as follows:

1.
Natural lake basins;
2.
Those located on natural drainage
lines,
the flow of which
they regulate;
Those located
in depressions away from natural streams,

the
water
for
requiring
storage to be conducted to them;
Artificial
reservoirs located in places having no special
4.
3.
natural adaptation to such use.

Natural lakes are often, in their natural state
important
drainage waters which they receive. By controlling the outlet, by means of a dam and regulating gates, a
large amount of storage may often be secured very cheaply;
the cheapest storage works in the world in
proportion to capacare
those
which
utilize
natural
lake
basins.
ity,
regulators of
342
SELECTION OF A RESERVOIR SITE
The most abundant
reservoir
sites
are
343
those on natural
drainage lines, but they require careful precautions to safely

discharge the flood waters of the stream, and are often quite
expensive in proportion to capacity.
Many natural depressions in plains or benches partially
enclosed by high ground can be converted into reservoirs by
banks
of
moderate dimensions to
"
gaps between the

can be made available
close the
"
and many natural

dry lakes
outlets to draw off stored waters.
Such reservoirs
their water supply carried to them by canals from
Some reservoirs are constructed on small
natural streams.
drainage lines on account of favorable topographic conditions,
and receive their main water supply through feeders from larger
hills,
by cutting
must have
streams in the neighborhood.

Natural depressions, forming dry or intermittent lakes, are
sometimes caused by the collapse of subterranean caverns
caused by the solvent and erosive action of subterranean waters,

otherwise.
Depressions thus formed are unsuitable for
or
reservoirs
on account
of the easy escape of the waters
through
the subterranean passages in their vicinity.

Dry lakes should
be carefully examined for the existence of those conditions,
before being adopted as reservoir sites.
Artificial reservoirs are sometimes constructed
by excavating
basins and using the material in the formation of banks to confine

Such reservoirs are very expensive per unit of
the water.
storage capacity, and can be used only in cases where water has a
high value, as for domestic purposes or the irrigation of gardens.
Shallow reservoirs are usually to be avoided, as the losses
from them by evaporation and percolation are relatively large,

and where they are shallow enough to permit the sunlight to
penetrate to the bottom, they are likely to be infested by aquatic
vegetation.
To prevent
for city supplies should

2.
the growth of this, shallow reservoirs

be covered to exclude the sunlight.
Selection of a Reservoir Site.
Among
the
more important
considerations affecting tke feasibility and value of a reservoir

site are:
i.
Its relation to the irrigable lands.
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
344
2.
Its relation to the
water supply.
4.
The topography of
The geology of the
careful examination should be
3.
the
site.
site.
made
of the region
where
and
most
favorable
compare
may be selected. This requires a practiced eye and trained
judgment capable of selecting the most advantageous locations
for survey, otherwise much time and money may be wasted on
storage
is
desired,
to discover all possible reservoir sites
their value
and cost
in order that the
the survey of indifferent locations.

The reservoir must lie at a sufficient altitude above the
irrigable lands to
permit the delivery of water to them by gravity

by pumping to moderate heights, and
flow, or in special cases
should be as near as possible to those lands so that the losses in

The site must be at such a point
transportation may be small.
as to intercept a sufficient water supply, or so that such a supply
can be conducted to it. Where the reservoir is on a stream,
often happens that it is such a distance above the lands to be

irrigated that when the water is needed it is released from the
it
and allowed
reservoir
to flow
down
the stream bed for
some
reaches the point where it is necessary to

distance,
If this
divert it to reach the lands for which it is intended.
until
it
must be given to the losses in

Due regard must also be had to the
transit to be expected.
each
possible site, and the bearing of this
drainage intercepted by
element on the water supply.
distance
It
is
is
long, consideration
always desirable to locate the reservoir as near as postime required
sible to the irrigable lands, as otherwise, the long
in transit
from the reservoir to the lands makes
it difficult
to
regulate the water supply according to the fluctuating needs of

irrigation, and much water must be wasted most of the time
in order to insure a full supply
3.
Geology
desirability
of
of
Reservoir
when needed.
Having ascertained the
topographically and hydro-
Sites.
the reservoir site
graphically, the geology should be carefully studied, to ascertain

the character and dip of the strata underlying the proposed
reservoir.
The
geological
conformation
may
be such as to
GEOLOGY OF RESERVOIR SITES
345
contribute to the efficiency of the reservoir, or it may prove so

unfavorable as to be irremediable by engineering skill. A
reservoir site
which
situated in a synclinal valley
is
In this the strata incline from the
ally favorable.
hills
is
gener-
towards
the lower lines of the valley, and water which may fall on to
these hills will find its way by percolation into the reservoir,
thus adding to
dip
of
of the
impounded
anticlinal valley
eroded
in
the
water.
side
of
may
much
less
permit of the escape

forma-
class of geological
is
that in which the valley
strata
Here the upper strata tend
direction.
is
In such a valley as this the strata
between these two
tion intermediate
has been
site.
the reservoir site and
away from
much
An
volume.
its
favorable for a reservoir
which
dip
one
in
to lead water
from
the adjoining hills into the reservoir, while the strata on

the lower side tend to carry it off from the reservoir. If
the surface of the proposed reservoir site is composed of
a deep bed of coarse sand or gravel the percolation through

this may be so great as to seriously impair the efficiency of
the reservoir.
The most
in regions
of
careful scrutiny should be given to reservoir sites
extensive lava flows, as such formations often
contain hidden crevices and caverns through which the water

Oregon, Idaho and Arizona
escape from the reservoir.
may
each furnishes an instance of bad holding power of a reservoir

built in lava formation.
Limestone and gypsum formations are also liable to caverns

and in gypsum especially these are frequent, and are subject to
rapid enlargement by erosion and solution by the waters that
"
"
Natural basins or
leak through them.
are
dry lakes
formed
the
of
such
sometimes
by
collapse
caverns, and where
it is proposed to employ such basins as reservoirs, careful
may
study should be
made
of the geology before deciding
upon
its
construction.
Where
caverns, crevices, or gravel beds under the reservoir
ground water, no dependence should be

an
overlying blanket of soil to make the reservoir
placed upon
afford easy escape for
tight,
as the losses
by
vertical percolation through such soil
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
346
will
be too great for satisfactory
provided there
results,
is
free
escape for the percolating waters.

To illustrate this, let us suppose a reservoir covering 5000
acres of any average depth of 50 feet, and having, therefore, a
storage capacity of 250,000 acre-feet, and that the ground surface of the reservoir site
is composed of average alluvial soil,

underlain with coarse gravel, or with cavernous rock, which
ready escape for any water reaching it. The table on

235 shows a coefficient of seepage from good canals of .5
affords'
p.
The seepage
foot per day.

rate,
be when
loss
from the reservoir would at that
full, 2500 acre-feet per day, or a rate sufficient to
The
great head on a deep

reservoir would greatly accelerate the rate of seepage, and the
decline of the water would diminish the wetted area, but it is
empty the
reservoir in 100 days.
readily seen that such a reservoir
would be worthless
for
most
The good holding qualities of many reservoirs with

purposes.
earth bases is explained by the fact that in some cases they are
backed by rock which is nearly impervious, and in which such
and
crevices
interstices as exist are
soon
are of such minute dimensions as to
with water, and

the escape of such
filled
make
water extremely slow.
In other cases the seepage from the
reservoir
but having no ready escape to an open
is
large at
first,
stream, gradually raises the

surface,
ground water,
until this rises to the
and then we have a tight reservoir, in which the leaks

which can escape only very slowly, in a
are sealed with water,
direction nearly horizontal.
Leakage from Reservoirs. It is useful in this connection

to review some instances of reservoirs that have developed
abnormal leakage in such degree as to become nearly or quite
4.
useless.
Tumalo
This reservoir was built by the State of

Oregon in connection with the Tumalo Project. Prior to its
construction, a board of engineers recommended that it be first
Reservoir.
built to only partial capacity,
and that
it
be tested for water
It appeared,
tightness before heavy expenditures were incurred.
however, that this would delay completion until the appropria-
tion
for
its
construction would lapse into the general fund,
LEAKAGE FROM RESERVOIRS
347
the wise recommendation was disregarded, and the dam' was

completed to. its full height. Water was delivered to the
reservoir through the feed canal, until
above the
At
it
had
risen
about 20 feet
juncture a large hole developed

in the bottom of the reservoir about 1000 feet from the dam,
outlet.
this
discharging over 200 cubic feet per second, which soon emptied
the reservoir. This hole was puddled, and the water again
turned in, but new breaks in the bottom occurred, and it was
(
found impossible to
water again to the height
raise the
first
attained.
The
holes developed varied from small cracks to as much as

and from 10 to 30 feet deep. Sometimes the
50 feet across,
ground would drop very suddenly. Considerable money was

spent in puddling these holes, and the rapid flow through them
has been stopped; but seepage over the whole submerged area
occurs to an extent sufficient to render the reservoir worthless
for storage.
When
loss
the water covered a surface of 30 acres, the observed

to 8 inches per day, which is normal seepage
was from 6
through good earth, but too rapid for storage requirements.

The country rock is of igneous origin and is so fissured that
the ground water escapes rapidly to the Deschutes river, thus
giving free vent to the water of the reservoir as fast as it can
penetrate the surface
The Deer
soil.
Flat Reservoir
is
located on the valley near Boise,
formed by joining a series of low hills by embankand

is
ments,
supplied with water by a canal from the Boise
It is about 10 miles from the nearest point of the Boise
River.
Idaho.
It
River, and
is
its
When
bottom
is
about 100
feet
above the river at that
covers an area of 9800 acres, and contains

of
It was placed in service in 1909,
acre-feet
water.
180,000
when about 60,000 acre-feet of water were run into it, the greater
point.
full it
part of which was lost by seepage, and not more than 17,000
acre- feet was in the reservoir at one time, 2500 acres being
then submerged. The next year 3900 acres were submerged,
and about
half of the water
believed the reservoir was
was
lost by seepage.
Many persons
doomed to failure on account of
348
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
1916
FIG. 167.
Curves of Seepage
from Deer Flat Reservoir, Showing the Improve-
ment with Use,
349
excessive losses, but subsequent service showed rapid improvein 1917 the seepage losses were equivalent to less
than 2 tenths of an inch per day, or about equal to the evap-
ment, and
oration.
TABLE XXXIII.
Year
DEER FLAT RESERVOIR LOSSES
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
350
away from the
By erosion and solution these openand

were
cut down to the bed of the river,
ings steadily enlarged
so that they received and carried away the entire ordinary flow
of the stream amounting to several hundred second-feet.
Numerous sink holes also appeared in the bottom of the reservoir
into which the water escaped in considerable quantities.
The
main leaks in the gypsum bluff were excluded by building an
earth and rock dike parallel to the bluff for a length of about
4000 feet, to a height of 19 feet. The holes in the bottom are
puddled from time to time, but not completely cured.
Hondo Reservoir. In the same valley, near Roswell, N. M.,
a reservoir was formed by a natural depression which was
increased by connecting the surrounding hills by dikes, and
water was supplied through a feed canal. Leaks developed
soon after the water was turned into the reservoir, and these
rapidly increased by the enlargement of holes in the bottom of
the basin, which apparently connected with subterranean
caverns.
Efforts at puddling the leaks were una\ ailing, and
they increased to about 200 cubic feet per second, and the
reservoir
had
reservoir.
to be abandoned.
The country rock
in this region
composed largely of gypsum, which is readily eroded and dissolved, and contains waterformed caverns which constitute the seat of the trouble. The
depression which forms the reservoir site may be due to the
collapse of such caverns.
is
Depressions of this nature are to be
regarded with suspicion.
Walnut Canyon Reservoir. In Walnut Canyon, Arizona, a

was built to store water for railroad uses by the Atchison,
Santa Fe Railroad Company, but although the dam
&
Topeka
was tight and the ear them bottom appeared good, the losses
have persisted at the rate of more than half a foot per day over
the submerged area, and this is sufficient to nearly empty the
full reservoir in about seven months, and largely destroys its
value.
The country rock is sandstone, and evidently has
enough seams to carry off the water fast enough to keep the
water table down, and keep the seepage in progress in nearly
reservoir
a vertical direction.
The
rate of seepage
is
not as great as
351
generally occurs from a well-built canal in good earth, and much

less than a majority of the canals in service, yet it is great enough
most
to destroy
The North
of the benefits expected
Side
Twin
from
Falls Irrigation
this reservoir.
System
is
built in a
country underlain by lava rock through which Snake River

flows in a gorge several hundred feet deep.
Any crevices in the
have communication with
deep gorge, and

water in them can readily escape, Numerous springs are in
evidence on the walls of the canyon. The Jerome Reservoir
lava, therefore,
is
this
constructed on this plain, and fed by the Main Canal.

In this reservoir the seepage losses are about 0.85 foot in
depth per day, or about what would be expected from a canal

good earth. There are sufficient holes and fissures in the
in
underlying rock so that the seepage waters have ready escape

to the Snake River Canyon, and this rate of seepage is therefore
As
permanent and continuous
the area of the reservoir
so long as water
is
2000 acre-feet per day on an average.

over 60,000 acre-feet per month, which
reservoir
Many
is
in the reservoir.
4000 acres, the seepage

This means a
is
is
over
loss of
so serious that the
considered practically worthless.

holes developed in the reservoir
is
bottom,
usually
starting from a badger hole, connecting with a blow hole in the

lava, and enlarged until the hole in the lava received all the
water
it
could carry.
Most
of these holes
were
less
than 6
The
inches in diameter, but a few were found much larger.
smaller holes generally became clogged with moss and debris,
and the rest were dug down to a depth of several feet, and carepuddled with earth, which usually made a permanent
cure of the particular leak. The large loss of water, amounting
to 1000 second-feet more or less, was due to the fact that the
fully
crevices in the under-lying rock
would carry
off
the water as
through the soil. The absence of any water

the
continuance of the seepage in a vertical
table, permitting
fast as it could filter
was the cause
and this will

no
matter
how
be true of any reservoir,
good the soil is, if the
conditions permit the seepage to travel on vertical rather than
direction,
nearly horizontal
lines.
of the reservoir's failure,
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
352
Tule Lake is a broad shallow lake in Northern California.

The basin was formed by a lava flow known as the " Modoc
Lava Beds." The lake receives the entire flow of Lost River,
which
is
disposed of
which
lava,
is
by evaporation and leaking through the

The indications are that the water
very seamy.
formerly escaped through the crevices in the lava as rapidly as

entered, and that the lake in its present dimensions is of very
it
recent origin,
due to the clogging
the seams with drift,
of
grasses, etc.
combination earth and
rockfill dam, built for storage

on
in
the
Zuni
River
New Mexico near an Indian
purposes
Pueblo of the same name, had for its south abutment a lavacapped mesa, underlain with several strata of sand and clay
which were exposed in the margin of the reservoir, and passing
under the lava cap, cropped out in the canyon below. When
the reservoir was filled, the sand strata leaked to an erosive
and soon developed a discharge estimated at 5000

cubic feet per second.
This cut away the sand and clay,
the
hard
basalt
undermining
cap, which fell a distance of 7 to
extent,
9 feet.
It is often difficult to recognize in advance the conditions
that produce failure of a reservoir from leakage, and where they
few rules
of
Avoid reservoir sites adjacent to gypsum deposits and

limestone deposits which show evidence of caves.
to
they appear to be generally irremedial.

caution may, however, be of use
exist,
1.
2.
Reservoir
examined
3.
sites
in
volcanic
for the prevalence of
Coarse-grained
rock
seams or
sandstone
should
be
carefully
cavities.
should
be
regarded
with
suspicion.
Natural depressions are often treacherous and should be

avoided if near cavernous rock or deep canyons, or are under4.
with coarse material where water might readily escape.
lain
Under such
conditions, no superficial tightness will
remedy the
trouble.
5.
Seams
of
sand or gravel in the reservoir and out-cropping
below, are apt to cause trouble.
SURVEY OF RESERVOIR SITES
353
Survey of Reservoir Sites. In order to furnish data for

comparison, and for estimating the value and cost of contem5.
plated reservoirs, a careful preliminary survey of each is necesThe catchment basin of each should be accurately outsary.
and enough topographic information secured to show

the general character of the soil and slopes and the runoff result
to be expected therefrom.
Stream measurements should be
lined
started early at such locations as will show the flow available

for each site; inquiries of the inhabitants and others, and careful
examinations of flood marks should be
possible light
the
upon
made
maximum and minimum
determinations should also be
made
to shed all
flow.
Some
of the rate of evaporation
to be used in each location.
Each
reservoir
graphically,
which the
should be surveyed topoa plane table. The highest point

reach should be considered, and the top
site
by means
dam may
considered
of
contour of the corresponding reservoir meandered around the

entire site, showing its outlines
and
total area.
main traverse
should be run through the axis or lowest line of the site, terminating at the dam at one end and the top contour at the
other.
These traverses should be controlled in elevation by
careful leveling,
and from them enough intersections and stadia
locations can usually be made to control the topography of the

entire site unless it is timbered, in which case additional traverses
may
be necessary.
The
scale of the survey should
for small or
medium-sized
be from 1000 feet to an inch
sites, to 2000 feet to
smaller scale for very large sites where the

would be unwieldy and inconvenient.
The contour
an inch or even
map on
a large scale
interval should be 10 feet for reservoirs with
bold mountainous topography, and
5 feet for
those of moderate
slopes.
When the contour map is completed the area enclosed by

each contour should be measured by planimeter, and from these
data the capacity for the various depths may be computed, and
the results from various heights of dam compared.
In computing the capacity allowance must be
made
for
any
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
354
dead space or unavailable capacity below the bottom of the

lowest outlet, since the water below this cannot be drawn off.
This space, will however, ordinarily fill with sediment in time,
as all streams carry some sediment at times, and in some cases
the accumulated sediment soon detracts from the capacity of
the reservoir and its disposition becomes a serious problem.
In general the streams in the upper portions of a drainage basin

carry less solid matter in proportion to volume than those in
the lower basin, and for this reason reservoirs on the upper
may be preferable to those below. This is especially
reaches
the case with streams in the southwestern portion of the United

States, which carry much sediment.
Spillway Provisions. It has been said that the most

important feature of an earthen dam is the spillway; and in
6.
the sense that

lected, this
is
it is
the essential feature that
This
true.
perhaps
is
is
most often neg-
due largely to the extreme
the contingency to be provided for, and the

uncertainty
if the water is allowed to
of
disaster
certainty
overtop the
embankment. It is easy to calculate water pressures and
of
allow for them, and the permeability of materials can be tested

and controlled. But who can tell the magnitude or manner of
occurrence of the largest flood on any stream that the future

has in store? Even where a long record is available serious
errors are possible.
Miami Valley swept away structures

Nor is it certain
that the flood of 1913 will never be exceeded. The plans adopted
for controlling such floods contain provision for a much larger
The floods
of
that had stood
1913 in the
unharmed
for half a century.
flow.
board
once carefully studied a history of forty

years on the Sacramento River and concluded that the greatest
flood to be expected there was 80,000 cubic feet per second.
of experts
few years after
this
feet per second at the
The Sweetwater
a flood occurred exceeding 200,000 cubic
same
Dam
point.
Southern California was built of

masonry with a spillway capacity of 1500 second-feet, which
was the estimated discharge of the greatest flood within the
in
SPILLWAY PROVISIONS
memory
of the
"
completion of the
oldest inhabitant."
dam
it
355
few years after .the
was overtopped and much damage
done by a flood approaching 18,000 cubic feet per second. The

damage was repaired and spillway capacity provided for about
20,000 second-feet. In 1915 this capacity was exceeded and
considerable
damage
resulted that could have been obviated
by a
larger spillway.
Before the construction of the Cold Springs
Dam
in
Oregon
a careful examination was made of the valley for signs of floods,

but none were found indicating any considerable overflow of the
waterway, the capacity of which was
less than 1000 second-feet;

the
construction
of
the
work, a heavy rain falling on
yet during
snow caused a flood of over 6000 cubic feet per second.
These examples show the

signs or short records, or even
futility
upon
of
depending on
liberal factor of safety is applied to their indications.
be indeed marvelous
if
an available record
should contain the largest flood of
all
local
fairly long records unless
of ten or
It
would
twenty years
the centuries.
The floods of 1913 in Ohio and Indiana appear from the

evidence to have exceeded by 40 or 50 per cent any that had
occurred there for 105 years and to be considerably greater
than the next highest in 1805.
In 1827 the Ardeche River in France was visited by a flood
greater than any that has occurred in the succeeding
much
ninety years.
The
flood of 1846 in the Loire River in
France has not been
equaled since that date.
Many
illustrations
local rainfall or runoff
might be cited
may
of the fact that
extreme
occur only at long intervals of time
but are nevertheless likely to occur. It is necessary, therefore,

in estimating extremes to be provided for to consider the
extremes observed on areas as nearly similar as possible, and to
allow a factor of safety sufficient to eliminate all risks involved
in the necessary assumptions, giving due regard to the time and
geographic extent covered by the available data.
Comparatively few measurements of great floods have been
made.
Systematic
stream
measurements
of
accuracy
are
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
356
TABLE XXXIV.
Station
EXCESSIVE RAINFALLS
SPILLWAY PROVISIONS
TABLE XXXIV. EXCESSIVE RAINFALLS.
[Station
357
Continued.
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
358
century or so which contain no excessive precipitation
half
approaching that shown by other parts of the same record.

is seldom, however, that a period is found in which the maxi-
It
mum
1000 years exceeds very
of
much
that
shown by any
period of 100 or 200 years.

Professor Kuichling has compiled and published a list of
high discharges from which the most extreme floods have been
and condensed into a table along with other data,
selected
which are given in the last chapter of this book.

One of the most vulnerable features of an
7. Outlet Works.
earthen dam is the provision for drawing water from the reservoir
through or past the dam.
The danger
consists in the fact that
unless elaborate precautions are taken, the conduit presents a

convenient path for the percolation of water, which may carry
earth with
is
it,
and gradually enlarge the opening
made and the dam destroyed.

The outlet conduit is generally
pipe
is
sometimes used
until a breach
of concrete although cast-iron
for small reservoirs.
wooden conduits have been provided, but this

as any decay at once opens passage for leakage.
In a few cases
is
bad
practice,
It is best to locate the conduit in an open trench cut in rock,

hardpan or clay, and to build the concrete directly against the
sides and bottom of the trench, which will thus form a good bond
between the artificial work and the natural ground. The
trench above the conduit should be filled with selected material
puddled and rammed in place. The conduit should be

provided with wide collars or diaphragms of concrete, extending
entirely around the circumference, and these should also be
carefully
built against the natural material in place as far as possible.
The
collars may be of any convenient thickness,

and should extend into the foundation and the
as
fill
or
2 feet,
at least 3
conduit proper. The masonry

in contact with the natural and filled material should be rough
feet
beyond the outer
lines of the
and corrugated and every precaution taken to form a tight bond

between them, as this is one of the most difficult as well as the
most important problems in connection with earth dam construction.
OUTLET WORKS
The
359
valves controlling the admission of water to the conduit
should be placed at the upper end, at or near the upstream toe

of the embankment, and some means should be provided by
which access may be had to the valves at any time that they
might need attention.

This position of the valves, if ordinary valves are used,
requires a tower built over them at a distance from the crest
dam, which must be reached by means of a bridge. The

bridge could be avoided and the tower much cheapened by
placing the valves near the axis of the dam, but this is objectionable, as it would admit water to half the conduit under pressure
of the full head in the reservoir, and any leaks would introduce
water into the heart of the dam, and might in time cause saturation and softening of the interior of the dam and give rise to
of the
might otherwise be avoided. The controlling

be
of the balanced type controlled by water pressure
may
as described on p. 365.
The pipe controlling the leakage which
danger
that
valves
governs the position of the valve may be led through the

conduit or up the slope of the dam, and thus avoid building a
tower in the reservoir for control purposes. Such a control

on the Owl Creek Dam in South Dakota.
is
in
successful use
Slide valves
may
be installed on the upper end of the conduit
dam, placed in the plane of the water slope of

the dam, sliding in grooves and attached to gate stems following
up the slope to the top of the dam, where they are controlled
by gate stands on top of the dam. This type of control does
not always give satisfaction. The stem following the slope
of the dam is long and requires a number of supports to hold
it in line.
These are placed on the earth fill and are subject to
unequal settlement, and unless protected, to the attacks of ice,
at the toe of the
of drift
and
of waves.
out of line and become
It is
not surprising that they often get
difficult to operate.
successful valve of this type is in use on the Conconully

reservoir of the Okanogan project in Washington, which is closed
by an earth dam 83
feet high.
The
outlet
is
a circular conduit
of reinforced concrete 4 feet 6 inches inside diameter.
controlled
This
is
by a cast-iron valve gate 3 feet 6 inches in diameter,
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
360
placed in a gate-well 7 feet square for access, and operated from

a gate house 62 feet above by a steel shaft and geared wheel.
This shaft is supported in an inclined tunnel 5 feet 10 inches in
section
and 103
feet in length, the reinforced concrete walls of
which are from 15
to 24 inches in thickness (Fig. 168).
X Steel Rote
2'c.toc.
SECTION
FIG.
If the
1 68.
E-
Gate House, Conconully Dam, Wash.
Ensign type of balanced valve be used, see Fig. 172,

may pass through the conduit, and thus be
the control pipe
thoroughly protected, and does not require any special alinement.
The balanced valve moving with
little friction is less likely
to
get out of order or require attention than ordinary slide valves.

simple outlet gate (Fig. 169), designed by Mr. J. D.
Schuyler to be built on the face of
Fay
reservoir
dam,
is
adapted
OUTLET WORKS
361
SECTIONAL. BOTTOM PLAN.

ENLARGED SECTION OF FRAME
AND BOLIING.EAR.
FIG. 169.
Vertical Lift Outlet Gate,
Fay Lake
Reservoir, Arizona.
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
362
an outlet of either circular or rectangular form. The

gate is hung on its center by one heavy lug, over which the stem
is placed, expanded to the form of a flat eye-bolt, having sufficient
play to enable the gate to accommodate itself to its seat freely, to
which it is forced by inclined planes on six lugs and guides. The
frame of the hoisting apparatus rests on top of the masonry, to
which it is anchored, and the nut and beveled gear are of hard
Ball bearings are fitted under the nut, and a light capstan
brass.
to closing
wheel takes the place of the ordinary crank, rendering the gate
easily handled under the maximum head of 25 feet.
A.
FIG. 170.
B.
Valve-plugs, A, Sweetwater, and B,
Hemet Dams.
Two other very simple devices designed by the same engineer

Each of these consists of a simple
are illustrated in Fig. 170.
into
the
cast-iron plug let
top of the pipe, the end of which is
bent upward to receive
pressure of water,
by a
and
The plug is held in position by the

opened by a chain operated from above
it.
is
windlass.
Butterfly
and Needle
Valves.
One
of the safest
and most
satisfactory forms of outlet for delivering water through an

earthen dam is that in use at the Minitare
of the U. S.
Dam
Reclamation Service, in North Platte Valley, Nebraska. It

consists of a concrete tube with arched top and invert, built
somewhat less than the height of the tube,

or about 8 feet, with cut-off collars at frequent intervals on the
outside to check percolation along the tube. Inside this tube
in cut averaging
OUTLET WORKS
u
1
363
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
364
are laid side
by
side
two heavy
steel pipes,
each 30 inches in
diameter, with their upper ends projecting through a heavy

concrete bulkhead into the reservoir. Just back of this bulkhead each pipe is equipped with a butterfly valve, which being
approximately balanced,
is
easily
operated under
full
head,
and is use'd as an emergency valve. Its operating chamber is

an enlargement of the concrete tube. The service valves are
installed at the downstream ends of the pipes, and are of the
valve
needle
type,
similar
in
design
to
shown
that
on
3 68.
The
drained at the lower end, and room

for careful inspection of the pipes throughout.
tunnel
is
In this arrangement there
is
no opportunity
is
for
afforded
water to
escape by leakage into the interior of the dam, any leakage of

pipes being led away by the drainage of the tunnel, and being
also accessible for repair.
Although the butterfly valves cannot be made entirely

tight under high heads, they can be made nearly so if carefully
installed, and being simple and seldom operated are not likely
to get out of order.
on the lower end
By
of the
closing one of them, the needle valve
same pipe may be taken apart and
repaired at any time, even while the other needle valve is discharging water. No gate tower in the reservoir is necessary
with
menace from ice and waves. Altogether this is regarded

most satisfactory regulating system connected with an
its
as the
earthen
dam
yet tried.
Balanced Piston Valve.
type of valve used on several

of the reservoirs of the Reclamation Service, Fig. 17 2, has shown
especial suitability for use where it is necessary to draw large
It utilizes the enormous
quantities of water under high heads.
water pressures to open and close the valve.

steel cylinder closed
at the outer or
slides a piston, the inner,
to regulate the
a check valve.
end
It consists of a
downstream end,
in
which
which forms a needle, operating

water discharged and closing like
of
amount of
The piston may be removed by removing
the
It is kept in alinement with the axis of the

bronze
guides.
cylinder by
cylinder head.
OUTLET WORKS
365
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
366
FIG.
173.
Outlet
Conduit,
Keechelur
Dam, Washington, Showing Concrete
Cut-off Collars, Corewall and Track for Backfilling on Left.
FIG. 174.
Butterfly Valve, Minitare
Dam, Nebraska.
OUTLET WORKS
367
It is opened and closed by the regulation of the pressure of

water behind the main piston, the pressure being supplied by the
restricted leak past the piston,
and
relieved
by a drain
or control
pipe leading out from the cylinder head. To open the valve the
pressure on the piston is reduced by opening the outlet of the
SELL
VERTICAL SECTION ON
DOWNSTREAM ELEVATION
FIG. 175.
C.'L,
Elevation and Section of Butterfly Valve.
As long as this discharges freely the valve will

control pipe.
to
move
until completely open, and it may be stopped
continue
at any point partially open by properly regulating the leakage
through the control pipe.
To
close the valve, the outlet
from
the control pipe is closed and pressure applied from a tank far
above the reservoir to start the piston, after which ,it will slowly
STORAGE RESERVOIRS
368
close itself, the rate of
movement depending on
the volume of
leakage around the piston.
19
FIG. 176.
Needle Valve
in Outlet Conduit,
Minitare
Dam, North
Platte Valley,
Nebraska.
In order to give positive and accurate regulation of discharge

from the reservoir a positive control is also provided as shown
OUTLET WORKS
The leakage
369
regulated by a movable sleeve

fitting over a conical seat which stops the leakage when closed
and when opened permits the escape of water, thus removing the
in the drawing.
is
pressure from that side of the piston, causing the valve to open.
The valve thus follows the sleeve, maintaining just enough area
between the sleeve and the conical seat to regulate the leakage to
the quantity required for balance.
The sleeve being movable at
will, by means of a hand-wheel, rod and screw, the position of the
valve can be accurately controlled. An indicator is provided to
show the position of the valve at any time.
CHAPTER XVI
ALL natural streams erode their channels to some extent,
and carry more or less silt in suspension and roll along their bottoms sand and gravel. Where a dam is built across the stream
and the water impounded, the sediment settles, and may in time
seriously
impair the reservoir capacity
if
not removed.
In
high mountainous regions where the slopes are protected from

erosion by forests, and where the water comes chiefly from
springs or melting snows, the streams are usually clear and very
little
sediment
is
carried.
On
such streams the
silt
problem
generally considered negligible or so far in the future as to be

met by constructing new reservoirs when needed. Lower down
is
same stream may accumulate more sediment, and this

problem may assume considerable importance.
In other regions less protected by vegetation and subject to
the
torrential rains, as in the southwestern part of the
the streams carry enormous quantities of solid
United States,
matter, and it
becomes a serious question whether any given storage project

is feasible in view of the rapidity with which the capacity will be
destroyed by
filling
with detritus.
Grande are typical streams
Where
it
is
The Colorado and
the Rio
of this class.
feasible to locate the reservoir off the stream,
and conduct the water to it through a feed canal, it may be

possible to discard most of the coarse material by means of
settling basins and scouring sluices, but these require much
attention, waste much water and are not very effective in
eliminating the finer
silt.
The problem involved by
the sedimentation of reservoirs
constructed on silt-bearing streams

370
is
one which has received
much
study, and various theories have been advanced for
371
its
but none of them have been proved out in practice.

Several efforts have been made to determine a reliable factor
solution,
between the dry weight of silt obtained

and
the
volume of the same silt as it would lie
by observation,
"
in the bottom of a reservoir, the question being,
What is the
to express the relation
dry weight of a cubic foot of silt deposited in a large reservoir

by sedimentation of the flood waters of the stream?"
The
following table shows the results of the four most reliable
of these attempts:
TABLE XXXV
Observer
372
TABLE XXXVI.
Year
SILT IX RIO
GRAXDE PASSING SAN MARCIAL,
N. M.
SEDIMENT ROLLED ALONG THE BOTTOM
373
deciding upon the construction of an expensive storage project,
where thousands of homes are to be established through its

agency which will be destroyed if it fails of its purpose.
The measurement of sediment in the Colorado, Gila and
Pecos Rivers reveal similar problems concerning storage projects
thereon, and the same may be said in some degree of many other
streams in this and other countries.
study of scattered observations of
silt
carried
by the Gila
River made by D. E. Hughes,* leads him to the conclusion

that its water carries an average of 1.3 per cent of its volume
of solid matter.
Various reservoirs in Europe, Asia and America have had

their capacity largely destroyed by the accumulation of mud
and sand.
From
in India
1.
a consideration of
available results of experiment
all
and America, Etcheverry concludes that:
One
cubic foot of saturated
silt
settled in a tube for one
The per cent by

year, contains about 30 pounds of dry silt.
of
silt
is
the
saturated
to
volume,
equal
per cent by weight
multiplied
2.
One
by
2.1.
cubic foot of moist
silt,
as deposited under natural
conditions in a river or canal or on a
50 pounds
of moist
of
silt.
dry
silt is
For
field, will
contain about
by volume
by weight multiplied by 1.2.
this condition the per cent
equal to the per cent
One cubic foot of dried silt will weigh about 90 pounds.

The above results cannot be considered accurate for any
3.
particular silt sample, nor for any particular stream, as individual

It is, however, about as good a statement
cases vary widely.
of averages as present
knowledge will afford.

Sediment Rolled along the Bottom. In addition to the
sediment which is held in suspension and carried by the current
of the stream there may be larger and heavier particles of sand
which are too heavy to be held in suspension but which under
2.
the influence
of
flowing water
gradually
move downstream
This frequently happens in streams of perclear

and
careful observations of such streams will
water,
fectly
along the bottom.
*
House Doc.
791,
6$d Congress, 2d Session.
374
show the sand in small knolls or dunes on the bottom of the

stream. The grains of sand on the surface -gradually move
down the stream. The small sand bars are usually very gentle
in slope on the upstream side and steep on the downstream
The moving grains of sand are carried slowly up the
side.
slope of the little bar or dune and reaching the summit are
dropped on the downstream side, forming on that side a slope
usually about 45 degrees near the top, flattening slowly toward
the bottom, while the slope on the upstream side may be 5 or
6 to
i.
Where
stream
is
the major portion of the solid matter carried by the

in the form of sand this material moving on the bottom
becomes an important element in measuring total solids. Where

the eroded material is mainly clay the amount of sediment
on the bottom may be insignificant. The quantity of all
material carried can, of course, be accurately measured by
impounding it, but aside from this method little effort has been
made
to
measure
of this kind
The only attempt

made by the Nicaragua
this in flowing streams.
on any large
scale
was that
Canal Commission in 1898 upon the streams in Nicaragua in

connection with the investigation of an inter-oceanic canal.
The method devised was
as follows:
A galvanized sheet-iron pan was provided (see Fig. 177),

meter square and 8 inches deep, with one side hinged so that
it could be opened to lie in the same plane as the bottom of the
i
pan, and a weight and stays were provided to hold it in this

Four chains, attached one to each corner
horizontal position.
met about 4 feet above the pan, and united

and the whole was suspended from a cable stretched
An anchor was
across the river, with the door open upstream.
thrown about 100 feet upstream to hold the pan firmly
in position, while it was gently lowered from the cable by means
The pan was
of a rope from shore, working in tackle blocks.
allowed to settle firmly on the bottom, and to remain for a
of the top of the pan,
in a ring,
The attempt is to cause the

limited time, usually one hour.
minimum disturbance of natural conditions in the stream, and
to intercept
and hold
in the
pan the sediment
traveling along
SEDIMENT ROLLED ALONG THE BOTTOM

the bottom in the section
it
occupies.
When
close the observation, a small copper wire
it is
375
desired to
which has been
fas-
tened to the open door and passed through the ring above the
pan, is stoutly pulled until it raises the lid from the bottom of
the stream, whereupon the current catches and slams the lid
shut, where it is automatically fastened by a latch on each side.
Then, by means of a windlass on shore, the pan is hoisted and

brought to land, and the entrapped sediment measured.
There
is
nothing about this operation to increase the motion
of sediment along the
FIG. 177.
Trap
for
bottom
into the pan, so
it is
thought that
Measuring Sand Rolling on Bottom of Stream.
On the other hand some sand

large.
the
of
the
under
lid, when the bottom of the river
may pass
edge
at this point is marred with local inequalities.
This is supposed
to be one cause of the small results on certain days, when other
results
can never be too
observations immediately before or after, give large results.

Another persistent source of error of unknown magnitude is
the washing out of the sediment by the current over the weir
formed by the back of the pan. To test the importance of this
theoretical possibility, a temporary partition was placed in the
pan, perpendicular to the current, and nearly as high as the
376
sides of the pan,
the theory being that if all sediment were

the
stopped by
partition and deposited in front of it, that would
be good evidence that in the absence of the partition all would
be stopped by the back of the pan, and none lost. In the first
experiment more sediment was deposited behind than in front
and the quantity that passed out of the pan is

This result was essentially repeated for most of the
experiments, showing conclusively that more or less sediment
is carried out over the back of the pan
by the scour which it
of the partition,
unknown.
occasions.
It is
important to bear
this
fact in mind,
when
studying the results, for it is certain that the results are

quantitatively too small, and should be regarded as showing
that large quantities of sediment are traveling on the bed of the
stream, and as roughly indicating the relative amount.
The great Assuan Dam
3. Removal of Silt from Reservoirs.
in
Egypt, forms a reservoir on the Nile, which has a very large
discharge and carries great volumes of silt. The large capacity

of the reservoir is formed mainly by the very slight slope of the
river, so that the
dam
causes slack water for a distance of over
40 miles up the river, making a long narrow reservoir, with no

very wide valley submerged. The dam is provided with 180
and during the rising flood each year, when the

carrying most sediment, the sluices are left open, and the
large sluices,
river
is
rushing torrent carries its load through the reservoir and also
scours out a portion of the sediment deposited the previous
As the flood declines in volume it carries less sediment,
year.
and the
sluice gates
are then closed
and the waters
The sediment deposited during the storage period

washed out by the first part of the next year's flood.
is
stored.
largely
This program seems to be effective in preserving sufficient

storage capacity for present needs of irrigation, but it requires
the waste of the major portion of the water supply in normal
and also depends upon the extremely long narrow reser-
years,
which a swiftly flowing stream is very effective in cutout

the deposited sediment.
The variations of flow of the
ting
Nile are, moreover, so regular that a predetermined program is
possible, which would be utterly impossible upon many streams.
voir, in
REMOVAL OF SILT FROM RESERVOIRS

This combination of conditions
is
377
so rare that the solution
adopted has little application to most cases, and presents no

general solution for the problem in hand.
According to Table XXXVI, waters of the Rio Grande
during the 16 years carried if per cent of their volume of
sediment on an average. The detailed observations from which
summary was compiled show
this
in excess of 10 per cent,
and
several
monthly averages
in general the percentage fluctuated
widely, but the heaviest percentages are found in the four
months of July, August, September and October, and especially

August and September. These are the months when the sudden
torrential rains occur, and this accounts for the large percentage
of sediment in those months; but a greater portion of the water
is discharged in April, May and June, while the snows in the
mountains are melting, and though the percentage of sediment
is
less
in
those months, the total quantity
due
to the greater quantity of water flowing.
late
summer
tion needs
is
often greater,
flow in the
The
very unreliable, and it is necessary to meet irrigaby storage to be drawn upon at that time, and it is
is
therefore impracticable to apply the methods in use on the Nile,

muddiest water to flow through the sluice gates
unchecked by the reservoir. That method is also impracticable
of allowing the
water is needed for

for
that
use.
and
must
be
stored
irrigation,
The figures show an accumulation of sediment so rapid that
unless we can provide some means of disposing of it and of
preserving the storage capacity, it would be unwise to construct
the reservoir and build the homes that must depend upon it,
for the further reason that usually all the
as without reliable storage they must be abandoned.

The method proposed as feasible for solving this problem
on the Rio Grande is applicable to many other streams, and a
It is recognized
description of it may therefore be of value here.
and
the
reservoir
from
mud
that to excavate the
transport it to
by ordinary mechanical methods

would be very expensive, and at present values prohibitive.
locations outside of the reservoir
Even
if it
could be accomplished at a price of 5 cents per cubic
yard, that would
amount
to
about $80 per acre-foot, whereas
378
the cost of constructing the reservoir was about $2 per acrefoot, and an enlargement of 50 per cent can probably be acccomplished at about the same rate.
it
Therefore, as a first step in the solution of the silt problem

to construct a reservoir of nearly twice the capac-
was decided
ity absolutely
needed to control the flow of the
river, so that
the accumulations of sediment will not seriously encroach upon

the necessary storage capacity for a period of perhaps 40 to 50
At that time the works will have been long paid for,
years.
and the development
of the valley will
be such that an enlarge-
be made which will furnish storage capacity

another period of 40 or 50 years. The reservoir
thus formed will be over 50 miles long, and will not be very
ment can
easily
sufficient for
wide at any point.

On the headwaters of the stream and
its
tributaries are
several smaller reservoir sites, capable of development to the

amount of several hundred thousand acre-feet at moderate
cost,
which are fed by melting snows and
will
Whenever
fill
the
with water
at
very
mud
that
filled
with
additional
far
is
so
Butte
storage
Elephant
is needed, one or more of the mountain reservoirs can be built,
little
carrying
sediment.
reservoir
and the necessary storage capacity thus provided.

In the management of the storage works it would be the policy
to hold the mountain reservoir full of water as long as possible,
and draw on the lower reservoir for needed water as long as
any water remains there to be drawn. When the lower reservoir
becomes empty, the natural flow of the river, reinforced if
required, by water from the upper reservoir, would flow through
the sea of mud accumulated in the lower reservoir, and cut a
channel therein,
carrying the
reservoir through the
open
Such a channel
mud
thus
eroded out of the
gates as the water
is
needed
for
extending 50 miles through the

irrigation.
axis of the reservoir varying in depth from 240 feet at the dam
to zero at the head of the reservoir, and having a bottom width
of 250 feet,
and
side slopes of 3 to
of over 500,000 acre-feet.

reservoir,
would
itself
have a volume
All the water flowing through the
both natural flow and stored, would carry from 10
REMOVAL OF SILT FROM RESERVOIRS
379
to 15 per cent of its volume of mud until such a channel was

cut, and nearly as much for a long time after, by cutting the
banks of the channel, and because of their natural tendency

to slide and to slough.
In this way, an equilibrium could be established, by which
the amount of sediment flowing in annually would be offset
by
the average
amount annually discharged
as above.
Just
how much mountain
storage would be necessary to accomplish

this could be established only by experience, but until such
equilibrium is established the needs of storage would be supplied
by building reservoirs, which is cheaper than mechanical removal
of silt, provided good reservoir sites exist, as they do in the basin
of the
Rio Grande.
It will
be seen that the application of such a remedy depends
upon the topographic and hydrographic
characteristics of the
including the shape of the reservoir, a long

deep reservoir being most favorable. These con-
drainage basin,
narrow and
ditions
would not be found
in every case,
and each problem
would require special consideration.

A method of handling the silt in the Elephant Butte Reservoir
proposed by
W. W.
Follett,
is
as follows:
About halfway between the dam and the head of the reservoir,
in a gorge that occurs at that point, it was proposed to build a
dam 40 or 50 feet high, forming a small reservoir within the
On this dam provide a gate tower, extendThe gates controlled

line
of the reservoir.
the
flow
ing above
from this tower were to open into a conduit through this small
main
large reservoir.
dam, which would pass on down the valley as a large pipe, to and
through the main reservoir dam. This conduit was to be used
to draw water from the reservoir whenever possible.
During low stages of the main reservoir the small reservoir
formed by the small dam would receive the water of the river,
and much of the sediment would be deposited therein before
the water passed over its spillway into the main reservoir below.
At such times as the small reservoir was low, the turbid natural
flow of the river would pass through the conduit, cutting out any
silt
deposited in the small reservoir, carry
its
load of
fertile
380
and any additional water

required would be drawn from the main reservoir.
This provision would surely have provided muddy water for
the
sediment to
much
irrigation
irrigated
lands,
of the time,
instead of the clear water
now
would not have prevented
uniformly furnished, and

the encroachment of sedimentation upon the storage room, it
would have retarded it. Its greatest recommendation, however,
while this
would have 'preserved the fertilizing qualities of the

irrigation water and thereby increased the fertility of the lands.
This plan was carefully considered by a board of engineers
is
that
and
it
rejected mainly on account of
its cost.
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTERS
AND XVI
Indian Storage Reservoirs. Spon & Chamberlain, New York.

Committee on Flood Prevention. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E.. vol. 81,
STRANGE, W. L.
Report
XV
of Special
p. 1218.
DAVIS,
ARTHUR
Wiley
SCHUYLER,
&
P.
Sons,
J.
D.
Irrigation
New
Works Constructed by
the United States.
John
York.
Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water Power and Domestic Water
Supply. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

FLINX, A. D. Rainfall, Runoff and Development of Croton Watershed.
neering News, Feb. 6, 1908.
DAVIS, ARTHUR P. Water Storage on Salt River.
W.
S.
Engi-
P. 73, U. S. Geological
Survey.
LIPPINCOTT,
J.
B.
Water Storage on Gila River.
W.
S.
P. 33, U. S. Geological
Survey.
FOLLETT,
W. W.
HUGHES, D. E.
Silt in Rio Grande.

Engineering News, Jan. 15, 1914.
San Carlos Irrigation Project. House Doc. 791, 63d Congress,
2d Session.
Davis, Arthur P., Report on Hydrography of Nicaragua, 1899.
CHAPTER XVII
DAMS
A DAM is a structure placed

or confine water.
the top,
it is
When
across a stream or gap to obstruct

designed to permit water to flow over
called a weir.
it must be built
wash away by the
masonry, steel, or some form
In such a case
of such material as will resist a tendency to
flow of water.
of
This
may
be either
wood.
Conditions of Safety.
All dams, of whatever magnitude

must fulfill certain essential conditions for safety.
They must have practically impervious foundations and
i.
or type,
1.
abutments
sufficiently stable to sustain the stresses to
which
they will be submitted.

2. They must be safe against
sliding either on foundation
or on
3.
4.
tight
any internal joint.

They must be safe against overturning.
They must be practically impervious, and have waterconnections with their foundations and abutments.
With
two
respect to their functions,
dams may be divided
into
classes:
Diverson dams.
1.
Storage dams.
2.
dam is one intended only for raising the surface

water to such height as required for diverting the flow
of the stream into a canal or penstock, for power, irrigation or
diversion
of the
other purposes. The great majority of them are very low,

raising the water only a few feet, and intended mainly to provide a permanent sill or crest at the proper elevation instead
of a shifting, fluctuating channel.
ever, are as high as 200 feet,
Some
diversion dams, how-
and these are often used
for storage purposes.

381
also partially
DAMS
382
Storage dams are those intended to form reservoirs to store

water at times when it is flowing at greater volume than needed
for use,
and
to hold
it
until so required.
Most
of the high
in existence are intended for storage purposes,
and
dams
in general
they are built higher than those intended only for diversion.
Most dams intended only for
2. Diversion Dams or Weirs.
diversion purposes are of the weir or overfall type, designed to
permit water to flow over the top, on account of the expense
For
of providing safe means of flow elsewhere for the floods.
such use they are generally built of wood or concrete so as to

resist the erosion of the flowing water.
a. Timber Dams.
The earliest dams were built by beavers,
and were composed of small logs and brush. These have been
improved upon by man, by adding large rocks and rude piling
Such rude dams were general in
to hold the brush in place.
the early stages of irrigation, and were employed even in fairly
large streams, not to raise the water, but to divert it into a

Such
canal built at about the same elevation as the river bed.
dams were
by
often breached and sometimes entirely destroyed
floods in the stream, thus depriving the canal of water after
the subsidence of the flood until
it
could be replaced, to be
again destroyed perhaps after a short time.

One of the earliest types of such structures was the so-called
"
"
burro
dam. This consisted of a series of forked stakes
driven into the sand of the river bed at intervals of 6 or 8 feet
across the stream, inclined slightly upstream.
as large as could be driven firmly
in the crotches of the stakes,
by hand, and
These stakes were

poles were placed
and lashed firmly
to them, thus
forming a one-pole fence across the river, 3 or 4 feet high. Brush

was leaned against this fence from the upstream side, lashed to
the fence, and rock piled upon the brush ends where they lay
upon the river bed earth was dumped on the rock to make it
;
Larger rock was sometimes placed as a pavement on the

downstream side of this rude dam, to resist the erosion of the
tight.
falling water.
Improvements on this form of dam by the use of heavier

piling driven by machinery and the use of larger rock constituted
DIVERSION DAMS OR WEIRS
383
DAMS
384
the essential features of most
of these temporary structures

were
which
cheap, but very precarious. They could be built
only when the river was low, and often caused partial or total
loss
of crops
by going out when most needed. When subwet and dry conditions, wood decays rapidly.
jected to alternate
When
dam
built in a stream
which is subject to
great fluctuations of head and perhaps dry at times, the wood
tends to decay, and it is good practice to combine timber and
concrete construction in such cases. The foundation, apron
a timber
is
and other parts which will be perpetually wet may be built

wood, and be considered permanent, while those parts which
may be dry at times, the superstructure and abutments, are
of
built of concrete.
form
of
low timber diversion
dam
sometimes built con-
a plank platform held in place by a series of piling driven

the river bed. On this foundation timber frames are
sists of
into
erected at close intervals in the form of the letter A.
These are
firmly bolted to the foundation, and the upstream legs of the

frames closed with heavy planking. The water is allowed to
and fall upon the plant

little
is
a
below the natural river
which
placed
platform below,
Such dams have been used
bed, and is perpetually submerged.
flow over the top of this diaphragm
successfully in
b.
many
Rectangular
cases.
Pile
Weirs.
These
have been
employed
rivers like the Platte, in Colorado.
wide sandy
They consist
of a double row of piling driven into the river-bed, the two rows
being about 6 feet apart, and the piles about 3 feet apart between
in
Between these
is driven sheet piling to prevent the

water
through the barrier, and the upper
seepage or travel of
portion of the structure is planked so as to form a rectangular
Such
wall the interior of which is filled in with gravel, sand, etc.
centers.
walls are usually low, rarely exceeding 8 feet in height, and after
the upper side is backed with the silt deposited from the stream
they form substantial barriers which may last a few years.

Such structures cannot be employed where the flood height
is great, as
they would soon be undermined unless substantial
aprons were constructed.
385
egulator
CROSS SECTION OF WEIR.

FIG. 179.
Folsom Canal Plan and Cross-section
of Weir.
DAMS
386
c.
Open and Closed Weirs.
the barrier which
it
forms
is
closed weir
is
one in which
solid across nearly the entire
of the channel, the flood waters passing over its crest.
width
Such
weirs have usually a short open portion in front of the regulator

known as the " scouring-sluice," the object of which is to maintain a swift current past the regulator entrance,
and thus prevent
An open weir is one in which

at that point.
or
are
openings
provided throughout a large porscouring-sluices
tion of its length and for the full height of the weir.
the deposit of
silt
The advantage
of the closed weir is that it is self-acting, and

and constructed requires little expense for repairs
or maintenance, but it interferes with the normal regimen
of the river, causing deposit of silt and perhaps changing the
if
well designed
channel of the stream.

little
Open
or scouring-sluice weirs interfere
with the normal action of the stream, and the scour pro-
duced by opening the gates prevents the deposit of silt.

The closed weir consists of an apron properly founded and
carried across the entire width of the river flush with the level of
bed, and protected from erosive action by curtain-walls upand downstream. On a portion of this is constructed the superstructure, which may consist of a solid wall or in part of upright
piers, the interstices between which are closed by some temporary
arrangement. During floods the water backed against the
weir acts as a water cushion to protect the apron, and as the
its
flood rises the height of the fall over the weir crest diminishes, so
that with a flood of 16 feet over an ordinary weir its effect as an

obstruction wholly disappears. A rapidly rising flood is more
dangerous than a slowly rising flood, not only because of its
greater velocity, but because it causes a greater head or fall
over the weir as the water has not had time to back up below
For the same reasons a falling or
and form a water-cushion.
diminishing flood is less dangerous than a rising flood.

An open weir consists of a series of piers of wood, iron, or
masonry, set at regular intervals across the stream bed and rest-
This floor
ing on a masonry or wooden floor.
the channel flush with the river bed or lower,
is
carried across
and
is
protected
from erosive action by curtain-walls up- and downstream.
The
/Cx J^
Colorado
liii-(
SCALE OF FEET
CALIFORNIA
200
400
GOO
150 Feef
'
Concrete';
Concrete
jj
6"Wood Sheet Piling-^pj
-67'61'il
MAXIMUM
FIG.
i So.
Plan and Sect
3000
3500
5000
ORINGS ON LINE A
141.0 Kiev.
'ION
ON
Low Water 1004
C-D
Laguna Dam, Colorado River.
To face page
386.

pieis are
grooved
for the recep-
tion of flashboards
that
by
raising
the
these
or gates so
or
of
height
lowering
the river
can be controlled. The distance

between the piers varies between 3 and 10 feet, according
to
the style of gate used.
the river
subject to sudden
is
these
floods
If
gates
to
as
constructed
be
may
so
auto-
drop
matically when the water rises

to a sufficient height to top
It is sometimes necesthem.
sary to construct open weirs in
such manner that they shall offer
the
necessary in weirs like
Barage du
the
This
the stream.
of
waterway
is
to
obstruction
least
the
below Cairo,
Nil,
Egypt, or in some of the weirs

on the Seine, in France, in order
that in time of flood the height
be appreciably increased above the fixed

Should the
diversion height.
of
water
may
be
height
not
in
increased
such
cases the water would back up,
flooding
and destroying valuable
property in the cities above.

Under such circumstances open
weirs
are
structed
sometimes
that
so
can
they
con-
be
and all,
obstrucno
leaving absolutely
entirely removed, piers
tion
to
the
channel
stream, and in fact
of
the
increasing
387
DAMS
388
discharging capacity, owing to the smoothness which they

give to its bed and banks.
its
A form of cheap open weir which

d. Flashboard Weirs.
has been commonly constructed in the West is the open wooden
frame and flashboard weir. This type of structure is used only
on such
have unstable beds and banks, where any

the ordinary regimen of the stream would cause
rivers as
obstruction to
a change in
its
channel.
It consists
wholly or in part of a founda-
upon which is built an

framework
closed
horizontal
by
planks let into slots in the
open
These weirs are constructed of wood, and are temporary
piers.
in character, their chief recommendation being the cheapness
tion of piling driven into the river bed,
with which they can be built in rivers

which are composed of a considerable depth
the
beds
of
of silt or light
soil.
more common type of frame or flashboard weir is that

employed on the Kern River in California. (Fig. 182.) An
example of this is the weir at the head of the Galloway canal
(Fig. 183), which consists of 100 bays, each separated by a simple
open triangular framework of wood founded on piles, the width
Two and one-half feet below
of each opening or bay being 4 feet.
walls about 2 feet in height,
of
the
stream
is
a
with
the bed
floor,
forming compartments filled with sand on which the waters fall.
This apron is carried up- and downstream for a distance of about
The weir proper is formed of frames or

inch
trusses of 6 by 6
timber, placed transversely 4 feet apart.
These frames consist of two pieces, the upstream piece being 1 5
10 feet in each direction.
and set at an angle of 38 degrees, while the other

The lower
at
right angles and is 9 feet 4 inches long.
supports
of
6
two
ends of these rafters thrust against
by 2 inch
pieces
feet 2 inches long
it
timber running the whole length of the weir and nailed to the
These frames are supported directly on anchor piles,
flooring.
one at each end joiced into the framing. These trusses are
kept in vertical position by means of a footboard running transOn the upstream face
versely the entire width of the stream.
of the trusses planks or flashboards
which
slide
between grooves
laid on to the
formed by nailing face-boards on the trusses are
389
DAMS
390
This weir
10 feet in height above the

flush with the river bed.
required height.
floor,
which
is
is
wooden
Indian Type Weirs. A substantial form of weir is that

generally constructed on Indian rivers, where the banks and
e.
bed are
of sand, gravel, or other unstable material.
These weirs
generally rest on shallow foundations of masonry, in such manner

that they practically float on the sandy beds of the streams.
FIG. 183.
The foundation
of wells
sunk
Cross-section of
of such a weir
to a
depth
of
Open Weir. Galloway Canal.
is
generally of one or more rows

feet in the bed of the
from 6 to 10
and the spaces between the wells being filled

with concrete, thus forming a masonry wall across the channel.
river, the wells
in
well or block
is
a cylindrical or rectangular hollow brick
structure, which is built upon a hard cutting edge like a caisson,

and from the interior of which the sand is excavated as it sinks.
After
it
has reached a suitable depth

partly for its stability
depending
This form of construction
is
it is filled
on the
with concrete,
friction against its sides.
illustrated in Fig. 184.
NARORA WEIR- LOWER GANGES CANAL

length 7260 metres
OKHLA WEIR -AGRA CANAL.,

Length 743 metres
DEHREE WEJR-SOANE CANAL

length 5825 metres
ITT.
6EZWARA WEIR
KISTNA CANAL.
length 1150 metres.
60DIVERY
WEIR,
length 6274 metres.
FIG. 184.
Cross-sections of Indian Weirs.
391
DAMS
392
f.
or
Automatic Shutters and Gates.
any
similar
permanent obstruction
The use
in a
of
wasteway
flashboards
in order to
increase the storage capacity of the reservoir is to be discouraged.

Such obstructions must be removed at the time of great floods
or else these will top the dam, which depends upon the attention
watchmen, who
of
may
be absent or negligent.
Automatic
shutters, however, have been used with considerable success

in a few instances.
One
most desirable forms of these is that shown in

row of upright iron shutters, each
1 8 feet long and 22 inches
These are supported by tenhigh.
sion-rods hinged to the crest of the weir on the upstream side,
and to the upper side of the shutter at about two-thirds of
Fig.
of the
It consists of a
185.
the distance from
As soon
of pressure.
it
other words, below
its
center
Cross-section of Shutter on Soane Weir, India.
FIG. 185.
the shutter
its crest, or, in
causes
as the water-level approaches the top of

lower end to slide inward and the whole
its
against the top of the weir, offering no obstruction to

the passage of the water.
falls flat
g.
Automatic Drop-shutters.
to the crest of the
Betwa weir
the reservoir capacity
may
be
The
shutters, added in 1901

at Paricha, India, to increase
taken as illustrative of
the
latest Indian practice in the design of
automatic drop-shutters.
shutters are each 6 feet high and 12 feet long, and as
the length of the weir crest is 3600 feet there are 300 such
The
shutters.
They
are
made
entirely of steel, consisting of }-inch
and stiffened both longitudinally

angle-iron 3^ by 2\ by f inch (Fig. 186).
To the flanges of the vertical stiff eners are pivoted if -inch
tension-bars.
The other end is similarly attached to anchor-
plates joined along their middle
and
laterally
by

bolts built 2 feet into the
four
attachment
the gates
fall
2-foot
gate.
and shutter
of the tension-bar
There are
crest of the weir.
masonry
such tension-bars to each
393
The point
of
so designed that
is
automatically with a given depth of water passing
331.90
P.O. Concrete
"Lime Concrete
>28.5
5V
OLD WEIR RUB. MASONRY.
12V-'
L.I. Stiffene
T'
\
M.S. Plate
M Plate
SECTION
M.S. Plate
,L.I. Stiffened
ShoeJ*
ELEVATION.
>L.I.
Brace 3^'x
2&\ %"
Shoe
TT
nTTllL Jllililllii'v
M.S. Plate
%"
L.I. Stiffener 3>* x
BOTTOM PLAN.
FIG.
86.
Automatic Drop-shutter, Betwa Weir, India.
over them, thus securing safety in case of excessive floods. The

bottom of each gate is supplied with four steel shoes, which rest
the weir crest, thus reducing
Wooden baulks
the
the frictional resistance
gates fall.
4 by 4 inches are fixed to the ends of the shutters, which have a
upon
sliding-plates
built
into
when
DAMS
394
space of
inch separating them, which
is
caulked
when
the
gates are raised.
the 300 shutters were to fall together the shock would

unduly strain the weir and tne flood volume submerge the riverIf
Hence the attachment of the tension-bars has

been so arranged that each third gate falls under different depths
of water.
The first third fall with a depth over top of 2 feet,
banks below.
the next with 3 feet, and the last with 4 feet.

Thus after the
third fall the released water reduces the flood depth, and
first
the latter must increase considerably to top the second third,

and so on for the last third.
These shutters were subjected to an unusual test, immediately
after completion, in the form of an extraordinary flood which
passed over the weir crest to the height of 16.4 feet, when it had
been designed to withstand a previous known flood height of
only 6.5
and
fully
Fortunately the shutters worked successneither weir nor

shutters
sustained material
feet.
injury.
h.
differ
French Type. The weirs on the River Seine in France

materially from the Indian weirs. They consist of a
of iron frames of trapezoidal cross-section, somewhat

similar in shape to the frames of the open wooden flashboard
weirs of California.
On these frames rest a temporary footway,
series
and on their upper side is placed a rolling curtain shutter or

gate which can be dropped so as to obstruct the passage of water
across the entire channelway of the stream, or can be raised to
such a height as to permit the water to flow under them-. In

times of flood the curtain can be completely raised and removed
on a temporary track
to the river banks, the floor
and track
can then be taken up, leaving nothing but the slight iron frames,
which scarcely impede the discharge of the river and permit
abundant passageway of the floods over, around, and through

them (Fig. 188).
i. Roller
Dams. A movable dam invented and patented
in
Germany, consisting of steel rollers, capable of being rolled

up an incline when required to pass floods, has been used in
that country and also in a few instances in the United States.
FIG. 187,
Falling Sluice-gate,
Soane Canal, India.
395
DAMS
396
The
largest one built in this country
is
on Grand River, about
eight miles above Palisade, Colorado.

In the diversion of Grand River,
the problem presented

low stages sufficiently to
divert 1400 cubic feet of water per second into the head of the
canal, and yet at high water to pass a flow of 50,000 cubic feet
of water per second without raising the water to a level where
was
to raise the level of the river at
would endanger the roadbed of the railroad adjacent.

required a movable crest upon a concrete weir.
it
FIG.
88.
View
of
The dam developed

projecting apron,
Open Weir on River
This
Seine, France.
a concrete base of ogee section with

surmounted by a series of seven movable
is
feet long and 10.25 feet high,

has a span of 60 feet
the
seventh
while
proper,
and a height of 15.3 feet, and is used to control the sluiceway.
The total length of the structure is 536.5 feet. When the rollers
roller
dams,
over the
six of
which are 70
dam
are closed at low water

of the river.
it
raises the
water 20 feet above the bed
See Fig. 190.
canal regulator gates are parallel to the river, and nearly

on a line with the natural bank, and the sluiceway roller closes
The
upon a
sill
5.1 feet
below the
sills
of the other rollers,
and
8.3
397
398
DAMS
399
feet below the sills of the canal gates, so that gravel will be
deposited instead of passing into the canal, and can be sluiced
out by raising the 6o-foot roller, and thus a deep settling basin
FIG. 191.
Section through
Body
of yo-foot Roller
Dam, Grand
River, Colorado.
can be maintained in front of the gates, to prevent the river

gravel from entering the canal.
The hoisting apparatus for the sluicing roller is located on

the right abutment of the dam, which serves also for the left
abutment of the headgate structure. The other six rollers are
DAMS
400
operated by three hoists located on alternate piers, each hoist

These piers are 10 feet wide, and the other
serving two rollers.
three are 8.25 feet wide.

steel truss bridge spans each openEach
hoist
is
ing.
equipped with an electric motor receiving
current from a gas engine in the gate house on the right abutment
.
'
(thru,
c.
of halt circle)
'
/^/Filler plate
# "jc8*& 354
6
''3'
Illllllllll
FIG. 192.
pier.
The
Section through Driven
rollers are lifted
by
End
rolling
of 7o-foot Roller.
them up the
inclined tops
of the piers.
The advantages of
this
type of movable dam, are
its
requiring but few piers to obstruct drift, the ease
with which
mitting
it
little
long span,
and speed
can be opened, and the tightness of closure, per-
leakage.

j.
and
401
dam much employed in early days,

of a series of cribs built of logs
consists
frequently built,
Crib Dams.
still
type of
firmly bolted or pinned together, and filled with large and small
rock to give weight and stability. The cribs are rectangular,
and longer timbers extend from one

them firmly together. A floor of heavy
timbers is provided near the bottom of each crib for holding the
rock.
The bottom of each crib should be drift-bolted to the
foundation if of rock, and sunk as low as possible into any
softer foundation, and sheet piling may be added to stop percolation under the dam.
It is best to give the dam a slope of 45
degrees or flatter on the upstream face, and to cover this with
from 12 to
16
feet square,
crib to the next to bind
FIG. 193.
Cross-section of Bear River Weir.
planking for water tightness. The lower side may be likewise

sloped and covered with planks, but it is best to make this slope
steep at top, and gradually flatten it toward the bottom to give
the falling water gradually a horizontal direction as it leaves
the dam.
The bottom
of the river for
some distance below the
dam
should be protected from erosion by submerged cribs

covered with heavy planks or sawn timbers, and filled with the
largest available rock.
Where a
slope
is
crib
dam
is
of considerable height, the downstream

in a series of steps to break the fall
sometimes made
of the water
and
dissipate the greater part of its energy before
reaching the toe of the dam.
DAMS
402
k. Submerged Dams.
In desert regions, it frequently happens
that small streams emerge from the mountains and are lost
in the sands and gravels of the desert before reaching any
In times of flood the water flows
larger stream, or other outlet.
stjfl
greater distance over the desert than normally, and

in so doing forms a water course which is usually dry on the
much
surface or
nearly
so.
Numerous attempts have been made

by sinking concrete or
to bring the underflow to the surface
wooden dams,
called
submerged dams,
in
the ground across

the water course.
403
These have at times collected some water,
but the quantity has usually been disappointing.

One such structure is the dam on Pacoima Creek in Calithe property of the San Fernando Land and Water
Company. At the site of the dam the sandstone canyon walls
fornia,
are about 800 feet apart and the bed rock about 45 feet below
the surface of the gravel bed of the stream. Through this a
_^
FlG. 195.
View
of
San Fernando Submerged Dam.
trench was excavated across the canyon in which a rubble

masonry wall was built, its base being about 3 feet thick and its
above the stream bed. On the line

two large gathering wells, and on its upper face
pipes are laid in open sections, so that the seepage water caught
by the dam might enter these and be led through them into
the wells, from which it is drawn off for purposes of irrigation.
top
feet reaching 2 or 3 feet
of this wall are
Above
the
dam
the stream bed consists of several hundred acres
of gravel 12 to 20 feet in depth,
which forms a natural storage
reservoir of 1200 to 1500 acre-feet capacity.
A
man,
somewhat
similar
submerged
Ariz., for providing a small
dam
is
in operation at King-
supply to the
town and railway.
'DAMS
404
masonry wall 173 feet long on top, 6 feet wide at base; and 2
feet wide on top is built on bed-rock across and through the
gravel bed of railroad canyon. A 6-inch cast-iron outlet pipe
through the dam, 12 feet below its crest, which is below the
level of the canyon bed, leads into an 8-inch standpipe perforated with f-inch holes placed J inch apart.
In this is collected the water which gathers behind the dam to the full
height of
3.
its crest.
Storage Dams.
Storage
dams may be
classified into four
general groups according to the materials of which they are

composed as follows:
1.
Earth dams or embankments.
2.
Rock-filled dams.
3.
Steel
dams.
Masonry dams.
Numerous modifications and combinations
4.
of
the
above
types are often employed, as for example, a combination of the

earth and rock-fill types, of which this chapter treats.
The type of dam to be constructed at any given site is determined chiefly upon consideration of three leading elements
which are usually capable of interpretation in terms of cost.
1.
Character of available materials for construction.
2.
Character of foundation and abutment.
3.
It
Length and height of dam.

often happens that the dam-site
where there
is
is in a rocky canyon,
not available within reasonable distance a suffi-
cient quantity of material suitable for
an earthen dam, and the
making a tight bond between the rock and an earth

embankment, furnishes additional reason for rejecting this
difficulty of
type.
Where
the dam-site is a narrow gorge with good rock foundaand abutments so that a masonry dam of light section
depending on arch action can be built, this type is usually the
cheapest, and commends itself to the general public for its
safety and stability if well built.
If the gorge is more than 600 feet wide at the top of the proposed, dam, so that little advantage can be secured from arch
tion
STORAGE DAMS
action,
the* rock-fill type
405
be worthy of consideration in
may
comparison with a masonry dam.

Where the dam is to be of considerable length, and conditions are at ail favorable for an earthen dam, this type is
generally cheapest, can be
therefore advisable unless
made
perfectly safe,
and
its
choice
is
be very high, in which case

if a foundation of
should
also
be
considered
good rock
masonry
is
it is
to
available.
a.
Dams
Earthen
or
of a serviceable earthen
1.
That
it is
Embankments.
dam
are five
The
essential features
protected by an ample spillway, from the flow
of water over
2.
any portion.
That the water slope
or the center, or both, be practically
impervious to water.
3.
vious,
4.
That the foundation and abutments be practically imperand connected with the dam by a water-tight bond.
That the water slope be protected from wave action by
paving or riprap.
5. That both slopes be sufficiently
material used against sloughing.
flat to
insure the class of
There are three general types of earthen dams, classified with

reference to the portion made impervious:
1. Dams having a central core of puddled earth, or a central
wall of masonry.
2.
Dams
having the water face and center built of selected

nearly impervious, and coarser material used
material
made
on lower
face.
Dams
homogeneous material throughout,

be nearly impervious.
It must be remembered that all earthen masses, and most
rock and concrete is capable of absorbing and transmitting some
3.
which must
water
if
built in layers of
of course
sufficient pressure
be applied, and so when we speak of
impervious materials in earthen dams, we speak relatively.

b. Foundation.
No feature of the site for an earthen dam
more important than the foundation, and

with great care.
by water,
it is
is
this
should be examined
If it consists of alluvial
material deposited
likely to contain pervious strata of sand or gravel,
406
DAMS
STORAGE DAMS
407
and these if left undisturbed will produce leakage under the

dam, which under the head of water in the reservoir might
Free percolaattain destructive velocities and cause disaster.
all
and
tion must be entirely prevented,
percolation must be
made so slow and devious that it will be inert, and without
danger of destructive erosion. In general it is necessary to
provide a wide cut-off channel or core wall, carried down to
bed of relatively impervious material, through

which such percolation as occurs will be very slow. The best
foundation for an earthen dam is a thick bed of impervious clay
mixed with a large proportion of sand and gravel thus combining
rock, or to a thick
water- tightness with stability. A foundation of fine sand is

not permissible unless it contains some clay or impalpable
In the case of any foundation which
silt.
will
permit some
percolation, there is an advantage in making the path which

the water must follow in order to reach a free escape, as long as
which
possible,
if
this is
made
may be
dam
secured by spreading the base of the
of impervious material, thus confining the per-
colating waters for a greater distance before they can escape.

on the Canal
It was upon this theory that the Gatun
Dam
Zone was given very

earthen
dam
is
flat slopes,
and a very wide
base.
If
an
to be connected with rock either in its founda-
tions or abutments, it should
be by means of one or more walls
cemented tightly to the rock, and extending several

embankment. The earth around these
concrete cut-off walls should be carefully selected, puddled and
of concrete,
feet into
the earthen
so as to give the tightest possible connection.

In preparing the foundation of an earthen dam
rammed,
embankment, the surface
soil
for
the
should be removed from the
foundation to a depth sufficient to remove all coarse vegetation,

and the entire foundation scored by deep furrows running longitudinally of the
ment material.
If
dam,
so as to
form a good bond with the embank-
pervious strata of sand or gravel occur below the surface,
one or more trenches should be carried down through such

strata for the entire length of the foundation, and refilled with
selected material carefully
rammed
or puddled in place.
DAMS
408
c.
Springs in Foundations.
It
sometimes happens that one
more springs occur at the site where it is desired to build

an earthen dam. This is very undesirable, and if possible a
or
site
should be selected which
is
free
from
this
menace.
Where
TRUCKEE-CARSON
PROJECT NEVADA
LAHONTAN DAM
GENERAL PLAN OF DAM
FIG. 197.
Plan of Lahontan
Dam, Carson
River, Nevada.
this is not possible, the utmost precaution must be taken to

prevent the spring from endangering the structure. If possible
the spring should be followed to its point of emergence from the
rock.
If
the rock
is
hard and firm,
it
may
be possible to
seal
STORAGE DAMS
409
If this is done, careful

the spring with a mass of concrete.
examination should be made to determine whether the spring
has broken out at some other point. If the spring does not flow
from rock,
it may be followed to relatively firm material, and

there confined into a pipe and led away and discharged at a
distance from the dam, due precaution being taken against
the percolation of water through the bank along the pipe.

Or
better the pipe may be carried upward and sloped upstream
if necessary, until its top is above the flow line of the reservoir,
still
and the water allowed
to flow out at the top
if it
will,
and
fall
into the reservoir.

If
the springs are small,
it
may
be possible to smother them
by puddled material, but this should be done with caution,

and careful examination made to detect their escape at other
points.
This method should never be attempted, however,

and abundant puddle material is used for the
unless excellent
purpose, and the spot

weight and character
buried under a great mass of which the

is a guarantee against any escape of the
water or any portion of it. This process should never be applied
to springs below the center line of the dam, where they might
is
saturate the lower portion of the

slough.
The
dam and
cause a tendency to
handling of springs in foundations is a very impor-
tant and delicate problem requiring experience and mature

judgment, as an error in the solution of this problem may lead
to serious consequences.
d. Safe Slopes for Earthen Dams.
tendencies to failure of an earthen dam
One
is
of the strongest
the saturation of its
mass with water, with a consequent tendency

cohesion and to cause parts of it to become
to neutralize its
of a semi-liquid
This is one great reason

nature, so that it will slide or slough.
for the importance of making the water face as tight as possible
against the entrance of water, and of providing drainage under
the downstream half of the embankment.
For this reason,
the water slope of the dam is made relatively flat, generally

i on 3 or flatter, and the downstream slope always i on 2 or
although the natural angle of repose of the earth used

be nearly as steep as i to i. The gentle slope of the water
flatter,
may
410
DAMS
STORAGE DAMS
411
dam contributes to its stability not only by providing

a large amount of weight, but by giving the direction of water
pressure a downward tendency, the direction of pressure of a
face of the
liquid being always
The water
exerted.
normal to the surface upon which it is

pressure on a 3 to i slope of a dam being
more nearly
weight, and
vertical
also
overturning
against
than horizontal increases
increases
its
if
stability
such
against
a method
of
its
effective
sliding,
and
failure
were
possible.
appears therefore that the mass and shape of an earthen

dam as thus determined is such that no attention need be paid
to its stability against sliding on its base or on any horizontal
It
joint,
on account
The other
of the pressure of the
considerations,
water in the reservoir.
however, make
the slopes of the two
dam very important.

impossible to arrive by theoretical reasoning at reliable
general rules for the slopes upon which any given materials
In general, a clay
will be stable when saturated with water.
faces of the
It
is
bank when supersaturated has very little stability, and the same
is true in a less degree of a clay loam and of a sandy clay loam
where the clay content predominates. Where clay must be used
very important to prevent its saturation, by excluding
the water so far as possible, and providing an exit for such
water as may enter it. For this reason it is desirable to employ
it
is
gravel for the downstream half of an earthen dam, as this will

permit the slow escape of contained water, without danger of
For the same reason it is highly desirable
sloughing or erosion.
that the impervious portion of the

of gravel, using fine
also be
composed
largely
far as necessary to
the void spaces in the gravel.

on the Canal Zone,
great Gatun
completely
The
dam
sand and clay only so
fill
Dam
Panama,
is
built
on the gentlest slopes of any dam of which we have record.

The outer slope is about 16 to i for 40 feet in height, and there
The
increases to 7 to i, and finally to 4 to i near the top.
water slope averages about 4 to i for most of the height. The
base width
is
thus 2640 feet while the height
and the contents over 21,000,000 cubic yards.
is
only 105
feet,
DAMS
412
The
reasons for adopting these very conservative slopes are
several:
1.
The
sluiced clay of
which the base
of the
posed was considered
dam
is
or at least
com-
much
The
practically impervious,
pervious than the valley material of the foundation.
broad blanket of sluiced clay confines waters percolating in the
foundation and prevents their escape until they have traversed
less
so long a distance that the accumulated friction has destroyed
any possible hydraulic head and rendered the seepage inert.

At the same time any seepage through the dam would produce
a plane of saturation the surface of which in the clay material
would be steep enough to intersect the foundation long before
reaching the surface of the slope, and thus minimize any possible
tendency to slough.
2.
The adopted method
clay into the
of the
body
of construction
dam which
is
was the
sluicing of
always very slow to
drain and consolidate, and especially so in the wet climate of
Gatun, and
it
was necessary
to provide flat slopes for stability
during construction.
3.
was desired
It
to
make an embankment
so
heavy that an
enemy temporarily in possession could not quickly cause

a break for the purpose of destroying the dam.
The practice so common as to be considered almost standard
alien
is
to build earthen
water face and
to
embankments with slopes of 3 to i on the

These
i on the outer or downstream face.
fit cases where conditions of stability

and may be somewhat steeper where rock or
gravel predominates on the slopes, or other conditions favor
slopes
may
be flattened to
are not favorable,
unusual
stability.
slopes are frequently made steeper near the top than

lower down, and this is a logical practice, as it broadens the
base by the use of less material than required for uniform slopes.
The
On
the water face the steeper slope near the top tends to check
the advance of waves.

is generally made to vary from 10 feet for
moderate height to 20 feet or more for high dams.
The top should be slightly crowned to prevent rain water from
The top width
banks
of
STORAGE DAMS
413
standing on it in pools and causing saturation. The top of the

dam should be high enough above normal high water so that no
danger will ensue of waves from the reservoir overtopping the
embankment.
Where
a concrete wall
is
great
wave action
is
to
be expected
sometimes provided at the water edge
top to break the waves.
of the
See Fig. 201.
Slope Protection. The flattening of the slopes of an

earthen dam, while increasing its security against sloughing
and sliding, and adding to the security against the wave action
e.
of the slope, adds materially to the cost by

the
increasing
yardage, and on the water slope by increasing
the area that has to be protected from wave action by pavement
upon the material
Where suitable rock is abundant for this purpose

be
inexpensive, but in some cases a concrete pavement
may
necessary, and it becomes desirable, for reasons of economy
or riprap.
it
is
to reduce this area to the smallest dimensions.
led to the adoption of slopes for the
Dakota,
stitutes
of 2 to
on the water
This reason
Owl Creek Dam, South
side for the
most
part,
and con-
its height now in

protected by a heavy concrete
one of the boldest earth dams for
it
existence.
water face
Its
is
pavement.
Where rock
is
plentiful the water slope should be protected
by a pavement of dry laid rock not less than i foot thick where
wave action is moderate to 2 feet where heavy wave action
to be expected.
Precaution should be taken to prevent the

out
of
the
washing
earthy material from behind the pavement
through the crevices. To prevent this a layer of small broken
is
rock or screened gravel of diameters from i to 4 inches should

be provided, directly under the pavement.
This will be too
crevices of the pavement, and
will break the force of the water running in and out of the
coarse to
wash out through the
cracks between the paving stones as waves advance and recede.

If rock is very abundant, and of
poor shapes to form a suitable
pavement,
placing
by
the slope without

hand, but in such case a greater thickness should
it
may
be
dumped roughly on
be used, and small broken rock or screened gravel should be

employed for its foundation as described above.
414
DAMS
STORAGE DAMS
Where rock
is
415
not to be obtained at reasonable cost
it
some-
times becomes necessary to protect the face of the dam from

wave action by the use of concrete pavement. This may be
made
in place
on the
slope, or
may be manufactured in blocks
at a
more convenient point and placed on the dam as paving blocks.

Such blocks should extend at least 10 feet up and down the slope,
and may be any convenient width in the other direction. The
ample dimension up and down the slope is important, as otherwise in a great storm the receding waves may leave a sufficient
hydrostatic pressure behind the blocks to move them if too light,
and thus cause a breach in the pavement. Such accidents have
occurred in a number of cases in the region of the great plains,
where rock is scarce and concrete has been extensively employed
for
paving dams.
Probably the best form of concrete pavement yet employed

a series of concrete strips, 15 or 20 feet wide, running from
the toe to the top of the dam, with vertical joints the entire
is
This pavement
length of the slope, but no horizontal joints.
should be 4 or 5 inches thick if reinforced, or 6 inches if not.
Under each joint, running from toe to top of the dam, should
be a concrete
work and
sill,
about 6 inches square, built into the earth-
flush with its surface.
surface of these
sills
After seasoning, the upper

should be oiled or tarred, to prevent adher-
ence to the concrete slabs afterwards built upon them, and to

make a tight joint. This will permit these joints to absorb
the expansion and contraction in a horizontal direction, and the
vertical movement to be communicated to the top.
Where rock and
concrete are very costly and coarse gravel

conveniently available, it may be possible in some cases to
depend on using this in great abundance for slope protection, as
is
has been done on the two large embankments of the Deer

Reservoir in Idaho.
In these cases, after finishing the
dam
to a 3 to
Fat
water
slope and 20 feet top width, the top was widened by dumping
from cars on the water slope, the coarsest gravel available,
which was sand and gravel varying from bowlders of 50 pounds
weight through
all
intermediate sizes to fine sand and
silt,
the
416
DAMS
STORAGE DAMS
417
proportion of coarse material varying, but never great. In

this way the upper embankment received about 95,000 cubic
-
yards of extra material, which took
and widened the top
of the
its
natural angle of repose
embankment from 20
feet to 51
to 67 feet.
As the waves
of the reservoir attack the gravel slope they
gradually undermine and cause the gravel to creep down the

The finest materials are carried into the lake and slowly
slope.
deposited, those a little coarser washed down to the toe of the
slope, and the other materials are carried down less and less
freely as they
become
coarser.
In this
way by
the automatic
on the
and serve to
sorting of the water, the fine materials are deposited
bottom
make
of the reservoir near the toe of the slope
this area
more impervious.
The coarser sand collected

bank a flatter slope, and the
near the bottom serves to give the

materials, left on the slope become gradually coarser from the
bottom upward, and the coarsest cobbles and bowlders are
on the upper part
left
and
each material
finally
resist the
of the slopes in the capacity of riprap,
wave
will take the slope at
which
action, resulting in a flattened slope
it
can
paved with
water-selected coarse material of gravel and cobbles.

Experience so far indicates success for this experiment, with a large
saving over the cost of paving the slopes with concrete.

The flow of water is ordinarily due to a
/. Percolation.
The
slope in the water surface.
move from
the point where
point where
its
action of gravity causes it to

surface is highest, toward the
is true of a stream, or a lake,

true
of
underground waters. The resistance to
equally
flow by the materials of the soil is very great, so that subter-
and
it is
lowest.
This
is
ranean waters move very slowly, and their movements are

further complicated by capillary action, but gravity flow depends
upon
slope,
The
and
will
not occur without slope.
rate of transmission of water through
any given soil

of the perwhich
the
surface
varies with the sine of the angle
It also varies with
colating water makes with the horizontal.
the size of the interstices in the material traversed.
example,
may
Clay, for
have and usually does have, a larger percentage
418
FIG. 201.
DAMS
Owl Creek Dam, near
Belle Fourche, South Dakota,
Showing Concrete
Paving.
FIG.
202.
Upper Deer Flat Embankment, Showing Beaching
of Gravel slope.
STORAGE DAMS
of voids
419
than sand or gravel, but they are so minute that perco-
lating water
and
is
greatly retarded
for this reason clay
by
friction,
and moves very
slowly,
regarded as the best earthy
material to resist the passage of water.
is
After long and careful investigation Slichter gives the rate of

flow for a grade of 10 feet per mile, in various materials as
follows
:
TABLE XXXVII
Material
DAMS
420
attained in the upper half; for if spaces of any size occur in

the fine material, the free escape provided may permit erosive
velocities, which by enlarging the channels, may cause disaster.
Fragments of quartz or granite of which sand and gravel

often composed, are practically impervious, and large
fragments of such material in an earthen mass tend to make it
impervious provided the spaces between such fragments are
are
properly
filled.
Following the above principles to a conclusion, we find that

the tightest mixture we can make consists of large fragments of
impervious gravel, with enough smaller fragments to fill the
space between, and
between
these,
and
still
smaller fragments to
fill
the space
so on, ending with the finest clay.
The
author has observed some mixtures in nature that proved to

be remarkably water-tight under considerable pressure, two of
which were shown by mechanical analysis to be graded as
follows
TABLE XXXVIII
Material
STORAGE DAMS
421
and thoroughly mixed. Classifying the material

as gravel, sand, and fine material corresponding in size to Portland cement (taking for this purpose all the material passing
unstratified,
the loo-mesh sieve)
we have:
TABLE XXXIX
DAMS
422
Such a mixture can rarely be obtained

gives the maximum weight and stability,
if cubic yards in bulk.

in practice, but
it
as well as water tightness.
Much discussion has been held in the past regarding the

merits of the various types of earthen dam mentioned, especially
between the partisans of masonry corewalls as against those
Both types have their uses, depending
on the local conditions. A wooden or plank core should never
be employed, as this is sure to decay, and both before and after
opposing such walls.
decay
may
it
affords a convenient path along
freely travel
and
find
an outlet
if
any
which leakage water

exists.
is advisable only when

material suitable for such puddle is too scarce and expensive
to permit the upstream third or half to be so composed, which
is
central core of puddled
better
when
earth
feasible.
masonry corewall
affords excellent
facilities
for
making
connection with the outlet conduit, with rock foundation or

abutments, and with masonry extensions or other structures.
The
corewall may be necessary in cases where no impervious

earth in procurable, or where it contains a considerable percentage of soluble salts, so that percolating water might in time
carry out in solution enough salts to leave the mass pervious

and unsafe. Such a case was the Avalon Dam on the Pecos
River in
which
New
Mexico, built by the Pecos Irrigation Company,

without overtopping. The most plausible
failed in 1904,
being the gradual leaching of the sulphates of

and magnesium, until a finely honey-combed con-
explanation,
calcium
dition
was reached
after
which a
slight
concentration of the
leakage, afforded openings permitting destructive velocities, and

In the reconstruction, a corewali of concrete
disaster followed.
was used in the new portion, and the remnant of the old bank
was provided with one of steel sheet-piling. These have now
been in successful service over ten years.
Where
these special reasons for a corewall do not exist, the

for
to produce supersaturation of the upper slope

objectionable and it also interferes with the best
consolidation of the interior of the embankment.
tendency
of the
dam
is
it
STORAGE DAMS
The most
dam
general practice in
inclines to type
2,
where great
effort is
423
building in America
put forth to make the
upstream portion of the dam tight with selected material carethe downstream
fully placed and compacted, and building
and having
of
coarser
drainage,
material,
affording
portion
tendency to slough when saturated. Frequently this plan
supplemented by providing a corewall of rubble or concrete,
less
is
to insure against erosive velocities
ravages
of
and
The
burrowing animals.
important where frequent inspection

cannot be assured.
to
guard against the
latter provision
is
of the slopes of the
most
dam
Where clay is the only material available for construction,

a very good structure can be secured by building it homogeneously
It is important
in thin layers, moistened and thoroughly rolled.
that the moisture added to clay be merely sufficient to permit
compacting, as any excess of water in clay carries a tendency
to flow, and also causes swelling which may lead to cracking as
the water is withdrawn. The embankment being thus finished
nearly dry, any absorption of water from the reservoir will tend
Such a structure
to swelling and to make the structure tighter.
is
the
Owl Creek
Dam
of the
U.
S.
Reclamation Service near
Belle Fourche, South Dakota.
A novel method of preventing the saturation of the downstream half of an earthen dam has been employed in the design
of the dam built .at the outlet of Sherburne Lake on Swift Current
Creek in northern Montana.
At
this
site
it
was not
practicable to obtain clean gravel in sufficient quantity for the

downstream slope to obviate the danger of sloughing if the
material were saturated with water. To prevent seepage from
reaching this portion of the dam by percolation through the

upstream half, a core was placed about midway of the location,
not of concrete or puddle, to stop the water, but of screened

gravel to receive and conduct it freely downward to a system
of drain pipes through
below the
dam
the core at
its
which
it
could drain into the stream
without coming in contact with the dam below

This provision seems to have accomplished
all.
purpose perfectly.
DAMS
424
g.
Methods of Construction. The materials for constructing

dam may be excavated and transported to place
an earthen
Where
in various ways.
tions occur near the
methods
is
dam
sand, clay or loam or their combinaone of the commonest and cheapest
site,
plow and load
to
it
into
dump wagons by means
drawn by horses
or
traction
by
elevating graders,
is well adapted to localities where the
low and underlain by rock. The dump wagons,
This method
of
engines.
soil is shal-
drawn by
horses, deposit the earth while in motion, and additional spreading is accomplished by road graders or Fresno scrapers.
Where the material occurs in deep deposits so that a face of

10 feet or more can be obtained, steam shovels may be employed
to load it into dump wagons or cars in which it is transported
Where the earth is transported in cars, it is often
to place.
best to carry
it
to place
on the
dam on a track laid on the embank-
ment, and moved back and forth as the work progresses. Sometimes when the abutments of the dam are steep, it is necessary
to build a high trestle along or parallel to the axis of the dam,
and dump the cars from a track built on this trestle. The cross
braces of the trestle should be removed as the bank
rises, as they
otherwise would furnish routes for the lateral passage of water,
and thus encourage leakage. The vertical members offer no
such menace, and
dumped from
means
it is
necessary to leave
them in place.
trestles is transported to its place in the
of scrapers,
and
may
Material
dam by
be further spread and leveled, with
road graders. Before sprinkling or rolling it is best to remove all

rocks more than 4 inches in diameter, from the body of the dam,
prevent the proper action of the roller, and leave
uncompacted spots in the bank. All such rocks are valuable
parts of the bank, and are most useful on the upper and lower
as these
may
where they serve to protect the dam against the elements

and are also valuable as an influence against sloughing.
slopes,
If further
mixing
is
required,
it
may
be secured by the use
of a common two-horse cultivator equipped with 4 or 6 shovel

plows, like that used for cultivating row crops.
After the spreading and mixing
is accomplished it is
generally
in
water
order to prepare the material
with
to
necessary
sprinkle
STORAGE DAMS
so it will
"
pack."
This
may
not be necessary in wet weather,
or in a moist climate, but usually

is
practiced.
The
425
is
in regions
.cheapest method
where irrigation
a
of sprinkling is to lay
embankment, into which

forced under pressure by a pump, or by gravity if
and then attach hose to branches of this pipe at
3 or 4-inch pipe along the edge of the
the water
is
practicable,
frequent intervals, from which the layer of earth is sprinkled

preparatory to rolling. Care should be taken to apply the
water uniformly, so that dry spots
FIG. 203.
will
not be
left
imperfectly
Wheeled Scraper.
compacted, and if considerable clay or loam occurs in the material,

the water applied should be only that required to make it pack,
an excess
of water causes swelling of clay, and

may cause a
condition
which
will
trouble
in
boggy
give
rolling,- When a
bank of clay is thus built, nearly dry, any further absorption
of water causes some tendency to swell and thus further
compact
as
the material and increase
its tightness.
The compacting should be accomplished by spreading

layers 5 or 6 inches, sprinkling
or other suitable roller.
and
rolling
in
with a traction engine,
DAMS
426
Grooved
mon
drawn by horses are often used, and the comsometimes employed, but neither of these give
rollers
road roHer
is
as good results as a heavy traction engine, driven longitudinally

along the embankment. It may be advisable to provide such
an engine with
steel tires to
chief virtues
the fact that
is
widen the
tread,
but one of
its
does not leave a wide, smooth

but rather compresses the earth
it
plane, as does a road roller,

in a series of grooves, and it also concentrates greater weight
on each spot at one time.
Fill.
Under some circumstances it is economiand transport the material to place in the dam
water.
Very good results may be obtained by
h.
Hydraulic
cal to excavate
by means of
this method properly
carried out.
To do
this it is necessary
have water under heavy pressure, so that delivered through

a nozzle a stream can be projected with sufficient force against
the material to be excavated, to loosen and carry it away.
to
This
then transmitted through pipes or flumes to its place in

The necessary pressure to produce a cutting jet of
is
the dam.
sometimes be secured by diverting a stream at

a higher elevation and bringing it in a ditch or flume to the
vicinity of the dam site, from 100 to 200 feet above the deposit
water
may
of material to be excavated, so as to provide the necessary
head by gravity. The water is then confined in pipes and

conducted to the barrow pit where a hydraulic monitor with
movable nozzle projects it with force against the material to be
excavated.
the conditions do not permit the method above
described, the necessary head may be obtained by means of
large pumps pushing the water through pipes of ample capacity,
Where
at a velocity sufficient to cut and carry the material from the

barrow pit. If, then, it is necessary to elevate the material
to place
it
in the
dam, other pumps
material mixed with water
may
may
be installed and the
be pumped through pipes and
deposited where required.

Where the hydraulic method of transportation is used, it is
necessary to build dikes at the upper and lower faces of the dam,
and discharge the water laden with
solid material
between them,
STORAGE DAMS
FIG. 204.-
Cold Springs
Dam
427
under Construction, Umatilla Valley, Oregon.
<
FIG. 205.
Grooved Concrete
Roller.
DAMS
428
where the
clear.
slow to
solid
Where
settle,
matter
is
settled
and the water drawn
the material sluiced
and remains
is
off
nearly
or mainly clay,
all
it
is
in a liquid or semi-liquid condition
for a long time.

It is then necessary to keep the retaining
dikes strong and heavy, in order to sustain the heavy side-pressure of the mobile core.
Where
problem
holds on
is
the material to be sluiced
is
mostly
clay,
presented of draining the sluiced material.
a serious
The clay
and when
to the contained water with great tenacity,

saturated, assumes a semi-liquid character which exerts a hydrostatic pressure on the retaining dikes which may become greater
than their powers of resistance. The pond of water constantly

maintained on top of the fill is apt to keep the mass of clay
Scale of Feet
-Stripped Surface
Ôriginal Surface
DAM AT NECAXA, MEXICO

FIG. 206.
saturated,
and
in
some
cases the lateral pressure of the mobile
Two notable
clay has broken the dikes and caused slips.
with
accidents of this kind have occurred
very high dams,
under circumstances so similar as to attract widespread attenThe cases were the Necaxa Dam in Mexico,
tion and comment.
and the Calaveras Dam in

At Necaxa the design
California.
dam was
such as to give two

embankments of porous material, largely rock, resting upon a
central
of the
embankment of clay, the latter having theoretical side

The base width of the outside embankments
i to i.
slopes of
composed of rock and sand, was about 350 feet on the upstream
side, and 250 feet on the downstream side, leaving for the cenThe outer slope of the
tral core a base width of about 365 feet.
of
and
that
the
to
downstream bank
was
bank
i,
3
upstream
2 to i.
STORAGE DAMS
The theory
429
was that, as the rock embankments

and
rested
advanced
upon the clay, they would aid in
forcing the water out of the clay by the superimposed weight,
of the design
in height
so that the portion of the clay underlying the rock at least
would become hard, while the center would harden later as the
weight of the clay increased. The materials were used in about
the proportions they occurred in the pits.
Owing to construction difficulties the progress of the upstream
behind, and was frequently left very narrow,

This defect persisted at a certhe place being filled with clay.
tain point near the center where the sluicing flumes from the
embankment
fell
two sides should have met but did not, leaving this part of the
rock very thin for a considerable elevation, and at this point the
break occurred. The clay suddenly burst through the bank
to the quantity of about 720,000
cubic yards. Also the defective bank was largely composed of an
eruptive rock having a specific gravity of only about 1.8, whereas
the downstream bank was largely of limestone with a specific
and flowed out into the reservoir
gravity of 3 or more.
The
reservoir
was empty at the time
of
failure.
The Calaveras
at the time of the
reservoir contained a depth of 55 feet of water

slip,
but in other respects there was a strong
similarity of conditions as
shown
in the following tabulation
from the Engineering News- Record:
TABLE XL.
TWO
Iv\RTH
DAM
SLIPS
DAMS
430
At
dam
the Calaveras
movement
of the
upstream dike
occurred on June 18, 1917.

Sluicing was immediately stopped
and the movement continued at a decreasing rate for three days
and then stopped, the total movement being between 2 and 3
was resumed on July 7, and continued for 12

days, when movement was again noticed and sluicing was
stopped. The steam shovel work on the dikes was continued,
however, and each dike widened 60 feet into the pool and raised
30 feet or so. The central core of liquid clay was raised 12 feet
feet.
Sluicing
by the sinking of the rock-fill into it. On February 12, 1918,

sluicing was resumed, and again stopped on March 4, on account
of further movement, which continued irregularly until March
24 when the failure occurred as a sudden movement. The
upstream dike broke and the liquid clay flowed out into the
These two
reservoir, overturning and burying the outlet tower.
as
well
as
small
at
the
Gatun
Dam
and elseaccidents,
slips
where, emphasize the importance of providing self-sustaining
stable dikes to confine sluiced clay, during the very slow hard-
ening process.
Where the material sluiced into the
dam
contains coarse
elements, as gravel or rock fragments, it is desirable to deposit

this on the slopes of the dam, and the finer material in the
interior,
where
it will
form a tight puddle
core.
The
coarse
material placed on the water slope will, if sufficiently coarse

and abundant, protect the dam from the destructive action
and that en the lower slope will protect it

the
erosion
of wind and rain, and on both slopes will
against
guard against sloughing. The entire body of the dam being
of the waves,
sluiced material settled in water will, if properly constituted and disposed as above described, form an ideal structure
of
in stability
the
method
and
efficiency for its purpose.
of transporting
as above described.
dam, which
Fig. 207 illustrates
mixed materials and disposing them
Parallel flumes are built lengthwise of the
receive the materials brought
from the
pit.
These
flumes are provided with gates on both sides that can be opened
and closed at will, and at the point where it is desired to dis-
charge the load, an iron screen or grillage with openings large
STORAGE DAMS
431
DAMS
432
enough to pass most
of the sluicing materials,
to stop the coarsest,
is
placed in the flume at
but small enough

an angle of about
45 degrees, just below an open gate on the side of the outer

slope of the dam, and this grillage deflects the coarse material
which
on the
falls
slope,
while the water carrying the finer

is discharged on the inner side
material rushes through and

As it
into the central pond.
falls,
the coarsest of the material
is deposited, and the water, no longer confined to a narrow

channel, can carry only the sand and clay. As the slope flattens
the sand is deposited, the coarsest first, and the fine nearer the
pond, while the clay and impalpable silt is carried into the pond,
and settles but slowly. A weir is provided where the surface
water is drawn off at a point as remote as convenient from
where the water enters the pond with
its
load of
silt.
There
always a tendency to stratification in the central pond, and

due precaution must be taken to prevent continuous strata
is
of
sand from extending through the puddle
core, as this
would
Such strata
furnish an opportunity for the passage of water.
in
men
about
be
broken
the
up by
wading
may
pond, and plunging boards or paddles into the mud as far as possible in such
a position as to cut the strata and permit the deposit of clay
in the cavities made by the paddles.
Hydraulic methods are best adapted to mixed materials,

as the sorting capacity of water can be utilized to separate the
and produce outer slopes of rock or gravel, which

have no tendency to slough, and will resist the action of waves
on the water side and the wind and rain on the other. The
different sizes
can thus be concentrated in the center, where if it

contains considerable loam or clay it forms a puddle core and
finer material
imparts a water-holding capacity to the structures.

Sometimes it is found desirable to excavate and transport
dam by dry methods, deposit it in dikes along

and then wash a portion of it into the center with a
the material to the
both
faces,
hydraulic
puddle
jet,
core.
methods
forming a pond in the center and producing a

This combination of hydraulic and mechanical
best adapted to localities where the material is a

mixture of coarse and fine, with many rocks too large to be
is
STORAGE DAMS
transported with water
or consolidated with a
and too numerous
roller,
to be rejected.
Except where the hy-
method
draulic
it
best
is
is
used,
put the
to
finest
and most
vious
material
water
face,
of this
is
impernear the
and
enough
if
readily available,
one-half or two-thirds of
dam
the
so
the lower
leaving
built,
be
should
third to be built of gravel
or other coarser material,
from
grading
coarse
to
fine
as
as
gradually
convenient, so that the
coarsest material used is
on the downstream
The
fine
to
transition
coarse
face.
from
material
should be as gradual as
possible, however, to prevent any tendency for
to
waters
percolating
material
fine
the
carry
The
through the gravel.

ideal condition
gous to a
very
filter,
is
analo-
where a
fine material is
em-
ployed on the water side

and becomes very gradually
coarser
in
the
the
flow
di-
of
rection
of
water.
The voids being
433
DAMS
434
everywhere too small for the passage of the
At
of earth in their vicinity.
better
still
should be
dam
gravel, as this
There
as tight as possible.
however, in having the
particles
however, and
on the water side,
least one-third,
one-half or two-thirds of the
made
finest
downstream part
has no tendency
is
decided advantage,
of the
to slough
dam composed
when
wet, and
of
it is
practically impossible for percolating water to erode channels

through gravel, as it will not bridge over like clay or loam,
any cavity formed and clog it. It

thus offers
any waters that may
percolate through the upstream part of the dam, and prevents
but
will generally fall into
ready and
safe drainage for
saturation of the interior, with
its
tendency to slough.
For
^ ^^*^ ^J^! ^/GraVel

3
e
Adjustable Spillway Crest and
Maximum Water Surface E1.4793^^
Permanent Crest of Spillway,
-JT'Hi'Vv
= _-ZZL-=T^^r
IJ^fe^GravelCore
/
*T!oncret
El.i7SS-
^<^^
s(
Parapet
W
El
Coarser
iic-i
"^.-^"Gravel
^<,.
:-l
Mater
d and Rol
elected
FIG. 209.
Section of Sherburne
Lake
jL.
am, showing Gravel Core and Drains
to Provide for Seepage Water.
these reasons, gravel is a very valuable building material for

dams, canal banks, and many other irrigation requirements.
Even
the impervious portion may be, and preferably should be

largely of gravel, as we have seen, although it requires an admixAn advantageous
ture of finer materials to make it tight.
use of gravel in an earthen dam is illustrated in Fig. 209. In

this case it was difficult to obtain sufficient gravel to form the
entire
downstream
half of the
dam, and
so a core of screened
gravel 10 feet thick was placed in the axis of the dam to receive
any water that might percolate through the upstream half of
the
dam and
away by
tile
conduct
drains.
lower half of the
The
it
readily to the base,
This
dam and
is
where
it is
carried
to prevent the saturation of the
the consequent tendency to slough.

of
the
screening
gravel was for the purpose of removing
STORAGE DAMS
435
DAMS
436
any sand which would tend
to clog
and render the drainage
imperfect.
on the lower toe

a long distance,
hauled
was
gravel
Fig. 196 illustrates another use of gravel,
of the
Owl Creek Dam. This
and placed in position to load the foundation at the lower toe,

where seepage under the dam might soften the earth. The
gravel prevents any tendency to slough, while allowing seepage
waters to escape harmlessly.
The rule that earthen dams should be
4. Rockfill Dams.
built of material fine
and water
tight
on the water
face,
and
grade very gradually into coarser material toward the down-
CROSS SECTION OF LOOSE-ROCK AND EARTH DAM

40
60
SCALE OF FEET
FIG. 211.
stream
Rock-Fill
face, suggests a
rock-fill,
where earth
Dam, Snake
River, Minidoka Project, Idaho.
combination often employed, of earth and

used on the side toward the reservoir,
is
side. The transition, however, should

be as gradual as possible, to prevent any leakage from washing
and
loose rock
on the other
the earth through the rock-fill and causing a breach. If suitable

is plentiful near by, it is much cheaper to
place than the
earth
and will naturally predominate, but where it is scarce,

must be transported a long distance, economy may require
the use of rock in the main body of the dam, with only enough
earth to form a water-tight blanket on the water face. Where
rock,
or
insufficient earth for this
purpose
sary to secure water-tightness

rock-fill type,
is
available, it
becomes neces-
by other methods, and we have the
pure and simple.
Where a dam is built of loose rock, it is necessary to employ

some special measures to secure water-tightness. This is some-
ROCKFILL DAMS
437
times obtained by providing a deck of lumber on the water face,

carefully caulked and fastened to timbers built into the rock.
The lumber deck should be
liberally treated
with asphalt or
PLAN
C ft oss
FIG. 212.
SECTION
Plan and Cross-section of
Bowman Dam.
durable paint to preserve it from warping and deterioration,

and it should be inspected and repaired whenever the water is
drawn out of the reservoir.
DAMS
438
Steel has also been employed to form a water-tight deck

on a loose-rock dam, and serves the purpose well if protected
from oxidation. It must have frequent expansion joints to
provide for changes in temperature.

In some cases a corewall of masonry
is
built in the center to
Dam
secure water-tightness, and in one case, the lower Otay

in Lower California (Fig. 214) a diaphragm of steel was employed
This diaphragm was onean inch thick near the base, and one-quarter of an inch
in conjunction with the corewall.
third of
ELEVATION
FIG. 213.
Elevation, Plan, and Cross-section of Castle wood
Dam,
Colorado.
It was anchored firmly to the masonry

the upper part.
foundation, and coated with asphalt applied hot. A layer of
burlap was applied to the asphalt while still hot, and over this
in
a harder grade of asphalt wp,s applied, and the whole was encased
in a rubble masonry wall laid in Portland cement concrete.
This wall was 6 feet thick at the base, tapering to 2 feet at the
height of 8 feet, which thickness was maintained to the top.
150 feet
dam was
and the rock was

The dam was
face slopes about i to i.
high above the bottom of foundation, and 565 feet long
The top width of

dumped in place with
the
12 feet,
ROCKFILL DAMS
439
440
DAMS
FIG. 215.
Elevation and Cross-section of Walnut Grove
Vv.-,..-r :
.<..^
,',
gSg/^-z^ '/<~12/L
oo.
40-
60'
Dam.
'
CROSS-SECTION OF DAM
FIG. 2 1 6.
Rock-filled Steel-core
Dam, Lower Otay,
Cal.
ROCKFILL DAMS
441
on top, forming a reservoir of 42,000 acre-feet capacity. A

few hundred feet east of the dam a channel was cut through
the rock, 30 feet wide, to a depth 10 feet below the crest of the
dam,
form a spillway. This proved to be insufficient, and

storm of January, 1915, the reservoir filled and the
to
in the great
dam was
area
is
overtopped by the flood and destroyed. The drainage

about 12 square miles, and the capacity of the spillway
about 5000 feet per second, with water standing even with the
crest of the
dam.
The Walnut Grove

fill
dam
in
that was washed out
by a great
rock-fill
Dam
flood wave.
Arizona
is
another case of a rock-
by overtopping
These
failures
of the structure
do not condemn the
type of construction, but emphasize the importance of
providing abundant spillway capacity so that by no possibility

can the dam be overtopped by flood waters. For similar reasons
it is
and best rocks obtainable be

and above the downstream toe of the dam, to resist
desirable that the largest
placed at
any excessive leakage that might accidentally occur. When

properly built of good, sound, durable rock, and supplemented
by an ample spillway, the rock-fill type of dam has no superior
for
safety
and permanency, and
has,
indeed,
advantages in resisting earthquake shocks,
some apparent
CHAPTER
XVIII
MASONRY DAMS
MASONRY DAMS may
be
classified
materials of construction into four
with reference to their
main types
Coursed masonry, or cut stone laid in cement mortar.

Rubble masonry, or rough uncoursed stone laid in cement
1.
2.
mortar or concrete.
Cyclopean concrete or concrete with large
3.
"
plums
"
embedded
stones
or
therein.
Plain concrete.
4.
Where rock is of best quality, coursed cr ashlar masonry will

require the minimum quantity of cement, and will also afford
maximum
the
weight and resistance to crushing, since this
type employs the
mum of mortar,
maximum
and
proportion of stone and the ministone is both heavier and stronger
first-class
than any mortar or concrete that can be made.
By
reason of the courses
it
is
less firmly
than other types of masonry, and
may
bonded together
have therefore
less
The work
of shapshearing strength along horizontal courses.

ing the stones also involves expense, and for these reasons
ashlar masonry is not often used unless cement is very costly
or a good appearance
Rough
cement
is
is
especially desirable.
uncoursed rubble requires .more cement, but unless

very costly is generally cheaper than ashlar because
of less labor involved,
and
large rock bind the
dam
give
it
its
random character and use
together into a monolith,
of
very
and thus
greater shearing strength, with less tendency to crack.

is much used and is very desirable and economical
This type
where good rock is abundant. The stones are usually embedded

cement mortar, while concrete may be used to fill vertical
in
joints.
442
CLASSIFICATION OF MASONRY DAMS
443
Cyclopean concrete has large and small rock embedded in it,

differs from rubble mainly in the fact that the former uses
and
rock to a greater extent, while in the latter concrete predominates.
manual labor, and is cheaper under most cirIt is now

while
cumstances,
giving very satisfactory results.
more generally employed than any of the other types.
It requires less
The
used where good rock

is not convenient, and gives good results, though not so heavy
nor theoretically quite so strong as the other types, unless
fourth type, Plain Concrete,
is
reinforced with steel.

Classification of
i.
may
Masonry Dams.
Dams
built of
masonry
be divided into two classes according to their design:
1.
upon
2.
Gravity Dams, or those depending for stability entirely

their weight.
Arch Dams, or those depending for stability mainly upon

an arch, by which the water pressure is trans-
their action as
mitted to the abutments.
There are
instantly
fail
dependence
many
instances of
dams
for stability.
in service that
would
weight were the only

in plan, and resist
are
curved
They
under water pressure
if
On the other hand there

the pressure of water by arch action.
are also many dams which are straight and cannot possibly
Since
act as arches, and are stable only because of their weight.
this
conhave
considerable
dam
must
weight,
every masonry
stitutes in every
case an important element of its stability,

into each other in a very indefinite
and the two types merge

manner.
Many
high
dams have been
ally safe as gravity structures,
built
on gravity
lines, theoretic-
but also curved to form an arch
added assurance of stability. Intermediate types with

scant gravity section but arched in plan, and others of gravity
section and only slightly curved have also been constructed.
as an
Some curvature
of plan is always desirable in every masonry

should
be
and
dam,
provided unless the expense is excessive.
Whatever its coefficient of safety as a gravity structure, this
can be increased by curving the plan, so that the
dam
can
MASONRY DAMS
444
neither slide nor overturn without crushing the
abutments.
masonry or
its
This precaution does not prevent nor interfere
with the stability due to gravity and cohesion, and only comes
into play to supplement them in case they prove insufficient,
and the arch action takes only those stresses which are beyond
those provided for
by gravity.
Methods of Failure. A masonry dam may
one or more of three methods:
2.
By
By
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
by any
on the foundation or on any horizontal joint.

overturning around the downstream toe or any part
sliding
downstream slope
of the
fail
as a fulcrum.
By crushing the foundation or the masonry.

By undermining the foundation, either by
blacklash of
water pouring over the top, or by piping underneath the

by water under pressure.
dam
Failures sometimes occur
by a combination of the above

For example the excavation of a deep hole by water
falling below the toe of a dam on a weak foundation may remove
the supporting rock to such an extent as to cause failure by
causes.
sliding or overturning,
which might not have occurred had the
toe been properly protected.
masonry dam generally has an
indefinite
element of strength due to the cohesion of

taken to make it of monolithic character.
but important
care be
its parts, if
This
is
an added
security especially against failure by sliding on a joint of the

masonry, as this also involves in that case the shearing of the
monolith along that joint. This applies especially to gravity

dams, the monolithic character being not quite so important
in arch dams, which cannot fail without crushing the masonry
or abutments, except
3.
by undermining.
Pressures in Masonry. One of the
questions arising
the safe limit of pressure
and in the foundation. There are really two
in the design of a high

in the
masonry
first
masonry dam
is
questions requiring careful consideration, namely, the bearing

power of the natural rock in place, and the crushing strength
of the concrete.
If the foundation is a good quality of lime-
PRESSURES IN MASONRY
stone, sandstone or crystalline rock,
445
will sustain
it
pressure than any concrete, and the problem
is
a greater
reduced to the
question of safe pressures on concrete, as this must in the base

sustain substantially the same pressures as the foundation.
If,
however, the rock is one of the numerous varieties of soft rock

or shale it should be carefully tested for its bearing power.
This
a
be
done
measured
may
by carefully smoothing
portion of the
rock in place, building a concrete block upon it, and loading
this with steel rails or other heavy material to an amount
it is desired to have it carry in the consubsidence
should be carefully noted, and the
Any
experiment should be repeated on various parts of the rock in
Weak zones
question, especially if it appears to vary in quality.
greater than the load

struction.
are to be feared
in importance
most near the toe
is
have
foundation
less
maximum
dam, and next to
of the
The
that at the heel.
load,
this
interior parts of the
and are confined
so
thoroughly that they will sustain higher pressures. If tests of

rock near the toe show notable yielding under the load to be
imposed, the limits of pressure must be lowered by spreading
the base or otherwise, until they can be safely carried
material available.
The
by the
is a
very broad
which
much
has
been
written
and
subject upon
many experiments have been made. Many elaborate formulas have been
safe bearing loads for natural rock
proposed for computing the bearing power of various natural

soils, but the impossibility of accurately defining the properties
variable materials prevents any exact mathematical
treatment of the subject. For the same reason it is difficult
of the
many
any but rough rules for guidance.

Pure clay is poor foundation wherever it is subject to saturation, as it becomes plastic when wet, and unless thoroughly
to formulate
confined
when
in that condition, has little bearing power.
well compacted,
and heavily loaded,
such an extent that

foot.
it will
it
If
excludes the water to
safely sustain a pressure of 4 tons
per square
Sand has safely carried loads of from 4 to 5 tons to the square
Soft rock and shale have
foot, and gravel will carry still more.
MASONRY DAMS
446
been safely loaded to the extent
of 8 to 10 tons,
and harder
rocks will carry much heavier loads with safety, reaching in

the case of granite a crushing strength of hundreds of tons per
Any good sandstone, or limestone, or any rearock

hard
has a higher crushing strength than cement
sonably
mortar or concrete, and hence the safe bearing loads upon
square foot.
masonry, where good rock is used, depend upon the quality of

the mortar or concrete with which the masonry is bonded, and
For
the thinner the mortar joints the greater bearing power.
this reason ashlar or cut-stone masonry with thin joints has
especially high resistance to crushing.
As concrete
tant to
make
is
nearly always used in compression,
crushing tests
important structure.
cubes, or
upon
These
samples to
upon
it is imporbe used in any
made upon 6-inch

diameter. Any of the
tests are usually
cylinders 6 inches in
standard testing machines are satisfactory for this purpose,

and if such are not obtainable, the test pieces may be loaded
with pig
sacks of cement,
iron,
materials of
known
weight, or
other convenient heavy

conveniently, a lever may
or
more
be used and an equivalent test made with much less weight.

It is important that such tests be made to try out the sand and
gravel to be used, as these are sometimes unsuitable, without
showing any signs of their defects except upon test.
Table
and some
XLI
gives
some pressures
of actual service conditions,
tests to destruction.
Creager gives the following for the compression strength of

concrete of various combinations;
Proportions.
Age
Month.
in
pounds per square

Age
6 Months.
1:2:4
35> 000
470,000
1:2^:5
310,000
420,000
1:3:6
280,000
380,000
1:4:8
230,000
300,000
1:5:10
180,000
250,000
1 50,000
200,000
12
foot:
FAILURE BY SLIDING
TABLE XLL
Structure
PRESSURES ON MASONRY
447
MASONRY DAMS
448
values for friction have been published, but should be accepted

with caution, because of the impossibility of reproducing the
exact conditions:
TABLE
XLII.
EXPERIMENTAL COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION

Materials
FAILURE BY OVERTURNING
449
overturn without crushing either the masonry or its abutments.

Any good masonry is well-adapted to withstand compressive
stresses,
and
feasible.
It
on this that reliance should be placed when

sometimes urged that with a moderate curve
it is
is
to a long radius the compression
on the voussoirs
of the arch
and the abutments would exceed safe limits. This argument

based on the assumption that all the pressure upon the dam
This
is taken by the arch and transmitted to the abutments.
is
impossible to deprive a masonry dam

of its weight, it has resistance as a cantilever irrespective of
its plan, and no strains can be transmitted by the arch to the
is
Since
impossible.
it is
abutments until the resistance due to gravity and shear have

been brought into play. The arch can be made to take only
the residue, and if large strains are transmitted to the abutments,
it
merely emphasizes the necessity of the curved plan,

straight dam on the same section would be
and proves that a

likely to fail.
The tendency
a masonry
from a theoThe tenretical examination of any short section of the dam.
of
a
short
of
the
such
section
dam, if near
dency to overturn
the center, is met by the necessity of shearing away from the
adjoining sections, and the shearing strength of so large a mass
5.
dam
of
Failure
by Overturning.
of
to overturn
is
in practice less than appears
good masonry
is
very great.
The foundation
of the
dam
is
usually V-shaped, and the whole dam cannot overturn on the

lowest point of the foundation as a fulcrum, and the only line
dam is
dam must
available as a fulcrum for the entire
overturn around such a
line, the
near the top. To

rupture on a hori-
zontal plane passing entirely through the dam, the resistance

to which would be very great if the dam is well built.
These considerations
all
add
to
the
security of the
dam
against overturning over that indicated by the weight of the

masonry and the pressure of the water, both of which are definite
elements, in which the probable error of calculation is small.
It is significant that our records furnish
of
masonry dams by
been numerous.
no instance of
overturning, while failures
by
failure
sliding
have
MASONRY DAMS
450
6.
The above
Miscellaneous Forces.
discussion considers
merely the water pressure in the reservoir, as resisted by the

weight of the masonry. There are many other forces to be
taken into account under certain circumstances, which
may
be at times of considerable importance:

1.
2.
3.
Ice pressure.
Hydrostatic
Wind
uplift.
pressure.
In tropical and semitropical regions,
be considered, and the same
ice pressure
need never
rule applies to the southern tier of
But where winter extremes go

States of the United States.
below zero Fahrenheit, and the reservoir is likely to be full at
such times, ice pressure should be considered. In some cases,
where reservoirs are used mainly
perate regions, they are
for irrigation, in cold or
drawn down
in the
tem-
autumn and cannot
be entirely filled until the snows melt in the spring, and in

such cases ice pressure cannot occur with full reservoir and need
not be considered.
Little positive
data
is
available as to actual ice pressures

F. and
Ice forms at temperatures of 32

in volume as the temperature
contracts
and
below,
in large reservoirs.
this
falls.
If
contraction produces cracks, they usually fill with water

When the temperafreezes, forming a solid mass again.
which
ture rises the ice expands, and

such as adjacent bridge piers,
which may vary from a small

800 pounds per square inch. In a
sides, no such stresses can occur, and it is
crushing strength of the
amount
to
something
reservoir with sloping
seldom that
confined between rigid bodies,

may exert a thrust equal to the
if
ice,
like
much allowance must be made
for
this
thrust.
Local conditions should be carefully considered in each case.

A precedent often quoted is a recommendation of a board
of
eminent engineers that an allowance of 43,000 pounds per

be made for ice pressure in the design for the Quaker
linear foot
Dam. No definite reason was given for this large allowand the precedent was not extensively followed.
Ice pressure may be prevented by breaking or cutting it
Bridge
ance,
MISCELLANEOUS FORCES
along the
by
dam when
it
Its thrust
forms.
451
may
be minimized
presenting a sloping face to the reservoir at the surface of
the water
a.
when
full.
Hydrostatic
The most important
Uplift.
force
to
be
considered and provided for in addition to the water pressure

in the reservoir is the buoyant force of water entering the
foundation or the masonry of the dam under the hydrostatic

head of the reservoir, with a tendency to lift or float the
dam.
Since
most materials
in nature are
not perfectly water-
tight, but generally contain seams along which water can travel,
it is practically impossible to exclude water entirely from the
foundation.
It
is
almost equally
difficult to
construct masonry
so perfect in all its parts as to entirely prevent water under

For these
pressure from entering the structure to some extent.
reasons
design.
necessary to
it is
make some allowance
for uplift in the
With the
greatest practicable care, it is impossible to

in advance to what extent uplift will take place
determine
Reasoning thus, some engineers

have contended that the only safe course is to assume that the
dam will be subjected throughout any horizontal plane to an
in the completed structure.
the entire hydrostatic head corresponding to

the depth of water in the reservoir above the surface of the water
in the stream below, and that the dam must be made heavy
uplift equal
to
enough to be stable under such conditions.* If such a cond'tion

were possible, it would be necessary to consider it, and to make
provision for such part of
prevented or overcome.
The
condition assumed
it
as could not with certainty be
cannot in fact exist or even be
For
hydrostatic head to be
exerted upon an entire horizontal joint, requires that there be
no point of contact between the masses of rock or masonry above
approximated
in
practice.
full
It
joint in which such pressure occurs.
there
be
no
for
the
that
water
at
the
escape
requires, moreover,
lower face of the dam, but that it be absolutely confined without
Both these conditions are practically impossible
loss of head.
and below the plane or
even with the most unfavorable conditions and the poorest

*
Van Buren,
Trans.
Am.
Soc. C. E., Vol. 34, p. 493.
MASONRY DAMS
452
Under the worst conditions that

materials and workmanship.
cculd obtain in practice, actual contact would exist through
nearly one-half the area of any horizontal joint, and
if
the struc-
ture were reasonably homogeneous, it would afford escapes from

the lower face of the dam so abundant that though large leak-
age might occur, the hydrostatic head would be nearly or quite
consumed in friction in its passage through or under the dam,

and could not be in full force throughout the joint as assumed.
We know from abundant experience that concrete can be
made so nearly impervious that any leakage must be extremely
slow and through such minute passages that any appreciable
velocity of the percolating waters must consume a large amount
of head in friction.
We also know that many natural rocks,
such as limestones, shales, and most crystalline rocks, are practically impervious except along seams, and that the existence
of these may be discovered and largely provided for.
As far as the masonry is concerned, it is entirely possible
with proper design and good workmanship to practically eliminate
internal water pressures, first by excluding the water

extra
care in placing the best selected materials used in the
by
construction of the water face of the dam, and second by pro-
viding an adequate drainage system just below the water face

so that any percolating waters may be intercepted and carried
away harmlessly before penetrating any considerable distance
Such provisions have been made in many

recent high dams and results show them to be effective.
In the Arrowrock Dam on the Boise River in Idaho, besides
into the structure.
using a rich mixture of Portland cement mortar and placing it

with special care in the water face of the dam, further tightness
was secured by coating the surface of the structure with

"
"
or the product of the cement gun, projected with
gunnite
force
great
against the face of the dam to which it firmly
and
form.s a dense and practically impervious plaster
adheres,
of cement.
At a distance
of the
dam
of 5 feet
downstream from the upstream
face
a series of open wells were built into the masonry,

at intervals of 5 feet parallel to the axis of the dam, and 5 feet
DESIGN OF GRAVITY DAMS
453
of this row another similar row of wells was provided

with the location of each well staggered with reference to the
This reservoir has been filled to overflow
wells of the first row.
back
several times,
and each time remained

In
full
or nearly full for
time the only leakage has been

several weeks.
through those drainage wells that coincide with the contraction
joints of the
this
all
dam.
Similar provisions against uplift in the masonry have been

carried into effect with complete success at the Elephant Butte
on the Yadkin
in New Mexico, and the Narrows
Dam
Dam
River in North Carolina.
was
At the
latter the water-proof coating
of gas tar instead of gunnite.
It is thus
shown
to
siderable uplift in the
be entirely practicable to prevent any conitself by rigidly providing certain

exclude such forces from the foundation,
masonry
To
simple precautions.
The precautions to be taken must
is not so easy.
depend to a large extent upon the character of the foundation,
extending far below the base of the dam where detailed con-
however,
ditions can be only imperfectly
precautions these
dams were
known.
In addition to these
built in vertical sections or
columns
formed by providing joints or seams passing through the dam

normal to its axis, and oiling these seams to prevent adhesion
of adjacent sections.
Alternate sections were carried to con-
and allowed to season before the intervening

sections were built, and the latter were placed in cold weather,
so that in warm weather the entire structure was placed in
siderable height
compression by the expansion due to temperature.
through the dam was provided

with one of the drainage wells above described, to intercept any
leakage due to opening of the joint from any cause. The pre-
Each
of the vertical joints
caution of building alternate sections in cold weather seems to

effective in tightly closing these joints as very little
have been
leakage has been detected.
From the preceding pages it

of Gravity Dams.
be so designed and conthat
must
the
dam
appears
gravity
structed as to have the following characters
7.
Design
It
must be
free
from tension, especially on the water
face.
MASONRY DAMS
454
2.
3.
4.
must be safe against sliding on any joint or on foundation.

It must be safe against overturning.
The pressures upon any plane of the masonry or foundation
It
must be kept within safe limits.

5. The entrance of water under pressure
into the
foundation should be prevented as far as possible,

occurs, should be relieved
masonry or
and where it
by drainage.
Core Hole.
Grouted.
2%
*-
FIG. 217.
Section of Elephant Butte
Dam, Rio Grande, N. M.
455
MASONRY DAMS
456
the character of the work and the materials of construction
If
and the foundation is good rock, the first three of the

above requirements are generally met by so designing the dam
are good,
that the resultant line of pressure of all forces acting upon the
under all conditions, fall within the middle third of the
dam will,
foundation or of any horizontal joint.

If practicable
distance from the
it is
dam
desirable to provide a spillway at such a

as to avoid any menace to the dam or its
foundations from the energy of the falling water, and avoid the
If the
necessity of passing water over the top of the dam.
foundation
is good, however, it is feasible to pass the flood waters

over the top by making suitable provisions therefor in the
design.
Any mobile liquid like water, when free to move, exerts a

pressure at any point which is equal in all directions.
The pressure of a uniform column of water upon a unit surequal to the height of the column multiplied by the
weight of a unit volume of water. At the surface of a lake the
pressure is zero. At the depth of 10 feet the pressure upon a
face
is
square inch surface is equal to the weight of a column of water

In other words,
of i inch cross-sectional area and 10 feet high.
the pressure of water on a unit area of a dam increases directly
and may be resisted by a reaction increasing in
as the depth,
like progression.
It
therefore be represented
may
having
apex at the surface of the water
plane of the bottom of the reservoir.
its
Considering this triangle as
made up
and
by a
its
triangle
base in the
of a series of horizontal
courses of masonry, the width of base of the triangle

found by the following formula:
may
be
T~W'j
where
T = thickness in feet of dam at a given depth
= depth in feet
w = weight of a cubic foot of water in pounds
= weight of a cubic foot of masonry in pounds;
/ = coefficient of friction of one course of masonry upon
d
the course below
it.

Taking the weight
masonry as 2.3 that of water, and the

.6, we have from the above equation, as a
of
coefficient of friction as
condition of equilibrium so far as sliding
margin
of
457
is
safety against sliding
increasing the coefficient of d,
and
still
concerned,
may
be provided by
more by bonding the
dam
firmly to its foundation, and building it as a monolith,

so that it cannot slide without shearing the masonry of the
structure, or the rock in its foundation.
Reference is made above to the advantage of building a

gravity dam as a monolith, as this introduces a resistance to
shear that strengthens it against sliding on a horizontal joint,
and also against some other methods of failure. There are
some
reasons,
normal
however, for providing definite vertical joints
to the axis of the
dam, and these reasons have led to the

some of the large masonry
adoption of such joints in the design of
dams
recently built.
The
principal reasons for this provision
are two:
Experience has shown that any mass of masonry of considerable length subjected to wide ranges of temperature is
liable to crack under the influence of cold, and if built mono-
these cracks are ragged and irregular and grains of sand

and mortar are loosened to be crushed when warm weather
closes the crack, and thus incipient disintegration is invited.
They may admit water to the interior of the dam and introduce
internal pressures at points where no provision has been made
for taking care of it.
These troubles may be reduced by buildlithic,
ing the dam in separate sections with definite predetermined

contraction joints normal to the axis of the dam, which can
in cold weather without rupturing the masonry, and where
any leakage caused can be intercepted by drains provided in
open
advance.
Another good reason
for providing
such joints
is
the advisa-
New concrete does

bility of avoiding any horizontal joints.
not adhere well to that which has been seasoned for some time.
When masonry work
is
spread over a large surface like the
458
MASONRY DAMS
r
=,
s8JI
459
horizontal section of a large dam, where the surface area may

reach 20,000 or 30,000 square feet, it is impossible to always
place masonry on former work before it has become seasoned,
'
Elcv. 3215 _j<15-G>
ff
t
Spillway
BOISE PROJECT IDAHO
ARROWROCK DAM
MAXIMUM CROSS SECTION
SCALE OF FEET
|
30
20
20
10
GO
40
Xist of Drawings
and plan of construction work
1 General map
2 Maximum cross section
3 Plan of dam and diversion works
4 Elevation of developed upstream face
5 Plan and section of spillwaj
G Typical section of diversion tunnel

7 Cross sections north wingwalls at tunnel
inlet
and
outlet
8 Cross sections south wingwalls at tunnel

inlet and outlet
9 Cross sections of cofferdam
ut holes at 10
FIG. 220.
Maximum
Section of Arrowrock
ft.
erg.
Dam.
more likely to be the exception

however, the work be confined within forms
in fact this desirable condition
is
than the rule. If,

bounding certain definite sections of limited area, this can be
carried on at such a rate that new work can always be placed
MASONRY DAMS
460
on previous work not yet seasoned, and good bond thus obtained
while work on that section is continued. When it becomes
desirable,
after several
that section, to leave
it
weeks or months of concentration on
and go
to another, elaborate pains can
be taken to leave the surface in such shape with projecting

stones, etc., that a good bond will be obtained when work is
resumed at that point. We thus secure greater immunity from
horizontal joints
mined
by providing a
definite vertical joints.
limited
number
of predeter-

It
is,
461
however, important to take precautions against the

open in cold weather. To
liability of the contraction joints to
this, it is important to carry the masonry up in alternate

columns, leaving a number of gaps in the dam to be filled with
prevent
masonry
after
the adjacent columns have become seasoned.

is generated in the chemical
process that
Considerable heat
takes place in setting cement, and as this stage passes, the

cooling process contracts the concrete, producing a tendency
to crack.
If the intermediate sections are postponed until this
contraction has taken place, and also while the further contraction of cold weather is at or near its maximum, a condition is
reached wherein the masonry in place is at minimum volume,

and by then filling in between them in late winter and early
spring, the
summer temperature
will place the
whole mass in
compression, and tend to prevent cracking. It is best to make

the sections built last much smaller than their predecessors,
so as to secure the greatest effect of the precaution described.
The
vertical joints should be designed with offsets so as to
present a series of right-angled turns in the path of any leakage

water passing through. The joints should be oiled to prevent
adherence, and each joint should be provided with a vertical
drainage well near the upstream face, to intercept any leakage
and conduct it to the drainage tunnel. (See Fig. 219.) The
construction of the
dam
in
columns
is
illustrated
by
the view of
Elephant Butte Dam, where this was done. (See Fig. 222.)
This dam is a demonstration of the success of this measure,
which has had no bad effects, and has reduced the leakage to
a very small amount.
The condition that the line representing the resultant of
all the forces acting upon the dam shall everywhere fall within
the middle third of the cross-section of the dam, usually requires
a thickness from two-thirds to three-fourths of the depth of
sustained, depending upon the weight of the
This
gives a factor of safety of two or more against
masonry.
failure by overturning by revolving about the lower toe as a
fulcrum. As the lower toe is an undulating line, rising to-
water
to
be
ward both ends
of the
dam,
it
cannot constitute such a fulcrum,
MASONRY DAMS
462
and no part of the dam can overturn without shearing the

masonry in one or more planes, which gives a large added
coefficient of safety in this respect.
the
Pure theory of resistance of water pressure requires that

dam have a thickness of zero at the highest water level.
To prevent
overflow from wave action or abnormal
and as a margin
water
FIG. 222.
Elephant Butte
of
safety
it is
rise of
the
necessary to carry the
Dam, showing Construction
in Alternate
Columns.
masonry somewhat higher, and practical considerations demand

an appreciable thickness at the top. It is usually desirable
to use the top of the dam as a roadway and for this and other
practical reasons to give it a thickness of from 10 to 16 feet,
The water face is usually

or nearly so, and the lower face may also be
to the plane where the thickness must increase
depending upon the circumstances.
made
vertical
vertical
down
in order to
fall
meet the requirement that the resultant
within the middle third.
This
is
of forces
secured in the average
463
by sloping the downstream face on a slope of about 3

horizontal to 4 vertical, varying, however, with the weight of
case
These slopes may continue downward from the

top to the point where the pressure on foundation at the lower
toe, reservoir full, and on the heel, reservoir empty, reaches
the masonry.
the safe limit of pressure either
upon masonry or upon foundation.
Rubble
Concrete
Scale, 1 inch =50 feet
FIG. 223.
At
Dam,
this point the slope of the lower face
about
To
Cross-section of Periar
India.
must be increased
to
on
i, to prevent increase of unit pressures, reservoir full.

prevent increase of pressure on the heel a slope of the upper
face
must be adopted, which
fast or faster
will increase the
bearing surface as
than the vertical pressure.
It is sufficient, as a
rough
rule, to
begin the batter just above
MASONRY DAMS
464
the point where the limit of pressure is reached, and carry

a ratio of i horizontal to 10 vertical.
it
down on
reasonable and logical to assume a higher limit of safe

pressure at the heel of the dam than at the toe, because the former limits can be reached only when the reservoir is entirely
It
is
empty, which
that time will
to
will
seldom occur in practice, and a failure at

without menace
affect only the structure itself,
human life or
to other property
than the dam.
Riveriftd
FIG. 224.
On
Cross-section of
the other
Masonry Dam, New Croton Dam,
hand the pressures on the
Cornell's.
toe reach their maxi-
mum only when the reservoir is full, which is supposed to happen

frequently,
and
failure
under such circumstances would entail
awful havoc, devastation, and loss of
life.
Such
possibilities
always -demand much higher factors of safety than cases where

such vast risks of life and property are not involved.
The primary reason
for the
requirement that the resultant of

forces always fall within the middle third
is
465
the desirability of
masonry. This is far more

on
the
water
face
of
the
dam than on the downimportant
stream face. If the resultant of forces, reservoir full, falls withavoiding any
tensile stresses in the
out the middle third, it tends to produce tension on the water

face.
This is extremely undesirable, as it tends to open cracks
in the
at times
when water under
pressure is ready to
enter such cracks and exert a pressure tending both to overturn the dam and to cause sliding, at the time when failure
masonry
would be most disastrous.
At the same time
in question gives us a
of safety against overturning.
The avoidance
foundation
voir
full,
is
margin
of tension
the requirement
on the water face
dam
of the
or
so important that the resultant of pressure, reser-
should be kept sufficiently inside the middle third to
amply cover any errors that can occur in the assumed weight of
masonry, force of wind and waves,
of water in the reservoir.
Should the resultant
fall
ice thrust, or
extreme height
outside the middle third, reservoir
tend to produce tension on the downstream slope

empty,
of the dam, which is theoretically undesirable, but not
nearly
so important as if it occurred on the other side, first, because
it
will
there is no water to enter the masonry on the downstream slope,

and second, because it occurs with reservoir empty, when there
is no real
danger of failure, and no life or property menaced
thereby.
On
the other
as the resultant passes
hand the tension that
theoretically begins
from the middle to the outer
third, is
based on the assumption that the masonry is rigid and inelastic.

Any elastic yield will tend to modify the theory, and slightly
shift
built
the point at which the tension begins.

Moreover, wellwill
stand
some
tension
and
masonry
good practice some-
times allows a tensile stress in concrete of 50 pounds per square

inch.
Standard specifications require a strength of 150 pounds
per square inch at thirty days, for Portland cement mortar, and
good cement
with further age.

of the resultant to fall outside of the
will greatly increase this
Any tendency
middle
third on the water side, reservoir empty, is necessarily accompanied by greater vertical pressure at and near the water face,
466
MASONRY DAMS
FIG. 226.
Plan of Roosevelt
Dam,
Arizona.
467
MASONRY DAMS
468
-158 feet-
Scale of Feet
10
FIG. 227.
20
Maximum
30
40
50
Cross-section, Roosevelt
Dam,
Arizona.
DESIGN OF ARCH DAMS
469
this tends at all stages of the reservoir to close and keep

closed possible horizontal openings, and thus to exclude water
from the masonry. There is, of course, no danger of the dam
and
overturning toward the reservoir when it is empty.

It is thus seen that there is no valid objection to allowing
the resultant of pressure, reservoir empty, to fall slightly outside the middle third, so long as the actual pressures on masonry
are kept within safe limits.
8.
Design
Arch Dams.
of
any masonry dam
As pointed out on page 449

can be made more secure against sliding and
overturning than it would otherwise be by building it on a

curved plan, convex upstream. This makes it impossible for
the dam to yield to the water pressure, without crushing the
masonry or abutments, thus utilizing forces not brought into

play by its resistance simply as a gravity structure.
Navier's formula for computing water stresses on the voissoirs of an arch is as follows:
Where Q = the compressive
stress
upon any
strip of unit
width
extending through the dam, at any given depth;

=
P horizontal pressure on unit surface at the same depth
R = radius
This value
pressure
is
is
of the curve of the extrados of the arch.
based entirely on the assumption that all the

by the arch. It shows that the pressure
sustained
inversely as the length of the radius, and therefore the longer

the radius the greater the pressure, and the thicker must be
is
dam
the
section.
As we shorten the
radius
we reduce
the stresses and thus
permit reduction of the thickness of the dam, but at the same

time we have increased its length. Jorgenson has shown that
the gain exceeds the loss in a decreasing amount until we have
a radius equal to less than five-ninths of the width of the canyon
at the dam site, shortly after which the balance gradually shifts
the other way.
The
This gives an arc of a
little
theoretical advantage in using so long
over 133 degrees.

arc, or in other
an
MASONRY DAMS
470
Pathfinder Dam, North Platte River, Wyoming. Lower face showing

concrete ladder, and 6500 second-feet of water discharging from tunnel.
FIG. 228.
DESIGN OF ARCH DAMS
471
MASONRY DAMS
472
words, so short a radius over that of a somewhat longer radius

small, as the diminished thickness of the dam tends to diminish
is
its
resistance as a cantilever,
and increase
its
susceptibility to
In practice, therefore, it is desirable to make the

included angle about 120 degrees if the physical conformation
vibration.
of the
dam
site is suitable.
SECTION A-B
FIG. 230.
All
dam
Meer Allum Dam,

sites are
SECTION C-D
India.
Plan and Section of One Arch.
wider at top than at bottom, and most of

letter V.
It
them have a shape somewhat resembling the
follows, therefore, that to obtain the greatest practical benefit
from the arch action it becomes necessary to vary the radius

from a very short one near the bottom, to a longer one at the top.
This design of
dam
has been called the
"
constant angle
dam, or more often the
patented by F. G.
fornia.
Baum & Company,
The Salmon River
Dam
of
"
"
variable radius
"
dam, and has been

San Francisco, Cali-
near Juneau, Alaska, has been
DESIGN OF ARCH DAMS
473
on this principle, and to a less degree of exactness, the

Lake Spaulding Dam on the South Yuba River in California.
The most convenient and clearest expression is to state the
curvature in terms of the radius, and this in terms of the width
built
of the canyon, or in other
words
the chord of the angle.
rough rule
of curvature
in
for the
change
an arch dam
which secures the benefit

and
variable principle
due weight
siderations,
to
is
of the
gives
practical conto begin at the
bottom with a radius

of
three-quarters
that level, and
of
about
the chord at
change
this
radius gradually and uniformly

toward the top, ending at the
i-.
FIG. 231.
20 '--
Cross-section of Bear
Valley Dam, California.

top with a radius nearly fiveninths the length of the chord at that level. This will vary
the subtended angle from about 84 degrees at the bottom to

about 120 degrees at the top. It will secure the benefit of
cantilever action near
FIG. 232.
the bottom where most important and
Plan and Elevation of Bear Valley Dam, California.
avoid most of the practical difficulties of construction involved

in a too rigid adherence to a constant angle.
In many cases a dam site widens rapidly near the top, and
becomes too wide
to be closed
by a dam acting
as
an arch,
MASONRY DAMS
474
while the lower part of the site is well adapted to such an arch
In such a case, it is often possible to build
design.
masonry
abutments as gravity structures
of
moderate height, and thus
--=^--891-
make
--SI
881
a necessary span for the arch, of 400 or 500
adapted
to closure
by an arch.
The
artificial
feet, well-
abutments become
simply tangential continuations of the arch. They are straight

gravity dams, and receive endwise the thrust of the arch.
MASONRY OVERFALL DAMS

9.
Masonry
Overfall
Dams.
Where
water shall flow over the top of a
dam
it
475
intended that
is
the prevailing practice
and lower slope a compound curve, such that

the water in flowing over will everywhere rest upon masonry
and not leave a vacuum behind the sheet of falling water, and
to give the top
is
so that the water will be guided into a horizontal direction as
leaves the dam.
it
Where water
energy
El.
is
falls,
as in flowing over a
dam
a quantity of
generated, equal to the weight of the falling water
100.2'
FIG. 234.
multiplied
how be
Cross-section of
by the height
of the
New
fall.
Holyoke Weir, Mass.
This energy must some-
dissipated in friction either in its
own
mass, or upon
channel.
Different engineers hold different theories concerning the best method for preventing this energy from destroyOne method is to dissipate the energy
ing or injuring the dam.
its
as soon as possible at the time and place of its generation.

To
this end the water is made to fall as nearly vertically as possible
upon steps or shelves of masonry on the lower side

and finally into a pool or water cushion at the toe
of the
of the
dam,
dam,
476
MASONRY DAMS
where the desired end
is
accomplished by impact and friction
upon the masonry and upon the bottom and sides of the pool,
and by the lashing and churning of the water in its own mass.
It
is
ties
caused to emerge quietly from the pool at moderate velocithat will not erode the channel below. This method, of
course,
damage
requires the best of massive construction to prevent

at the points of impact and erosion, and it is usually
El. 1310
necessary to protect the river

for some distance be-
banks
from
low,
waves
as
it
erosion
the
by
of the agitated water

leaves the vicinity of
the dam.
The
Katural ground
rock Cll
,/,,;,
1
f,./]
WA
rods, 3-o'long, grouted C
L'lf
J
SECTION EJED ROCK

ELEVATIONS 1275-1284
other
method
to
is
guide the water down the

lower slope of the dam and
gently deflect it to a horizontal
its
direction,
velocity as
disturbing
little
as pos-
and leading it as far

as possible from the dam
sible,
much
before
dissipated.
of its energy
The
object
cause the water

its
stored
coming
FIG. 235.
Cross-section of Granite Reefs
Weir, Salt River, Arizona.
for
is
to
expend
in
the friction of
over-
the
some distance
dam, instead of
river ^bed at
from
on
method
energy
to
is
the
the
dam
also requires protection of the river
itself.
This
banks from erosion
a considerable distance below, unless they are naturally
composed
Where
of
good rock.
this
method
is
adopted, the water falling over the dam

which is that of a
arrives at the toe with a very high velocity,
body falling through the same height under the action of gravity,
minus the friction losses upon the dam and the air. If the
vertical motion is changed by the curves of the masonry, very
MASONRY OVERFALL DAMS

gently, to a horizontal direction,
velocity and flow away from the
it
477
will retain nearly the
dam
same
at that rate for a short
and suddenly, and with great commotion check its

This is called
increase its depth in proportion.
and
velocity,
"
and
the
this
Where
the
change,
correspondhydraulic jump."
ing commotion occurs, a great deal of work is done by the water
distance,
upon
its
own mass and upon
its
channel, the
to absorb the difference in energy
below the hydraulic jump.
work being
sufficient
between the velocity above and
If the
channel at this point
soft or friable to resist this violent action, it
must be
is
too
well pro-
measures must be adopted to check the velocity and

the
energy nearer the dam. This latter alternative
dissipate
tected, or
FIG. 236.
Cross-section of
Norwich Water Power Company's Weir.
was adopted at the spillway
of the
Gatun
Dam
on the Canal
Zone, and at the Bassano overflow dam in Alberta, Canada.

At Gatun, two rows of staggered rectangular baffle piers
of concrete were placed near the toe of the dam to intercept
the swift water, deflect parts of the stream upon other parts,
and thus destroy the major portion of the energy stored in the
swift water.
The object was attained, but the -impact of the
water upon the baffle piers was so destructive that it was neccessary to protect them with heavy cast-iron plates to receive
the shock.
This provision has accomplished the purpose.

Dam is equipped with two staggered rows of
The Bassano
"
baffle
piers,"
snowplows pointed upstream, and

up the high-velocity sheet of water before it
shaped
designed to split
like
478
MASONRY DAMS
can strike the bed of the stream, and throw one jet against
another so that the
energy will
sorbed as
be
within
the
as
eddies
by
possible
ab-
much
body
of
the downstream pool,
and not by tearing
The
the foundations.
baffle
tf
not
are
piers
designed to destroy
the energy by impact,
'2
but to start eddies in
<u
the water, and insure
T3
the start of the hyjump at the
draulic
^
&
the
toe of
that
55
be
before
so
stored energy
its
will
dam,
dissipated
leaves the
it
concrete apron.
.>
Hollow
10.
Con-
An
Dams.
crete
KS
I.
of
paratively
recent
years,
8
in-
com-
troduction
a variety of
is
hollow
or
cellular
pU|
built of
dams,
forced
concrete.
These
are
ments
developthe timber
of
dams
built
rather
flat
troduce
pressure,
in
place.
tending
to
give
The corresponding
with
water
as
slopes, so
component of water
the dam and hold it
rein-
to
in-
vertical
weight
to
concrete
HOLLOW CONCRETE DAMS
479
MASONRY DAMS
480
type consists of a series of buttresses, supporting a sloping deck
composed
of reinforced concrete slabs.
modification of this
This Furring Piece to to'

1,12 Ej 15 Ibs. with Back;
SIDE ELEVATION
FIG. 239.
Steel
Forms.
McCall's Ferry
Dam, Susquehanna
River, Penn.
type employs arches of plain concrete instead of reinforced

slabs to close the gaps between buttresses.
This is called the
multiple arch type of dam.
FIG. 240.
it
In favor of this type
Cross-section of
La Grange Dam,
is
the fact that
California.
does not require reinforcement, which in time might corrode,
this is met by the argument that in the case of the multiple

arch dam, the failure of one arch would remove the support
but
481
MASONRY DAMS
482
FIG. 242.
FIG. 243.
East Park Reservoir Spillway, Orland Project.
Diversion
Dam, East Park Feed
Canal, Orland Project.
483
MASONRY DAMS
484
.from
and cause them
its buttresses,
to fail under the lateral
thrust of the adjacent arches, thus causing the failure of all

the arches in succession. This objection to the multiple arch
type can be overcome in various ways.
The most obvious way, and
the one usually relied upon, is to

build each arch so conservatively that it will not fail, and the
side
thrusts
Another method
balance.
will
the side thrust.
each arch
If
buttresses can be each
made
is'
to
independent of any support from the adjacent arch.
method
eliminate
made
nearly a half circle, the

to take the thrust of either arch
is
third
to tie adjacent buttresses together at the springing

of the arches, with beams to take either compression or tension,
is
thus making each buttress sustain its neighbor.

Jorgensen has shown that the angle of arch requiring the
least quantity of concrete is 133^ degrees, but that one having
a longer radius, and subtending only 120 degrees, contains

for the same stresses only i per cent more concrete, but gives
As this requires less forming,

6 per cent greater thickness.
less labor in placing, it is somewhat cheaper, besides offering
and
greater
to
resistance
percolation of
and
water,
is
therefore
preferable.
Similarly
very
short
spans,
with
small
buttresses
close
concrete than longer ones,

together, require
but thin buttresses and arches, especially if high, are more likely
to collapse, require more forming and labor in placing, and the
theoretically less
more likely to permit the passage of water. These

indicate spans of 40 to 50 feet, depending
reasons
practical
With buttresses 40 feet from center to center,
the
height.
upon
arches are
a radius for the upstream face of 23.1 feet will give an arc
about 120 degrees, and make economical construction.
Cellular concrete
dams
of either type,
if
low, require
of
much
cement than the ordinary gravity type. This advantage

grows less as the height increases up to heights of about 120
feet, above which, owing to increased thickness of buttresses
and arch rings and necessary bracing the advantage soon disless
appears. The cost of steel reinforcement if used, and of forms,

tends to counter balance any advantage in cement, and each

case
must
be
carefully
considered
the
in
485
light
of
local
conditions.
A
built
unique buttressed
dam
of reinforced concrete has
by the Reclamation Service
to close
been
East Park reservoir,
Orland project, California. This dam, which acts as a spillway

in flood, is but
feet high and consists of a number of circular
Expansion
Joint
Maximum
water
high
El. 188.7
* Cut off wall

18" Wide, to be
1
FIG. 245.
walls of
concrete
East Park Multiple Arch Spillway, Orland Project, California.
13! feet radius, convex upstream and sustained by

buttresses of 8 feet thickness, sloping downstream
with gradient of ij to
i.
These walls (Fig. 245) are of reinforced concrete 18 inches

thick, resting on a floor 12 inches thick, and below the walls and
between the buttresses are subsidiary wails
2 feet
high forming
MASONRY DAMS
486
water-cushions.
Downstream
is
a concrete
apron 8 inches
thick extending for a distance of 30 feet.
An
important advantage of any hollow type of dam is the

on foundation can be limited to a small
fact that the pressures
FIG.
.246.
Cross-section of Iron Weir, Cohoes, N. Y.
amount by spreading
the base of the
dam
as desired
and
dis-
For this reason

tributing the pressure nearly equally over it.
foundations of soft rock, clay, or shale can be utilized with a
much
higher factor of safety than possible with a gravity dam.

Rods
FIG. 247.
Cross-section of Reinforced Concrete Weir, Theresa, N. Y.
This possibility seems to have led to the careless preparation

some cases, and two failures of such dams
have occurred, due to erosion of foundations bv water under
of foundations in
STEEL DAMS
pressure, in regard to
which the hollow
487
dam
has no advantage
over the gravity type. Percolation under the dam must be

prevented by a cut-off wall carried down to rock and also by
grouting the seams of the rock if there is any probability of
In short, the
erosion by percolating waters under pressure.
dam
foundation should be prepared for a hollow

for a solid
very
much
as
dam.
ii. Steel Dams.

Hollow or cellular dams, built first of
wood, and later of concrete, may also be constructed of steel,
and several dams of this type have been actually built. A
sloping water-face is supported by a steel frame of standard
shapes taking the water pressure mainly in compression. The

water-face is a deck of steel plates, which, instead of being in
the form of arches as in the multiple arch dam, or of beams
as in the
Ambursen
type, are placed in the form of half -cylinders,

toward the reservoir, so that the pressure of
concave upward
the water places the plates in tension.
Such dams are comparatively cheap, and

tected from corrosion should have long life.
steel
dam on
if
properly pro-
the Missouri River failed, and was replaced
by a masonry structure, but the failure was of the foundation

and not due to the type of dam employed.
a. Steel Dam, Ash Fork, Arizona.
This structure, built
wholly of metal and intended for the impounding of water, was
built by the Santa Fe railway to store water for use of locomotives
and
and has a capacity

The Ash Fork dam is 184 feet long on
for city supply,
in total length, including a short concrete

Its greatest height
is
46
feet.
of
and carrying
and about 300 feet

abutment at each end.
Structurally
face of the bents.
steel face-plates
on the
The foundations
acre-feet.
top,
of triangular steel bents or frames, resting
tions
no
it
consists of a series
on concrete foundainclined, or
upstream
of the steel bents are of
Portland-cement concrete and the vertical posts rest on concrete

walls (Fig. 248).
There are 24 bents, each a right-angled triangle, with the
inclined side having a slope of 45 degrees, facing upstream, the
rocky bottom of the canyon forming the base.
The dimensions
MASONRY DAMS
488
vary with their height. The end bents (Nos. i to 7

24) are 12 to 21 feet in height, each consisting of a verti-
of the bents
and No.
cal
Z-bar column and an inclined I-beam.
Bents Nos.
8, 9, 22,
and
Each has a vertical Z-bar

23, are about 33 feet high.
column, an inclined I-beam, and two inclined posts or columns
built up of Z-bars, the upper of these resting on the same shoe
or bed-plate as the vertical post.
Bents Nos. 10, n, 12, 19, 20,
21 are 33 feet to 41 feet 10 inches high.
These have but
one inclined post, which rests on the same bed-plate as the verti-
and
cal post while
above
it
FIG. 248.
are truss
Steel
members connecting
Dam, Ash
the face
Fork, Arizona.
member with
the posts. Bents Nos. 13 to 18, inclusive, are 36

feet to 41 feet 10 inches high, and have two inclined posts,
with truss members above the upper post. In all of them the
is composed of a 20-inch 65-pound I-beam, reinforced
on the underside by a plate J inch thick and 18 inches wide.
The vertical and inclined posts are all composed of four Z-bars
and a web-plate. The bents are connected by four sets of
transverse diagonal bracing between the vertical and inclined
face
The bracing
posts
irons,
1X3X3
plates.
inches,
composed of single or double anglethe ends of which are riveted to connectionis
STEEL DAMS
I iliM:d
489
i/<5
MASONRY DAMS
490
The structure is composed of alternate rigid and loose panels.

The crest or apron-plates which fit the braced panels between the
bents are riveted to a curved angle, which is riveted to the upper
end of the curved-plate, while in the unbraced panels this curved
angle merely bears on the apron-plate. The face of the dam
is composed of steel
plates f inch thick and 8 feet lof inches
wide and 8
feet long, riveted to the outer flanges of the
I-beams
of the bents.
They are curved transversely to a radius of 7 feet

6 inches, forming a series of gullies or channels down the face,
the widths of the channels being 7 feet 5 inches measured on the
chord, leaving at each side a flat portion which rests on and is

riveted to the I-beams.
There are seven expansion rivets at
intervals of about five bents,
and
pressure are well caulked.

A weakness of the structure
is
all
joints exposed to water-
that the masonry foundations
were not carried down to impervious rock, and in consequence

the dam at first failed to serve its purpose, much of the water
impounded being passed under and around it by seepage through

the permeable loose rock and volcanic cinder foundation material.
Later concrete was used to connect the steel facing with the rock
foundations, and this was covered with asphaltum and is reported
to have greatly reduced the leakage.
12. Foundations of Masonry Dams.
The foundation of a
masonry dam,
importance.
especially a high
The
which must be
dam,
structure should,
of such hardness
if
is
an element
possible, rest
and strength
upon
should be carried on
piles,
first
rock,
as to resist the
For dams not exceeding 50

foundation
of
height,
clay or gravel may be made to
with proper cut-off provisions. If of clay, sand, or fine
or any material into which piling can be driven, the
pressures to be applied.
of
feet in
answer
gravel,
weight
of
coefficient
liberal
a
providing
safety.
The foundation must
in any case be practically impervious,

no water to flow through under such pressure as
The exclusion
to cause erosion, and so undermine the dam.
from the foundation of water under pressure is important,
so as to allow
also,
for another reason.
If
water can enter the foundation
FOUNDATIONS OF MASONRY DAMS

from the
and has not
reservoir,
static pressure under the
unless large provision
cause failure.
dam
free exit,
made
is
it
tending to
491
produces a hydro-
lift
or float
it,
for this in the design, it
and
may
We
have already seen the importance of premasonry of the upstream face of the dam
tendency to admit water under pressure into the
venting tension in the
because of
its
masonry, and thus produce
The method
by
sliding
uplift.
of failure of
on foundation.
masonry dams most common
notorious cases in America, accompanied

property.
of
These
were
is
This has occurred in at least two
both
undoubtedly
by
loss
caused
of
life
by
and
uplift
water in the foundations.

In each case the
dam was founded on
horizontally stratified
rock, the bedding seams of which were filled with clay or other
soft material with little cohesion, and serving as a lubricant
when
wet.
Such foundation also affords maximum facilities

water under the dam and the exercise of
for the entrance of
upward pressure upon the dam, thus neutralizing part of its

weight, and inducing failure for lack of effective weight.
The determination of the perviousness of natural formations
is very difficult, as any examination which disturbs them changes
the conditions
it is
desired to know.
In general, it may be said that water will more readily

traverse seams in rock or bedding planes than devious paths
through the material of the rock. It follows that it will generally
pass more readily and in larger volume in the direction of stratification, than in any other direction.
Similarly stratified rock
permit percolation more easily and in greater volume

than good massive rock, such as granite.
Granular rock, such as sandstone, is likely to transmit more
will
water through the rock
itself
than one of
structure, like shale or limestone.
Meyer
finer grain or
states ("
denser
Hydrology
"
page 264), that granitic rocks usually contain less than i per
cent of voids, limestone i to 5 per cent, and sandstone 6 to 25
per cent. The percentages of voids in clay and shale are greater,
but the grains and the voids between them are so small that water
moves through them with extreme difficulty and slowness.
MASONRY DAMS
492
No
are
exact rules of this nature can be laid down, because there

many varieties of each kind of rock, with different percolating
capacities.
In general, however, the following rules
may
be
taken as rough guides:

1. Massive or crystalline rocks such as granite gneiss and
schists will transmit water less freely than sedimentary rocks.
2.
Stratified rocks will transmit
water more readily in the
direction of stratification than transverse thereto.

3.
In the direction normal to
stratification,
sandstone will
generally transmit water more readily than limestone or shale.

4. Stratification on a plane approximately horizontal is the
worst condition for introducing upward pressures beneath a
dam.
Conversely, the most favorable position in this respect
for stratified rock
As
all
is
in nearly vertical beds.
rock contains some seams, and nearly all rock is more

it is unsafe to assume that any foundation is
or less pervious,
entirely impervious.
It follows
some provision should be made
that in every masonry dam,
to prevent or counteract
upward
pressure of water in the foundation. The amount of this force

cannot possibly be foreseen with accuracy, and under ordinary
circumstances cannot be foretold within rather wide limits.
Any
foundation for a masonry
dam
should be excavated to
a plane below any surface disintegration. Where the foundation is seamy and pervious, a deep trench should be excavated
along the heel of the
dam
to
be
later filled
thoroughly rammed and bonded with
In the bottom of this trench holes
the
may
with rich concrete,
masonry
of the
dam.
be drilled to a depth
more below the bottom of the trench, and by forcing

into these holes cement grout under high pressure, seams and
cavities intercepted may be filled and sealed against percolating
The drilled holes should be placed at intervals of 5
waters.
to 20 feet or more according to the conditions of greater or less
permeability found to exist. The attempt is to form an imperof 50 feet or
meable curtain wall to a great depth, to prevent water from passing from the reservoir under the dam.
short
distance
downstream
from
this
cut-off
curtain
another series of holes or drainage wells should be provided
EXPLORING FOUNDATION
to intercept whatever water
tion.
may
find its
These should be about 6 inches
493
way
into the founda-
in diameter,
feet apart, along the entire length of the
dam.
The
and 8
to 10
wells should
be continued upward in the masonry to a drainage gallery

just above the natural ground surface, which will discharge
any water received into a

below the dam.
cross conduit leading to the
open
river
If the foundation is of very good granite, or other relatively

impervious rock with few seams, the cut-off and grouting precautions need not be as elaborate as those described, but the
drainage system should be provided in any case of a high

masonry dam, to insure against uplift in the foundation.
13.
Exploring Foundation.
bility of
any proposed
dam
Before deciding upon the suitanecessary to ascertain the
site it is
character of the foundation and the depth and character of the
bed rock.
Where
are the
it is
most
feasible to sink
satisfactory
means
open shafts and
test pits these
as they afford the opportunity
examining the material, in place, but they are expensive,

and where water is to be encountered, may be impracticable
of
or ineffective,
through
is
and are very
costly.
Where
to be used as the foundation of
so that its imperviousness
is
without removal
important, the material
not more important than the manner of

pits are the only satisfactory
the material passed
dam
means
of
its
deposit,
itself is
and
test
examining the material
in place.
Where
the depth and character of bed rock,

without much concern as to the character of the overlying
material, the most economical procedure is to sink an iron
the problem
is
casing to bed rock and take cores from the rock by means of
the diamond drill. The process of sinking of the casing is
performed by two general methods, called the method of driv-
In the driving method,

ing and the method of wash boring.
the casing used is extra heavy steel pipe from 2 to 3 inches in
diameter, cut to convenient lengths, which are fastened together
by
The bottom is shod by a short cutting

and the top is provided with a solid head.
exterior sleeves.
bit of tool steel,
MASONRY DAMS
494
This pipe is driven like a pile, and the interior is occasionally

washed out with a chopping bit on a smaller pipe, provided
with a water jet. When bed rock is reached the chopping bit
is used and the pipe driven until some penetration of the rock
is secured so as to make a tight connection between the
casing
and the rock, and thus exclude sand and gravel. The diamond
drill is then applied operating inside the casing, and circular
cores of the rock are secured.
"
"
By the wash-boring
method flush- joint pipe is used,

not so strong, but sinks more readily than that with
The flush-joint pipe is not driven, but the chopsleeve joints.
which
is
ping bit working inside is freely used with a strong water jet.
The pipe is turned round and round by means of tongs, and
sinks of
the hole
method
own weight or by weights resting on its top, following

made by the chopping bit which clears the way. This
its
usually faster and cheaper than the driving method.

the diamond drill is used, it may pass through the rock
into sand and thus demonstrate that a bowlder and not bed rock
is
When
has been reached.
In such a case a few sticks of dynamite
are lowered into the hole drilled in the bowlder,
and
after with-
drawing the casing a few feet to avoid injury the cartridge is

exploded electrically, and thus the bowlder is shattered so that
be sunk through it like gravel.
The diamond drill should be made to penetrate the rock
the casing
may
to a sufficient depth to be sure that it is bed rock and not a

detached bowlder or fragment of rock, that is encountered, and
not of satisfactory character, the drilling should

continue until better rock is reached, or the prospect of satisif
the rock
is
factory rock disappears.

Drilling
in such a
machinery
way
as
to
like
that
described
is
manufactured
be adapted to operation by hand, and
separable into parts capable of transportation by laborers or

pack animals. Where much drilling is to be done it is usually
more economical
to use heavier
machinery with steam motive
power.
Such a machine operated by hand

feet into solid rock.
It will
make
capable of drilling 200

5 to 10 feet per day in hard
is
EXPLORING FOUNDATION
rock and more in soft rock.
much
faster progress
By
495
the use of steam machinery
can be made.
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTERS XVII AND XVIII

CAIN,
WM. Stresses
New York.
in
Masonry Dams.
Trans.
Am.
Soc. C. E., vol.
LXIV,
p.
208,
THOMPSON,
S.
New
vol. 78, p. 685,
CREAGER, W. P.
W.
G.
Trans.
Soc. C. E.,
John Wiley & Sons, New York.

American Technical Society, Chicago.
Uplift and Ice Pressure in Designing Masonry
Weirs.
Provision for
Am.
Soc. C. E., vol. 75, p. 142.
Grouted Cut-off for the Estacado Dam.
C. E., vol. 78, p. 447,
WEGMANN, EDWARD.
Trans.
Am.
Soc.
New York.
Design and Construction of Dams.
John Wiley
&
Sons,
York.
JORGENSEN, L. R.
May,
Am.
Masonry Dams.
RANDS, HAROLD A.
New
Trans.
York.
Dams and
HARRISON, C. L.
Dams.
New
E.,
York.
The Constant-angle Arch Dam.
JORGENSEN, L. R.
BLTGH,
Trans Am. Soc. C.
Impurities in Sand for Concrete.
E.
vol. 65, p. 250,
Arch Action
in
Arch Dams.
Proceedings,
Am.
Soc. C. E.,
1918.
SCHEIDENHELM, F. W.
Reconstruction of Stony River
C. E., vol. 81, p. 907.

MEYER, A. F. Elements of Hydrology.
John Wiley
Dam.
&
Sons,
Trans.
New
Am.
York.
Soc.
CHAPTER XIX
WATER RIGHTS
The
Nature.
1.
title
that to the land which
however,
rest
upon
to water
is
is
different principles
personal property.
2. Riparian Doctrine.
no
less
worthless without
important than
Water
it.
titles,
from those to land and
The English Common
law,
upon
which our own laws are based, recognizes the riparian doctrine,
which vests in the owner of the land abutting on a stream,
the right to have the stream flow past his land in perpetuity,
undiminished in quantity and unimpaired in quality. He may

use the water for domestic and milling purposes, but must return
to the stream before it leaves his property, practically the same
quantity of water unpolluted; otherwise he infringes the rights
of the proprietor of the land below him on the stream.
This law was developed in England in a humid climate,

and provided for the uses of water then and there common,
but is not adapted to the development of irrigation, being
antagonistic to the diversion and consumption of the water
in the growing of crops.
In consequence, the needs of
irriga-
tion give rise to a radically different set of rules for the control
All irrigated countries recognize the right to divert
of water.
and consume the water
in irrigation,
and
many
streams
and almost
entirely
in fact,
flowing in arid regions are thus diverted
consumed.
Doctrine
3.
of
Appropriation.
In
the
United States the
right to the use of water in irrigation originates in Federal

Laws recognizing and authorizing such use.- Most of the land
-
arid and semi-arid region was originally public land,

and under the riparian doctrine the ownership of streams was
of the
496
DOCTRINE OF APPROPRIATION
497
ownership of the land. The necessity

of diverting these streams to irrigate the land was early recog-
an accompaniment
of the
nized and was provided for specifically
by the passage
in 1877
Land
Act, which required the irrigation of the

of
a
condition
land as
ownership. This law was a dedication
of the water by its owner to the uses of irrigation, and thus
of the Desert
made
all
unappropriated waters of the arid region perpetually
appropriation for irrigation, except when expressly

forbidden as in the case of navigable streams. Exceptions to
this rule are the cases of streams running through large Mexican
subject to
land grants which never belonged to the United States, and the
public lands of Texas, which belonged to the State under the
provisions of the act admitting that State to the Union.
Notwithstanding the Desert Land Act, and the need of
irrigation, a
to
apply
number
the
of the Public
riparian
This
doctrine
Land
to
States have attempted
the
waters
within
their
which
and partly humid.
The first American attempt to assert State control over the
use of water in irrigation was a statute passed by the State of
Colorado in 1879. This law was a crude one, making diversion
the test of appropriation, and ignoring beneficial use.
boundaries.
is
particularly evident in those States
are partly arid
Adjudications under this law were made by courts of law,

distant from the lands affected, and many absurd and extravagant claims were allowed. Many cases might be cited where
allowances were made of over twenty times the quantity of
water that could be beneficially used, and far in excess of the
capacity of the ditches. The aggregate of allowances were
many
times as great as the flow of the stream in the irrigation
season.
The
incompatibility of the riparian doctrine with the needs

was recognized in the early development of irriga-
of irrigation
and the eight States which are entirely arid or semi-arid

have all abrogated this doctrine, and have substituted the
reverse doctrine of appropriation of waters.
These arid States
tion,
Montana, Nevada, New Mexico,

There are eight other States, however,
are Arizona, Colorado, Idaho,
Utah and Wyoming.
WATER RIGHTS
498
which are partly arid and partly humid, where the riparian
still prevails in the humid portion.
Most of these
States have the bulk of their population in the humid portion,
where riparian rights are consistent with normal development,
doctrine
and where the inhabitants are unwilling to reverse their rules

and thus interfere with vested rights for the
accommodation of a small minority or to encourage the developof property tenure
ment
of
a distant part of the State.
portion of the State
was
first settled,
In these cases the humid
and as the needs
tion developed various attempts were
made
of irriga-
to reconcile the
antagonistic riparian and appropriation theories.

In two States, Washington and Kansas, the problem was
attacked logically, by statutory action applying different rules
and humid regions. In Washington the principle

of appropriation was applied to Yakima County alone, where
the main irrigation interests lay, and in Kansas it was applied
only to the region west of the ggth meridian, which is the arid
to the arid
portion of the State.
In California, Oregon, Texas, Nebraska, and South Dakota

were made to apply both doctrines and the result was a
efforts
large
volume
of diverse
and inconsistent court
decisions,
but
mainly having a tendency to modify the riparian theory as

derived from the common law in order to adapt it to the needs
As an early step in this process, the right of

was
appropriation
recognized in the owner of riparian lands,
and he could apply the water to such area as he saw fit. Some
decisions held that unless this right was exercised, it was liable
to lapse, and another could appropriate and apply the water
to beneficial use.
Whatever the theory on which rights to
the use of water in irrigation are founded, all of them recognize
of irrigation.
beneficial use as the indispensable condition of a

right;
but
this is
permanent
a long and expensive process in most cases,
and statutory protection is very desirable

ments until it can be perfected.
to protect invest-
In the absence of statutory provisions, it is often the custom

to initiate a water right by filing a notice at or near the point
of diversion, and record this action in some county record.
DOCTRINE OF APPROPRIATION
499
Such claims are often made to quantities of water far in excess

normal flow of the stream, and should be controlled
by engineering authority on behalf of the State.
Until recent years the title to irrigation water was in a very
chaotic state, not only by reason of conflicting theories, but
of the total
for the lack of definite statutory direction regarding the procedure
to acquire and perfect a title to the use of water.

In too many
cases this has been left to the varying judgment of the courts
and diversion and inconsistent
rules
and practices have been
established.
More
recently, however,
have adopted
appropriation, and have defined
many
of the States
codes recognizing the right of

the legal steps necessary to thus initiate a right, which, however,
remains inchoate until perfected by the application of the water
to beneficial use.
The
insistence of all irrigation laws
upon the application
water to beneficial use as a condition of
title,
of
constitutes a
between water title and titles to land which

be
may
perpetual and incontestable, without any pretense of
using the land at all. Not only is beneficial use required, but
radical difference
the
tendency
stringent.
is
to
make
this
requirement more and more
well established title to water
may
in
most States
be forfeited by abandonment, or by non-use for a specified

In most cases, not only use, but a reasonably economical
time.
is
Although the quantity of water usually
required.
allowed by statute or by court decision is excessive, the principle is maintained that there can be no title to water to be
use
wasted.
Some
of
the constitutions of arid States assert that
the
This is a fundamental denial

waters belong to the public.
of riparian rights, but is always followed by provision for the
appropriation of water to private use. As soon as this is accomplished the assertion that the water belongs to the people becomes
a fiction. Attempts are made to disguise this fiction by contending that the private
But
title is
not a
title to
the water, but only a
perpetual, and involves the right to consume the water in irrigation, with no
right to use.
as this right to use
is
WATER RIGHTS
500
obligation to return
reality
an absolute
it
to the public nor to the stream,
title,
limited only
by
it is
the obligation to use
in
it
beneficially.
Aside from riparian rights there

the ownership of water rights.
One requires the appropriation of a specific quantity of water
to a specified tract of land.
When it is desired to detach a
4.
Appurtenance
are two
distinct
to
Land.
theories
of
water right from the land to which it is appurtenant, it is necessary to give a statutory reason, comply with certain statutory
and secure
permission, at the same time

attaching the water to certain other lands, so that, under this
theory no water right can exist except as appurtenant to certain
formalities,
land.
The
official
other theory permits the separate ownership of land
and water, and thus the ownership

analagous
that
to
of
land
of
water
than under
the
is
more nearly
requirement of
appurtenancy.
Each
of these
forms of water right has its advantages and

separate owner of water may own no land
disadvantages.
whatever, and may lease the use of water to one land owner
one year, and to another the next, so that conceivably some
land
may
be
and the land

It
is
left
may
without water, and perennial crops may die,

pass out of cultivation to the ruin of its owner.
argued that
and while
this discourages
this is theoretically true,
permanent improvement;
such results do not often
follow in practice, as the delivery of water is limited by the

location and capacity of the canal system, which cannot be
conveniently changed. Permanent improvements and perennial

crops such as fruit trees and alfalfa are abundant in Utah
where separate ownership obtains. The possibility of the owner

of water to deny its use on the land where it has been used, or
by taking advantage of the farmer's needs to demand an
exorbitant price, is to be avoided, and it is generally recognized
that the doctrine of appurtenancy is the better public policy.
On the other hand, when a given quantity of water is attached
permanently to a certain tract of land,
it
some years the land does not require

has been attached to it, and the tendency
after
often occurs that

as
is
much water
as
to continue the
APPURTENANCE TO LAND
501
excessive use of water to a 'disastrous extent;
whereasj
if
the
water right is owned separate from the land, although both

titles may be and usually are in the same person, the owner
has the incentive of
it will
self interest to
properly serve, to secure the
promote the economy
of water,
spread
it
over
all
the land
maximum
which
is
so
use, and thus to

desirable in an arid
region.
This objection to appurtenant water rights can be removed

by laws and customs limiting the water right to the quantity
actually required for economical use, and basing operation
and maintenance charges on quantity used so as to put the

onus of economy upon the user. This is becoming more and
more the practice, and with this, and other wise provisions
to secure economy there can be little doubt that the appurtenant
water right
is
to be preferred.
MEAD, ELWOOD.
Am.
Macmillan Company, New York.

Western Water Law. Technical Publishing Co.,
Irrigation Institutions.
CHANDLER, A. E. Elements
San Francisco, Cal.
JOHNSTON, C. T.
Some
of
Principles Relating to Administration of Streams.
Soc. C. E., vol. 78, p. 630,
LEWIS, JOHN H.
76, p. 637.
XIX
New
State and National
New
York.
W ater
T
Trans.
York.
Laws.
Trans.
Am.
Soc. C. E., vol.
CHAPTER XX
THE operation and maintenance of a system of irrigation
canals and laterals is a highly specialized activity, involving
different branches of skill for different systems.
human
however, involve
All of them,
as well as physical problems.
Some
most successful operators have become so by experience

on some large systems, without special training in any other
of the
branch of engineering, but there are advantages in a general

technical training which appear wherever new problems arise.
Personnel. Every irrigation system of considerable
must have both office and field forces, under the general
i.
size
charge of a single responsible head.
Manager. The Project Manager should be responsible

and permanent maintenance of the system, and
In addition
also for its efficient and economical operation.
a.
for the safe
he must be well equipped with

If he is deficient
experience, judgment, industry and tact.
in any of these qualities he will not be successful.
He should
to ability in
many
various
lines,
have an assistant manager
of his
own
selection
and
in close
touch with him, who

to whom he can delegate many of the details of management. They should alternate to a certain extent between
can act in his place during his absence,
and
that one of them may

and
both will be familiar
usually be found at headquarters,
with the business of the project, in field and office.
office
work and
field
supervision,
so
b. Canal
Superintendent. A large project is generally
divided into districts each of which is in charge of a superintendent directly responsible to the Project Manager for the
efficient
delivery of water and the execution of maintenance

502
PERSONNEL
He
503
provided with equipment for rapid travel; and is

canal riders and gate tenders as may be necessuch
by
The Superintendent should be provided with a telephone
work.
is
assisted
sary.
and be subject to call at all hours in

case of a break in the canal, or other emergency requiring his
attention.
in his sleeping quarters,
c.
Canal Riders.
Each canal
and
rider
definite portion of the canal
delivery of
should be assigned a
laterals for patrol,
He
water therefrom to water users.
and
for
reports to the
the water deliveries, and

promptly by telephone any urgent matters of business concerning the condition of the works and the needs of the water
superintendent every day
The
users of his district.
by
letter
canal rider
must be an
intelligent
man,
should have some agricultural training, and be able to keep neat,

accurate records. He must be energetic and vigilant and
possess
sufficient
tact
to
enforce
rigid
regulations
without
He must
be able and willing to perform

unnecessary
arduous physical labor in case of a break or threatened break
friction.
in the canal.
The
to him.
Some construction experience is very valuable

canal riders should usually be employed the year
round, being engaged in cleaning and repair work and bringing

It
the records into shape during the non-irrigation season.
is good practice to select these men from among the water users,
but they should give their time to the duties of canal rider.
Canal riders must be able to make accurate measurements of
small streams, and to use intelligently
all
apparatus employed
for this purpose.
The
canal rider should patrol his beat on horseback or with

A bicycle, automobile or motor cycle tends
a small cart.
too
much
canal and
He
to distract his attention from the condition of the

its structures,
which
it is his
peculiar duty to inspect.
should usually be provided with two horses to alternate
on duty.
d.
On
large systems
assistant engineer skilled in
Hydrographers.
it
may
be advisable
kinds of stream
to have an
measurement, and in the installation and repair of apparatus
for this purpose, to keep records of stream flow at points not
all
504
immediately connected with any canal rider's beat, to inspect

such observations throughout the project, and to digest the
Particular attention should be given to the measureresults.
ment of canals and laterals at points where

show seepage losses, and furnish data on which
ments and
the results will

to plan improve-
repairs.
One of the most important

to
Canal Rider, is to keep
from
all,
Project Manager
sympathetic touch and cooperation with the water users.
e.
Cooperation with Water Users.
duties of
in
The
duty of the project management is to give good water

and
service,
by vigilance and activity prevent or promptly
This will go far
repair breaks, and thus obviate interruptions.
first
secure public confidence,
to
but
is
not alone
sufficient.
patient hearing should be given all complaints, and careful

investigations should be made with a view to the removal of
all
however small. Suggestions for improvements

often be made, and these should be carefully considered,
just grievances,
will
and if not practicable, the reasons for not adopting them should
be clearly explained. The project personnel should show public
spirit and concern for the common welfare, even along lines
connected with the project management. In every
community may be found broad-minded and experienced men
not
strictly
whose cooperation along progressive lines it is possible to obtain,

such as improved methods of irrigation, drainage, proper selection and rotation of crops, road improvement, cooperative
marketing and other measures for the common good.
By
fidence
possible gradually to secure the concooperation of the water users, and it is possible
such a policy
and
it is
more by cooperation than by antagonism.

Water. The first duty of a project manager
Economy
is to insure the protection and maintenance of the irrigation
works. The second duty is to so operate them as to give reliable
and efficient service to those entitled to their use. The third
and most difficult, and consequently most often neglected duty
to accomplish far
2.
of
he has to perform
and not wasted.
is
to see that the water
The average water
user
is
economically used
knowing that water
is
a valuable
ECONOMY OF WATER
commodity
is
apt to regard it in the same light as he would

or any valuable commodity, and he feels the more
regard money
he can get the better he
is
off,
while in fact, however, from
standpoint, the reverse is more nearly true.

excess application of water is often positively harmful
a strictly
The
505
selfish
to the crops that receive
it,
which would produce better with
away it carries with it plant

food in solution and impoverishes the soil. If it does not drain
away but remains in the water table it soon raises this water
If the surplus
water.
less
drains
table until it curtails the root zone in which plants can feed
limits production in this way.
If it continues to rise it
and
eventually kills all useful vegetation, and this condition continued forces to the surface whatever alkaline salts are contained
in the soil
and destroys
In addition to
all
its fertility.
the above reasons
it is
to the interest of the
country at large and in a broad sense to each irrigator to make

the best possible use of the water supply, which in most parts
of the arid region is the limit upon agricultural development.
The
area of land available for irrigation, and nearly worthless

it, is far in excess of the water supply available there-
without
for,
except in a few restricted districts.

The measures for securing the best use from the available
water supply depend mainly upon the farmer himself, but such
measures can be encouraged and promoted by the management
not only by agitation and other educational methods but by
methods
of
water delivery and the adjustment of rates of
therefor.
payment
The encouragement
of
water
conservation
is
hampered
by the necessity which exists of using more water upon new

land than upon land which by cultivation and the incorporation
of humus therein has been reduced to a high state of tilth.
due to the extreme dryness of new soil in the arid region,
humus and the lack of that homogeneity or mellowness which follows from cultivation and mingling of organic
This
is
the absence of
matter in the
renders the
The presence of organic matter or humus

more retentive of water and less subject both to
soil.
soil
evaporation and to loss of water into the water table.
506
Another reason even more important is the inexperience of

the average irrigator. During the period of settlement when
only a fraction of the land is in cultivation there is usually a
large surplus of water available and this fact, together with
the reasons above mentioned, make the practice universal of
using
more water on new lands than they really need, and a

more than they need at a later date.
great deal
As cultivation proceeds all these conditions are changed.

The farmer to succeed must put humus into the mineral soils
characteristic of the arid region and must by irrigation and
cultivation break up the stratification and induration of the
various constituents of the soil, making it more homogeneous
and mellow. The irrigator acquires experience with time,
and the wider use of water reduces the redundant water supply
to an amount just sufficient for economical irrigation with all
the land in cultivation.
But in the meantime habits have
been formed. Each farmer who has not achieved maximum
results is apt to attribute at least a part of his failure to a fancied
insufficient
supply of water at some time in the season, whereas

may have suffered has been due
in reality such shortage as he
not to lack of water but to inadequate cultivation.

It has been previously shown that soil kept in a thorough
state of cultivation with the surface thoroughly pulverized at
frequent intervals loses water much less rapidly than uncultiAt the same time the lack of cultivation permits
vated ground.
the growth of
of water
noxious weeds which extract
from the
and thus
large
amounts
two ways the water supply

exhausted and the crops actually suffer from drouth even
though the amount of water applied has been sufficient for
soil
in
is
their economical use
under proper conditions.
Thus the farmers
are apt to resist any attempt to cut down the supply of water
as furnished during the early stages of development and the
opinion of the manager or any other expert who advises greater
economy
is
apt to be denounced as the vaporings of swivel-
chair theorists, as against the experience of the practical farmer.

The result is generally a continued over- application of water
with attendant
rise
of
ground water and acute seepage con-
ECONOMY OF WATER
ditions, calling for expensive drainage
and a
One
serious loss of plant food
of the distressing results
is
507
works in some regions,
from the
soils of
that the farmer
other regions.
uses water
who
most lavishly may not perceptibly injure his land except from
loss of plant food, which no one realizes, but the excess water
he applies seeps to lower levels and waterlogs the lands of his
neighbors who may be using water with a fair degree of economy.
It thus often happens that it is difficult or impossible to induce
those chiefly responsible for seepage conditions to join in the
to correct them or tc provide drainage works neces-
movement
sary for the salvation of the lower lands.

This creates a condition where the
management is blamed
on the one hand for shortage of water due to alleged inadequacy
of the works to provide the lavish quantity used in the early
days, and criticism of the builders of the project for the waterlogged condition and a demand that they provide drainage
works.
The Project Manager must keep careful records of the water

delivered and the acreage cultivated from the inception of the
project, and also of the position and fluctuations of the water
approaches the root zone of perennial
plants.
only by having complete records of this kind
that the management can be equipped for the inevitable camtable, especially as this
It
is
paign of education, and the possible coercion that

necessary to prevent the destruction of values in
may
be
an irrigated
valley.
As soon
as feasible the practice should be established
by
charging for water in proportion to the amount used. This

practice is not so easily inaugurated as may appear on its face.
requires careful measurement of water
thus irrigated, which involves considerable investment in measuring devices, and considerable skill and labor on the part of
In the
first
place
the operating force.
water users to
it
The
whom
it
cost of this
is
prevented proper administration in
The
may
charged, and
many
be
criticized
by the
their resistance
has
cases.
application of the principle without modification

a
premium upon the non-use of water and consequently
places
full
508
upon the non-cultivation of the land which is the reverse

of what is desired.
On the other hand a project just being
opened and having sandy soil with a porous subsoil may be
difficult to irrigate without applying an excess quantity of
water at very frequent intervals while other lands perhaps
even more productive owing to different soil conditions may
be served with a fraction of the quantity of water necessary

on the sandy lands. If a uniform charge for water by quantity
is
established
sum
it
may happen
for the operation
must be
that in order to collect a sufficient
and maintenance
of the project, the price
be oppressive or prohibitive upon

the owners of the sandy lands and thus more harm than good
might proceed from such a rule. For these reasons much care
and judgment must be exercised in fixing the rates to encourage
fixed so high as to
of water and penalize its waste, without restricting

cultivation or oppressing those who are unfortunately situated
regarding topographic and soil conditions. It is obvious,
economy
therefore,
that
every individual project presents a problem

all its own which must be met and solved
or series of problems
upon their merits.
The
correctness of the principles here advocated are recognized and provided for in the United States laws applying to
the United States reclamation projects.
approved August
"
That
Section 5 of the Act
13, 1914, provides as follows:
in addition
to the
construction charge, every
water-right applicant, entryman, or landowner under or

upon a reclamation project shall also pay, whenever water
service is available for the irrigation of his land, an opera-
and maintenance charge based upon the total cost of

operation and maintenance of the project, or each separate
unit thereof, and such charge shall be made for each acretion
but each acre of irrigable land,

whether irrigated or not, shall be charged with a minimum
operation and maintenance charge based upon the charge
foot of water delivered;
for delivery of
not
less
than one acre-foot of water."
This while establishing a principle, leaves wide discretion

in the executive officers in
applying the principle.
To
start with,
ECONOMY OF WATER
necessary to collect a different

and different amount per acre upon each system
physical conditions
total
amount
make
509
it
and upkeep. Different

same system require different
quantities of water for proper irrigation due to soil and climatic
and other conditions, and this necessitates a different rate in
order to raise a given amount of money.
Another important consideration not yet mentioned is the
necessity of bringing some pressure to bear upon the irrigators
to accommodate each other and meet the demands of the system
in order to
pay the
systems and
different parts of the
cost cf operation
concerning the time of application of the water. Where the

charge is made by quantity there is a general tendency to post-
pone irrigation in the hope of rainfall or cool weather by which

a little water would be saved, then a hot spell may cause wilting
and everybody rushes at once to the management

immediate delivery of water. As no system can be econom-
of the crops
for
ically constructed
adequate to
irrigate all the land at once, it
becomes impossible to fulfill all these requests on demand, and

inevitably some crops must go short of water during the critiTo avoid this the carrycal time, and heavy losses may ensue.
the
overloaded
and
is
overtaxed
canals, attended by
ing system
an overworked operating force, are apt to give way at the
critical time and cause widespread destruction both to the lands
devastated by the broken canals and to those that need the
water thus suddenly shut
It thus
off.
becomes necessary
to
make
rules
by which a farmer
must give
several days' notice of his needs so that these needs

can be adjusted to the carrying capacity available, and the
tendency to concentrate the requests all at the same time must

in some cases be counteracted by an adjustment of charges.
advisable in many cases to charge more for
water during the peak of the season than at other times in order
to induce earlier use of water and prevent overtaxing the
It is therefore
system as above described.

Experiments have shown that a limited quantity of water
delivered to growing plants during the earlier stages of growth
yields better returns than the same quantity of water applied
510
at a later date.
Furthermore, water applied early in the season

available for plant use throughout the season so long as it is
within the root zone, while late irrigation often leaves the root
is
zone charged with water after growth has ceased and the water
is thus wasted, and perhaps contributes to raise the water table.
is very important.
Most projects are
which
streams
a
supplied by
yield
super-abundance at certain
to
and
decline
small
dimensions
at other seasons and
seasons,
another reason
Still
must be supplemented by expensive storage works.
To
get the
value of the investment in storage works the requirements

of economy are much greater during the season when stored
full
water must be used than during the season of abundance when

may be running to waste. In most regions the spring
water
early summer is the season of abundance, and streams

decline in July reaching a very small flow in August and SeptemIn order to induce early irrigation and better conserve
ber.
and
the storage supply
it
be advisable to adjust the charges
may
so as to encourage early use of water and penalize excessive

application of storage water later in the season.
The law above quoted has been found adaptable

and the
these varied requirements
result
is
to all of
a wide variety of
terms and rates, applied to the different projects and even

different parts of the same project.
In order to avoid penalizing the use of water it is customary to make a flat rate which shall
apply to all the land whether water is used or not and which
when paid
landowner to a quantity of water

economical irrigation under the most
This secures the collection of a cerfavorable circumstances.
which
tain
is
will entitle the
sufficient
for
amount
recovery of
of money from every acre and thus insures the

most of the cost of operation and maintenance. A
moderate charge
man
for additional
make
it
to the interest
to use water with
be moderate until the limit

is
will
economy. This charge should

reached beyond which any applicaunquestionably wasted; thereafter, the charge should
of every
tion
water
is
increase rapidly and finally become burdensome so as to properly penalize the prodigal waste of water.
On the pumping tract of the Minidoka Project, Idaho,
WANTON WASTE
511
it is necessary to prevent a sudden demand from

exceeding
the capacity of the pumps in the peak of the season, the price
of water is fixed, at 50 cents per acre-foot for deliveries on or
where
and at $1.00 per acre-foot
after that date.

The
midsummer on account of the use
of expensive stored water in the late summer and fall.
A
minimum charge, however, of Si. 50 is made against each
before June
high price
5,
is
continued after
whether water
used thereon or not, and this

credited on payments for water under the acre-foot
irrigable acre
charge
is
is
rates.
From
long investigations and study of results in Utah, Dr.

President
of the Utah Agricultural College, concludes:
Widtsoe,
"
The Utah results would lead to the belief that where the
annual
from 12 to 15 inches, a depth of water from

best for ordinary farm crops, and that the best
nearer the smaller figure.
depth of 12 inches
rainfall is
10 to 20 inches
quantity
lies
is
probably represents the average requirement of ordinary farm

crops, providing the water is measured at the intake to the
farm."
3.
Wanton Waste.
First of
all,
rules
must be
rigidly enforced
forbidding wanton waste of water, such as allowing it to run

at night without benefit, on account of the inconvenience of
night work, allowing it to waste in large quantities from the

lower end of the field, into the roads or waste ditches, and other
similar practices.
a.
Irrigation at
Night.
In the early development of some
valleys, while irrigation uses are small and the water supply
abundant, the practice grows up of irrigating during daylight
and at dusk turning the water into some draw or slough, and
allowing it to run to waste until the irrigator is ready to resume
In this way from a third to half
irrigation the following day.
of the water is wasted, and perhaps contributes to raise the water
table and aggravate the need for drainage, which is almost
become acute. This practice may be hard to

and
break,
attempts to do so should be preceded by courteous
certain later to
explanations of the necessity for the reform.
necessary finally to do
this,
and
all
It
is, however,
communities where good
512
results are obtained with a reasonable quantity of water, give
the same attention to the control of water at night that they

it
by day.
Rotation.
4.
give
of development,
In some regions, especially in the early stages

the practice to deliver a constant flow of
it is
the average quantity to which the irrigator is entitled, and

is abundant this delivery is often greatly in excess
As the owner of a small farm cannot give his entire
of the needs.
where water
time to applying irrigation water but must attend to other duties,

it is obviously not practicable to use water economically in this
way. Much better results can be had, higher economy attained
and much time saved by delivering water
at intervals in larger
promotes important economies

for other reasons as when a small quantity of water is turned
on at the upper end of the field it is absorbed by the land first
reached and progresses very slowly to the lower end, and before
volumes.
This practice
also
a sufficient quantity has reached the lower end of the field for
proper irrigation a great deal of the upper end of the field has
become over-saturated and water
is
flowing
subsoil, finally to reach the water table
by gravity
and be wasted.
into the
Much
higher economy both in time and water can be obtained by turning on a large quantity at once so as to cover the ground several
inches in depth and while the water in contact with the soil
being absorbed the surface water is run rapidly toward the

lower end of the field. The entire surface is thus soon wet
is
and the
is
irrigation of a given district
carried to additional fields.
If
is
soon over and the water
a farm of 100 acres
is
entitled
cubic foot per second, it is best to commute

it into a flow of 5 to 10 cubic feet per second, deliver for one-fifth
or one- tenth of the time; then by giving careful attention to
to
an average flow
of
is accomplished better and the

of
his time for other duties, and
has
a
irrigator
major portion
while engaged upon them his neighbors are using water in a
the use of the water, irrigation
manner. Such a system requires turnouts, laterals and

farm ditches constructed with rotation methods in view and
these should be provided in the construction of an irrigation
similar
system.
ROTATION
It
necessary to use
is
much
513
larger heads for irrigation
where percolation
on
very sandy
rapid than upon tight
soils which require a great deal of time to absorb the requisite
soils
amount
of water.
It
is
is
also practicable to use
much
larger
heads on comparatively level ground than upon steep slopes,

and next to the skill of the irrigator, the grade of the land to
be irrigated is the most important element in the limit of head
which
practicable to use.
introduction of such a rotation system is a matter of
considerable difficulty and it will be difficult to overcome the
it is
The
and prejudices.
method of delivery
established habits
The
rotation
of
water
is
employed on
the Okanogan System in Washington, the system being to allow

a water user for one week double the amount of water which
would be required for constant flow, and then one week without
any water delivery.
This schedule is worked out before the irrigation season
begins and each water, user is notified of the dates on which
he
will receive water.
as possible, but
The schedule
is
adhered to as nearly
to be made to
numerous modifications have
accommodate the irrigators.

The system as worked has been found reasonably economical
of water and of labor, and is satisfactory to the water users.
The lateral system on the Salt River Valley, Arizona, was
so designed as to deliver to each quarter section of land a head
of 10 second-feet of water.
For many years the custom was
followed of delivering such head for a period of twenty-four
hours
in
and
for
the
same
every eight-day period, seven days without water,

smaller farms, a proportionately shorter time, with
interval.
In 1912 the basis of charge was changed from, the flat rate
payment for quantity of water used in order to encourage
economy, and the rigid rotation system was varied, water being
to
delivered in large heads, but instead of a regular rotation,

deliveries are made in accordance with requests which are
required to be presented twenty-four hours or more in advance
of the need.
From
these requests, rotation schedules are
made
514
up from day
is
it
cases,
to
day as
feasible
requests made.
During the
far in
advance as
possible,
and
in
most
to deliver water in accordance with the
maximum demand
for water,
these
requests
frequently conflict to such an extent as to make their compliance
impossible, and notice is served that the water will be delivered
on a rotation system.
a lateral is on a rotation
When
basis, it is the
custom to
begin at the lower end and work up to the head of the lateral,
giving to every water user a head from yj to 10 second-feet
from twenty-four to thirty-six hours
for
Generally when
of land.
the
demand
for
for
each quarter section

water at any partic-
ular time has been greater than the capacity of the canal to
supply, it is necessary only to advise the farmers that the canal
be placed on a regular rotation basis and the demand

immediately decreases, the farmer being willing to wait a few
will
days
water rather than have the canal placed on regular
for
rotation.
The
delivery head, however, is the same for both plans of

delivery, and the method followed on the Salt River Project
Most of the
is very economical, both of time and of water.
irrigation in Salt River Valley is
done under the border method
described on page 112.
Regardless of crops raised, the border system

of irrigating porous soils, unless the ground
method
for this
method.
On
is
the best
too steep
so
that
the
floodsteep
very rolling land,
is not practicable as a means of distributis
ing or border method

The furrows
ing water the furrow system is generally used.
may be run on any grade desired between the steepest, directly
down
the
the
soil
hill,
and a
the steeper
level line along contours.
must be the
The more open
slope of the furrows.
This
range from about 2 per cent on open sandy soil where the
water must be hurried across the field, to about one- tenth of
may
this slope, or 2 feet per
more time
5.
thousand
for absorption
Basis of Charges.
practice to
fix
charges for
must be
for
loam or clay
soils
where
given.
becoming more and more the

operation and maintenance in accordIt
is
CULTIVATION
515
ance with the quantity of water used, and to encourage economy

by this means. To insure the collection of sufficient revenue
for expenses,
and
their holdings to
establish a
irrigator to
irrigation,
also to
compel those who do not cultivate
pay a proper share of expenses,
flat rate of
which
charge per acre,
is
it
best to
will entitle the
about the quantity of water necessary

and then fix a reasonable charge for
for
all
economical
additional
This has a tendency to encourage proper use of

to
and
water
penalize waste, but accomplishes little, unless
water used.
accompanied by a system
The
of
rotation delivery,
and
careful
human and
physical connight irrigation.

variety
ditions lead to widely various application of the above rules
of
for charges.
The
projects
vary widely in
many
respects.
Some
are
and some
Some have an abundant water supply, and on
are cheap.
Some
others, the supply must be stretched to the utmost.
expensive to operate in proportion to the acreage served
have stored water, while others depend on natural stream flow.

On some delivery capacities are rigidly limited by pumps,
expensive tunnels, or similar works, while simpler projects are
more generously endowed in this respect. Some have a rea-
sonably uniform soil, while on others the

clay to coarse sand with gravel subsoil.
soil
ranges from heavy
Some have a growing

range from 6 to 12. Some
season of 4 or 5 months while others

lands require but a small quantity of water for good results,
while others require several times as much.
These varying characteristics occur in all conceivable combinations, and each project presents a distinct problem which
must be considered by
itself,
and changes from year
to year, as
development progresses. The provisions applying the above

law are given in Table XXIV, page 145.
6. Cultivation.
Experiments have shown that a vigorous
growing crop transpires more water to the atmosphere than is
evaporated from the surface shaded by such a crop, but the
evaporation from the ground still remains very important
After each irrigation there
unless it is assiduously cultivated.
is
a tendency
for the surface of the
ground to bake under the
516
hot sun, except on very sandy

lary attraction
to the surface
is
soils.
When
and the water
very strong,
this
is
occurs, capil-
rapidly
drawn
and evaporated. This can be remedied by

thoroughly stirring the surface of the soil breaking the crust
and providing a mulch of pulverized loose soil, which holds

the moisture and reduces evaporation to one-half or one-third
what it would be without such cultivation. This also kills
the weeds and conserves plant food, by keeping the water in
the ground a long time before taken up by the plants thus
giving it time to dissolve the minerals of the soil which serve
as food for the plants.
convey but
little
Fresh water applied to a
field
can
nourishment to the plants, especially of the
mineral character, and for this reason it is much better to

conserve water in the soil for a long time than to allow it to
evaporate rapidly and irrigate with fresh water. It is important, therefore, to cultivate soon after irrigation as the surface
for the purpose,
and
it is
is
necessary for constant
dry
be put forth to induce the farmers to do so.
Winter Operation of Irrigation Canals. In semi-tropical
sufficiently
effort to
7.
regions
it
is
usually necessary to operate irrigation canals the

it then becomes at times difficult to secure
year round and
respite to afford opportunity for necessary cleaning and

This must usually be obtained in short periods in the
repairs.
enough
winter season between crops or immediately after rains.

In the extreme North the long severe winters make winter
operation not only practically impossible but relatively undesirable; in middle latitudes, however, where six months of the
year are frosty and irrigation
is
not required,
it
may
be neces-
sary, and on new projects usually is desirable, to have water

available for domestic and stock use and the demand for this
use is sometimes very insistent. Arguments are also advanced
that winter irrigation is beneficial and is necessary also for
sprouting of winter grain crops and the moistening of land for
winter plowing.
The operation
is
of canals
through months of freezing weather
open to many objections:

i.
It delays or prevents
adequate cleaning and maintenance
WINTER OPERATION OF IRRIGATION CANALS

work and therefore
real
purpose
of
cripples the efficiency of the canals for their
summer
irrigation.
Water held continuously
2.
517
in
canals
results
in
serious
the banks which, becoming saturated, freeze

and by the expansion of the ice leave the banks more or less
open and porous, increasing the dangers of seepage and
deterioration
of
sloughing.
3. It increases the leakage of the canals by extending this
through the winter and thus results in increased seepage and
rise of
water table, tending to destroy the agriculture of lands
under the canal or to add to the cost of drainage.

4. Irrigation works are not designed with a view to operation
under frost conditions, and the effect of freezing upon concrete
structures often causes rapid deterioration.
5. Irrigation canals do not ordinarily furnish water supply
suitable for domestic purposes and their unavoidable contami-
nation renders the water unsanitary and dangerous.

6. Live stock is much better off in winter when
supplied
with clean and wholesome well water at underground temperature,
which conserves animal heat and health and saves much
feed.
It is best, therefore, to provide supplies of well water for
stock and domestic purposes as soon as practicable. Experience
shows that after the first year or two most of the settlers provide
themselves with domestic water supply of better quality than

if this is at all feasible, and the demand for winter
canal water
operation
is
even where
by a small minority of the settlers. But

not so the financial and sanitary considera-
usually
this is
on the side of closing the canals

as early as possible in the autumn, thus giving plenty of open
weather for cleaning and repairs and letting the banks dry out
tions involved are strongly
The canals are then

when opened in the spring.
before the hard freezing weather arrives.

in shape to secure satisfactory results
This policy also has usually a beneficial effect on the ground

water conditions, as the contribution of water from the canals
is thus shut off.
In some localities, where the water table is
already high near the canals, they operate as drains for a time
518
shut out in the fall, and thus hasten the

which occurs during the non-irrigation
water
lowering of ground
after the water
is
season.
Where winter
delivery
is necessary the burden of

operation
those who demand it, and deliveries
cost should be borne
by
made only to
is met on one
who
regulation
those
the
of
share the expense.
This problem
Government systems by the following
Optional Water Service. Until further notice, after

October 20 of each season no water will be furnished except
upon request, and at an additional charge for each farm-unit
a.
of eighty acres or fraction thereof, of $2.00 for each
day
of
water
Provided, however, that every person desiring

this service shall, before receiving same, deposit with the Special
service given.
Fiscal
Agent
cover the
of the
number
of
United States, a sum of money sufficient to

days that he desires water and designate the
turnout where he wishes to have the water delivered and the

size of
stream he
will require.
So far as
may
be practicable,
be delivered to each depositor for the days covered

his
by
deposit, but whenever the aggregate deposits for any
day are less than $200, delivery of water will cease and will not
water
will
thereafter be resumed.
Any unused
deposits will be returned
by whom they were made. This service will

not be commenced, however, unless deposits aggregating $200
per day for a reasonable period shall be made prior to October 20.
to the persons
An efficient rotation system will give

8. Maintenance.
occasional opportunities during the irrigable season for necessary
cleaning and repair work on small laterals, and the opportunity
to perform this
work when most convenient
or economical
is
an important advantage of such a system. This, however, cannot apply to the main canal, nor to the larger laterals, which
must be used throughout the summer. In Southern Arizona
and California the demand
for
irrigation
water throughout
the year presents a difficult problem in maintenance and repairs,

and great care and energy are essential to perform these neces-
sary duties properly, without seriously interfering with proper

The demand for water is much less in winter than
irrigation.
EROSION
519
summer, and a brief shortage produces less disastrous results.

Such work as can be done with water running in the canals,
is so performed, and the rest is, if
possible, postponed till the
in
fall
or winter months.
By
closing one large lateral at a time
after
due notice to the
there
and pushing the work, the annual maintenance work
concentrating a large force
irrigators,
may
usually be performed on these with little inconvenience to anyone.

The main canal is treated in the same way, selecting
demand for water, usually in January.

In more northern latitudes with shorter season, the water
should be turned out of the canals after ample notice to everyfor this the period of least
body, as early in the
fall
as conditions will permit,
and a strong
force previously organized should immediately be set to work

to perform the annual maintenance work.
careful inspection
of the canal
and
all
structures should be made,
dition recorded for present and future use.

Where erosion of one bank
9. Erosion.
be attended
If it is
to.
side of the canal as a
removed.
due
to
some
their con-
noted, this should

obstruction on the other
sand bar or other
If the erosion is
and
is
drift this
on the outside
should be
of a curve in the
be corrected by deepening the canal on the inner

side of the curve, to induce a stronger current on that side,
canal this
may
and using the material removed
flatten the slope
to
on the
can be obtained a carpet of this may

opposite
be placed on banks showing moderate erosion. In case of
necessity the points attacked may be protected by riprap of
side.
rock, or in
Rock
not
some
If gravel
cases sage brush
riprap has been
much
efficient unless laid in
the riprap
is
had better be employed.
always costly and is

a very expensive manner. Unless
used, but
started below the canal
soon
fails in
soil
is
bottom and the
joints well
the washing out of the
by
sandy
Brush of any kind, weeds and grass
do temporarily, but the latter are good for but one season.
plastered,
it
sand between the cracks.

will
Sage-brush is especially adapted to this purpose, being bushy,

durable and tough.
flexible,
A method extensively used is to plow a deep furrow in the

bank about a foot below where the damage is likely to occur
520
and smooth this out with a small V-shaped scraper which leaves
a terrace about i\ feet wide. On this a layer of brush is placed
with butts to the bank and tops sloping toward the water and
downstream 30 to 40 degrees, the tops being kept in careful
alinement. After the first row has been laid, another furrow
is plowed higher up the bank and smoothed out with a scraper,
pushing the dirt over the first layer and effectively binding it
without the use of stakes.
riprap
is
a foot above the
This process is repeated until the

maximum water surface. When
brush should extend 8 inches beyond

the earth they are buried in, but must not encroach upon the
finished, the tops of the
original canal section.
The
distance vertically between layers of brush and the denof

each
sity
layer should vary with the velocity of the water.
For
velocities
below 3
feet per second, the density of the riprap
may be about equal to that of the branches in the average sagebrush, and this should increase with higher velocities.
On
the Minidoka Project a large amount of such riprapping

was done at costs varying from 10 to 14 cents per square yard.
10. Silt
Deposits.
Accumulations of sand or
be removed and their cause noted.
If it is
due
to
silt
should
some
local
obstruction producing an eddy or other removable cause, this

should be corrected.
Dead weeds
drifting into the canal should be removed and

Weeds, brush and grass growing in or very near the
burned.
waterway
will obstruct the flow
should be removed.
If this is
be less expensive than

becomes acute.
it will
and cause deposits
of
silt,
and
done cleanly annually or oftener

if
postponed until the nuisance
Where
to
excessive seepage has occurred it may be advisable

excavate the channel larger and refill with clay puddle.
described on page 233. Where the water carried

heavily silt-laden, extensive deposits of silt may occur throughout the canal system, and must be removed by mechanical
This method
is
is
means.
This
is
done from small canals
in the southwestern
problem occurs, by means of a V-shaped

or
with
a
drag
plow
cutting edge, pulled by one or more traction
valleys where
this
ALKALI
521
It is necessary for the V to travel down each side,

not
and
applicable to canals of more than 10 feet bottom
width nor 4 feet depth. Larger canals may be cleaned of silt
engines.
it is
traveling on the banks, or floating

type is best adapted to this use.
by dredges
drag
line
In some regions concrete
11. Alkali.
by
disintegrated
usually
alkali,
is
The
on barges.
attacked and slowly
sulphates.
The damage
is
generally caused by alkaline ground water, which is absorbed

by the concrete, whence the water evaporates leaving the salts
to crystallize in the
body
of the concrete,
and disintegration
apparently as a mechanical result. The structures

are those in contact with the ground on one
attacked
usually
and
with
the
air on the other, such as culverts, and canal
side,
follows,
by canal water. A structure standing

absorb ground water, which by capillary
attraction percolates upward, and evaporates from the surface
above ground, and disintegration begins just above the ground,
and extends as high as the ground water rises. The preventive
linings while not covered
in alkaline
ground
may
most often attempted

sible
by
is
careful mixing
minimum.
to
make
the concrete as dense as posto reduce its absorp-
and placing, so as
be that a coating of tar or other

waterproof material can be placed on the side next the ground
tion to a
It
may
water, and this
may prevent attack.
to canal lining
and some other
cases,
Another method, applicable

to drain the ground water
is
from the vicinity of the concrete by a layer

leading to some escape.
12.
Growth
of Aquatic Plants.
Where
of screened gravel,
clear
water
is
run
especially at a low velocity, the growth of

sometimes
reaches a profusion that gives serious
aquatic plants
There are several species of these plants some of
trouble.
in earth canals,
which have long stems, and by friction upon the flowing water,
impede the velocity and thus cut down the capacity of the canal
until it often
becomes imperative
to
remove the vegetation
in
order to restore sufficient capacity for the needs of the crops.

Such growths seldom become troublesome when the water is
continuously turbid, nor under bridges where the shade is dense.

They are more troublesome in shallow than in deep canals,
522
generally, in water more than 4 or 5 feet in

need
sunlight and heat, and seldom bother when
depth. They
of
water
are kept below 65 degrees.
They are
temperatures
and do not thrive
especially troublesome in canals of low velocity, although when

other conditions are favorable, they occur in canals with velocity
as high as 2j feet per second.

The experience of the U. S. Reclamation Service indicates
that the velocity should be at least 2\ feet per second to insure

Etcheverry
against troublesome growth of aquatic plants.
concludes from study of all available data that instances of
troublesome growths in velocities above 2 feet per second are

few and practically none for velocities greater than 2 J feet per
second.
combating these pests have been

tried from time to time, with various degrees of success.
Where the climate is especially hot and dry the plants are
Numerous methods
of
killed by shutting the headgates and allowing the

water to drain out of the canals and laterals affected, which
dries the plants and kills them in from two to five days under
sometimes
favorable conditions.
This will not work, however, where the

water is then held by the
grade of the canals is slight as the
plants as a sponge, and does not drain sufficiently to kill the

plants in a reasonable time, but where the grade and velocity
are ample and the humidity low it has been known to succeed.
seems to be more effective with some species than with others.

Aquatic plants do not grow to a harmful extent in muddy
water, and where the conditions are favorable benefit may be
It
derived from an application of the silting process, so as to keep

the water muddy for several weeks. To be effective, this remedy
must be applied before the plants have reached any considerable
size
and
vigor,
and should be continued
until its effect
is
complete.
Where
plants
neither of these
may
have been
means can be
successfully used, the
be removed by mechanical means.
Several devices
tried for this purpose.
A small chain to which are attached lead weights has been

dragged along the bottom of the canal by a team on each bank
GROWTH OF AQUATIC PLANTS

attached to the ends of the chain.
such
523
Little success has followed
efforts, as the chain slides over
much
of the vegetation
it.
A springtooth harrow is rather effective
where the water is not over a foot deep, but has
to be frequently cleaned, and is a failure in larger canals.
Brush
hand
can
be
wielded
also
scythes
by
successfully employed in
without killing
in small laterals
small laterals.
The most
effective weapon in large canals is the submarine

of a flexible steel tape with teeth on both
which
consists
saw,
is
and
edges,
pulled back and forth across the bottom of the
canal by a man on each bank. It has lead weights to hold it
against the bottom, and a rope handle
The work
the saw
is
attached to each end.
sawing progresses against the current of course,

operated at an angle of about 30 degrees to the cross-
section of the canal,
and the
pull
toward the upstream end does
The vegetation when
the cutting.
water and
is
of
cut rises to the top of the
downstream, where it is taken out at the first

or
one
two men with pitchforks. One crew can probridge by
The cutgress at the rate of from 1000 to 5000 feet per day.
floats
ting is effective at the time, but does not injure the roots, which
often send up new shoots which grow rapidly and it may be
necessary to repeat the process two or three times in a season.

This method is not effective unless there is enough current in
the canal to hold the plants firmly against the saw.
Where the canal is free from stones and gravel good results
generally be obtained by the use of the Acme harrow, or
orchard cultivator, a machine consisting of long parallel blades
attached to and following an iron frame, with the sharp edges
may
of the blades turned to a horizontal position.
It cuts the roots
just below the surface of the ground, and the plants float to the
top of the water and pass downstream to the first structure
where they are removed with pitchforks. The cultivator

drawn by means of long chains, by a team on each bank
the canal.
is
of
adjusting the length of the chains the machine

to work on either side or bottom, of the canal.
By
can be made
Results are obtained
with the saw.
Where
much cheaper with

there
is
this
method than
a tendency to silting this machine
524
up the silt which is then carried along and deposited upon

the land, while the muddy water tends to retard the
growth
of the aquatic plants, and helps to puddle
stretches
of
leaky
the canal.
Where conditions permit, canal velocities of 2\ feet
per second and over should be provided, and if grades sufficient
stirs
cannot be secured,
it may be advisable to
provide a
canal depth of 5 feet or more, remembering that the narrow
deep canal will have a higher velocity on a light grade than a
shallower one, and that both velocity and depth tend to prevent trouble with aquatic plants.
for this
The narrow deep
canal having a higher velocity for a given

for a given capacity, presents for both
these reasons greater security against the growth of algae or
grade, and deeper water
other aquatic plants.

13. Wind Erosion.
light soil in
New
canal banks built of sand or other
a windy country are often attacked
by wind, and
be
unless
in
time.
It may
may
gradually destroyed
protected
be necessary to provide a blanket of gravel or clay if these are
obtainable, but this
may
desirable to clothe
it is
be too expensive, and in any case

in vegetation, and this should be
them
undertaken as soon as possible in order to
forestall
wind
erosion.
The
natural vegetation, the climate and the soil involved should

be carefully studied and in many cases it may be advisable
sow seeds of plants that will grow under the adverse conIn most parts of the
ditions, and yet not become a nuisance.
to
West, the Russian

unless the climate
soil
thistle
is
appears spontaneously after a time,

This plant protects the
too dry and hot.
from wind erosion, wherever
a nuisance in the
fall,
by breaking
it
thrives,
off at
but becomes
itself
the ground and blowing
across country as a tumble weed, lodging against structures,

clogging turnouts and even obstructing the canal itself.
weeds becoming waterlogged in the canal will

sometimes collect silt and other drift, thus forming bars which
pile of these
reduce the capacity of the canal, and perhaps divert the current
against the opposite bank, and start erosion. Nevertheless
'
even
this
erosion,
thistle
is
on account
often a welcome assistant against wind

of its persistence
where nothing
else will
NOXIOUS PLANTS
grow.
and
525
sometimes sown, furnishing valuable protection,

reproducing itself under rather unfavorable conditions.
Rye
is
has the important virtue of never becoming a nuisance.

Care should be taken to avoid semi-aquatic vegetation such
It
as willows
and various water-loving
upon the water
grasses,
which
will
section of the canal, collect sediment
ally reduce the capacity of the canal.
Some of
when once
encroach
and gradu-
these plants
are very difficult to check and control

started, and
are most apt to give serious trouble in canals of low velocity.
It is not always possible to draw a
14. Noxious Plants.
definite line between plants which are helpful and those which
do more harm than good. In general the control of weeds

on the canal banks is a serious matter, and a constant expense
in maintaining the canals at their required capacity.
Various methods of fighting weeds and grasses on the canal

banks are employed, such as mowing them frequently, cutting
below the ground surface with hoes or shovels, and sometimes
where the problem
most
sheep and goats are successthem

on the canal banks with
employed by confining
fences.
must
in
be
furnished
sufficient numbers so that
They
will
be
and
they
constantly hungry
keep all the weeds cropped
is
difficult
fully
close to the ground, otherwise they will choose those they like
best,
and
let
others grow.
This method has been successfully
New
Mexico and Texas in

and
other persistent weeds.
controlling Johnson grass, willows,
Animals. The maintenance of a canal
15. Burrowing
system is a perpetual warfare between the manager and a horde
of burrowing animals, such as gophers, ground squirrels and
muskrats. The newly built banks offer favorite locations for
their holes, and where one emerges on the canal side below
the water line the water follows it and quickly- enlarges the
employed
in
Southern Arizona,
it becomes a break carrying all the water of the canal,

and sometimes causing great damage not only to the canal,
but to the irrigated crops and to the land itself. One of the
most important of the duties of the canal rider is to scrutinize
the banks for signs of burrowing animals and when found,
hole until
place grain, raisins, or other food thoroughly soaked in poison
526
at and near the entrance to the hole, and

that it can be readily found again.
mark
the spot so
Various forms of traps have been devised which are sometimes employed with efficiency, and small rifles and shotguns
have been used.
It
be held in check, or
with safety.
1 6.
Land
it
Slides.
is
absolutely essential that
becomes impossible
Where a
canal
these pests
to operate the
on
located
is
system
sidehill
These may
frequently gives trouble in inducing land slides.
be of two kinds. On a hillside where the natural slope is steep,
it
the cutting for the canal may remove so much material as to

leave what remains in an unstable situation, with a tendency
here and there to slide into the canal.
The
other form of slide
of the lower
bank
is
that resulting from the saturation
of the canal, inducing
Both types
it
to
move away from
promoted by moisby the canal,

and therefore most likely to happen in the summer. The
first type or upper slide is more likely to become and remain
saturated in early spring while snows are melting, and may
the canal channel.
ture,
which in the case of the
of slide are
latter is furnished
therefore occur before the beginning of the irrigation season.

fact, a full canal has some tendency, by its weight of water,
In
to balance
and retard a
slide
from above.
Since both types of slide are promoted by saturation of the

it follows that the provision of good drainage is in
some degree a remedy. If ponds occur above the canal they
material,
may have
off
a tendency to promote sliding, and drawing them
by adequate drainage may be sufficient to prevent this.

said of any system of surface or subsurface
The same may be
drainage which tends to prevent the saturation of the material

above the canal, or of any stratum therein.
The probable occurrence
of slides
from above
is
factor that determines the infeasibility of building
taining a canal
on any given
sidehill,
often the
and main-
and conditions should be
carefully studied before deciding this question.

In order to counteract the weakening effect of the cut in the
material
it
may
be advisable in some cases to provide a canal
LAND SLIDES
527
some rigidity, as a concrete flume or pipe which can

transmit the pressure from above to the lower bank, and to the
ground under tne conduit, which thus serves as a retaining
section 01
wall.
Tieton
Such a device was employed

Main Canal (Fig. 119).
Where
for
this
purpose on the
danger of sliding of the lower bank this

may be diminished to a large extent by lining the canal with
concrete, and for this reason and the further reason that the
there
is
by reason of diminished friction will carry the

required amount of water with less cross-sectional area, and will,
by preventing seepage save valuable water, many sidehill canals
are lined when first constructed, and many others are lined
But when done as an
later, as a maintenance precaution.
canal
lined
afterthought, there is loss of economy.

The character of the soil most affected
by
saturation
is
clay,
which become semiliquid, and have very little

when in that condition. Certain strata on which the
some forms
stability
of
bank
rests may be of material which is rather porous overlying

other strata which while not so porous, become unstable when
saturated, and act as lubricants on which the overlying bank
can readily move.
If these strata
dip
down
the
we have
they make
hill,
favorable conditions for sliding, and it may be that

a proposed canal location infeasible, and that it will be neces-
sary to build a flume or tunnel to avoid danger. This is especially true where the location is above a railway or other valuable
property that would be damaged by a canal break. In doubtful cases the condition may be materially improved by providing
deep
tile
drainage to prevent saturation of the treacherous
material.
The only remedy
for sliding is to

HARDING,
S.
T.
prevent saturation.
XX
Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Systems.
McGraw-
Book Company, New York.

NEWELL, F. H. Irrigation Management. D. Appleton & Co., New York.
BROWN, HANBURY. Irrigation, its Principles and Practice. D. Van Nostrand
Hill
Co.,
New
York.
CHAPTER XXI
1.
Reconnaissance.
To
investigate the feasibility and cost

it is necessary to consider all
of a proposed irrigation project
the various factors affecting the probability of the existence

of a feasible project.
there a sufficient area of good land,
is
First,
accessible to the water supply?
If this
apparently
seems doubtful it may
be necessary to make reconnaissance surveys, to ascertain how

land can be reached, and its general quality. Before
much
much
expenditure is incurred for this purpose, however, inquiry

should be made into existing data regarding the water supply,
for
if
this is scanty or precarious, further expenditure
may
be
unwarranted.
If a reconnaissance shows ample good land fairly smooth,
an apparent water supply without storage, or a storage site if
necessary, with no obvious insuperable obstacles in the way of
putting the water on the land, surveys may be started to measure
the water supply and determine the cost of controlling and
bringing
it
to the land.
Early attention should be given the water

For unless a long record of stream flow kept by the
government is available, or the water supply is a great river
far more than the needs of the project, the measurements should
begin as soon as possible, for they must continue several years
to be a safe guide.
One or more gaging stations should be
2.
Surveys.
supply.
established,
and continuous record kept.
Students of water supply problems are often misled by

formulae for computing runoff from data upon rainfall, evaporation, etc.,
put forth by over-confident authors, or derived from

528
SURVEYS
529
observations of totally different conditions. Nothing must

be allowed to take the place of actual measurements of the
stream.
If the
data available indicate that storage
to provide a sufficient supply of water
will
when needed,
be necessary
the existence,
capacity and cost of storage opportunities must be carefully

If these are wholly or partly in private ownerinvestigated.
ship liberal allowance must be made for their purchase, and this
is
an expense that
site,
is
difficult to forecast,
and
commonly undermade of the dam
is
Careful examination should be
estimated.
especially the character of its foundation
and the available material
for construction.
and abutments
The amount
of
sediment carried by the stream should be considered with

reference to
effect
its
on the
life
of the reservoir,
and
if
con-
These measurements
siderable should be carefully measured.
can usually accompany the measurements of the stream and
add very
little
to the cost.
topographic survey of the reservoir site or sites should be

made, in 10 foot contours if the reservoir is deep, and closer
intervals for shallow reservoirs.
to
an inch
for
very
The
scale
large reservoirs, to
500
may
be 2000
feet to
an inch
feet
for
small ones.
The dam
an inch or
site
should be
mapped on a
scale of 100 feet to
if precipitous and i or
the slopes are .gentle.
Careful examination should be made of the rock and other
2 foot
larger, in 5 foot contours
contours
if
material with reference to
its
suitability for
abutments and
If
foundation, and its availability for construction purposes.
the funds are available and construction seems probable examination by means of test pits or borings should be undertaken.
As a thorough
exploration of this kind is expensive, it may be

wisest to confine preliminary investigations to a few test pits
at first, until more expenditure appears warranted.
of diversion facilities should be made early,
have an important bearing on the cost and feasidesirable to divert the stream at such an eleva-
Examination
as these
bility.
may
-It
is
tion that the canal will deliver the water
by gravity flow along
530
the upper edge of the land to be irrigated. This may be sometimes attained by a diversion sufficiently upstream to achieve
this, or if the grade of the stream is moderate and good dam sites
appear,
it
may
be best to build a diversion
dam
of considerable
height to raise the water to the necessary elevation

the canal from that point.
In this
struction may sometimes be avoided.
alternatives should be
and lead
way heavy canyon

Surveys of
made and compared
all
con-
promising
before decision
is
reached.
Involved in the above alternatives

tions
on which the canal
command
may
may
be located.
be different elevaIt
may
be that to
an undue
and
will
heavy construction,
economy
require a
canal location on lower and smoother ground, leaving certain
tracts of land above the canal to be abandoned or perhaps
eventually to be pumped upon. Trial lines may be run to test
various alternatives, and if these are numerous it may be wise
to make a topographic contour map of the country under study,
on which all alternatives may be examined before making any
amount
all
the irrigable land
by
gravity will involve
of
very detailed survey. On such a map, such alternatives as

those of tunnel and open canal, flume and inverted siphon,
and the like, may be compared. It also furnishes the preliminary
information for planning a distribution system.
When the main canal line is decided upon, a detailed contour
map is advisable for estimating quantities. On this map the
character of material to be
moved should be shown, whether
rock, shale, sand or clay, so as to give a correct indication of

the probable cost of excavation.
This detailed map, the general topography map, and the

borings at the dam site, are all rather expensive details that
are not justified unless most of the other serious doubts of the
feasibility of the project
have been removed.
survey of the irrigable land

is
is
to
begun so as to determine the area
its
water requirement.
detailed soil
be desired before construction
However
of
good land available, and
attractive the water supply
and the engineering features of the project, the returns must

depend on the area and fertility of the lands from which crops
ESTIMATES OF COST
531
This information
may be secured.
as the water supply,

estimated.
and
it
is
is therefore just as
important
as often overlooked or over-
The
character of the crops to be raised and their market

are important factors, and these may depend upon railroad
facilities to
due weight
3.
a large extent.
Estimates of Cost.
necessary to
it is
All these
must
therefore be given
in estimating prospective returns.
make
At every
stage of the investigation

tentative estimates of cost, for com-
parison of alternatives, for elimination of
unpromising features,
outcome, so that unnecessary
expenses in surveying an infeasible project may be avoided.
These preliminary estimates may be controlled by unit prices
and
for forecasting the ultimate
for all, which may serve their purpose fairly well

not
accurate, provided the different items of cost bear
though
the correct relations to each other. But when it comes to the
adopted
estimate on which the feasibility depends, it is important that

these unit prices and all other items of cost be not only relatively
but actually as accurate as
possible,
and
this presents
a problem
of great difficulty in many cases.

The tendency to underestimate construction costs
universal.
Even
in the construction of
is nearly
a building in a city,
where the materials and processes are well standardized, labor

conditions are stable and well-known and daily experience
furnishes abundant data for estimates, the owner generally
finds
when
expected.
his
house
is
finished
it
But when new conditions
multitude of variations in
has cost more than he
and the
materials, transportation and labor
are encountered,
conditions are involved, this tendency is greatly intensified,

and nearly always, costs exceed the estimates, unless great
effort
is
made
to
make
There are several
these liberal.
distinct
causes for this tendency to underestimate costs.

There is no attempt here to consider dishonest
a. Bias.
made with a deliberate or conscious purpose to

attractive showing calculated to favorably influence
an
present
estimates
We
investors regardless of the facts.

the influences that bias honest effort.
now
dealing with
Everyone has a natural
are
532
work he has done achieve some result. The investiwould

gations
generally not have been started except for the
existence of a strong belief that a feasible project would be
developed, and thus exists a strong if unconscious desire that
desire that
the investigation shall result favorably.

b.
There frequently exists also, a strong desire

someone interested in the results, who is in touch
Influence.
on the part
of
with the inquiry, who continually presents arguments and

facts favorable to cheap construction and large returns, which
are likely to have considerable influence on the
most
judicial
mind.
c.
Inaccurate
Data.
The
estimator's
So far as
this is his
guide
principal
is
own, and
previous experience.
intelligently
used, it is the safest possible guide, although subject to the
But usually,
of careful and discriminating use.
the engineer must depend less upon his own personal experience
than upon the records made by others, and here he is upon
limitations
dangerous
ground,
for
these
records
Where work has been performed very
are
mostly
cheaply,
one-sided.
the subject
often greatly
it is
boast or exploitation, and its cheapness is

exaggerated by the omission of such charges as plant cost,
of
overhead, preliminary work, etc. Reports of unit costs are

often selected from the most favorable periods of work, thus
omitting expensive delays, repairs or other contingencies, and
may
thus be
less
than half the average actual
cost.
Where
reports of excessive costs accidentally become public, they

are generally accompanied by explanations of unusual difficulties,
abnormal conditions, storms, accidents, or the stupid blunders

someone else; contingencies not to be expected again, so
that large or even average costs are thus discredited and atten-
of
tion
focused
upon those that are the minimum, whether

For these reasons, cost data are often very
reliable or not.
misleading.
d. Omissions.
One
of the
commonest
errors in estimates
is
the omission of certain elements of cost, owing to the inherent

This applies not only to
difficulty of foreseeing everything.
ESTIMATES OF COST
533
unforeseeable expenses but those which could be easily foreseen but were overlooked or forgotten.
For these reasons, the beginner should understand that the

path of the estimator is beset with pitfalls which he must be
careful to avoid, and he should be cautious about accepting
current opinions or even published records of cost until these
have
been
established.
verified
and
their
completeness
and
reliability
CHAPTER XXII
SPECIFICATIONS
IT
is
important to have
ing engineering work

as
conditions
will
clear, concise specifications cover-
and they should be
required,
permit,
leaving a
minimum
of
as specific
discretion
The important points are

cover the
subject thoroughly, and avoid ambiguity or possibility of more
than one obvious meaning. The samples here given are in the
with the engineer.
to
main those evolved by fifteen years' experience on large works

by the U. S. Reclamation Service, and their provisions have
been thoroughly tested. It is not intended, however, that they
be used without modification, but only as a guide for drawing
specifications adapted to local conditions in each case.
The above
applies especially to
work
let
by
contract, for
which written specifications are obviously necessary. It has

also been found advisable, on large works, where construction
is
performed by the direct method
intervention
for the
of
to
contractor,
of hired labor
draw
similar
without the
specifications
guidance of the engineer in charge and his subordinates,
where the superintendent
construction occupies a position
of
in authority similar to that of a contractor,
the orders of the engineer,
is
and although under
held independently responsible
and their work. In this manner the

Nevada, and the Arrowrock Dam in Idaho
for the construction forces
Lahontan
were
Dam
built.
in
The
specifications
of
the latter are given as a
sample of how this work was performed. There are also presented standard specifications for some of the most important
work required
in irrigation.
534
SPECIFICATIONS FOR ARROW ROCK
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
DAM
535
ARROWROCK DAM
GENERAL PROVISIONS
The purpose of the work covered by these specifications
1. The Requirement.
the construction of a masonry dam and its appurtenant features across the
Boise River at Arrowrock, in section 13, T 3 N, R 4 E, about 20 miles east of
is
Boise, Idaho.
2.
List of Drawings.
(14,302) General
1.
map and
plan of construction works.
(14,303) Cross-section of dam.

3. (14,304) Plan of dam.
4. (14,305) Elevation of developed
2.
(14,306) Plan
5.
and sections
upstream face
of
dam.
of spillway.
7.
(14,307) Typical sections of diversion tunnel.

(14,308) Cross-sections of north wing walls at tunnel inlet
8.
(14,309) Cross-sections of south
6.
wing walls at tunnel
inlet
(14,310) Cross-sections of cofferdams.

The work covered by these specifications
3. Organization.
and
and
outlet.
outlet.
Q.
is
authorized by
the Secretary's order dated January 7, 1911, and shall be done with Government
The Director of the Reclamation Service, through the supervising and
forces.
construction engineers and superintendent of construction, will purchase all
equipment and supplies and will employ all labor necessary for the conand completion of the dam and its appurtenant features. A scale of
wages shall be fixed from time to time by the supervising engineer, after having
received suitable written recommendations covering such scale of wages from the
construction engineer and superintendent of construction. The supervising
engineer shall divide the organization as would be done if the work were to be per-
materials,
struction
formed by contract, into the engineering division, under the direction of the construction engineer, and the construction division, under the direction of the superintendent of construction.
The
duties of the engineering division shall be similar to those of the engineering
on contract work; the principal duties of this division being to make estimates and designs for the works and to see that the works are built in accordance
with the plans and specifications, and this division will be held strictly responsible
force
for this feature of the work.
such help as
may
This division shall also give the construction division
be necessary in getting out designs and estimates for the construc-
For the purpose of executing his duties, the construction engineer

and field engineering corps that shall report, directly to him.
All work, other than clerical, in connection with the construction, maintenance
and operation of the Arrowrock Railroad, the power house at the Boise River
tion plant.
shall organize office
Diversion
Dam
and the transmission
line leading
therefrom to Arrowrock shall
be under the charge of the construction engineer.
The
duties of the construction division shall be similar to those of the con-
on contract work; the principal duties of this division being to provide methods and plans for actually executing and building the works and to
construct the work. This division will be held particularly responsible for the
struction force
SPECIFICATIONS
536
progress and cost of the work. In any work on designs and estimates for the
construction plant that, under contract work, would be done by the contractor's
engineering forces, the construction division shall be assisted as much as may be

necessary by the engineering division. The superintendent of construction shall
foremen and principal assistants, who shall report to him, and he will
be held responsible for the efficiency of the entire construction force. He shall
detail one man as costkeeper, who shall obtain from the clerical and engineering
select his
forces all data necessary for compiling the required reports of costs.
At the end
month
the costkeeper shall furnish the construction engineer

(with a copy to the supervising engineer) a detailed statement, certified by the
superintendent of construction of all costs, including estimated apportionment
of each calendar
work done, etc.

supervising engineer's office at Boise shall handle all advertisements, purchases and vouchers covering materials and supplies for use in the construction
of the dam, and the chief clerk of the supervising engineer's office shall be responsible
of general expenses, depreciation, unit costs of
The
for all clerical work.

relieve the engineering
He
shall conduct the clerical work in such a manner as to

and construction divisions from the necessity of occupying
their time with clerical matters.
The
chief clerk shall detail
any
clerks
who may be
necessary at Arrowrock or other points on the Storage Unit, and these employees
shall be responsible to him in connection with clerical matters, but shall be subject to the orders of the construction engineer or superintendent of construction
Pay rolls shall be made up in the superon time books certified by the superintendent of
construction and transmitted from Arrowrock, and the fiscal agent at Boise will
in connection with administrative matters.
vising engineer's office, based
employees, including those receiving time checks.

At the end of each calendar month the engineer
Reports and Estimates,
shall make an approximate estimate of the work done to that date, and these estimates shall be prepared with the same degree of completeness as would be required
all
pay
4.
in the case of contract
work.
As soon
after
the end of each calendar
month
as possible, a complete approximate cost report shall be prepared as outlined in

paragraph 3 and transmitted to the supervising engineer's office with the con-
monthly report. Upon the completion of each feature,

a detailed report of that feature shall be prepared and shall include a complete
history of the feature and a final estimate of quantities with total and unit costs.
struction engineer's regular
5.
Progress of Work.
Work
shall
be commenced on such features as wagon
roads, telephone lines, etc., within thirty days after the authorization of construc-
and the work on main features, the dam and its appurtenant structures,
be begun as soon thereafter as practicable. The diversion works will be completed to such extent that water may be diverted from the present river channel
tion,
will
immediately after the June floods in 1912. Work of excavation in the river
channel shall then be begun and the work will be prosecuted with all practicable
speed until the concrete in the dam shall have been placed to about elevation
3000. After that time the rate of progress shall be as great as is consistent with
proper economy, and as the apportionment of funds will permit.
6. Cement.
All Portland cement shall be purchased through the cement expert
of the U. S. Reclamation Service at Denver, Colorado, and shall be inspected under
his direction before shipment.
storing,
and
The same
safe keeping of the cement,
care shall be observed in the unloading,

for the return of the full number of
and
DAM
537
cement sacks to the railroad station in serviceable condition, as is used on Construction work under contract.
Upon-the delivery of the Portland cement at the dam
site, it shall be reground with granite or other suitable material to form sandcement, which shall be used throughout the dam, spillway weir, and lining, in the
same manner as Portland cement, unless otherwise specifically ordered by the
"
"
will signify
Hereafter in these specifications the term
sand-cement
engineer.
of
Portland
cement
with
the product
suitable blending material in proregrinding
portions fixed by the chief engineer, and these proportions shall be one part sand
All sand-cement
to one part cement by weight, unless otherwise directed by him.
shall be inspected and tested before being used in this work.
The United States will build and operate a aooo-H.P.
7. Electric Power Plant.
power plant at the Boise River Diversion Dam, about 14 miles west
power
construction purposes at the dam site. So far as may be possible and economi-
hydro-electric
of Arrowrock, together with the necessary transmission lines for furnishing
for
construction machinery shall be operated by electrical power. This power

plant will not be completed and in operation until about June i, 1912, but electric
power purchased in the local market will be available for construction purposes
cal, all
A fair rate, to be determined by the superi, 1911.

power used from this plant, shall be charged against the
work at the dam, and the power plant will be given a corresponding credit.
The United States will build and operate a standard gage
8. Steam Railroad.
steam railroad between Arrowrock and Barberton, Idaho, connecting at the latter
dam
at the
about October
vising engineer, for the
point with the Barberton branch of the Oregon Short Line Railroad.
This road
be in operation by November 15, 1911. Freight rates on this line shall be

established from time to time, by the supervising engineer.
will
Telephone Lines.
9.
Telephone
States between Arrowrock
May
i,
and
lines will
Boise, Idaho,
be built and operated by the United

and will be ready for service about
1911.
Roads. About 25 miles of wagon roads will be built by the United

States to replace roads that will be flooded by the Arrowrock Reservoir and for
Some of these roads will be of service in hauling lumber
various other purposes.
10.
Wagon
and other materials and

11. Construction
will
supplies.
Camp.
The location of these roads is shown in drawing i

camp to accommodate about 800 men
.
construction
be built and maintained at Arrowrock by the United States, and the sanitary
camp shall be kept at a high degree of excellence at all times.
conditions at this
The United States will build and operate a sawmill in the Boise
12. Sawmill.'
National Forest about 16 miles east of Arrowrock and, as far as may be feasible
and economical, all lumber needed in the construction of the dam and its appurtenant features, including the construction
cam'--
shall
be manufactured at this
mill.
GENERAL FEATURES
The work contemplated under these specifications consists
13. Description.
of constructing a storage reservoir with a concrete masonry dam and a concrete
masonry spillway, together with the incidental work of excavating and constructing diversion works.
The dam will be a gravity type, concrete dam, curved in plan. It will be about
1050 feet long on top and its maximum height will be about 350 feet above the
SPECIFICATIONS
538
deepest part of the excavation. The lowest portions of the foundation will be
about 80 or 90 feet below the present bed of the river.
The spillway will consist of a concrete weir about 400 feet long, discharging
into a channel, to be cut in the hillside.
This channel will convey the water around
dam and will discharge into Deer Creek.

diversion works will consist of two crib cofferdams across the Boise River
the north end of the
The
and a tunnel about 490 feet long, with a cross-sectional area of about 670 square
feet and a capacity of about 20,000 second-feet, having an inlet bell mouth about
90 feet long and an outlet bell mouth about 150 feet long.
EXCAVATION OF TUNNELS
The tunnel will be located in rock for its

14. Description of Diversion Tunnel.
Pockets of
entire length, and for the greater part will be in firm, hard granite.
loose lava rock may be encountered but it is expected that such pockets will be of
Where
small extent.
the nature of the rock makes
it
necessary the sides and roof
be supported by suitable timbering and lagging. All expense

of such timbering shall be classed as timber lining, but the cost of the lagging
As the tunnel is to be lined with concrete on the
shall be charged to excavation.
of the tunnel shall
bottom and
sides
and with timber above the springing
line of the arch, special care
minimum and
to have the exposed

rock in good condition, free from cracks and other objectionable defects.
All material excavated for
15. Classification of Material in Diversion Tunnel.
shall
be exercised to reduce the overbreak to a
the diversion tunnel between stations
1+50 and
+ 20 and
within the limits of the
required cross-section as shown in the drawings shall be measured and estimated

in cubic yards and classified as follows:
Heading and Arches.

Bench.
All material
above the springing
line of the arch.
Alt material below the springing line of the arch.
A shaft about 6 feet square for use in refilling the tunnel shall be
1 6. Shaft.
driven as directed by the engineer. As this shaft will also be refilled with concrete,
The excavation of this shaft
it shall be of the smallest cross-section practicable.
shall
be measured and estimated by the linear
17. Cut-off
Tunnel.
foot.
cut-off tunnel shall be driven along the line of contact
between the lava and granite and shall later be filled with concrete. This tunnel
shall be of the smallest practicable dimensions and the excavation of the same will
be measured and estimated by the linear foot.
EXCAVATION FOR DAM, SPILLWAY, TUNNEL PORTALS AND COFFERDAMS
The excavation for the dam will cover all excavation required
1 8. Description.
to obtain a suitable foundation for the dam, including excavation for keyways,
cut-off trenches, steps or benches, unless such excavation
is
included under special
preparations of rock foundations for dam as outlined in paragraph 46. The material in the river channel consists mainly of river sand, gravel, and boulders, and
constitutes the greater part of the material to be excavated for
dam
foundation.
the south side of the river, the excavation will consist of stripping the dam site
of a shallow covering of loose material and cutting suitable foundation in the rock.
On
The work on
the north abutment will consist mainly of removing a mass of seamy
rock and large boulders embedded in loose rock and loam, and of cutting a suitable foundation in the ledge rock.

The
DAM
539
greater part of the material to be excavate:! for the spillway consists of

by a shallow layer of loam and sand.
granite rock, covered
The excavation
inlet
and
for the tunnel portals will cover all excavation required for the
mouths and not included
outlet bell
in the tunnel proper.
The
material
consists of a lava rock talus
overhang sand, gravel, boulders, and ledge rock.

The excavation for the cofferdams will consist of excavating the river bottom
to a level bed and excavating cut-off trenches at the abutments on the north side
of the river.
19.
Classification.
All excavation for the
dam,
spillway, tunnel portals
and
cofferdams shall be measured and estimated by the cubic yard under the following
classes:
Dry Excavation.
mean low water
the
Wet Excavation.
The
All material excavated
above elevation 2960, which
is
about
level of the Boise River.
All material excavated
classifications of material shall
below elevation 2960.
be the same under each of the above desig-
nations and shall be as follows:
Loose Material.
and disposal
tion
rial
The excavation
of loose material shall include the excava-
of all loam, sand, gravel,
loose rock,
mud,
and
all
other mate-
not included in rock excavation, except as hereinafter specified under Para-
graph 46.
Rock Excavation.
Rock excavation shall include the excavation and disposal

removed by blasting, boulders of one-half a cubic yard or more
in volume, and all rock removed by barring and wedging.
Wherever the excavation consists of a large proportion of boulders of one-half a cubic yard or more in
volume occurring in gravel, earth, or loose rock, as is the case near the river level
of all solid rock
on the north side of the river channel, the amount of " rock excavation "
estimated as a percentage of the total excavation
if
may
deemed advisable by the
be
engi-
neer.
20.
Rock Excavation for Foundations.
Rock
shall
depth to secure a foundation on sound ledge rock,

It
objectionable defects.
of these rock excavations.
is
be excavated to a
free
sufficient
from open seams or other
the intention to build the masonry against the sides

preserve the rock outside the lines of the excava-
To
tion in the soundest possible condition
and to obtain over the whole foundation
a rock surface free from open seams or cracks, unusual precautions shall be used in
excavating. Rock excavation may be done by blasting to the extent directed by
the engineer, with explosives of such moderate power and in such positions as will
neither crack nor damage the rock outside of the prescribed limits of the excava-
and whenever, in the opinion of the engineer, further blasting is liable to

upon or against which the masonry is to be built, blasting shall be
discontinued and the excavation of the rock continued by wedging and barring,
tion;
injure the rock
or other approved methods.
The surfaces of the rock foundations

Preparation of Rock Foundations.
be left sufficiently rough to bond well with the masonry and, if required by
the engineer, shall be cut into rough benches or steps, and great care shall be taken
not to open or break the ledge rock unnecessarily in doing this work. Before laying
21.
shall
the
masonry on or against the ledge
from
by means
rock, the latter shall be scrupulously freed
gravel, scale, loose fragments, and other objectionable substances

of jets of water, air, or steam under effective pressure, or of stiff brooms
all dirt,
SPECIFICATIONS
540
hammers and other
any
All
effective tools.
Steam jets shall be used to remove thoroughly
snow that may be on the ledge rock when it is desired to lay masonry.
After cleaning
springs shall be piped and grouted in a satisfactory manner.
ice or
and before concrete is laid on or against the ledge rock the water shall be removed
from the depressions so that the surface can be inspected to determine whether
seams or other defects exist. All expense of preparing rock foundations except as
hereinafter stated in paragraphs 44, 45, and 46 shall be included in the cost of
"
rock excavation."
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE

22. Composition.
All concrete shall be composed of cement, sand, gravel and
water, or cement, sand, gravel, water and cobblestones, in the proportions fixed
by the construction engineer for the character or work in hand. The cement used
will in general
when
directed
be sand cement, but in the diversion works and in other special cases
by the engineer. Portland cement may be used.
The sand used in concrete shdl be of a quality satisfactory to the

23. Sand.
construction engineer, shal be free from organic matter, and shall not contain more
than 10 per cent by weigh of clay or other foreign matter. The particles of sand
shall be well graded, ana the coarsest particles shall not be larger than those that
1
will pass a screen having f-inch square holes

The sane shall be of the best
quality obtainable at reasonable cost in the vicinity of the work.
The gravel used in the concrete shall be either clean, hard, broken
24. Gravel.
rock, or clean, screened gravel and shall be well graded and of such sizes as will
pass a grizzly having bars set 3 inches apart and will be retained on a screen hav| -inch
square holes.
Cobblestones used in the concrete shall be sound, clean
gravel or broken rock of such size as will pass a grizzly having bars set about
6 inches apart and be retained on a grizzly having bars set 3 inches apart.
ing
25. Cobblestones.
26. Water.
The water used for the concrete shall be reasonably clean and free
from objectionable quantities of organic matter, oil, grease, or other like impurities.
The sand, gravel, cobbles, and cement shall be mixed and the
27. Mixing.
quantity of \vater added shall be such as to produce a homogeneous mass of uniform consistency. Except in cases of emergency when small quantities are
''
"
batch
machine
needed, the concrete shall be mixed by one of the standard
mixers.
Whenever any machine fails to perform the mixing thoroughly, it shall
be made satisfactory or removed and another machine substituted. When from
any cause resort to hand mixing is necessary, the mixing shall be done in a thorough
and satisfactory manner. Concrete shall be mixed " wet " wherever practicable
"
and " dry only when the nature of the work renders such use unavoidable.
28. Placing.
The concrete shall be handled in such a manner that initial set
Should
or the separation of the ingredients before depositing shall be avoided.
separation occur, the concrete shall be thoroughly remixed. Xo concrete that has
its initial set Ibefore being deposited shall be used in the work and any
such mixture shall be immediately removed from the vicinity of the work. All
surfaces upon which concrete is laid shall be cleaned as specified or directed and
received
thoroughly wet immediately before concrete is deposited. If so directed, a bed

of fresh mortar of the thickness required or a thin coat of grout shall be spread
DAM
541
over the foundation and thoroughly worked into all depressions and crevices.
Under no circumstances shall concrete be laid in deep, moving, or muddy water.
All exposed faces of concrete work shall be moulded against steel forms, or, if
timber forms are used, against lagging that has been sized to uniform thickness
and placed so as to prevent leakage of the fluid concrete. All forms shall be accurately and rigidly placed to conform to the lines established by the engineer.
The bracing and tying devices must have sufficient strength and stiffness to withstand the pressure of fluid concrete without springing or warping. The concrete shall be placed against these forms and so manipulated by spading and
tamping as to secure a body of concrete having the maximum possible density and
showing smooth and uniform faces. Where the use of contraction joints is specified for the separation of adjoining masses, the expense of constructing all such
joints shall be included in the cost of placing concrete.
In order to insure a thorough bonding and

2Q. Building Neiv Concrete on Old.
a perfect joint between fresh concrete and that which has set, such provision shall
be made of steps, dovetails or other devices or methods as may be prescribed.
Whenever
fresh concrete
and concrete that has
set are joined, the contact sur-
faces of the old concrete shall be thoroughly roughened

be clean and wet, but free from pools of water, at the
and cleaned, and
moment
it
shall
the fresh con-
If directed, a bed of fresh mortar or a coat of grout shall be

is placed.
applied to the contact surfaces of the old concrete and thoroughly worked into
crete
depressions and crevices.

Special efforts shall be made to remove very
thoroughly all laitance and other substances which would prevent complete
cohesion of the concrete throughout the main body of the dam.
No concrete shall be laid during
30. Laying Concrete in Freezing Weather.
all
freezing weather unless special precautions are taken to prevent
Whenever concrete
damage from
freez-
during freezing weather, the materials of the aggregate shall be thoroughly heated to remove all frost and warm water shall be used
in mixing.
No frozen materials shall be used in making concrete and no concrete
shall be allowed to freeze in any part within ten days after mixing nor shall any
ing.
is
laid
concrete be built
upon a frozen surface.

Embedded Rock. In all mass concrete having a thickness of 15 inches or
more, sound and clean cobblestones or rock fragments of a size that can be lifted
and handled by one man, shall be incorporated in the concrete. The proportion
31.
such rocks shall be as nearly uniform throughout as practicable. No rock

be laid in actual contact with an adjacent one or wjthin 2 inches of the forms.
In the main body of the dam, there shall be placed hard, sound, clean, and durable
of
shall
rocks of derrick
size, carefully
shaken to position
in fresh
beds of concrete.
When-
ever possible, smaller rocks shall be embedded in the concrete between the large
rocks.
The object is to obtain, especially in the main body of the dam, a monolithic mass of stone and concrete containing as large a proportion of rock and as
impervious to water as it is practicable to secure. Stones to be used as embedded
rock wherever used shall be thoroughly cleaned before being brought to the place
where they are to be used, by washing with water under pressure from a nozzle,
by the use of brushes, or as otherwise directed, and shall be

when placed in the concrete. All rock shall be thoroughly wet
satisfactorily clean
at the time of plac-
ing in the work.

32. Sprinkling.
During
all of
the year except the colder months,
all
concrete
542
SPECIFICATIONS
shall be
kept thoroughly wet by sprinkling with water until the concrete shall have
become thoroughly
set.
33. Finishing Concrete Surfaces.
Immediately after the removal of the forms,

rough surfaces and irregularities of exposed work shall be dressed and all voids
that may occur shall be filled with mortar. The floors of the spillway and diver-
all
have their top surface finished by straight-edging and floating

similar to a sidewalk finish, except that the standard mixture of concrete shall be
sion tunnel shall
used without any additional surface coat of mortar.
Such surfacing
shall
be done
immediately after placing the body of the concrete. A wash of thin cement grout
shall be applied to all exposed surfaces of concrete except floors and similar surfaces.
The outlet conduits shall be finished smooth and particular care shall be taken by
hand troweling or
otherwise, to
make
a hard, smooth, surface.
CONCRETE FOR SPILLWAY
The concrete work in the spillway will consist of constructing

34. Description.
mass concrete the spillway weir, which will be about 400 feet long, and of lining
the sides and bottom of the spillway trench with reinforced concrete and of constructing the roadway and parapet walls below the end of the dam.
of
35. Classification.
All concrete placed in the spillway weir shall be classed
and estimated as " spillway weir." All other concrete placed

"
structure shall be classed and estimated as
spillway lining."
36. Special
The foundation
Foundation of Broken Stone.
of the concrete used in the spillway lining shall
in the spillway
for certain portions
be a layer of broken stone, not
less
than 4 inches thick at any point, thoroughly rammed. The top of this layer of
rock shall be at the bottom of the concrete lining as shown in the drawings. This
special foundation shall be
measured and estimated
in cubic yards
on a basis
of
6-inch thickness, unless a greater depth of broken stone is required by the engineer, in which case the additional rock required shall be measured and estimated.
Details of this work are shown and described further in drawing 5.
CONCRETE FOR DIVERSION TUNNEL

37. Description.
The bottom
and the side lining will consist

where necessary by means of
steel bars.
consist of concrete lining placed
and, in most cases, surmounted
and
lining of the tunnel will consist of plain concrete
bonded to the rock sides

and outlet wing walls will
and suitably bonded thereto,
of plain concrete suitably
The
on the rock
by a concrete
inlet
sides
wall of gravity section.
The
inlet
outlet floors will consist of a lining of plain concrete where the foundation is
ledge rock and of reinforced concrete where the foundation is sand and gravel.
The tunnel refilling will consist of placing mass concrete in the portion of the
tunnel underlying the foundations of the dam. All expense incurred in such
refilling,
including cofferdams, and bulkheads, shall be charged to this item.

All concrete placed as lining between stations 1+50 and
38. Classification.
6+20
of the diversion tunnel shall
"
diversion tunnel
be classed and estimated as
and outlet walls and portals and not included

"
diversion tunnel inlet and
as tunnel lining shall be classed and estimated as
All concrete placed in the floors and cut-off walls of the inlet
outlet wing walls."
and outlet and not included in tunnel lining shall be classed and estimated as
lining."
All concrete placed in inlet

"
diversion tunnel inlet and outlet floors."

"
tunnel shall be classed and estimated as

39. Refilling Shaft.
engineer.
This
The
DAM
543
All concrete placed in refilling
refilling
shaft shall be refilled with concrete as directed
refilling shall consist of
the
diversion tunnel."
mass concrete and
shall
by the
be measured and
estimated by the cubic yard.
CONCRETE FOR COFFERDAMS

and Description.
40. Classification
All concrete placed in the cofferdams shall
be
and estimated as " cofferdam concrete."
This item consists mainly of

plain concrete to be placed in the core walls of the abutment.
classed
CONCRETE FOR CUT-OFF TUNNEL

and Description.
41. Classification
All concrete placed in refilling the cut-off

"
refilling of cut-off tunnel."
tunnel shall be classed and estimated as
CONCRETE FOR
It
42. Description.
is
DAM
planned to build the main body of the
dam
of concrete
part sand-cement, 2\ parts sand, 5 parts gravel and 3 or 4

parts cobblestones, in which large rock and boulders of various sizes will be embedded. These proportions may be varied to suit conditions as they may develop.
consisting of about
amount
be used.
and Measurement. All concrete in the dam shall be classed
and estimated under one item. Deductions shall be made from the gross volume
for the space occupied by the inspection tunnel and the outlets, but no deductions
small
of reinforced concrete will also
43. Classification
shall
be made on account
of the drainage system.
SPECIAL PREPARATION OF
ROCK FOUNDATION OF DAM
After the rock foundation for the
44. Description.
dam
has been prepared
as outlined in paragraph 21 of these specifications, all further work on said foundation whether shown in the drawings or required by the engineer, shall be designated
"
as
special preparation of rock foundation of dam," provided such further work
is not included under paragraph 28 of these specifications.
45. Classification.
Special preparation of rock foundations of
measured and estimated under the following
dam
shall
be
classes:
Areas Receiving Special Preparation. All areas receiving special preparation

as outlined in paragraph 46 shall be measured and estimated by the square yard
and at least 5 square yards shall be allowed for any area on which such special
preparation is required.
Pressure Grouting. All pressure grouting as outlined in paragraph 47 shall be
measured and estimated by the barrel of cement used in such grouting.
All drilling for drainage holes
Drilling Drainage Holes and Main Grout Holes.
for the main grout holes shown on the drawings and not included under para-
and
graph 46 shall be measured and estimated by the linear foot of holes drilled.
Portions or the whole of the founda46. Areas Receiving Special Preparation.
tions of the dam .may be designated for special preparation and in all areas thus
designated seams and cavities shall be traced as far as directed by the engineer
by
drilling holes or
then be
filled
by other approved means.
with concrete, mortar, or grout.
All such
Whenever
seams and cavities

directed
by the
shall
engineer,
SPECIFICATIONS
544
pumped under pressures required by him through hose or pipe of

inches in diameter, and the connection between the hose or pipe and the
rock shall be made tight. Such grouting does not include grouting the main grout
grout shall be
at least
drawings and described under paragraph 47.

and Drilling Drainage Holes and Main Grout Holes. In
addition to the drilling and pressure grouting that may be required under paragraph
holes
shown
in the
47. Pressure Grouting
be drilled as shown on the drawings or as

masonry in the dam has been
placed, grout under suitable pressure shall be pumped into the grout holes as
46,
deep grout and drainage holes
directed
by the
engineer,
directed
by the
engineer.
and
shall
after a portion of the
STRUCTURAL TIMBER
Structural timber will be required for the upper and lower
48. Description.
cofferdams, for portions of the diversion tunnel inlet and outlet wing walls, and for
the timber lining for the roof of the diversion tunnel. All structural timber shall
be of the dimensions shown in the drawings, free from loose knots, shakes, or other
imperfections that impair its strength for the uses for which it is intended. Unless
otherwise specified or required, all structural timber shall be of pine or fir obtained
near the sawmill mentioned in paragraph 12.
All structural timber shall be measured by the thousand
49. Measurement.
feet board measure in place.
COFFERDAMS AND TIMBER WING WALLS
The upper and lower cofferdams and the timber of the

50. Description.
diversion tunnel wing walls will consist of timber cribs of the dimensions shown on
the drawings, thoroughly filled with loam, sand, gravel and rock as specified in
paragraph
53.
Longitudinal timbers shall break joints and shall butt only at

At butting joints, two drift bolts shall be placed
intersections with cross timbers.
end of each butting timber and at

be secured by two drift bolts.
in the
all
other intersections the timbers shall
TIMBER LINING IN DIVERSION TUNNEL

The timber lining in the diversion tunnel will consist of 4 X 1251. Description.
inch planks securely spiked to i4Xi4-inch timber sets as shown on the drawings.
The 4 X i2-inch planks shall be of Oregon fir or other suitable material, carefully
dressed to the required thickness. These planks shall break joints and butt only
At butting joints three lo-inch boat spikes
at intersections with the timber sets.
shall be placed in the end of each abutting plank, and at all other intersections the
planks shall be secured by three zo-inch boat spikes. The space between the timber sets and the excavated section shall be thoroughly filled with blocking and
All cost of such blocking and lagging, not
lagging as directed by the engineer.
provided for in paragraph
14, shall
be charged to the cost of timber
lining.
PILING
Round piles and sheet piles of the dimendrawings will be required in the construction of the cofferdams.
Round piles shall be measured as the number of such piles actually placed in the
cofferdams.. Round piles shall be of lengths shown on the drawings and shall
52.
sions
Description and Measurement.
shown
in the
SPECIFICATIONS FOR ARROWROCK
DAM
545
be cut from sound, growing timber of either pine or fir, straight and tape'ring,
and not less in diameter than 8 inches at the smaller end. Sheet piles shall be made
of sound fir or pine timbers of the size and lengths required with strips of 3X4inch timber securely spiked on two opposite sides in such a manner as to form a
tongue and groove on each pile. Sheet piles shall be measured and estimated under
two heads, " number

of piles driven
the cofferdams.
and
left in
"
of piles driven
"
and
"
feet
board measure."
The ." number
only the number of piles actually driven and left in

"
"
shall include only such piles as are driven
Feet board measure
shall include
the cofferdams but shall include the waste
cut-off
by
from such
piles.
ROCK FILL
53.
Description and Measurement.
Rock
fill
will
be required in the cofferdams
and in the crib portions of the tunnel wing walls. It shall consist of rock fragments of varying size, sand, gravel and loam in proportions fixed by the engineer,
the whole mass being classed as rock fill. The manner of placing rock fill shall
be subject to the approval of the construction engineer and will vary in different
parts of the work, but wherever practicable the voids in the rock fill shall be filled
with the fine material by hydraulicking this material compactly in place. Rock
fill
will
be measured in place and estimated by the cubic yard.
RIPRAP
Riprap
54. Classification.
will
be classed as follows:
Grouted Riprap. All riprap grouted with cement grout or with concrete.
Plain Riprap. All riprap not included in grouted riprap.
55. Description.
Riprap
will consist of
rock of good, hard durable quality,
than 12 inches in thickness, placed upon a bed of gravel or broken stone

not less than 9 inches in thickness. The riprap shall be laid by hand and the base of
each stone shall be bedded in the foundation with its top conforming to the surface
not
less
All spaces between the stones shall be filled by smaller stones and gravel.
thickness of the riprap shall be as required by the engineer, and the thickness
of the foundation shall be not less than two-thirds the required thickness of the
required.
The
If grouting is required the grout shall be composed of i part cement and 3

rock.
parts sand, or of concrete in about the proportions of i part cement, 3 parts sand
and 6 parts gravel or broken stone, which shall be well worked in between the rocks
after the latter are laid.
DRAINAGE
56. Description
and
Classification.
When
indicated in the drawings or directed
engineer, drainage conduits shall be placed to lines and grades as required,

and due precautions shall be taken to maintain the same in perfect condition until
by the
the completion of the work.
Drains shall be measured and estimated by the
linear foot.
PLACING METAL
WORK
The gates, frames and appurtenances, steel for concrete rein57. Description.
forcement, the cast-iron lining for the outlet conduits, and all other metal work,
Anchor bolts
shall be set as shown in the drawings or as required by the engineer.
SPECIFICATIONS
546
be properly built into the concrete, all gates, frames, screens and operating
devices shall be set in correct position at the proper time, the rising stems shall
shall
be properly alined, and the whole finally left in good working order. Embedded
all dirt or other objectionable material removed before
being
Such steel bars for concrete reinforcement as are required
placed in the concrete.
surfaces shall have
by the drawings
or
by
direction of the engineer shall be accurately placed
and per-
be secured between the bars and the mortar of the surrounding

Bars shall be tightly wired together at all points of intersection and so
fect contact shall
concrete.
secured in position that they will not be disturbed during the placing of the conAll of the above-mentioned metal work, except steel for concrete reinforcecrete.
ment, shall be purchased through the chief electrical engineer.
58. Measurement.'
number
the
of
pounds
59. Pair.ting.
and
finished with
Placing metal work shall be measured and estimated as

of metal work in place.
All exposed metal
two coats
work
after erection shall be thoroughly cleaned
The
paint shall be of good quality graphite,

or other material, as selected by the engineer.
The cost of painting shall be
included in the cost of placing metal work.
oi paint.
OUTLET CONDUITS
60. Description and Measurement.
The dam will contain 25 or more outlet
conduits having a diameter of 5 feet throughout the greater part of their length.
The outlet conduits will be measured and estimated by the linear foot, the length
of a given conduit being considered as the length measured on the center line of
that conduit.
"
All cost of constructing the outlet conduits shall be charged to

"
except the cost of setting the cast iron linings, anchor bolts,
"
will be charged to
placing metal work."
outlet conduits
etc.,
which
INSPECTION GALLERY
61. Description and Measurement.
elevation shall be constructed in the
An
body
inspection gallery of varying size and

of the dam as shown in the drawings
by the chief engineer.

inspection gallery shall be measured and estimated by the linear foot,
the length being considered as the actual length of the center line of the gallery
or as directed
The
measured along planes
parallel to the general
bottom surface
of the gallery.
LOG HOIST
and Classification.
becomes necessary for
62. Description
resumed and
it
When
log driving in the Boise River
is
means
and transporting them to
log drives to pass the
dam,
suitable
be provided for hoisting the logs from the reservoir

the river below the dam. All expense incurred in connection with such hoisting
and transportation shall be considered a single item and classed as " log hoist
shall
and chute."
CONTRACT SPECIFICATIONS
547
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
-The proposal shall be made on the form
1. Form of Proposal and Signature.
provided therefor and shall be enclosed in a sealed envelope marked and addressed
The bidder shall state in words and figures
as required in the notice to bidders.
the unit prices or the specific sums, as the case may be, for which he proposes to
supply the material or machinery and perform the work required by these speciIf the proposal is made by an individual it shall be signed with his
fications.
if it is made by a firm it shall be
signed
member of the firm, who shall also sign his own
name, and the name and address of each member shall be given; and if it is made
by a corporation it shall be signed by an officer with the corporate name attested
full
name, and
his address shall be given;
with the copartnership
name by
by the corporate
and the names and
shall
seal,
titles of all officers of
the corporation
be given.
Blank spaces in the proposal should be properly filled. The

2. Proposal.phraseology of the proposal must not be changed, and no additions should
be made to the items mentioned therein. Unauthorized conditions, limitations
or provisos attached to a proposal will render it informal and may cause its rejecAlterations by erasure or interlineation must be explained or noted in the
tion.
proposal over the signature of the bidder. If the unit price and the total amount
named by a bidder for any item do not agree, the unit price alone will be conA bidder may withdraw his
sidered as representing the bidder's intention.
proposal before the expiration of the time during which proposals may be submitted, without prejudice to himself, by submitting a written request for its with-
drawal to the
officer
who
holds
any place other than the place

considered.
No proposals received after said time or at

opening as stated in the advertisement will be
it.
of
Bidders, their representatives, and others interested, are invited to
be present at the opening of proposals. The right is reserved to reject any or all
proposals, to accept one part of a proposal and reject the other, and to waive technical defects.
3.
Certified Check.
Each bidder
tional certified check for the
Any
order of
check
sum
will
render
which such check
it
is
informal and
submitted.
shall submit with his proposal an uncondistated in the notice to bidders, payable to the
condition or limitation placed upon a certified
may
If
result in the rejection of the proposal
the bidder to
refuses to execute the required contract
whom
an award
and bond within the time
is
made
under
fails
or
specified in para-
or such additional time as
may be allowed by the engineer, the proceeds

become subject to forfeit, and the proceeds of said check are
hereby agreed upon as liquidated damages on account of the delay in the execution
of the contract and bond and the performance of work thereunder, and the necesgraph
4,
of his check shall
sity of accepting a higher or less desirable bid resulting
to execute contract
cessful bidder will
of his bond,
and bond as
required.
from such
The proceeds
failure or refusal
of the check of the suc-
be returned after the execution of his contract and the approval

of the checks of the other bidders will be returned
and the proceeds
at the expiration of forty-five days from the date of opening proposals, or sooner
if contract is executed prior to that time.
SPECIFICATIONS
548
4.
The bidder
The Contract.
contract with
bond within
whom award
to
and,
bond
if
is
is
made
shall execute
a written
and approved
contract and bond for execu-
required, furnish good
days after receiving the forms of

whom award is made fails to enter into contract as herein
provided, the award will be annulled, and an award may be made to the bidder
whose proposal is next most acceptable in the opinion of the officer by whom
the first award was made; and such bidder shall fulfill every stipulation embraced
fifteen
the bidder to
If
tion.
herein as
if
whom
he were the party to
the
first
award was made.
The
adver-
tisement, notice to bidders, proposal, general conditions, and detail specifications

A corporation to which an award is made
will be incorporated in the contract.
will be required, before the contract is finally executed, to furnish evidence of its
corporate existence and evidence that the officer signing the contract and bond
is duly authorized to so do.
for the corporation

5.
Contractor's Bond.
Unless another
sum
is
specified in the notice to bidders,
an amount not less than 20 per cent of the

estimated aggregate payments to be made under the contract, conditioned upon
the faithful performance by the contractor of all covenants and stipulations in
the contractor shall furnish
bond
in
Bonds in amounts less than $5000 will be made only in multiples

amounts exceeding $5000 in multiples of $1000; provided that the
the bond shall be fixed at the lowest sum that will fulfill all conditions
the contract.
in
of $100;
amount
of
herein set forth.

die
become
or
sureties,
If
during the continuance of the contract any of the sureties
may
irresponsible,
which the contractor
require
additional
sufficient
shall furnish to the satisfaction of that officer within
ten days after notice, and in default thereof the contract may be suspended by
and the materials purchased or the work completed as provided in
10.
paragraph
The word " engineer " used in these specifications or in the conEngineer.
He will be represented by assisttract means the Chief Engineer of
On all questions concerning the
ants and inspectors, authorized to act for him.
6.
acceptability of material or machinery, the classification of material, the execution

of the work, conflicting interests of contractors performing related work; and the
determination of costs, the decision of the Chief Engineer shall be
upon both
7.
final,
and binding
parties.
Contractor.
The word
"
contractor
"
used in these specifications or in the
contract means the person, firm, or corporation with whom the contract is made.
The contractor shall at all times be represented on the works in person or by a foreman or duly designated agent. Instructions and information given by the engi-
neer to the contractor's foreman or agent on the work shall be considered as having
been given to the contractor. When two or more contractors are engaged on installation or construction
to direct the
manner
in
work
in the
which each
same
shall
vicinity the engineer shall be authorized
conduct his work so far as
its affects
other
contractors.
8.
mens
Material and Workmanship.
The
contractor shall submit samples or speciwork as the engineer may
of such materials to be furnished or used in the
must be of the specified quality and equal to approved

samples have been submitted. All work shall be done and completed
in a thorough, workmanlike manner.
Work, material, or machinery not in
accordance with these specifications, in the opinion of the engineer, shall be
require.
samples
All materials
if
549
made
to conform thereto.
Unsatisfactory material will be rejected, and, if so
ordered by the engineer, shall, at the contractor's expense, be immediately removed from the vicinity of the work.
If any delay is caused the contractor by specific orders of the
9. Delays.
engineer to stop work, or by the performance of extra work ordered by the engineer,
to provide material, or necessary instructions
or by the failure of
for carrying
on the work, or to provide the necessary right of way, or
site for instal-
by unforeseen causes beyond the control
lation, or
will entitle the contractor to
an
of the contractor, such delay

equivalent extension of time, except as otherwise
Application for extension of time must be approved

by the engineer and shall be accompanied by the formal consent of the sureties,
but an extension of time, whether with or without such consent, shall not release
provided in paragraph
27.
the sureties from their obligations, which shall remain in full force until the disIf delays from any of the above-mentioned causes occur
charge of the contract.
after the expiration of the contract period

a period equivalent to such delay.
no liquidated damages
shall accrue for
the contractor
fails to begin the delivery of

as provided in the contract, or fails to make
delivery of material promptly as ordered, or to maintain the rate of delivery of
material or progress of the work in such a manner as in the opinion of the engineer
10.
Suspension of Contract.
the material or to
will insure
full
If
commence work
compliance with the contract within the time limit, or if in the

is not carrying out. the provisions of the con-
opinion of the engineer the contractor
tract in their true intent and meaning, written notice will be served on him to provide within a specified time for a satisfactory compliance with the contract, and
if he neglects or refuses to comply with such notice the engineer may suspend the
operation of all or any part of the contract, or he may in his discretion after such
notice perform any part of the work or purchase any or all of the material included
in the contract or required for the completion thereof without suspending
the
suspension of contract, the engineer may in his discretion take

possession of all or any part of the machinery, tools, appliances, animals, materials,
and supplies used on the Work covered by the contract or that have been delivered
contract.
by
Upon
or on account of the contractor for use in connection therewith,
may be
in the
used either directly by
completion of the work suspended;
or
or
by other
and the same

parties for
it,
may employ
other
parties to perform the work, or may substitute other machinery or

materials, purchase the material contracted for in such manner as it may deem
proper, or hire such force and buy such machinery, tools, appliances, animals,
materials, and supplies at the contractor's expense as may be necessary for the
in excess
proper conduct and completion of the work. Any cost to
of the contract price, arising from the suspension of the contract, or from work
either before or after suspension,
performed or purchases made by
and required on account of failure of the contractor to comply with his contract
or the orders of the engineer issued in pursuance thereof, will be charged to the
contractor and his sureties, who shall be liable therefor. A special lien to secure
in the event of suspension of the contract is hereby
the claims of
created against any property of the contractor taken into the possession of
under the terms hereof, and such lien may be enforced by a sale of such property,
and the proceeds of the sale, after deducting all expenses thereof and connected
550
SPECIFICATIONS
therewith, shall be credited to the contractor.
If
the net credits shall be in excess
of the claims of
against the contractor the balance will be paid to

the contractor or his legal representatives.
In the determination of the question
whether there has been such noncompliance with the contract as to warrant its
suspension or the furnishing of material or the performance of work

as herein provided, the decision of the engineer shall be final and
by
binding upon
Suspension of the contract, or any part thereof, shall operate only
to terminate the right of the contract or to proceed with the work covered by the
both
parties.
The provisions of the contract perto make changes and to make proper adjustment of accounts
mitting
to cover any increase or decrease of cost on account of such changes, and all other
stipulations of the contract except those giving the contractor the right to proceed
with work on the items covered by the suspension, shall be and remain in full
contract or the suspended portions thereof.
force
and
effect after
such suspension and until the contract shall have been com-
pleted and final
payment or final adjustment of accounts made.

11. Changes.
The engineer may, without notice to the sureties on the contractor's bond, make changes: (a) in the designs or materials of machinery; (b) in
the plans for installation or construction; (c) in the quantities or character of the
work or material required. The changes in plans for installation or construction
also include: (a) modifications of shapes and dimensions of canals, dams,

and other structures; (b) the shifting of locations to suit conditions disclosed as
work progresses. If such changes result in an increase of cost to the contractor,
the engineer will make such additions on account thereof as he may deem reasonable and proper, and his action thereon shall be final.
Extra work or material
may
be charged for as hereinafter provided.

Extra Work or Material. In connection with the work covered by this contract, the engineer may at any time during the progress of the work order work
shall
12.
or material not covered
by the
specifications.
Such work or material
will
be classed
be ordered in writing. No extra work or material will be

paid for unless ordered in writing. Extra work or material shall be charged for at
actual necessary cost, as determined by the engineer, plus 15 per cent for profit,
as extra
work and
will
The actual necessary cost will include all

expenditures for materials, labor, and supplies furnished by the contractor, but
will in no case include any allowance for office expenses, general superintendence,
or other general expenses. At the end of each month the contractor shall present
superintendence, and general expenses.
in writing
any claims
for extra
work performed during that month and extra matewhen requested by the engineer, shall furand shall permit examination of accounts,
delivered during that month and,

nish itemized statements of the cost
rial
bills,
and vouchers
relating thereto.
No
such claim
will
be allowed which
is
not
presented to the engineer in writing within thirty days after the close of the month,
during which the extra work or material covered by such claim is alleged to have
been furnished, and any such claim not so presented

waived by the contractor.
will
be deemed to have been
No Extra Compensation. The contractor shall receive no com13. Delays

pensation for delays or hindrances to the work except when, in the judgment of
the engineer, direct and unavoidable extra cost to the contractor is caused by
the failure of
way, or
site for installation.
to provide necessary information, material, right of
When
such extra compensation
is
claimed a written
551
itemized statement setting forth in detail the amount thereof shall be presented
by the contractor not later than sixty days after the close of the month during
which extra cost is claimed to have been incurred. Unless so presented the
claim shall be deemed to have been waived.
Any
such claim,
if
found correct,
be approved and the amount found due as actual extra cost will be covered
by the next estimate thereafter paid under the contract. The decision of the
engineer whether extra cost has been incurred and the amount thereof shall be
will
final.
If the contractor, on account of conditions

14. Changes at Contractor's Request.
developing during the progress of the work, finds it impracticable to comply strictly
with these specifications and applies in writing for a modification of requirements
or of methods of work, such change may be authorized by the engineer if not
detrimental to the work and

15. Inspection.
will
if
without additional cost to
All materials furnished
be subject to rigid inspection.
The
and work done under
this contract
contractor shall furnish without extra
charge complete facilities, including the necessary labor for the inspection of all
material and workmanship. The engineer, or his authorized agent, shall have
at
is
all
times access to
all
being manufactured.
parts of the shop where such material under his inspection

Work or material that does not conform to the specifica-
tions, although accepted through oversight or otherwise, may be rejected at any

stage of the work. Whenever the contractor on installation or construction is
permitted or directed to do night work or to vary the period during which work is
carried on each day, he shall give the engineer due notice, so that inspection may
be provided.
Such work
shall
be done without extra compensation and under
regulations to be furnished in writing by the engineer.

The contractor shall promptly make
16. Contractor's Financial Obligations.
payments to all persons supplying labor and materials in the execution of the
contract,
and a condition
to this effect shall be incorporated in the contractor's
bond.
17. Experience.
Bidders,
if
required, shall present satisfactory evidence that
they have been regularly engaged in furnishing such material and machinery and
constructing such work as they propose to furnish or construct and that they are
fully prepared with necessary capital, machinery, and material to begin the work
promptly and to conduct it as required by these specifications.
The contractor shall keep on the work a
1 8. Specifications and Drawings.
copy of the specifications and drawings and shall at all times give the engineer
Any drawings or plans listed in the detail specifications shall

be regarded as part thereof and of the contract. Anything mentioned in these
specifications and not shown on the drawings or shown on the drawings and not
access thereto.
mentioned
in these specifications shall
be of
like effect as
though shown or men-
The
engineer will furnish from time to time such detail drawings,

plans, profiles, and information as he may consider necessary for the contractor's
guidance, unless otherwise provided in the proposal, agreement, or detail specificationed in both.
tions.
19.
Local Conditions.
Bidders shall satisfy themselve as to local conditions
and no information derived from the maps, plans, specifications, profiles, or drawings, or from the engineer or his assistants, will relieve the
contractor from any risk or from fulfilling all of the terms of his contract. The
affecting the work,
SPECIFICATIONS
552
accuracy of the interpretation of the facts disclosed by borings or other preliminary

Each bidder or his representative should visit
investigations is not guaranteed.
the site of the work and familiarize himself with local conditions; failure to do so
when intelligent preparation of bids depends on a knowledge of local conditions
may
be considered
sufficient cause for rejecting a proposal.
Furnished by the Contractor. The contractor shall furnish the

engineer reasonable facilities for obtaining such information as he may desire
20.
Data
to be
respecting the character of the materials and the progress and manner of the
work, including all information necessary to determine its cost, such as the number
men employed,
which they worked on the various

contractor shall also furnish the engineer copies
of freight bills on all machinery, materials, and supplies shipped to or from the
project in connection with the work under the contract.
The contractor shall not make
21. Restrictions on Disposition of Plant, etc.
of
their pay, the time during
The
classes of construction, etc.
disposition of the plant, machinery, tools, appliances, supplies, materials, or

animals used on or in connection with the work, either by sale, conveyance, or
any
incumbrance, inconsistent with the special lien created by this contract.

The contractor will be held responsible for and required to make
22. Damages.
good, at his own expense, all damage to person or property caused by carelessness
or neglect on the part of the contractor, or subcontractor, or the agents or employees
of either.
23. Character of
Workmen.
ees, his subcontractors, or
The
contractor shall not allow his agents or employ-
any agent or employee
or lands in the vicinity of the work.
None but
thereof, to trespass
skilled
on premises
foremen and workmen
shall
be employed on work requiring special qualifications, and when required by the

engineer the contractor shall discharge any person
who commits
in the opinion of the engineer disorderly, dangerous, insubordinate,
trespass or
is
imcompetent,
Such discharge shall not be the basis of any claim

or otherwise objectionable.
for compensation or damages.
The methods and appliances adopted by the

24. Methods and Appliances.
contractor shall be such as will, in the opinion of the engineer, secure a satisfactory
quality of work and will enable the contractor to complete the work in the time
If at any time the methods and appliances appear inadequate, the
engineer may order the contractor to improve their character or efficiency, and the
contractor shall conform to such oroler; but failure of the engineer to order such
agreed upon.
improvement
of
methods or
tion to perform satisfactory

25. Climatic Conditions.
efficiency will not relieve the contractor
work and
The
to finish
engineer
it
may
from
in the time agreed
his obliga-
upon.
order the contractor to suspend
any work that may be subject to damage by climatic conditions. When delay
is caused by an order to suspend work given on account of climatic conditions
that could have been reasonably foreseen the contractor will not be entitled to any
extension of time on account of such order.
The quantities noted in the schedule or pro26. Quantities and Unit Prices.
posal are approximations for comparing bids, and no claim shall be made for excess
or deficiency therein, actual or relative.
Payment at the prices agreed upon will
be in
full for
the completed work and will cover materials, supplies, labor, tools,
all other expenditures incident to satisfactory compliance with the
machinery, and
contract, unless otherwise specifically provided.
553
The contractor shall remove

27. Removal and Rebuilding of Defective Work.
and rebuild at his own expense any part of the work that has been improperly
If he refuses
executed, even though it has been included in the monthly estimates.
or neglects to replace such defective work,
it
may
be replaced at the expense of
the contractor, and his sureties shall be liable therefor.
Work and Cleaning Up. The contractor shall be responsible

any material furnished him and for the care of all work until its completion
and final acceptance, and he shall at his own expense replace damaged or lost
material and repair damaged parts of the work, or the same may be done at his
He shall take all risks from
expense, and his sureties shall be liable therefor.
floods and casualties and shall make no charge for detention from such causes.
He may, however, be allowed a reasonable extension of time on account of such
28. Protection of
for
The contractor shall

detention, subject to the conditions hereinbefore specified.
remove from the vicinity of the completed work all plant, buildings, rubbish,
unused material, concrete forms, etc., belonging to him or used under his direction during construction, and in the event of his failure to do so the same may be
removed at the expense of the contractor, and his sureties shall be liable therefor.
Roads subject to interference from the work covered
29. Roads and Fences.
by this contract shall be kept open, and the fences subject to interference shall be
kept up by the contractor until the work is finished.
Bench marks and survey stakes shall be
30. Bench Marks and Survey Stakes.
established by the engineer and shall be preserved by the contractor, and in case
of their destruction or removal by him or his employees, they will be replaced by
the engineer at the contractor's expense, and his sureties shall be liable therefor.
31. Right of
way
for the
Way.
The
site for
the installation of machinery or the right of
works to be constructed under
pits, channels, spoil
32. Sanitation.
lations for all forces
banks, ditches, roads,
The engineer may

employed under
this contract
etc., will
establish sanitary
this contract,
and
for necessary
borrow
be provided by
and
and
if
police rules
and regu-
the contractor
fails to
enforce these rules the engineer may enforce them at the expense of the contractor.
The use or sale of intoxicating liquor is absolutely prohibited on the work, except
for medicinal purposes,
and every such use or
sale shall
be under the direction and
supervision of the engineer.
The contractor shall hold and save

33. Infringement of Patents.
and his officers, agents, servants, and employees harmless from and against all
and every demand, or demands, of any nature or kind, for or on account of the
use of any patented invention, article, or appliance included in the material or
supplies hereby agreed to be furnished under this contract, and should the contractor, his agents, servants, or employees, or any of them, be enjoined from furnishing
any invention, article, material, or appliance supplied or required to be
supplied or used under this contract, the contractor shall promptly substitute
other articles, materials, or appliances in lieu thereof, of equal efficiency, quality,
finish, suitability, and market value, and satisfactory in all respects to the engineer.
or using
Or, in the event that the engineer elects, in lieu of such substitution, to have supplied, and to retain and use, any such invention, article, material, or appliance,
as
may by
shall
this contract
pay such
royalties
necessary to enable
be required to be supplied, in that event the contractor

licenses as may be requisite and
and secure such valid
his officers, agents, servants,
and employees, or
SPECIFICATIONS
554
them, to use such invention, article, material, or appliance without being

way interfered with by any proceeding in law or equity on ac-
of
any
disturbed or in any
Should the contractor neglect or refuse promptly to make the subpay such royalties and secure such licenses
count thereof.
stitution hereinbefore required, or to
may be necessary and requisite for the purpose aforesaid, then in that event
the engineer shall have the right to make substitution, or
may pay
such royalties and secure such licenses, and charge the cost thereof against any
as
money due the contractor from

him and his surety, notwithstanding
have been made. The provisions of
final
this
or recover the amount thereof from

payment under this contract may
paragraph do not apply to
articles
required to manufacture or furnish in accordance with

and included in this contract. They
detail drawings furnished by
shall apply, however, where such drawings and the specifications cover only the
which the contractor
is
type of device without restriction as to details.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
It is required that there be constructed and completed
34. The Requirement.
accordance with these specifications and the drawings hereinbelow listed,
The work is near
(feature)
(State).
(items)
(project)
in
Railway and
the line of the

35. List of
in the vicinity of the
towns
of
Drawings.
Commencement, Prosecution and Completion of Work. Work shall be

the contractor within
days, and shall be completed within
days after the execution of the contract. The contractor shall at all
times during the continuation of the contract prosecute the work with such force
and equipment as, in the judgment of the engineer, are sufficient to complete it
36.
commenced by
within the specified time.

37. Failure to Complete the
Work in the Time Agreed upon. Should the conwork or any part thereof in the time agreed upon in
such extra time as may have been allowed for delays by formal
tractor fail to complete the
the contract, or in
extensions, a deduction of
dollars per day for each schedule will be

and every day, including Sundays and holidays, that such schedule
remains uncompleted after the date required for the completion. The said amounts
are hereby agreed upon as liquidated damages for the loss to
on
account of all expenses due to the employment of engineers, inspectors and other
made
for each
employees after the expiration of the time for completion and OH account of the
value of the operation of the works dependent thereon, and will be deducted from
any money due the contractor under this contract, and the contractor and his
sureties shall be liable for
any
excess.
At the end of each calendar month

the engineer will make an approximate measurement of all work done and material
delivered up to that date, classified according to items named in the
38. Progress
Estimates and Payments.
contract,
and
named
make an
estimate of the value of the same on the basis of the unit

prices
in the contract.
To the estimate made as above set forth will be added
will
the amounts earned for extra work to the date of the

progress estimate.
From
555
the total thus computed a deduction of 10 per cent will be

will be further deducted any amount due to
made and from
mainder there
the re-
from the
contractor for supplies or materials furnished or services rendered and any other
to
as damages for delays or otherwise
under the terms of the contract. From the balance thus determined will be de-
amounts that may be due

ducted the amount of
all previous payments and the remainder will be

paid to
upon the approval of the accounts. The 10 per cent deducted
forth will become due and payable with and as a part of the final
the contractor
as above set
to be
made
as hereinafter provided.
In case of the suspension of the conper cent shall be and become the sole and absolute property of
to the extent necessary to repay
any excess in the cost
When the terms of the contract shall have
of the work above the contract price.
payment
tract, the said 10
been fully complied with to the satisfaction of the engineer, final payment will be
of any balance due, including the percentage withheld as above, or such
made
portion thereof as may be due to the contractor.

All
39. Materials Furnished by the United States.
(list items)
required for the completion of the work in accordance with these speciand will be delivered
fications, will be furnished to the contractor by
to him f. o. b. cars at the railway station most convenient to the work.
The con,
tractor shall haul all materials from the points of delivery to the work.
He shall
provide suitable warehouses for storing materials and will be charged for any material lost or damaged after delivery to him.
He shall return to
all
unused material and
will
be charged for any material not used and not returned
same amounts that the material
the
cost
at the point of delivery to
furnished to the contractor on cars he shall be responsible
for the prompt unloading of such material and will be held liable for any demurrage
charges which may be incurred by his failure to unload the material promptly.
When
him.
The
material
is
cost of unloading, hauling, handling, storing

shall
by
and caring
for materials furnished
be included in the unit prices bid for the work in which the
materials are to be used.
STANDARD PARAGRAPHS FOR PURCHASE OF MATERIAL
The contractor shall provide, at his own expense, the necessary test pieces, and shall notify the engineer or his representative when these pieces
All test bars and test pieces shall be marked so as to indicate
are ready for testing.
40. Test Pieces.
clearly the material they represent,
shipment
if
and
shall
be properly boxed and prepared for
required.
Physical tests and chemical analyses of material will be made by

own expense; or they may be made at the plant by the contractor or his employees, acting under the direction of the engineer or his repre41. Tests.
at his
sentative;
lieu of
or certified tests
the above-mentioned
42. Shipment.
may, at the option
of the engineer,
be accepted in
tests.
All shipments shall be
made
to the points directed
by the
engineer.
per cent of the contract price of each shipment will be

43. Payment.
paid on the acceptance of the material by the inspector and receipt by the engineer
of the bill of lading, properly receipted, and the remainder shall
at
be paid when
all of
the material covered
by the contract
shall
have been received
SPECIFICA TIONS
556
at
its
destination and finally inspected, checked and accepted by the engineer,

of the contract shall have been fully complied with to the satis-
and the terms
faction of the engineer.
EARTHWORK ON CANALS
All materials moved in the excavation of
44. Classification of Excavation.
canals and for structures, and in the construction of embankments will be measured
in excavation only, to the neat lines
engineer,
Class
and
i
will
be
classified for
shown
in the
drawings or prescribed by the
as follows:
payment
Material that can be plowed to a depth of 6 inches or more with a
six-
horse or six-mule team, each animal weighing not less than 1400 pounds, attached
to a suitable plow, all well handled by at least three men; also all material that is
and can be handled in scrapers, and all detached masses of rock, not exceeding
cubic feet in volume, occurring in loose material or material that can be plowed
loose
2
as specified.
Indurated material of
all kinds that cannot be plowed as described

but that, when loosened by powder or other suitable means, can be
removed by the use of plows and scrapers, and all detached masses of rock more
than 2 and not exceeding 10 cubic feet in volume.
Class
under
2:
class
Class 3:
All rock in place not included in classes
and
2,
and
all
detached
masses of rock exceeding 10 cubic feet in volume not included in classes i and 2.
If there be required the excavation of any material which, in the opinion of the
engineer, cannot properly be included in any of the above three classes, the engineer
will determine the actual necessary cost of excavating and disposing of such material
and payment therefor as extra work
paragraph .... of these specifications.
bid for the several classes of material will be
be made under the provisions of

additional allowance above, the prices
will
No
made on account
of
any
of the material
being frozen. It is desired that the contractor or his representative be present

during the measurement of material excavated. On written request of the contractor, made by him within ten days after the receipt of any monthly estimate, a
statement of the quantities and classifications between successive stations included in said estimate will be furnished him within ten days after the receipt of
such request. This statement will be considered as satisfactory to the contractor

unless he files with the engineer, in writing, specific objections thereto, with reasons
therefor, within ten
days after receipt of said statement by the contractor or his
Failure to file such written objection with reasons

representative on the work.
therefor within said ten days shall be considered a waiver of all claims based on
alleged
erroneous estimate of quantities or incorrect
for the
work covered by such statement.
classification
of materials
The canal sections are shown in the drawings, but the

45. Canal Sections.
undetermined stability of the material that will form the canal banks may make it
desirable during the progress of the work to vary the slopes and dimensions depenIncrease or decrease of quantities excavated as a result of such
ent thereon.
changes shall be covered in the estimates and shall not otherwise affect the payments
due to contractor, unless it is found by the engineer that the unit cost is thereby
increased, in which case the engineer will estimate, and include in the amount due
amount of such increase. The canal shall be excavated to the

depth and width required and must be finished to the prescribed lines and
the contractor the

full
557
grades in a workmanlike manner. Runways shall not be cut into canal slopes
below the proposed water level. Earth slopes shall be neatly finished with scrapers
Rock bottoms and banks must show no points of rock
or similar appliances.
Above the water line

projecting more than 0.3 foot into the prescribed section.
the rock will be allowed to stand at its steepest safe angle and no finishing will be
required other than the removal of rock masses that are liable to fall. Payment
for excavation of canals will
or as established
by the
be made to the neat
lines
only as shown in the drawings
engineer.
The ground under all embankments that are to

46. Preparation of Surfaces.
sustain water pressure, and the surface of all excavation that is to be used for embankments, shall be cleared of trees, brush and vegetable matter of every kind.
The
roots shall be grubbed
and burned with other combustible material that
surface of the ground under the entire embankment shall

be scored with a plow making open furrows not less than 8 inches deep below the
natural ground surface at intervals of. not more than 3 feet. The cost of all work
has been removed.
The
described in this paragraph shall be included in the unit-prices bid for excavation.
Embankments built with teams and
of Embankments.
47. Construction
scrapers or with dump wagons shall be made in layers not exceeding 12 inches in
The travel over the embankments
thickness and kept as level as practicable.
during construction shall be so directed as to distribute the compacting effect to

the best advantage. Any additional compacting required over that produced by
ordinary travel in distributing the material will be ordered in writing and paid
Embankments shall
work under the provisions of paragraph
be built to the height designated by the engineer to allow for settlement, and shall
be leveled on top to a regular grade. (Note: If the engineer proposes to permit
for as extra
the use of
machinery in canal excavation full specifications should be drafted in each

No embankments shall be made from frozen materials nor on
individual case.)
frozen surfaces.
Should the engineer direct that unsuitable material be excavated

site of any embankment, the material thus excavated will
and removed from the
be paid for as excavation. When canal excavation precedes the building of structures, openings shall be left in the embankments at the sites of these structures
and, except when the construction of the structures is included in the contract,
the contractor will not be required to complete such omitted embankments. The
cost of all work described in this paragraph, except as herein specified, shall be in-
cluded in the prices bid for excavation.

48. Disposal of Materials.
-All
suitable material excavated
much
in
the construc-
be needed, shall be used

Where
in the construction of embankments and in backfilling around structures.
the canal is on sloping ground, all material taken from the excavation shall be
deposited on the lower side of the canal unless otherwise shown in the drawings or
tion of canals
and
structures, or so
thereof as
may
by the engineer. Where the canal is on level or nearly level ground, the
material from the excavation shall be deposited in embankments on both sides to
form the top portions of the waterway. If there is an excess of material in excavadirected
shall be used to strengthen the embankment on either side of the canal as

be directed by the engineer. Material taken from cuts that is not suitable
for embankment construction and surplus material may be wasted on the right of
at such points as shall be approved by the engiway owned by
tion
it
may
neer.
Unless otherwise shown in the drawings or directed by the engineer, no
SPECIFICATIONS
558
material shall be wasted in drainage channels, nor within

On side hill locations
of the prescribed or actual canal cut.
feet of the
all
edge
material wasted
shall be placed on the lower side of the canal unless specific written authority is
obtained from the engineer to waste such material elsewhere. Waste banks shall
be left with reasonably even and regular surfaces. Whenever directed by the
engineer, materials found in the excavation, such as sand, gravel or stone, that are
suitable for use in structures, or that are otherwise required for special purposes,
shall be preserved and laid aside in some convenient place designated by him.
Where the canal excavation at any section does not furnish

49. Borrow Pits.
sufficient suitable material for embankments, the engineer will designate where
additional material shall be procured. Unless otherwise shown on the drawings
or directed by the engineer a berm of 10 feet shall be left between the outside toe
embankment and the edge of the borrow pit, with provision for a side slope
two to one to the bottom of the borrow pit. Borrowed material will be measured
in excavation only, and unless the engineer gives the contractor specific written
orders to excavate other than class i material from borrow pits, all material obtained
of the
of
from
this source will
be paid for at the unit price bid for class i excavation, regardPayment for excavation from borrow pits will be made
less of its actual character.
embankments or backfilling or such as

direction of the engineer are excavated and wasted or laid aside.
All material taken from the excavation and required for em50. Overhaul.
bankment or for other purposes shall be placed as directed by the engineer. The
for only such quantities as are required for
by
limit of free haul will be 200 feet.
Necessary haul over 200 feet will be paid for

at the price bid per cubic yard per hundred feet additional haul, but no allowance
will be made for overhaul where the excavated material is wasted, except where
such overhaul is specifically ordered in w riting by the engineer. Where material
r
taken from borrow
the length of the haul will be measured along the shortest

practicable route between the center of gravity of the material as found in excavation and the center of gravity of the material as deposited in each station.
Where
is
pits,
taken from canal excavation, the length of the haul shall be underthe distance measured along the center line of the canal from the
center of gravity of the material as found in excavation to the center of gravity
the material
stood to
is
mean
of the material as required to be deposited.

If, in the judgment of the engineer, it should
51. Surface and Berm Ditches.
be necessary to construct surface and berm drainage ditches along the lines of the
canal, the contractor shall perform such work and the excavation will be paid for
at the unit prices bid in the schedules covering the excavation of the canal along
which such surface and berm ditches are built.
52.
Excavation
for Structures.
Unless
otherwise
shown
excavation for structures will be measured for payment to lines

of the foundation of the structures and to slopes of
that,
where the character
of the material cut
is
such that
it
in
the
drawings,
outside
provided,
can be trimmed to the
required lines of the concrete structure and the concrete placed against the sides
of the excavation without the use of intervening forms, payment for excavation
will not be made outside of the required limits of the concrete.
The prices bid for
excavation shall include the cost of all labor and material for cofferdams and other
temporary structures and of all pumping, bailing, draining and all other work
necessary to maintain the excavation in good order during construction.
53. Backfilling.
all
The
contractor shall place and
around structures.
backfilling
shall
559
compact thoroughly
The compacting must be equivalent
to that
obtained by the tramping of well distributed scraper teams depositing the mateThe material used for
rial in layers not exceeding 6 inches thick when compacted.
this purpose, the amount thereof and the manner of depositing the same must
be satisfactory to the engineer. So far as practicable, the material moved in

excavating for structures shall be used for backfilling, but when sufficient suitable
material is not available from this source, additional material shall be obtained
by the engineer. Payment for backfilling will be made

yard bid therefor in the schedule.
.feet
Backfilling and embankment around structures within
54. Puddling.
of the structure shall be made with material approved by the engineer, and where
from borrow
pits selected
at the price per cubic
practicable shall consist of the sand and gravel, with an admixture of clay equal
The material shall be
to one-fourth to one-half the volume of sand and gravel.
deposited in water of such depth as is approved by the engineer, unless the quantity
of clay predominates, in which case the engineer may in his discretion order the
material deposited in layers of 6 inches or less, and compacted by tamping or roll-
Payment
ing with the smallest quantity of water that will insure consolidation.
for the work specified in this paragraph will be made at the unit price bid for puddling
and
will
be in addition to the payment made for excavation and overhaul.

Any blasting that will probably injure the work will not be
55. Blasting.
permitted, and any damage done to the work

contractor at his expense.
by
blasting shall be repaired
by the
CONCRETE
Concrete shall be composed of cement, sand and broken
56. Composition.
rock or clean gravel, well mixed and brought to a proper consistency by the addition of water.
Ordinarily one part by volume, measured loose, of cement shall be
parts of sand and
used with
parts of broken rock or gravel.
These
may be modified by the engineer as the work or the nature of the matemay render it desirable, and the contractor shall not be entitled to any
proportions
rials
used
by reason of such modifications.

Cement for the concrete will be furnished to the contractor by
The contractor shall give the engias provided in paragraph
than thirty days' notice in writing of his cement requirements. The
extra compensation
57. Cement.
neer not less
requirements shall be stated, so far as practicable, in quantities not less than single
all
The contractor shall return to the railway station at
car lots.
empty sacks securely bound in bundles in such manner and of such sizes as the
,
engineer
may
direct.
For
all
sacks not returned in serviceable condition, he will be
charged the same amount that the sacks cost.

Steel bars shall be placed in the concrete wherever
58. Reinforcement Bars.
shown in the drawings or prescribed by the engineer. The steel will be furnished
The exact
as provided in paragraph
by
and shape of reinforcement bars are not shown in all cases in the drawings
accompanying these specifications, but the contractor will be furnished supplemental detailed drawings and lists which will give him the information necessary
The steel used for concrete reinforcement
for cutting, bending and spacing of bars.
to the contractor
position
shall
be so secured in position that
it will
not be displaced during the deposition
SPECIFICATIONS
560
of the concrete, and special care shall be exercised to prevent any disturbance of
the steel in concrete that has already been placed. The cost of hauling, storing,
cutting, bending, placing and securing in position of reinforcement bars shall
be included in the unit price bid for placing reinforcement bars.

Sand for concrete may be obtained from natural deposits or may
59. Sand.
be made by crushing suitable rock. The sand particles shall be hard, dense, dur-
mesh screen. The sand must be

more than 10 per cent of clayey
graded that when dry and well shaken its voids
able rock fragments, such as will pass a |-inch

free from organic matter and must not contain
The sand must be
material.
so
not exceed 35 per cent.
will
The broken rock or gravel for concrete must be

60. Broken Rock or Gravel.
hard, dense, durable rock fragments or pebbles that will pass through a
inch mesh
inch mesh screen when used for plain concrete, and through a
screen when used for reinforced concrete, and that will be rejected by a jj-inch
mesh
screen.
61. Water.
The water used
in
from objectionable quantities
free
mixing concrete must be reasonably clean and

of organic matter, alkali salts
and other impuri-
ties.
62.
Mixing.
The cement, sand and broken rock
or gravel shall be so mixed
water added shall be such as to produce a homogeneous mass

Dirt and other foreign substance shall be carefully exof uniform consistency.
and the quantities

cluded.
mixing
is
of
Machine mixing will be required unless specific authority to use hand

given by the engineer. The machine and its operation shall be subject
Hand mixing, if permitted, shall be thorough

to the approval of the engineer.
and shall be done on a clean, tight floor. In general, enough water shall be used
"
in mixing to give the concrete the consistency ordinarily designated as
wet."
"
Concrete containing a minimum amount of water, ordinarily designated as " dry
concrete, will be permitted only where the nature of the work renders the use of
"
wet " concrete impracticable. If concrete is mixed in freezing weather, the
materials shall be heated sufficiently .before mixing to remove all frost and maintain a temperature above 32
and has attained

63. Placing.
initial set.
F., until the concrete
has been placed in the work
its final set.
in the work before the cement takes its

any concrete that is wasted or rejected will be
Concrete shall be placed
The cement used
in
charged to the contractor at its cost, at the point of delivery to him. No concrete shall be placed in water except by permission of the engineer and the method
of depositing the same shall be subject to his approval.
Foundation surfaces
is to be placed must be free from mud and debris.
When the
placing of concrete is to be interrupted long enough for the concrete to take its
final set, the working face shall be given a shape, by the use of forms or other
upon which concrete
means, at the option of the engineer, that will secure proper union with subsequent
work. All concrete surfaces upon or against which concrete is to be placed and to
which the new concrete is to adhere, shall be roughened, thoroughly cleaned, and
wet before the concrete is deposited. " Dry " concrete shall be deposited in layers
not exceeding 6 inches in thickness, each of which shall be rammed until water
"
"
Wet concrete shall be stirred with suitable tamping
appears on the surface.
bars, shovels or forked tools until it completely fills the form, closes snugly against
all surfaces and is in perfect and complete contact with any steel used for rein-
forcement.
Where smooth
up and down next
561
surfaces are required a suitable tool shall be worked

is forced back and a mortar
form until the coarser material
to the
No concrete shall be placed except in the presis brought next to the form.
ence of a duly authorized inspector.
The surface of concrete finished against forms must be smooth,
64. Finishing.
free from projections and thoroughly filled with mortar.
Immediately upon the
layer
removal of forms
smoothed to the
filled with cement mortar, irregularities

removed and minor imperfections of finish shall be
of the engineer.
Exposed surfaces of concrete not
voids shall be neatly
all
in exposed surfaces shall be
satisfaction
finished against forms, such as horizontal or sloping surfaces, shall be brought to a
uniform surface and worked with suitable tools to a smooth mortar finish. All
sharp angles where required shall be rounded or beveled by the use of moulding
strips or suitable
moulding or
Exposed surfaces
finishing tools.
The contractor
65. Protection.
shall
protect
all
concrete
against
injury.
be protected from the direct rays of the sun and

two weeks after the concrete has been placed.
of concrete shall
be kept damp for at least

Concrete laid in cold weather shall be protected from freezing by such means
as are approved by the engineer. All damage to concrete shall be repaired by the
shall
contractor at his expense, in a manner satisfactory to the engineer.

Forms to confine the concrete and shape it to the required lines
66. Forms.
shall
be used wherever necessary.
Where
the character of the material cut into
it can be trimmed to the prescribed

the use of forms will not be required. The forms shall be of sufficient strength
and rigidity to hold the concrete and to withstand the necessary pressure and ramming without deflection from the prescribed lines. For concrete surfaces that will
to receive a concrete structure
such that
is
lines,
be exposed to view and for all other concrete surfaces that are to be finished smooth,
the lagging of forms must be surfaced and bevel-edged or matched; provided, that
smooth metal forms may be used if desired. All forms shall be removed by the
Forms may be used

contractor, but not until the engineer gives permission.
repeatedly provided they are maintained in serviceable condition and thoroughly
cleaned before being re-used.
Concrete will be measured for payment to the neat lines
67. Measurement.
shown in the drawings or prescribed by the engineer under these specifications.
No payments
will
cavities resulting
be made for concrete outside of the prescribed lines and in case

careless excavation are required to be filled with concrete,
from
the cement used for such refilling will be charged to the contractor at
the point of delivery to -him.
68.
Payment.
The
labor entering into
its
vided in paragraph
its
cost at
unit price bid for concrete shall include all material and
construction, except that cement will be furnished as proand reinforcement bars will be furnished when required
.
as provided in paragraph
STRUCTURAL STEEL
"
Standard Specifications
Based on
for Structural Steel for Buildings
Society for Testing Materials,

69.
Manufacture.
or Bessemer process.
which
is
adopted August
25,
"
of the
American
1913-
may be made by either the open-hearth

and plate or angle material over f inch thick,
Structural steel
Rivet
steel
punched, shall be made by the open-hearth process.
The
steel shall
SPECIFICATIONS
562
conform
mentioned herein, to the " Standard

"
of the American Society for
1913, and tests shall be made as provided
in all respects, not specifically
Specifications for Structural Steel for Buildings
Testing Materials, adopted August 25,

in said specifications.
Chemical and Physical Properties of Structural Steel, Steel made by the

shall contain not more than o.io per cent phosphorus and steel
by the open-hearth process shall contain not more than 0.06 per cent phos-
70.
Bessemer process
made
All structural steel shall have an ultimate tensile strength of 55,000 to

65,000 pounds per square inch; an elastic limit, as determined by the drop of the
beam, of not less than one-half the ultimate tensile strength; a minimum per cent
of elongation in 8 inches of 1,400,000 divided by the ultimate tensile strength; a
phorus.
and capability of being bent cold without fracture 180 flat on

f-inch material and under; around a pin having a diameter equal to the
thickness of the test piece for material over f inch to and including if inches;
silky fracture;
itself for
and around a pin having a diameter equal to twice the thickness of the test piece
A deduction of i from the specified percentage of elongation will be allowed for each f inch in thickness above f-inch;
and a deduction of 2.5 will be allowed for each
inch in thickness below j^ inch.
Rivet steel shall contain
71. Chemical and Physical Properties of Rivet Steel.
not more than 0.06 per cent phosphorus nor more than 0.045 P er cen t sulphur.
It shall have an ultimate tensile strength of 48,000 to 58,000 pounds per square
inch; an elastic limit of one-half the ultimate tensile strength; a minimum per cent
for material over i| inches in thickness.
of elongation in 8 inches of 1,400,000 divided
and capability
silky fracture;
by the ultimate
tensile strength;
of being bent cold without fracture 180
flat
on
itself.
Finished material must be free from injurious seams, flaws, or
72. Finish.
cracks,
and have a workmanlike
finish.
Marking. Every finished piece of steel shall be stamped with the melt
or blow number, except that small pieces may be shipped in bundles securely wired
together with the melt or blow number on a metal tag attached.
73.
74.
Test Pieces.
75.
Tests.
76.
Payment.
(See paragraph 40.)
(See paragraph 41.)

(See paragraph 43.)
STEEL REINFORCEMENT BARS

Based on
77.
"
Standard Specifications for Billet-Steel Concrete Reinforcement Bars
American Society for Testing Materials, adopted August 25, 1913.
"
Manufacture.
Steel
may
of the
be made by either the open-hearth or Bessemer
process and the bars shall be rolled from billets. It shall conform in all respects,
"
Standard Specifications for Billet-steel
not specifically mentioned herein, to the
adopted August
78.
Type
25, 1913,
of Bars.
"
American Society for Testing Materials

be made as provided in said specifications.
All reinforcement bars shall be of the deformed type.
Concrete Reinforcement Bars
and
of the
tests shall
Bidders shall submit samples or cuts of the type of bar they propose to furnish.
Bars of steel made by the Bessemer process shall
79. Chemical Properties.
contain not more than o.io per cent phosphorus, and not more than 0.05 per cent
if made by the open-hearth process.
phosphorus
80. Physical Properties.
of 55,000 to 70,000
Bars of
have an ultimate
steel shall
pounds per square inch; an
563
clastic limit of
not
tensile strength
less
than 33,000
pounds per square inch; a minimum per cent of elongation in 8 inches of 1,250,000
divided by the ultimate tensile strength; and capability of being bent cold without
fracture 180 around a pin having a diameter equal to the thickness of the test
piece for material less than f inch in thickness, and around a pin having a diameter
equal to twice the thickness of the test piece for material of | inch and over in thickFor each increase of \ inch in diameter or thickness above f inch and for
ness.
each decrease of -^ inch in diameter or thickness below

inch, a deduction
i will be allowed from the specified percentage of elongation.
Bars for reinforcement are subject to rejection
81. Variation in Weight.
the actual weight of any lot varies
retical weight of that lot.
82. Finish.
cracks,
83.
and
shall
85.
if
per cent over or under the theo-
Finished material shall be free from injurious seams, flaws, or

have a workmanlike finish.
Test Pieces.
84. Tests.
more than
of
(See paragraph 40).
(See paragraph 41.)
(See paragraph 43.)
Payment.
GRAY IRON CASTINGS

Based on
86.
process.
form
"
Standard Specifications for Gray Iron Castings

Testing Materials, adopted September
"
American Society
of the
i,
for
1905.
Manufacture. Castings shall be of tough gray iron made by the cupola

In all respects, not specifically mentioned herein the castings shall con-
to the
"
Standard Specifications for Gray Iron Castings

adopted September i, 1901, and
Society for Testing Materials,
"
of the
American
tests shall be
made
as provided in said specifications.

Castings having any
87. Light Castings, Physical and Chemical Properties.
The sulphur consection less than ^ inch thick shall be known as light castings.
The minimum breaking load of a
tent shall be not greater than 0.08 per cent.
bar i| inches in diameter, loaded at the middle of a 1 2-inch span, shall be 2500
pounds. The deflection shall in no case be less than o.i inch.
and Chemical Properties. Castings in which
88. Heavy Castings, Physical
no section
is less
than
inches thick shall be
known
as
heavy
castings.
The
sul-
be not greater than 0.12 per cent. The minimum breaking

load of a bar i i inches in diameter, loaded at the middle of a 1 2-inch span shall be
3300 pounds. The deflection shall in no case be less than o.i inch.
Medium castings
89. Medium Castings, Chemical and Physical Properties.
"
"
"
"
Their sulphur
or
are those not included under
castings.
heavy
light
phur content
shall
content shall be not greater than o.io per cent. The minimum breaking load of a
bar 1 1 inches in diameter loaded at the middle of a 1 2-inch span shall be 2900
The
pounds.
deflection shall in
porosity, cold-shuts, blow-holes
manlike
true
92. Tests.
(See paragraph 40.)
(See paragraph 41.)
Payment.
less
to
than
o.i inch.
pattern, free from cracks, flaws,
and excessive shrinkage and
finish.
91. Test Pieces.
93.
no case be
All castings shall be
90. Finish.
(See paragraph 43.)
shall
have a work-
SPECIFICATIONS
564
MALLEABLE CASTINGS
Based on
"
for Malleable Castings
Testing Materials, adopted
"
November
of the
15,
American Society
for
1904.
Malleable iron castings may be made by the open-hearth

94. Manujacture.
In all respects not specifically mentioned herein the castor air furnace process.
"
"
Standard Specifications for Malleable Castings
of
ings shall conform to the
the American Society for Testing Materials, adopted November 15, 1904, and tests
shall
be
made
95. Chemical
and Physical Properties. Castings shall contain not more than

more than .0225 per cent of phosphorus. They shall
0.06 per cent of sulphur nor
than 40,000 pounds per square inch and the elongaThe transverse
inches shall not be less than i\ per cent.
strength of the standard test bar i inch square, loaded at the middle of a 1 2-inch
span shall be not less than 3000 pounds per square inch; and the deflection shall
have a
tion
tensile strength of not less
measured
be at least
in
inch.
Castings shall be true to pattern, free from blemishes, scale and

shrinkage cracks, and shall have a workmanlike finish.
96. Finish.
97.
Test Pieces.
98.
Tests.
99.
Payment.
(See paragraph 40.)
(See paragraph 41.)
(See paragraph 43.)
STEEL CASTINGS
Based on
"
for Steel Castings
"
of the
American Society
for Testing
Materials, adopted August 25, 1913.
castings may be made by the open-hearth,

Castings shall be annealed unless otherwise specified, and in all respects not specifically mentioned herein their material and manufacture shall conform to the Standard Specifications for Steel Castings of the Amer100. Manufacture.
crucible or
Steel
for
Bessemer process.
ican Society for Testing Materials adopted August 25, 1913, and tests shall be
101. Chemical
and Physical Properties.
made
Castings shall contain not more than
Castings
0.05 per cent of phosphorus nor more than 0.05 per cent of sulphur.
"
"
"
"
"
shall be classed as
Hard," Medium and Soft and shall have the following
physical properties:
Hard.
Medium.
Soft.
Tensile strength, pounds per square inch
80,000
70,000
60,000
Elastic limit
36,000
31,500
27,000
15
18
22
20
25
30
Elongation, per cent in 2 inches

Contraction of area, per cent
102. Finish.
shrinkage cracks.
in positions
will
Casting shall be true to pattern, free from blemishes, flaws or

Bearing surfaces shall be solid and no porosity shall be allowed
where the resistance and value of the casting for the purpose intended
be seriously affected thereby.

103. Test Pieces.
104. Tests.
105.
(See paragraph 40.)
(See paragraph 41.)
Payment.
(See paragraph 42.)
565
CEMENT
It
106. The Requirement.
required that there be furnished in accordance
with these specifications the quantity of Portland cement set forth in the accompanying advertisement, f. o. b. cars at the place named by the bidder in his prois
The
posal.
to
right
reserved by
is
an extent not to exceed 20 per cent.
ficient quantities to
shipment
is
The
to increase or decrease the quantity

contractor shall store cement in suf-
provide for the completion of necessary tests thereon before
required.
At the end of each calendar month the

107. Progress Estimates and Payments.
engineer will prepare a statement of the amount of cement delivered to that date
and an estimate of the value of the same on the basis of the unit .price named in
From
the total thus computed there will be deducted any amount

from the contractor under the terms of the contract. From the
amount thus determined will be deducted the sum of all previous payments and the
the contract.
due
be paid to the contractor on approval of the accounts.

The cement shall be the product obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining to incipient fusion, an 'ntimate mixture of properly proportioned argillaceous and calcareous substances, with only such additions
remainder
will
108. Definition.
subsequent to calcining as may be necessary to control certain properties.

additions shall not exceed 3 per cent, by weight, of the calcined product.
In the finished cement, the following limits shall not be
109. Composition.
exceeded
Loss on ignition for 15 minutes
may
4 per cent
Insoluble residue
Sulphuric anhydride (SO 5 )
Magnesia (MgO)
no.
3.10.
Such
Specific Gravity.
The
specific gravity of the
cement
shall
"
"
"
be not
less
than
Should the cement as received fall below this requirement, a second test
be made upon a sample heated for thirty minutes at a very dull red heat.
in.
Fineness.
At
least 78 per cent of the
cement by weight,
shall pass
through
the No. 200 sieve.

112. Soundness.
Pats of neat cement prepared and treated as hereinafter
show no sign of distortion, checking,

meet the prescribed steaming
or the steaming test repeated after seven or more
prescribed shall remain firm and hard and

If the cement
cracking, or disintegrating.
fails to
test, the cement may be rejected

days at the option of the engineer.
The cement shall not acquire its initial set in less than
113. Time of Setting.
forty-five minutes and must have acquired its final set within ten- hours.
114. Tensile Strength.
Briquettes made up of i part cement and 3 pnrts stand-
ard Ottawa sand, by weight, shall develop tensile strength per square inch as
fol-
lows:
7 days, i day in moist air, 6 days in water
After 28 days, i day in moist air, 27 days in water
After
in
200 pounds
300
The average of the tensile strengths developed at each age by

set made from one sample is to be considered the strength
any
"
the briquettes
of the sample
SPECIFICATIONS
566
The average strength

at that age, excluding any results that are manifestly faulty.
of the briquettes at 28 days shall show an increase over the average strength at
7
days.
Bids for furnishing cement or for doing work in which cement is

115. Brand.
to be used shall state the brand of cement proposed to be furnished and the mill at
The
which made.
right
is
reserved to reject any cement which has not established
as a high-grade Portland cement, and has not been made by the same mill
for two years and given satisfaction in use for at least one year under climatic and
itself
other conditions at least equal in severity to those of the work proposed.

The cement shall be delivered in sacks, barrels, or other suit116. Packages.
by the engineer), and shall be dry and free from lumps.

be plainly labeled with the name of the brand and of the mansack of cement shall contain 94 pounds net. A barrel shall con-
able packages (to be specified
Each package
shall
ufacturer.
pounds net. Any package that is short weight or broken or that contains
damaged cement may be rejected, or accepted as a fractional package, at the option
If the cement is delivered in cloth sacks, the sacks used shall be
of the engineer.
strong and serviceable and securely tied, and the empty sacks will, if practicable,
tain 376
be returned to the contractor at the point of delivery of the cement. On final

cents will be paid the contractor for each
settlement under the contract,
sack furnished by
him
in
accordance with the above requirements and not returned
in serviceable condition.
The cement shall be tested in accordance with the standard

117. Inspection.
methods hereinafter prescribed. In general the cement will be inspected and tested
after delivery,
but partial or complete inspection at the mill may be called for in

Tests may be made to determine the chemical
the specifications or contract.
composition, specific gravity, fineness, soundness, time of setting, and tensile

strength, and a cement may be rejected in case it fails to meet any of the specified
requirements.
tests or
they
An agent of the contractor may

may be repeated in his presence.
CONTINUOUS
be present at the making of the
WOOD STAVE
PIPE
The pipe shall be of the continuous-stave metal-banded type

118. Description.
with metal tongues driven into slots in the ends of the staves to form the butt
The alinement and profile of the pipe are shown in the drawings. Each
joints.
proposal shall be accompanied by drawings showing clearly detail dimensions of
staves, bands and tongues, which shall comply with the requirements of the speci-
Omission of drawings from proposals or any uncertainty as to detail

will be sufficient cause for rejection.
All material of whatever nature required in the work shall be
119. Material.
fications.
dimensions
The price bid for wood staves in place shall include

contractor.
necessary tongues, and all royalties for special material or devices
used in the pipe or in its construction. The price bid for bands in place shall
furnished
by the
the cost of
include
all
all
necessary shoes and fastenings and asphaltum coating, and
all
royalties
for special devices used in the pipe or in its construction.

120. Diameter of Pipe.
The
inside diameter of the pipe shall be
inches,
measured after completion of the work. No diameter at any point shall differ
more than 2 per cent from the average diameter of the pipe at said point, and
567
the average of the vertical and horizontal diameters at any point shall not be
than the specified diameter.
less
All
121. Staves.
lumber used in staves
shall
be Douglas
fir
or redwood.
It
be sound, straight-grained, and free from dry rot, checks, wind shakes, wane,
and other imperfections that may impair its strength or durability. Redwood
shall
be clear and free from sap. In Douglas fir sap will not be allowed on more
than 10 per cent of the inside face of any stave and in not more than 10 per cent
of the total number of pieces; sap shall be bright and shall not occur within 4
shall
inches of the ends of any piece; pitch seams will be permitted in not over 10 per
cent of the total number of pieces, if showing on the edge only, and if not longer
than 4 inches nor wider than YS inch; no through knots nor knots at edge nor
within 6 inches of ends of staves will be allowed; sound knots not exceeding |
inch in diameter, not falling within the above limitations, nor exceeding three within
a lo-foot length will be accepted. All lumber used shall be seasoned by not less
than sixty days'

All staves shall
air drying in open piles before milling or by thorough kiln drying.

have smooth planed surfaces and the inside and outside faces shall
be accurately milled to the required circular arcs to fit a standard pattern provided
Staves shall be trimmed perfectly square at ends and the slots
for tongues shall be in exactly the same relative position for all ends and according
by the contractor.
by the contractor. Staves shall have an average length

than 15 feet 6 inches and not more than i per cent of the staves shall
have a length of less than 9 feet 6 inches. No staves shorter than 8 feet will be
to detail drawings furnished
of not less
The finished thickness of staves shall not be less than

inches.
accepted.
All staves delivered on the work in a bruised or injured condition will be rejected.
If staves are not immediately used on arrival at the site of the work, they shall be
kept under cover until used.
A band shall consist of one complete fastening and shall include
122. Bands.
the bolts, shoes, nuts and washers necessary to form same.
123.
Band Spacing.
The
distance center to center of bands shall be as
marked
except that where the spacing as marked is such as to make the distances from bands to the ends of staves more than 4 inches extra bands shall be
used to keep such distances within 4 inches.
on the
profile,
124. Bolts.
All bolts shall be of
to the following specifications:
may have
as in
inch diameter steel and shall conform
(See specifications for structural steel.)
either button or bolt heads.
They
shall
Bolts
be at least as strong in thread
body and threads shall permit the nut to run freely for the entire length
Nuts shall be of such thickness as to insure against stripping
thread.
of
of
threads.
125. Shoes.
shall
There
shall
be
malleable iron shoes to each band.
Shoes
accurately to the outer surface of the pipe and shall have the dimensions
on the drawing, or the contractor may submit for approval a drawing or
fit
shown
sample of some other type of shoe which he may desire to furnish. If required,
such shoe shall be shown under suitable test to be stronger than the bolt. The
material for shoes shall conform to the following specifications: (See standard
specifications for malleable castings.)
Shall be of galvanized steel or iron
126. Tongues.
inch thick and ... ...
Their length shall be such, that when in place, they will penetrate into the
The tongues and slots shall be
sides of the adjacent staves without undue injury.
wide.
SPECIFICATIONS
568
so proportioned as to insure a tight
fit
of the tongues into the slots without
danger
of splitting the staves.

127. Coating of Bands.
in a
The bands
shall
be coated by being dipped when hot

Bolts shall be bent to the
mixture of pure California asphalt, or equivalent.
required arc before dipping. If the bands are dipped cold they shall be left in the
hot bath a sufficient length of time to insure that they have acquired the temperature of the asphalt. This coating shall be so proportioned and applied that
form a thick and tough coating free from tendency to flow or become brittle
under the range of temperature to which it will be subjected. Where the pipe is
uncovered and exposed to the full range of atmospheric temperatures, not less than
it will
per cent and not more than 10 per cent of pure linseed
asphalt.
128. Erection.
oil shall
be mixed with the
The pipe
shall be built in a workmanlike manner.

The ends
break joint at least 3 feet. The staves shall be driven in
such a manner as to avoid any tendency to cause wind in the pipe and the required
of adjoining staves shall
grade and alinement must be maintained. Staves shall be well driven to produce
tight butt joints, driving bars or other suitable means being used to avoid marring
In rounding out the pipe, care shall be exercised
or damaging staves in driving.
The pipe shall be rounded out

chisels, mauls or other tools.
and outer surfaces. Bands shall be accurately spaced
inner
smooth
produce
and placed perpendicular to the axis of the pipe. Shoes shall be placed so as to
cover longitudinal joints between staves and bear equally on two staves as nearly
as practicable.
They shall be placed alternately on opposite sides of the pipe
so as to be out of line and cover successively on each side at least three joints.
to avoid
damage by
to
Shoes shall not be allowed to cover the butt
joints.
Bolts shall be
hammered
thoroughly into the wood to secure a bearing on 60 degrees of the circumference

All kinks in bolts shall be carefully hammered out.
of the bolt.
Bands shall be
back-cinched to the satisfaction of the engineer so as to produce the required initial
compressive stresses in the staves. All metal work shall be handled with reason-
In hammerable care so as to avoid injury to the coating as much as possible.

ing shoes into place they shall be struck so as to avoid deformation or injury.
After erection the contractor shall retouch all metal work, where abraded, with an
asphaltum paint satisfactory to the engineer.

After erection and while the pipe is dry the entire outer
129. Painting.
surface shall be given a coat of refined water-gas tar, followed by a coat of refined
coal-gas tar, thinned with distillate, applied with brushes or sprayed on with air
Before application of the paint the surface of the pipe shall be thoroughly
pressure.
All checks, cracks and surdirt, dust and foreign matter of every kind.
The finished
face irregularities of every kind shall be thoroughly filled with paint.
The cost of all work under
inch.
thickness of the coating shall be not less than
cleaned of
this
paragraph
shall
130. Inspection.
on the work, but
if
be included in the price bid for pipe
in place.
Final inspection of materials, as well as erection will be made

the contractor so desires, preliminary inspection of staves may
be made at the mill at the contractor's expense. Mill inspection, however, shall
not operate to prevent the rejection of any faulty material on the work. Tests
of metal
expense;
work
will
or they
at his own
be made at the point of manufacture by
may be made at the plant by the contractor or his employees
acting under the direction of the engineer or his representative;
or certified tests
may, at the option
of the engineer,
The contractor
be accepted in
569
the above-mentioned
lieu of
own
shall provide, at his
expense, the necessary test pieces,

and shall notify the engineer or his representatives when these pieces are ready
All test bars and test pieces shall be marked so as to indicate clearly
for testing.
tests.
the material that they represent, and shall be properly boxed and prepared for ship-
ment
if
131.
required.
Tests of Pipe.
On
by ............
by the contractor.
All leaks
therefor
tight
completion of the work, or as soon as possible therea full pressure test of the pipe, water being furnished
make
after, the contractor shall
If the
found at the time
leakage
is
of the test shall
be made
not so large as to endanger the founda-
tion of the pipe, the pipe shall be kept under full pressure for two days before plugging of leaks is started in order to allow the wood to become thoroughly saturated.
The
cost of
making the
test,
except furnishing water, shall be borne by the con-
tractor.
of each calendar month 50 per cent of the price
be paid to the contractor for material delivered on the
work; 25 per cent additional shall be paid after erection and preliminary cinching;
and the remainder shall be paid after final test and acceptance of the pipe by the
132. Payments.
At the end
for material in place shall
engineer and when the terms of the contract shall have been fully complied with to
the satisfaction of the engineer, and a release of all claims against .............. ,
under, or by virtue of the contract, shall have been executed by the contractor.
MACHINE BANDED WOOD STAVE PIPE

133. Description.
The pipe
shall
be of the jointed,
wood-stave, machine
banded type.
Pipe Sections. Pipe shall be furnished in lengths of 10 to 20
and the average length shall be not less than 16 feet. Shorter sections shall be
furnished only if required for making sharp curves in which case the lengths shall
not be more than i foot shorter than will be required to keep the joint opening
at the outside of the cur/e due to throw within a limit of Y inch.
All material of whatever nature required in the manufacture
135. Material.
134. Lengths of
feet
of the pipe in accordance with these specifications shall
be furnished by the con-
tractor.
136. Diameter of Pipes.
No
The diameters
of pipes shsdl
more than
be as
listed in the sched-
per cent from the specified

diameter of the pipe, and the average of the vertical and horizontal diameters at
any point shall not be less than the specified diameter.
ules.
diameter of any pipe shall
137. Thickness of Staves.
4 to
6 inches
The
differ
finished thickness of staves shall be as follows:
SPECIFICATIONS
570
wane and
Redwood shall be
other imperfections that
may
impair its strength or durability.

In Douglas fir sap will not be allowed
on more than 10 per cent of the inside face of any stave and in not more than 10
per cent of the total number of pieces; sap shall be bright and shall not occur
within 4 inches of the ends of any piece; pitch seams will be permitted in not over
shakes,
clear
and
free
from sap.
10 per cent of the total number of pieces, if showing on the edge only, and if not
longer than 4 inches nor wider than Y& inch; no through knots or knots at edges or
within 6 inches of ends of staves will be allowed; sound knots not exceeding \ inch
in diameter, not falling within the
a lo-foot length will be accepted.
above limitations, nor exceeding three within

lumber used shall be seasoned by not less
All
than sixty days' air drying in open piles before milling or by thorough kiln drying.
All staves shall have smooth planed surfaces and the inside and outside faces shall
be accurately milled to the required circular arcs.
Size and spacing of banding wire shall be adjusted for a working
139. Banding.
stress of 12,000 pounds per square inch on the wire.
The spacing shall in no case
be greater than 4 inches center to center of wires, nor greater than will produce a
pressure of wire on the wood of 800 pounds per square inch as calculated from the
formula
B=
p = water
pRf
/n_,\> where
B = pressure
on wood
in
pounds per square inch;
=
pressure in pounds per square inch; /= spacing of wire in inches; R
r
radius of wire in inches; and / = thickness of
inside radius of pipe in inches;
staves in inches.
No
wire smaller than No. 8 U.
medium
S.
Standard gage
shall
be used.
double-galvanized and shall have an ultimate tensile

strength of 55,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch, and capability of being bent
The bidder shall state in his proposal the size of
flat on itself without fracture.
Wire
shall
be of
steel
banding wire he proposes to furnish.

140. Joints.
Inserted joint pipe shall be furnished for diameters of 12 inches
heads not exceeding 50 feet. For pipes of larger diameter than

12 inches and for all pipes under more than 50 feet head, wood sleeve collars shall
be furnished. The banding on collars shall be 50 per cent stronger than the
and
less
and
for
banding on the pipe.

141. Individual Bands.
Individual bands shall be used on all collars for pipe

inches and greater in diameter. The smallest bolts used shall be f inch in diamThe bolt shall have an ultimate tensile strength of 55 ooo to 65,000 pounds
eter.
1 2
per square inch; an elastic limit of one-half the ultimate tensile strength and
The shoes shall be
capability of being bent back flat on itself without fracture.
malleable iron and shall be stronger than the bolts, with sufficient bearing on the
wood at the tail to prevent injurious indentation in cinching. The shoes shall
be sound and free from blow-holes, and shall have an ultimate tensile strength of
not less than 40,000 pounds per square inch. Bidders shall submit samples or
drawings of the type of shoe they propose to furnish.
After manufacture the outside of the pipe and collars shall be
142. Coating.
dipped in a bath of hot coal tar and asphaltum. Previous to dipping the collars
and asphaltum they shall be dipped for a depth of i inch at each end for
a period of ten minutes in a bath of creosote. Care should be exercised to keep
the coal tar and asphaltum from the tenon ends and inside surfaces and, if neces-
in coal tar
be wrapped with paper while being dipped. After dipping

the pipe and collars shall be rolled in fine sawdust while the coating is still soft.
sary, the tenons shall
571
143. Inspection.
Inspection of pipe will be made at the mill, but the manufacturer will be held responsible for any damage in transit caused by improper loading
of the pipe.
Each section of pipe shall be plainly marked on the inside at

144. Marking.
one end, showing the head for which the section was wound, and the number of the
banding wire used.
LAYING MACHINE BANDED

145. Point of Delivery.
lengths of 12 to 20 feet.
responsible for
all
146. Handling.
Pipe
The
will
WOOD STAVE
be delivered
f.
o. b.
PIPE
cars at
in
contractor shall unload cars at once and will be held
demurrage charges.
In unloading and hauling, the pipe
shall
be handled carefully.
To
avoid injury to the ends, the pipe should not be carried by means of sticks
The contractor will be held responsible for any damage due
inserted in the ends.
to careless handling.
The pipe should be laid with coupling or mortise end in the

147. Laying.
Care should be taken in inserting the tenon to see that it
direction of the laying.
is
started around the entire circumference
lightly until
shoulder.
and the
joint should first be driven
assured that a good connection is being made, then drive to the

bands on couplings should not be fully cinched until the joint
it is
The
The bands on couplings should be placed symmetrically

about the middle of the coupling and in cinching a few turns should be given alternately to each band in order to maintain approximately the same tension on
has been driven home.
each.
148. Alincment
be maintained.
If
and Grade.
In laying the pipe true alinement and. grade must

necessary, short sections of pipe shall be used for making sharp
curves and the pipe shall be anchored by staking the outside at each joint. Curves
shall be made by driving the joint on a tangent and then springing into place.
Elbows, tees and other special fittings shall be securely anchored
149. Fittings.
in concrete as directed
by the
engineer.
After the pipe has been laid it shall be subjected to tne full pressure of water and the contractor shall stop all leaks.
Damages to the pipe caused
150. Tests.
by the pressure of water, that are due to improper or careless laying

repaired by the contractor, but he shall not be responsible for damages due
tive manufacture.
of the pipe,
is
it
shall
shall
be
to defec-
If the leakage is not so large as to endanger the foundation

be kept under full pressure for two days before plugging of leaks
started in order to allow the
for tests will be furnished
by
become thoroughly saturated. Water

but the expense of making the
be borne by the contractor.
wood
to
except furnishing water, shall

On the completion of a pipe line
151. Payments.
per cent of the contract price, on the basis of the unit price bid per linear foot of pipe in place, will be
made. The remainder will be paid after final test and acceptance of the pipe by
test,
the engineer, and when the terms of the contract shall have been fully complied
with to the satisfaction of the engineer, and a release of all claims against
.... under, or
tractor.
by
virtue of the contract, shall have been executed
by the con-
572
SPECIFICATIONS
STEEL PIPE
152. Description.
type.
Riveted
steel
Steel pipe
may
pipe shall have
be either of the lockbar or riveted

I
<
i
taper
courses.
may
{ triple \
I
shall
Circular seams
steel
double
submit with his bid a drawing showing details of joints, size and spacings of
Failure to submit such drawing will be sufficient cause for
rejection
rivets, etc.
of the bid.
153. Thickness of Metal.
Length, Feet.
The
thickness of steel sheets shall be as follows:
573
and Physical Properties of Boiler Plate Steel. Boiler plate steel

more than .05 per cent phosphorus, .05 per cent sulphur, and from
0.30 to 0.60 per cent manganese. It shall show an ultimate tensile strength of
55,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch; an elastic limit of not less than one-half
the ultimate tensile strength; an ultimate elongation in 8 inches of not less than
1,500,000 divided by the ultimate tensile strength; and capability of being bent,
158. Chemical
shall contain not
The steel shall be in all respects

cold or quenched, 180 flat without fracture.
such as to stand punching, caulking and riveting without showing the least tendency
Plates shall withstand, without cracking of the material, a drift test
to crack.
made by
driving a pin into a f-inch hole, enlarging
same
to a diameter of
inch.
respects not covered in these specifications boiler plate steel shall conform
"
"
of the American Society for
to the
Standard Specifications for Boiler Steel
In
all
Testing Materials, adopted August 25, 1913.

159. Chemical and Physical Properties of Rivet
Steel.
Steel for rivets shall con-
more than 0.04 per cent
of phosphorus, 0.45 per cent sulphur, and from

0.30 to 0.50 per cent of manganese. It shall show an ultimate tensile strength of
tain not
45,000 to 55,000 pounds per square inch; an elastic limit of not less than one-half
the ultimate tensile strength; an ultimate elongation in 8 inches of not less than
but need not exceed 30 per cent;

quenched, 180 flat without fracture. Rivet
rounds shall be tested of full size as rolled. In all respects not covered in these
"
Standard Specifications for
specifications steel for rivets shall conform to the
1,500,000 divided
and capability
by the ultimate
"
Boiler Rivet Steel
August
25,
tensile strength,
of being bent, cold or
the American Society for Testing Materials, adopted
of
1913.
Marking. Each plate shall be distinctly stamped with its melt or slab
Rivet steel may be shipped in securely fastened bundles with melt
number stamped on a metal tag attached. Plates and other parts shall be plainly
1 60.
number.
marked
and assembly
for identification
in the field.
161. Test Pieces.
(See paragraph 40.)

162. Test of Material.
(See paragraph 41.)
Erection of pipe shall be
163. Erection.
commenced at the point directed

the engineer. The contractor shall haul all material and distribute same along
the trench and shall furnish a compressed air plant and full equipment for air riveting, and all other equipment, tools and supplies required for the erection of the pipe
and completion for service. The pipe shall be carefully caulked and painted as
by
The work
the work progresses.
by workmen experienced
of assembling, riveting
and caulking
shall
be done
Riveting shall show first class workmanship,

rivet heads shall be full and concentric with the body of the rivet, and the rivet
shall completely fill the hole and thoroughly pinch the connected pieces
together.
Rivets that are loose or have defective heads shall be removed and other rivets
in this line.
substituted therefor.
164. Painting.
brand
Inside and outside of pipe shall be covered with three coats
which shall be subject to the approval of the

surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned
by scrubbing
means as directed by the engineer. All riveted
joints
All paint shall be applipd while the
shall be painted before riveting.
pipe is warm
of a reliable
of asphalt paint
Before painting
engineer.
with wire brushes or other
and thoroughly dry.

165. Defective Work.
all
The
contractor shall guarantee the material and

work-
SPECIFICATIONS
574
manship furnished by him to he free from defects of material and construction,

and he shall replace free of cost to
any material that shall develop
faults during construction or tests.
166. Test of Pipe.
On completion of erection, or as soon as possible thereafter,
the contractor shall make a full pressure test of the pipe, water therefor being
furnished by
The pipe shall be water-tight under this test and
the contractor shall correct any defects that develop.
JOINTED REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE
The pipe shall be composed of concrete reinforced with steel

167. Description.
rods or wire and built in vertical forms in lengths of
feet; the sections
being connected in the trench by concrete collars reinforced with steel.
1 68. Diameter of Pipe.
The inside diameter of the pipe shall be
inches
and no diameter shall differ more than 0.5 per cent from the specified diameter of
the pipe. Each section of pipe shall be a true right cylinder with the plane of the
ends perpendicular to the axis of the pipe.
The shell of the pipe shall have a thickness of
169. Thickness of Shell.
inches which shall be uniform around the entire circumference.
In no case will a
more than 10 per cent from the specified thickness be allowed.
The concrete shall be thoroughly mixed in a mechanical
170. Manufacture.
batch mixer. It shall be deposited in such a manner that no separation of ingredients will occur and suitable tools shall be used to thoroughly settle the concrete
and produce smooth surfaces. Great care shall be exercised to maintain proper
spacing of the reinforcing rods. No pipe shall be manufactured when the temperavariation of
ture of the atmosphere is above 90, except by permission of the engineer.

During
manufacture the concrete and forms shall be protected from the direct rays of the
sun, and for five days thereafter the sections shall be kept both moist and cov-
Manufacture shall
ered, and they shall be kept moist for fifteen days additional.
not be carried on in freezing weather, except in a heated enclosure and the sections
Immediately after removal of the forms
smoothed up with a i to i mixture
of cement and fine sand, especial care being taken to produce smooth interior
surfaces.
Forms shall not be removed in less than twenty-four hours after the
concrete has been poured.
The forms used shall be subject to the approval of the engineer.
171. Forms.
All steel forms are preferred, but wooden forms with steel linings may be used provided the desired results can be obtained therewith. Forms shall be strong and
of pipe shall be prevented
all
from
freezing.
defects in the surface of the concrete shall be
with sufficient bracing to prevent warping in handling, or pouring concrete.

shall be provided with suitable attachments for making the joint grooves at
the ends in accordance with the drawings. A sufficient number of forms shall be
rigid
They
sections of pipe per day,

provided to allow the manufacture of not less than
or such additional number as may be necessary to complete the work within the
specified time.
172. Reinforcement.
The
transverse reinforcement shall consist of
medium
be spaced as shown on the drawings. Sufficient longitudinal reinforcement shall be used to fasten the transverse rods and hold them
steel rods or wire
rigidly in place.
and
shall
The
transverse reinforcement
may
be either individual rods
575
welded or lapped and wired at the ends for a length of 24 diameters, or it may be
wound in helical coils. The latter method is preferred where its use is practicable.
Steel may be made by either the open-hearth or Bessemer process.
contain not more than o.i per cent phosphorus if made by the Bessemer
It
process and not more than 0.05 per cent if made by the open-hearth process.
shall have an ultimate tensile strength of 55,000 to 70,000 pounds per square inch;
173. Steel.
It shall
elastic limit not less than 33,000 pounds per square inch; a minimum per
cent of elongation in 8 inches of 1,400,000 divided by the ultimate tensile strength;
and capability of being bent cold without fracture 180 around a pin having a
an
diameter equal to the thickness of the test piece.

the actual weight of any lot varies
the theoretical weight of that lot.
rejection
if
Bars or wire
more than
will be subject to
per cent over or under
Concrete shall be composed of cement, sand and gravel, well

174. Concrete.
mixed and brought to a proper consistency by the addition of water. The proportions will depend upon the nature of component materials and upon the head of
water that the pipe will be subjected to, but will vary in general from one part
cement to five parts aggregate, to one part cement to six parts of aggregate. The
contractor shall not be entitled to any extra compensation
by reason
of such vari-
tions.
Cement
175. Cement.
for concrete will
be furnished to the contractor.
The
contractor shall give the engineer not less than thirty days' notice in writing of
his
cement requirements, which
not
less
than single car

all
such
be stated, so far as practicable in quantities

contractor shall return to the railway station at
sacks securely bound in bundles in such a manner and of
lots.
empty
sizes as the engineer
shall
The
may
For
direct.
all
sacks not returned in serviceable
condition he will be charged the same amount that the sacks cost
The contractor shall provide suitable warehouses for storing the cement and he will
be charged at the same price that
damaged
after delivery to him,
176. Sand.
Sand
it
and
cost
for all
cement wasted and
unused cement not returned.

be obtained from natural deposits.
also for all
for concrete shall
The
particles shall be hard, durable, non-organic rock fragments, such as will pass a
The sand must be free from organic matter and must contain
j-inch mesh screen.
not more than 10 per cent of clayey material. The sand must be so graded that,
when dry and well shaken its voids will not exceed 35 per cent.
Gravel for concrete shall consist of hard, durable rock pebbles
177. Gravel.
that will pass through a
j-inch
mesh
inch
mesh
screen and that will be rejected
by a
screen.
The water used in mixing concrete shall be reasonably clean, and

from objectionable quantities of organic matter, alkali salts and other im-
178. Water.
free
purities.
The cement, sand and gravel shall be so mixed and the quanwater added shall be such as to produce a homogeneous mass of uniform
Dirt and other foreign substances shall be carefully excluded.
consistency.
179. Mixing.
tities of
Machine mixing
ject to the
will
be required, and the machine and its operation shall be subEnough water shall be used to give the con-
approval of the engineer.
mushy consistency. If concrete is mixed in freezing weather the sand and

gravel or water shall be heated sufficiently before mixing to remove all frost.
No concrete shall be used that has attained its initial set. and
180. Placing.
crete a
SPECIFICATIONS
576
such concrete shall be immediately removed from the site of the work. No concrete shall be placed except in the presence of a duly authorized inspector.
In handling and hauling the sections of pipe great care shall be
181. Hauling.
taken to avoid injury to the pipe and suitable cradles shall be provided to avoid
concentration of the entire weight on small areas. The sections of pipe shall be
distributed along the trench as directed by the engineer.
Any pipes that are
seriously injured in handling or hauling will be rejected and shall be immediately
removed from the site of the work or demolished and the contractor shall replace
the same with other sections of pipe having the same quantitiy of reinforcement.
182. Laying.
The sections of pipe shall laid be true to line and grade according to stakes established by the engineer and with only sufficient joint space
between to allow for satisfactory caulking. Before making the joints the adjacent
sections of pipe shall be firmly bedded or supported by blocks to prevent the
slightest movement while the joint is being made.
Joints may be made by sectional collars separately moulded
183. Joints.
and set in grooves in the ends of the pipe sections, or by pouring concrete on the
outside of the pipe into suitable flexible forms and at the same time pointing and
smoothing off on the inside with a i to i mixture of mortar. The concrete used
for joints shall be equal to or better in quality than that used for the pipe.
Each
joint shall be reinforced with
some other form

has been
made
it
As soon
as the joint
be covered with wet cloths and kept so covered for ten

desired, after the concrete has attained its final set, damp
shall
days thereafter. If
earth may be substituted
for the
wet
cloths.
On
completion of the work, or as soon as possible therethe contractor shall make a full pressure test of the pipe, water being furnished
184. Tests of Pipe.

after,
All leaks found at the time of the test shall be
therefore
by
by the
tight
shall
steel rods, or the equivalent in area of
of reinforcement satisfactory to the engineer.
contractor.
The
cost of
making the
test,
made
except furnishing water,
be borne by the contractor.

Measurement. The price bid per linear foot
shall be for pipe complete

ready for service, and shall include all material, except cement, entering
into or used on the work, manufacture, hauling, laying, jointing, testing, repairing
185.
in place,
leaks, etc., until final inspection
and acceptance by the engineer. The number

be measured along the axis of the pipe after
of linear feet of pipe in place will
completion.
1 86.
Payments.
At the end
of each calendar
month 60 per
cent of the contract
price for pipe in place shall be paid to the contractor for all pipe manufactured
during that month; 30 per cent additional shall be paid for pipe laid and jointed;
and the remainder shall be paid after final test and acceptance of the pipe by the
engineer, and when the terms of the contract shall have been fully complied with
to the satisfaction of the engineer, and a release of all claims against
under, or by virtue of the contract, shall have been executed by the con,
tractor.
METAL FLUMES
187.
made
Type of Flume. All flumes furnished under these specifications shall be

and shall be of the semicircular, smooth-interior type. Bidders
of metal
577
shall submit with their proposals a drawing or catalogue cut showing clearly the
type of construction and detailed dimensions of the flume that they propose to
Smoothness of interior surface and ease of erection will be important
furnish.
factors in the consideration of proposals.

1 88.
full semicircle.
linear foot.
have an
shall
inches and the depth shall be that of the

The bidder shall state the weight of the completed flume per
complete flume shall consist of sheets carrier rods, compression
bars, shoes, nuts

189.
The assembled flume
Dimensions and Weight of Flume.
interior diameter of
feet
and washers.
Thickness of Metal Sheets.
The
sufficient to provide necessary rigidity
thickness of the metal sheets shall be
and
stiffness.
The
following
minimum
thicknesses shall be used:
No.
of
Flume.
U.
24 to 108
120 to 156
168 to 204
S.
Standard Gage.
20
18
16
216 and larger
14
For the larger
sizes of flumes intermediate carrier rods or reinforcing ribs shall be

necessary, to maintain the true semicircular shape of the sheets when
subjected to the full weight of water.
Carrier rods shall be designed
190. Size of Carrier Rods and Compression Bars.
furnished,
if
working stress of 8000 pounds per square inch when subjected to the full
weight of the water; provided that the smallest allowable carrier rod shall be
Carrier rods shall be threaded at both
|-inch in diameter or its equivalent.
for a
ends and provided with nuts and washers. They shall be stronger in thread than
in body.
Compression bars shall be equivalent to or larger in cross-section than
the corresponding carrier rods.
Compression bars shall be provided with shoes for
The size and shape of shoes
distributing the pressures on supporting timbers.
and washers shall be such as to properly distribute the pressures on the wooden
timbers supporting the flume, and the average pressure on the timbers due to the
weight of the water in the flume shall not exceed 400 pounds per square inch.
full
All carrier rods, compression bars, shoes, nuts and washers shall be coated before
shipment by being dipped when hot in a mixture of pure California asphalt, or its
equivalent; not less than 7 per cent nor more than 10 per cent of pure linseed oil
shall be mixed with the asphalt.
Materials for coating shall be subject to the
approval of the engineer.
The joints between successive sheets comprising the flume lining

be designed to be rigid and water tight and shall offer the -least possible
obstruction to the flow of water through the flume.
All necessary crimping of
191. Joints.
shall
sheets to form the joints shall be done

192. Curves.
The metal
conform exactly to the degree

the contractor a
list
by the
contractor.
sheets for curved flumes shall be fabricated so as to

of curvature required.
The
engineer will furnish
of lengths of flumes required of each degree of curvature
and
the degree of curvature shall be plainly stamped on each sheet.

The metal sheets shall be manufactured from steel
193. Materials for Sheets.
and
shall
be galvanized.
The chemical and
physical properties shall be as follows:
SPECIFICATIONS
578
Elements Considered.
Open-hearth
Bessemer
Steel.
Steel.
Carbon max. per cent

Manganese, per cent
0.07-0.14
o 34-0 .46
0.07-0.14
i oo
Phosphorus, per cent
.03
.10
Sulphur, per cent

Silicon, per cent
.05
.07
.02
.02
Copper, per cent

Ultimate strength
Recorded
Recorded
50,000-60,000
50,000-60,000
25,000-35,000
25 per cent
25,000-35,000
25 per cent
Elastic limit
Minimum
The material
elongation in 8 inches.
show homogeneity
shall
of structure as exhibited
the broken test specimens.

194. Material for Compression Bands and Carrier Rods.
medium
steel
and
shall
have an ultimate
These
by the ends
shall
of
be made of
tensile strength of 55,000 to 65,000
pounds
per square inch; an elastic limit of not less than one-half the ultimate tensile
strength; a minimum per cent of elongation in 8 inches of 1,400,000 divided by
the ultimate tensile strength; a silky fracture; and capability of being bent cold,
without fracture, 180 degrees around a pin having a diameter equal to the thickness
of the test piece.
The bearing shoes and washers for combe made of either gray or malleable cast iron.
Gray iron castings shall conform in all respects to the standard specifications for
such castings adopted September i, 1905, by the American Society for Testing
195. Material for Shoes
pression bands
and
and Washers.
carrier rods
may
Malleable iron castings

Materials, except that no tensile test will be required.
conform to the standard specifications for such castings adopted November
shall
15, 1904,
196.
expense.
by the American Society
Test Pieces.
for Testing Materials.
All test pieces shall be furnished
The number and shape
of test
by the contractor
at his
specimens for gray and malleable castings
be as prescribed in the specifications of the American Society for Testing

Materials specified in paragraph
For all other materials at least
hereof.
one test specimen shall be taken from each melt and where possible shall be cut
shall
from the finished material.
Specimens not cut from finished material shall, in

same treatment before testing as the finished product.
Tensile test pieces shall be f inch in diameter and shall have 8 inches of gage length.
All necessary facilities and assistance for making
197. Inspection and Tests.
inspection and tests shall be furnished to the engineer by the contractor at the expense of the contractor. Physical tests and chemical analysis will be made by
so far as possible, receive the
at his
own
expense; or they
may be made
at the factory
by the con-
tractor or his employees, acting under the direction of the engineer or his representative; or certified tests may, at the option of the engineer, be accepted in lieu
of the
above-mentioned
tests.
No
material shall be shipped until
all tests
and
inspection have been made, or certified tests shall have been accepted.
The metal sheets shall have a coating of tight galvanizing.
198. Galvanizing.
The grooving for joints and bending of sheets shall be done in such a manner as
final
to avoid any injury to galvanizing.

All sheets on \vhich the galvanizing is cracked
or otherwise injured will be rejected. The galvanizing shall consist of a coating
of pure zinc evenlyând uniformly applied in such a manner that it will adhere
579
Each square foot of metal sheets shall hold

galvanizing shall be of such quality that clean,
dry samples of the galvanized metal shall appear black and show no copper-colored
spots when they are four times alternately immersed for one minute in the standard
firmly to the surface of the metal.
not
than
less
ounces of
/.inc.
The
copper sulphate solution and then immediately washed in water and thoroughly
The coating shall fully and completely cover all surfaces of the material,
dried.
appear smooth and polished and be free from lumps of zinc.

Measurement and Payment. Payment will be made on the basis of
the actual assembled length of flume measured along the center line and at the
and
shall
199.
per cent of the contract price of each shipment

be paid on the acceptance of the material by the inspector and receipt by the
of the bill of lading, properly receipted; and the remainder
engineer at
prices bid in the schedule
will
shall
be paid when
all
the material covered
by the contract
shall
have been received
checked and accepted by the engineer, and

the terms of the contract shall have been fully complied with to the satisfaction of
at its destination
and
finally inspected,
the engineer.
STEEL HIGHWAY BRIDGES

riveted
200.
Description.-^^ bridge
shall
be of the
truss type, having a span, center to center of

and a clear width between trusses of
end bearings,
feet.
inches,
of
( pin _ connected j
through }
feet
of
The
deck
bridge shall consist
spans.
and Loading. The bidder shall furnish with his bid a stress
sheet showing the maximum stress to which members are to be subjected, based
on the following loading:
201. Stress Sheets
= span in feet;
w = weight of steel per square foot of
^ = live load per square foot of floor.
/
Dead
floor;
load:
u>= not
less
than the actual weight of
Wooden floor = 15 pounds
steel.
per square foot.
Live load:
load of 30,000 pounds on two axles'8 feet
-^j or a concentrated
center to center with wheels spaced 6 feet center to center, and
two-thirds of the load on one axle, assumed to occupy a space
pioo
16 feet in the direction of traffic
Impact:
for chords 25 per cent of

for
Wind
web and
floor,
uniform
by
12 feet at right angles thereto.
live load.
40 per cent of either uniform or concentrated
load: unloaded chord, 100
live load.
pounds per linear foot of bridge,
loaded chord, 200 pounds per linear foot of bridge.

NOTE.
uniform
Neither wind nor concentrated loads are assumed to act simultaneously with
live load.
The contractor shall prepare all detail and shop drawbe

shall
Each
accompanied, in addition to the stress sheets, by such
proposal
ings.
details as will clearly show the type of construcgeneral drawings of members and
items that are necessary to enable the engineer
all
and
at
all
tion proposed
points,
202. Detail Drawings.
SPECIFICATIONS
580
to determine the strength of all parts of the structure and whether, as a whole
in all its parts, it complies with these specifications.
As soon as practicable
after the award of the contract complete detail and shop drawings shall be fur-
and
nished to the engineer by the contractor and these shall receive the approval
of the engineer before work is commenced.
Working drawings shall be furnished
The approval of general and working drawings shall not relieve the
contractor from the responsibility for any errors therein. In case the engineer
requires additional copies of drawings for use during construction or for record
these shall be furnished by the contractor without charge.
in triplicate.
The
203. Unit Stresses.
following limiting working stresses in pounds per
square inch of net cross-section shall be used
Tension on
rolled sections
16,000
Shear on rolled sections
Bearing on pins
Shear on pins
.
9,000
20,000
10,000
Bearing on shop rivets

Shear on shop rivets
20,000
Bearing on field rivets

Shear on field rivets
15,000
Bearing on columns
16,000
Bearing on expansion
10,000
7, 500
rollers
per linear inch
70
$ood
d = diameter of roller in inches;

L = unsupported length of column in inches;
R = least radius of gyration in inches.
No
compression
its least
member
have an unsupported length exceeding 1 20 times

main members, or 140 times its least radius of gyra-
shall
radius of gyration for
tion for laterals.
Members subject to reversion of stresses shall be de204. Reversed Stresses.

singed to resist both tension and compression and each stress shall be increased by
eight-tenths of the smaller stress for determining the sectional area. The connections shall be designed for the arithmetical
205.
Combined
206.
Net Sections.
sum
of the stresses.
Members
subject to both direct and bending stresses

shall be designed so that the greatest unit fibre stress shall not exceed the allowable
unit stress for the member.
Stresses.
The net
any tension
section of
flange or
member
shall
be
determined by a plane cutting the member square across at any point. The
greatest number of rivet holes that can be cut by any such plane, or whose centers
come nearer than 2^ inches to

when computing the net area.
207.
Minimum
Sizes.
No
said plane, are to be deducted
metal
less
than
from the cross-section
inch in thickness shall be used
The
smallest angles used shall not be less than 2\

2\
TS
inches.
A single angle shall never be used for a compression member.
208. Connections.
All connections shall be designed to develop the full strength
of the members.
Connecting plates shall be used for connecting all members and
except for
in
no case
filling plates.
shall
any two members be connected
directly
by
their flanges.
Angles
581
subject to tensile stress shall be connected by both legs, otherwise only the section
of the leg actually connected will be considered effective.
Portal bracing shall consist of straight members and shall
209. Portal Bracing.
be designed to transmit the full wind reaction from the upper lateral system into
the end posts and abutments. The clear head room below portal and sway
bracing for a width of 6 feet on either side of center line shall be not less than 15
210.
Sway
feet.
bracing of an approved type shall be provided at
Sway
Bracing,
each panel point.
Upper and lower lateral systems shall be designed to

pressures from either direction. The members shall be
nearly as practicable in the plane of the axes of the chords.
All floor beams and stringers shall be rolled or riveted
212. Floor System.
211. Lateral Systems.
resist the
maximum wind
Floor beams shall be rigidly connected to the trusses, and stringers
steel girders.
be rigidly connected to the floor beams and their tops shall be flush with the
tops of floor beams.
shall
213. Intersection of
Axes
of
Members.
The
axes of
all
members
of trusses,
and
those of lateral systems coming together at any apex of a truss or girder must
intersect at a point whenever such an arrangement is practicable, otherwise all
induced stresses and bend of members caused by the eccentricity must be provided
for.
and Lattice Bars. The open sides of compression members

be stayed by batten plates at the ends and by diagonal lattice bars at intermediate points. Batten plates shall be used at intermediate points when, for any
Lattice bars shall be inclined to the member
reason, the latticing is interrupted.
214. Batten Plates
shall
not
than 60 degrees for single latticing not
less
less
than 45 degrees for double
latticing.
215. Eyebars.
The
thickness of eyebars shall be not less than f inch nor less
Heads of eyebars shall be formed by

upsetting and forging and shall be so proportioned as to develop the full strength
of the bar.
Eyebars shall be prefectly straight at the time they are bored, and
than one-seventh the width of the bar.
all
bars composing one
member
shall
be piled, clamped together, and bored in one

member shall be so arranged that their
The eyebars composing a

operation.
surfaces are not in contact.
216. Rods.
No
rod shall be used which has a cross-sectional area
less
than
Screw-ends shall be stronger in thread than in body.

The rivets used shall in general be f inch in diameter; smaller
217. Riveting.
ones being allowable where made necessary by the size of the member, but no
f square inch.
an angle iron equal to

or greater than 3! inches wide.
Not less than three rivets shall be used in any
main truss, portal or lower lateral connection or in any compression' strut or sway
rivets smaller than f inch in diameter shall be used in legs of
The pitch of rivets

bracing, portal bracing or upper lateral system connection.
in all classes of work in the direction of the stress shall never exceed 6 inches nor
be
it
less
At the ends of compression members

rivet.
diameter of the rivets for a length equal to twice
rivet hole center shall be less than one and one-half
than three diameters of the
shall not exceed four times the
the width of the member.
No
diameters from the edge of the plate, and whenever practicable this distance is
to be increased to two diameters.
The rivets when driven must completely fill
the holes.
The
rivet
heads must be round, and they must be of uniform
size
SPECIFICATIONS
582
throughout the work; they must be neatly made and conand must thoroughly pinch the connected pieces together.
Whenever possible all rivets shall be machine driven. No rivet excepting those
in shoe plates and roller and bed plates is to have a less diameter than the thick-
for 'the
same
size rivets
centric with the rivets
ness of the thickest plate through which it passes. The effective diameter of any
rivet shall be assumed the same as its diameter before driving, but in making
deductions for rivet holes in tension members the diameter of the hole shall be
assumed f
irich larger
than that of the
rivet.
The amount
of field riveting shall
be reduced to a minimum, and all details are to be made so that the field rivets
can be driven readily. Rivets shall not be used in direct tension. The contractor
be held responsible for the correct
will
necessary, to insure this,

fitted before shipment.
and,
if
shall
fit
smooth and
fit
shall
smoothly to a gage and shall be finished

up to and including 3! inches in
All pins
straight.
inch, all pins over 3^ inches in diameter
The
contractor must provide steel-pilot nuts
the pin-holes within
their holes within -^ inch.
upon assembly in the field,

be assembled in the shop, and
fitting of all parts
members
All pins shall be turned
218. Pins.
perfectly round,
diameter shall
all
-^-
for all pins to preserve the threads while the pins are being driven.
219. Camber.
All trusses
shall
tion longer than the corresponding
be cambered by making the top chord secbottom chord section by -^ inch for each 10
feet of length.
made for changes in length

each 10 feet of span.
Each truss of more than 60 feet span shall be provided with
220. Expansion and Contraction.

due to temperature variations of at
221. Roller Ends.
Provision shall be
least f inch for
roller end.
For spans 60 feet and less a sliding end may be used. Rollers shall
be turned accurately to gage and must be finished perfectly round and to the corThe tongues and grooves in plates
rect diameter or diameters from end to end.
and rollers must fit snugly so as to prevent lateral motion. Roller beds must be
one
planed.
The
smallest allowable diameter of expansion rollers is 3! inches.

Every span must be anchored at each end to the pier or
222. Anchorages.
in such a manner as to prevent lateral motion, but so as not to interfere

with the longitudinal motion of the truss due to changes of temperature. The
shoes or bolsters shall be so located that the anchor bolts will occupy a central
abutment
Bedplates shall be deposition in the slotted holes at a temperature of 40 F.

signed to distribute the load over a sufficient area to keep the pressure on the
masonry below 400 pounds per square

223.
Hand
Railing.
inch.
suitable latticed
hand
railing shall
be provided for each
truss.
Before leaving the shop all structural steel, except as

be thoroughly cleaned of all loose scales and rust and given
one coat of good iron ore paint mixed with pure linseed oil, which shall be well
224.
below
Shop Painting.
specified, shall
worked into
all joints
and open spaces.
All surfaces of steel that will
come
in
contact with each other shall be painted before being riveted or bolted together.
Pins, pinholes, screw threads and all finished surfaces shall not be painted but
shall be coated with white lead and tallow as soon as they are finished.
583
MATERIAL
225. Manufacture.
and
shall
conform
made by the open-hearth process

not specifically mentioned herein, to the Standard
Structural steel shall be
in all respects,
Specifications for Structural Steel for Bridges of the American Society for Testing
Materials adopted August 25, 1913.
226. Physical and Chemical Properties of Structural Steel.
Steel shall contain
not more than 0.05 per cent sulphur, and not more than 0.04 per cent phosphorus
for basic open-hearth nor more than 0.06 per cent phosphorus for acid open-hearth.
have an ultimate
It shall
inch;
an
tensile strength of 55,000 to 65,000
by the drop
elastic limit, as indicated
of
beam
pounds per square
of not less
than one-half
the ultimate tensile strength; a minimum per cent of elongation in 8 inches of

1,500,000 divided by the ultimate tensile strength; a silky fracture and capability
bent cold without fracture 180 degrees flat on itself for material f inch
for material over f inch to and including if inches around a pin
having a diameter equal to the thickness of the test piece; and for material over
ij inches thick, around a pin having a diameter equal to twice the thickness of the
of being
thick
and under;
A deduction of
test piece.
tion for each

for each
2.5 will
be allowed in the specified percentage of elongai will be allowed
^ inch in thickness below ^ inch and a deduction of
inch in thickness above f inch.
and Chemical Properties of Rivet
227. Physical
Steel.
Rivet
steel shall contain
not more than 0.04 per cent, each of sulphur and phosphorus. It shall have an
ultimate tensile strength of 45,000 to 55,000 pounds per square inch; an elastic
limit as determined by the drop of beam of not less than one-half the ultimate
minimum
tensile strength;
by the ultimate
tensile strength;
per cent of elongation in 8 inches of 1,500,000 divided

a silky fracture; and capability of being bent
cold without fracture 180 degrees flat on itself.

228. Finish.
Finished material must be free from injurious seams, flaws, or
cracks,
and have a workmanlike

Marking.
229.
Every
upon it.
finish.
stamped or
rolled
Rivet
and other small parts may
steel
have the melt number

be stamped on the end.
be bundled, with the above marks on an
finished piece of steel
Steel for pins
and
shall
rollers shall
attached metal tag.

230. Test Pieces.
(See paragraph 40.)
231. Tests.
(See paragraph 41.)

232. Payment for Fabricated Material.
of each
will
shipment
per cent of the contract price

be paid on the acceptance of the material by the inspector
and receipt by the engineer of the bill of lading, properly receipted (and the remainder will be paid when all of the material covered by the contract shall have
been received at its destination and finally inspected, checked and accepted by
the engineer, and the terms of the contract shall have been fully complied with
to the satisfaction of the engineer).
(NOTE.
Portion in parentheses
is
to be omitted here
when
erection
is
included in the
contract.)
ERECTION
233. Material
The contractor shall furnish all labor, tools, machinexcept wood flooring, for erecting the bridge complete in place,
and Labor.
ery and materials,
SPECIFICATIONS
584
including
of
anchor
ready for
234.
hauling, erection and dismantling of all falsework and staging, setting

and all other work necessary for the completion of the structure
all
bolts,
traffic .
Wood
Lumber
Floor.
for flooring will
be furnished by
but shall be put in place by the contractor and he shall furnish all necessary fasThe lumber will be delivered to the contractor at the railroad station
tenings.
most convenient to the work and the contractor

After erection
shall haul
same
metal work
to the bridge site.
be thoroughly
cleaned of mud, grease and other objectionable matter and evenly painted with
two coats of paint of the kind and colors specified by the engineer. Linseed oil
235. Painting after Erection.
all
shall
be used as the vehicle in mixing the paint for each of these coats and the
separate coats shall have distinctively different shades of color. All recesses which
might retain water shall be filled with thick paint or some waterproof material
shall
before final painting.

before the second coat
The
is
first
coat shall be allowed to become thoroughly dry

No painting shall be done in wet or freezing
applied.
weather.
236. Final
tion
Final
Payment.
and acceptance
of the contract shall
payment
will
of the finished structure
have been
fully
be made upon completion of the erecby the engineer, and when the terms
complied with to the satisfaction of the engi-
neer.
TUNNELS
237. Excavation.
in
The
tunnel, shafts
and adits
such manner and to such dimensions as
timbering, lining, ventilating,
shall in all cases
be excavated
room for the necessary

The contractor shall use
will give suitable
pumping and
draining.
every reasonable precaution to avoid excavating beyond the outside lines of

permanent timbering and beyond the outside neat concrete lines where no per-
manent timbering
is
required.
All drilling
and blasting
shall
be carefully and
skill-
done so as not to shatter the material outside of the required lines. Any
blasting that would probably injure the work will not be permitted and any damage
done to the work by blasting shall be repaired by the contractor at his expense,
and in a manner satisfactory to the engineer. Tunnel excavation will be paid
fully
for at the price bid per linear foot.
Partial excavation, as in the case of a heading,

in the
amounting to not less than one-half the full section will be allowed for
monthly progress estimates at one-fourth of the price named in the contract
for full
excavation.
Suitable timbering and lagging shall be used to support the

and roof wherever necessary. If practicable, this timbering may be
removed before the construction of the concrete lining. Timbering may be left
in place, provided it is constructed in such a manner as not to weaken the concrete
An approved
lining and is in accordance with designs approved by the engineer.
238. Timbering.
tunnel, sides
is shown in the drawings but, in case this design

found to be inadequate it may be modified from time to time, subject to the
approval of the engineer. Lumber for timbering shall be furnished by the con-
design for such permanent timbering

is
The cost of furnishing and placing permanent and temporary timbering

be included in the price per linear foot bid in the schedule for excavating the
tunnel, except that in addition thereto the contractor will be paid the sum of
tractor.
shall
dollars per
feet B.
M.
for
permanent timbering
in place.
No payment
will
be made for temporary timbering nor for timber used in
585
In meas-
filling cavities.
uring permanent timbering for payment, the net length of pieces and the commercial cross-sectional dimensions will be taken.
Nothing herein contained shall
prevent the contractor from placing such temporary timbering as he may deem
necessary nor from using heavier permanent timbering than that shown in the drawnor shall be construed to relieve the contractor from sole and
ings,
bility for the safety of the tunnel
and
for
The tunnel
239. Concrete Lining.
damage
to person
full
responsi-
and property.
be lined throughout with concrete.
shall
tunnel lining side walls and arch, where permanent timbering is not required,
shall have an average thickness of
inches, with a minimum thickness of
The
The average thickness of

Where permanent timber is
inches over projecting points of rock.

crete tunnel invert shall be
it
shall
mated
the conrequired
be set back so far that the concrete lining will cover the timber at least
The concrete for such timber portions of the tunnel will be estiinches.
as having an average thickness of
to greater dimensions
of the concrete lining,
lining shall
filled.
inches.
inches.
If
the tunnel
is
excavated
than necessary for placing the prescribed average thickness

the excess space shall be solidly rilled with concrete, or the
be confined with forms to the prescribed thickness and properly backwill be paid for by the cubic yard at the unit price
Concrete tunnel lining
named in the contract, measured to the neat lines shown in the drawings, based
on the average thickness herein specified.
The contractor shall provide such forms, spikes, nails,
240. Lines and Grades.
troughs for plumb-bob lines, light, etc., and such assistance as may be required
by the engineer in giving lines and grades, and the engineer's marks shall be careWork in the shafts, adits and tunnel shall be suspended for such
fully preserved.
reasonable time as the engineer may require to transfer lines and to mark points
No allowance will be made to the contractor for loss of time
for line and grade.
on account
of such suspension.
241. Draining.
The
contractor shall drain the tunnels and adits where neces-
sary to rid the same of standing water.

flow to an outlet can not be secured.
242. Lighting
and
Ventilating.
The
Pumping
shall
be done where gravity

i
contractor shall properly light and venti-
late the tunnel during construction.
Caps or other exploders or fuses shall in

243. Storage and Care of Explosives.
no case be stored or kept in the same place in which dynamite or other explosives
are stored. The location and design of powder magazines, methods of transporting explosives and in general the precautions taken to prevent accidents must be
satisfactory to the engineer; but the contractor shall be liable for all damages to
person or property caused by blasts or explosions.
Any space outside of the concrete tunnel lining shall be com244. Backfilling.
pactly refilled at the expense of the contractor with such of the excavated material
from the tunnel as

roof
may
be
filled
may
be approved by the engineer.
with waste timber.
The
Large cavities
in the tunnel
backfilling to the springing lines of
the arch shall be placed before the arch is constructed, and shall be brought up
evenly on both sides of the tunnel; it shall be spread in layers not exceeding 6
The invert and side walls shall be braced, if
inches in thickness and well rammed.
required, during the placing of the back-filling.
245. Adits
and
Shafts.
The
contractor shall construct at his
own expense
such
586
SPECIFICATIONS
adits and shafts as he may desire to use to expedite the tunnel work.
The sides
and the arch of the tunnel lining situated immediately beneath the opening of each
shaft shall be increased to such suitable thicknesses as the engineer may

prescribe;
and each adit shall be closed at the point where it meets the tunnel with a block of
concrete averaging at least 4 feet in thickness, extending into the sides of the adit
2 feet and having a foundation 2 feet below the bottom of the tunnel.
All concrete
required for this purpose shall be furnished by the contractor at his own expense,
the cement for which will be furnished to the contractor at its cost on the work.
must be compactly
refilled.
Dumping from the top will not be allowed
been covered to a depth of at least 10 feet. After the
completion of the block of concrete required for closing an adit the adit shall be
refilled and the filling tamped into place for a distance of 20 feet from the tunnel.
All shafts
until the tunnel arch has
TELEPHONE SYSTEM
number of stations a ground return
For long lines or those having many staIn determining whether to use the ground circuit
tions a metallic circuit will be preferable.
or metallic circuit the engineer should carefully study the importance of continuity of service, the length of line and number of stations, the liability of disturbance by existing or
contemplated electrical systems and other local conditions. For the usual telephone
systems No. 12 wire will be amply large, but for lines subjected to exceptionally heavy loads
of sleet and snow the use of No. 10 wire may be necessary.
NOTE.
For short telephone
lines serving a small
circuit will in general give satisfactory service.
The pole line will follow tangents and curves as shown in the
have the number of corners therein shown. An average of
The spans adjoining a pole on a
thirty poles per mile shall be used on tangents.
curve at a corner shall not exceed 150 feet each for a pull of 5 feet, and the allow246. Pole Line.
drawings and
will
able length span shall decrease 10 feet for each increase of 5 feet in the pull up to
and including a pull of 30 feet. When a bend made on a single pole produces a
pull of more than 30 feet the pole shall be thoroughly braced or guyed and the
adjoining spans shall not exceed 100 feet each, or such a bend shall be made on
two poles and the lengths of the adjoining spans adjusted with the foregoing proThe term " pull " as herein used means the pervisions relating to span and pull.
pendicular distance from the pole under consideration to a straight line joining the
two adjacent poles. When a span of from 200 to 250 feet is necessary, the adjoining spans shall not exceed 100 feet each, and where a span of from 250 to 500 feet
is necessary, the adjoining two spans at each end shall not exceed 100 feet each.
On uneven ground
the spans shall be so chosen and the poles so set as to avoid

abrupt changes in the direction of the wire line vertically. In distributing poles,
the heaviest shall be placed so far as practicable on corners and at the ends of
long spans.
At
247. Poles.
Telephone poles shall be in general 5-inch poles 25 feet in length.
crossings of highways, railroads and gullies 6-inch poles of requisite length shall
be used, and for

feet in length will
this
purpose
be required.
The
poles 35
poles 30 feet in length and
poles shall be cut from growing trees, shall be
reasonably well proportioned for their length and shall be peeled, neatly trimmed,
well seasoned, reasonably sound and free from unsightly wind twists, injurious
butt rot and other defects that materially impair them for the use intended.
Butt rot
in the center, including small ring rot outside of the center, the total of
587
will be permitted.
Sweeps
not exceeding i inch for every 5 feet in length of pole will be permitted. The
tops of seasoned 5 -inch poles shall measure not less than 15 inches in circumfer-
which does not exceed 10 per cent of the area of the butt,
ence and those of 6-inch poles not less than 18 inches. If the poles are measured
when green 5 -inch poles shall be not less than 16 inches in circumference at the
tops and 6-inch poles not less than 19^ inches. The top of each pole shall be
trimmed so as to form a right-angled roof. The roofs of poles shall be painted
with two coats of good quality of iron oxid paint.
248. Setting Poles.
On
tangents the poles shall be set in a vertical position,
and on curves and at corners they shall be raked 10 inches for a pull less than 5
feet, 15 inches for a pull of from 5 to 10 feet and 25 inches for a pull of more than
10 feet. Each pole hole in earth shall be 5 feet in depth and shall be dug of sufficient size throughout to admit of tamping around the entire perimeter of the pole.
On hillsides the depth of the holes shall be measured from the lowest side of the
Where
opening.
the line crosses solid rock, pole holes shall be blasted to a depth
can be covered by a single span not exceeding 250

be carefully held in proper position while the hole is being
filled.
Filling holes with earth shall be done by one man and the earth firmly
tamped simultaneously by three men. Rock debris when used for filling holes shall
of 3 feet, unless such solid rock
Each pole
feet.
shall
contain sufficient earth to
fill
all
cavities therein
and
shall
be homogeoneously
placed and thoroughly compacted. When the hole is filled, earth or rock shall be
piled and firmly packed about the hole to a height of i foot above the original
ground surface. The filling for holes and the general manner of setting poles shall
be such as will enable each pole to withstand the strains to which it will be subjected.
Braces shall be 5 inches in diameter at the top, shall be long

249. Braces.
enough to attach to the pole at two-thirds the height thereof above the ground,
to make an angle of 30 degrees therewith and to extend into the ground at least
4 feet measured along the brace and shall conform in all other respects to the
braces
specifications for poles

feet in length
and
braces
braces
feet in length,
feet in length will
be required.
Each brace shall be set in the ground at least 3! feet in

The brace shall be cut slanting at the top to fit close to the pole
250. Setting Braces.

vertical depth.
and
shall
be attached to the pole with a f-inch bolt supplied with a washer at each
In fitting the brace
joint.
This bolt shall be placed at the lowest point of the

to the pole all trimming shall be done on the brace.
end.
251.
Guys and Anchors.
steel wire.
Guy
Guys
No. 6, B.W.G., galvanized

and galvanized iron rods.
be 8 inches square and \ inch thick
shall consist of
anchors in earth shall consist of
anchor plates are used they shall

be provided on the lower face with a cylindrical lug at the center having
a diameter of 2 inches, and a height of i^ inches and with diagonal ribs \ inch
(If cast-iron
and
shall
thick rising from zero elevation at the corners
and terminating
in the cylindrical
Each cast-iron plate shall have a f-inch cored

lug with elevation equal thereto.
Each galvanized
hole through its center for the reception of the anchor rod.)
iron rod shall be f inch in diameter and 6 feet in length and shall be provided at
the upper end with a suitable eye and a wire rope thimble for a J-inch rope and at
the lower end with U. S. standard threads and a galvanized iron nut.
in rock shall consist of galvanized iron rods of the
Guy
anchors
combination eye and wedge-bolt
SPECIFICATIONS
588
i inch in diameter and 18 inches in length, each provided with a suitable

wedge and a wire rope thimble for a j-inch rope.
Each guy shall be attached to tb~ pole imme252. Placing Gtiys and Anchors.
diately below the bracket by making two turns around the pole and wrapping
the end eight times around the guy and shall be secured to its rod by passing around
the thimble and terminating on itself in eight turns. The turns about the pole
type
shall
be secured by at least three 2-inch galvanized iron staples. The angle between
its pole shall be as nearly 45 degrees as is practicable.
the guy and
Guys and braces
Guying and Bracing.
shall be placed wherever considered

tangents and on curves having pulls less than 10
feet double side guys will be required about every 1000 feet of line; and on curves
or at corners where the pull is from 10 to 30 feet each pole shall be provided with a
253.
essential
by the
engineer.
On
On curves and at corners each pole at which the pull exceeds 30

be provided with either a guy or a brace placed in the plane of each
of the adjoining spans and the adjacent poles shall be provided with appropriate
guy or brace.
feet shall
supplemental bracing or guying. At least one head and one back guy shall be
Additional head and back guys or braces shall be
installed on every mile of line.
used wherever the slope of the ground, length of span, change in direction or extra
pole height at road crossings requires them for stability.
Pony telephone side brackets
254. Brackets (Ground Circuit).
shall
be used.
They
shall
be
made
15X2X10 inches
of the best quality of well-seasoned, sound,
straight-grained oak, free from knots and sapwood, shall have the insulator threads
truly cut and complete and shall be painted with two coats of the best quality of
Each bracket shall be securely fastened to the pole with one
iron oxid paint.
4od and one 6od galvanized wire nail in such a position that the base of the bracket
Where the change in direction
will be about 14 inches below the top of the pole.
of the wire at any pole is more than 60 degrees an extra bracket shall be used.
Brackets shall be placed on the same side of all poles except on curves or at corners,
where they shall be so placed that the strains produced by the wires will tend to
press the insulators toward the poles.
255. Brackets (Metallic Circuit).
Pony telephone
side brackets
1^X2X10
be made of the best quality of well-seasoned,

sound, straight-grained oak, free from knots and sapwood, shall have the insulator
threads truly cut and complete and shall be painted with two coats of the best
inches shall be used.
They
quality of iron oxid paint.
shall
Each bracket
shall
be securely fastened to the pole
with one 40^ and one 6od galvanized wire nail. Where the change in direction of
the wire at any pole is more than 60 degrees an extra bracket shall be used for each
wire.
On
tangents the brackets shall be placed one on each side of the pole and
shall be so placed that the strains produced by the
on curves and corners they
wires will tend to press the insulators toward the poles. The top bracket shall be
so placed that its base will be about 14 inches below the top of the pole, and the
bottom bracket so that its base will be 12 inches below that of the top bracket,
except on transposition poles on tangents. On transposition poles the brackets
shall be at the same elevation so placed that the insulator for each wire will be as
nearly as practicable on a straight line between those for the same wire on the
adjacent poles.
256. Insulators
shall
be used.
(Ground
They
shall
Circuit).
Standard pony,
be made of
common
glass,
glass, shall
lo-ounce insulators
be free from cracks.
589
blow-holes, flaws and sharp edges and shall have smooth threads of uniform pitch
accurately fitting the threads on the brackets.
257. Insulators (Metallic Circuit}.
and two-piece transposition
Standard pony,
glass,
lo-ounce insulators
insulators of equivalent strength shall be used.
common glass,
They
be free from cracks, blow-holes, flaws and sharp

edges and shall have smooth threads of uniform pitch accurately fitting the threads
shall
be made of
shall
on the brackets.
The line wire shall consist of No. 12, B.W.G., galvanized

known as " Best Best," having an average resistance at
exceed 34-4- ohms per mile. The wire shall be of uniform cross-section,
258. Line Wire.
iron wire of the quality
68 F. not to
weigh approximately 170 pounds per mile, shall have an ultimate tensile
strength of not less than 560 pounds and shall be capable of withstanding at least
It shall be soft and pliable
fifteen twists about its axis in a length of 6 inches.
shall
and capable
of elongating 15 per cent
without breaking, after being galvanized.
The diameter of the line wire in inches shall be not more than 0.113 nor less than
The wire shall be furnished in coils of \ mile or i mile continuous lengths,
o.i 06.
without welds, joints or splices, and each coil shall be drawn from a rod without
The galvanizing shall consist of a coating
welds, joints or splices of any kind.
of pure zinc evenly and uniformly applied in such a manner that it will adhere
The galvanizing shall be of such quality that
firmly to the surface of the metal.
clean dry samples of the galvanized wire shall appear black and show no coppercolored spots after they have been four times alternately immersed for one minute
in the standard copper sulphate solution and then immediately washed in water
and thoroughly
dried.
The wire shall be strung with as few joints as possible

be joined by twisting the wires for a distance of about 3 inches around
each other two complete turns and soldering, the end of each wire terminating in
The line wire shall be
five tightly fitting contiguous turns around the other wire.
259. Stringing Wire.
and
shall
tied to the insulators
with
The
in suitable lengths.
tie
wires of No. 12, B.W.G., galvanized iron wire cut

be laid in the groove of the insulator
line wire shall first
on the side away from the pole, after which the tie wire shall be passed entirely
around the insulator and line wire and terminate at each end in five tightly fitting
turns around the line wire. The tension on the line wire for each span shall be,
in the
judgment
of the engineer, as high as will
be safe for the
minimum tempera-
ture for the locality.

260. Transposition (Metallic Circuit}.
In general a transposition of the line
wires shall be made once in each mile, but the exact number and location of trans-
Each transposition shall

positions shall conform to the local requirements therefor.
be made without the use of transposition insulators by interchanging the wires
laterally in one span and vertically in the two succeeding spans.
All trees along the line of such character and location
261. Trimming Trees.
as to render
them
wires shall be cut
liable to
being blown over so as to interfere with the telephone

or burned, and all trees close to the line that
down and removed
judgment of the engineer will not endanger the telephone wires shall be
trimmed as to leave a clear space of 10 feet about the telephone wires in all
directions under stress of the heaviest probable wind storms.
262. Lightning Rods.
Lightning rods consisting of No. 12, B.W.G., galvanized
Each
iron wire shall be installed throughout the line at intervals of about \ mile.
in the
so
SPECIFICATIONS
590
rod shall be located about one-fourth the distance around the pole from the bracket
shall be attached to the pole with 2-inch galvanized iron staples.
The upper
and
end
end
of
each rod shall project about 3 inches above the top of the pole and the lower
beneath the butt of the pole in a flat coil containing about
shall terminate
6 feet of wire.
A lightning arrester shall be installed on each line

263. Lightning Arresters.
pole at which the current is transferred from the line wire to a station wire. The
arrester shall be of the double-pole, lightning and sneak-current type, shall have
adjustable and removable carbon blocks mounted upon porcelain bases and shall
have fuses that will adequately protect it from lightning and sneak currents. The
arrester shall be connected with
No.
12,
B.W.G., galvanized iron wire to any
exist-
ing water pipe system nearby or to a galvanized iron ground rod \ inch in diameter
and 6 feet in length driven into permanently moist earth. The connecting wire
be carefully soldered to the water pipe or to the ground rod.
shall
Twenty-five
extra sets of fuses shall be furnished with each arrester.

264. Station
ings on
No.
Wiring (Ground
B.
&
Circuit).
The
current shall be carried into build-
rubber-insulated copper wire covered with black braid

saturated with waterproof compound and carried on porcelain knobs having a
diameter of not less than i^ inches. The return pole of each instrument shall be
1 8,
S. G.,
connected by means of a similar wire to any existing water pipe system nearby
or to a galvanized iron ground rod | inch in diameter and 6 feet in length driven
The connecting wire shall be carefully soldered to

into permanently moist earth.
Inside wiring shall consist of No. 18, B. &
the water pipe or to the ground rod.
rubber-insulated copper wire covered with braid of a greenish color. All
conform to the best practice and shall be done only by expert
S. G.,
inside wiring shall

electricians.
shall
Where
wires pass through walls
and partitions insulated bushing
be provided.
265. Station
Wiring (Metallic Circuit}.
The
current shall be carried into and
out of buildings on No. 18, B. & S. G., rubber-insulated copper wire covered with
black braid saturated with weatherproof compound and carried on porcelain knobs
less than i| inches.
Inside wiring shall consist of No.
rubber-insulated copper wire covered with braid of a greenish color.
All inside wiring shall conform to the best practice and shall be done only by expert
electricians.
Where wires pass through walls and partitions insulated bushings
having a diameter of not

1
B.
8,
&
S. G.,
be provided.
shall
Each proposal shall be accompanied by a complete description of the various essential parts of the telephone that the bidder proposes to fur266. Instruments.
which
nish,
shall
be subject to the approval of the engineer.

VITRIFIED PIPE, FOR CULVERTS
All vitrified pipe shall be of the best quality of smooth, well

267. Quality.
burned, salt-glazed, vitrified clay sewer pipe. It shall be of the hub-and-spigot
pattern free from cracks due to rough handling, cooling, frost and other causes
and
free
from chippings and
clear fractures that will impair
it
for the
from
purpose
in-
All pipes that are designed to be straight shall not deviate materially
a straight line, and those designed to be curved shall substantially conform
tended.
to the required radius of curvature
and other general dimensions.
591
Both the bodies and bells of all pipes shall have a thickness not -less
268. Size.
than one-twelfth the inside diameter of the pipe. Each hub shall freely receive
to its full depth the spigot end of the succeeding pipe without any chipping of either
and leave a space of not less than \ inch all around for the cement joint; it shall
also have a depth from its face to the shoulder of the pipe on which it is moulded at
least 2 inches greater
shall
be between
269. Rejection.
rejected.
than the thickness of said pipe.
and
The
length of pipe sections
3 feet exclusive of the socket.
Any
pipe that does not meet the above requirements will be
CHAPTER XXIII
TABLES
TABLE XLIIL EXTREME FLOOD DISCHARGES
,
EXTREME FLOOD DISCHARGES

TABLE
XLIII.
Stream
593
Continued
TABLES
594
TABLE
Stream
XLIII.
Continued

Stream
595
Continued
596
TABLES
Continued

topography,
all
on the volume
of which, especially the

of
maximum
first,
597
have great influence
discharge.
Ryves has derived the following formula from
Colonel
experience in India:
in
which
and
is
area in square miles,

is the flood discharge,
a coefficient varying with the rainfall and slope of the
is
For regions where maximum rainfalls are from 4 to 5

country.
inches in twenty-four hours, the values of C in the above formula
have been found

hilly
in
equals 400 to 500;
in
country C equals 500 to 650.

formula is here proposed as follows:
equals the maximum rainfall in inches in twentyfour hours;

varies from 100 for undulating areas, to 200 for mountain-
which
to be in flat country
ous areas; and
M equals area in square miles.

None
results,
of these formulae
on account
uncertainty of all the
The shape
can be expected to give approximate
complications involved, and the

data except the area of drainage basin.
of the
many
of the basin, the character of the soil
and many minor
factors
which
and vegetation
affect the result, are impossible
with any approach to accuracy.

In
Cost and Dimensions of Some Great Storage Reservoirs.
Table XLIV are given the capacities, material, dimensions,
to allow for
purpose and cost per acre-foot of some of the great storage

reservoirs built by the U. S. Government for irrigation.
TABLES
598
TABLE XLIV. RESERVOIRS BUILT BY

SERVICE
Name and
Locality
U.
S.
RECLAMATION
EARTH DAMS AND ROCKFILL DAMS

TABLE XLV. EARTH DAMS AND ROCKFILL DAMS
Name and
Locality
599
TABLES
600
TABLE XLVI. MASONRY DAMS

Name and
Locality
Purpose
MASONRY DAMS
TABLE XLVI. MASONRY DAMS
Name and
Locality
601
Continued
TABLES
602
VELOCITY TABLES
Tables XL VII to LIII give the values of the mean velocity of water
open channels computed from Kutter's formula:
1.811
in
0.00281
-+4I.6+
s
0.00281
The values of n, the coefficient of roughness, to be used in finding v, depend on

the roughness of the materials forming the bed and banks of the channel, irregularities and imperfections in the bed or banks, curves, eddies, aquatic plants,
and other conditions that tend to produce a retardation of flow. Experimental
data on the subject are limited and the commonly accepted values of n for specific
conditions must be considered as mere approximations. These approximate
values, based on a consideration of the data available, are as follows:
n = 0.010 for clean, straight channels of planed lumber carefully laid; neat cement
plaster; glazed, coated and enameled surfaces in perfect order.
n
= 0.012
for clean, straight and regular channels of planed boards not in perfect
order due to inferior workmanship or age; unplaned boards carefully laid;
metal flumes of the smooth interior type and gentle curvature in alinement;
concrete linings having steel troweled surfaces of

cement plaster; clean brickwork.
n = 0.014
for clean, regular channels of concrete
mortar, sand and
having wooden troweled or formed
surfaces of good construction, the alinement consisting of tangents connected
by
gentle curves; unplaned boards not in perfect order due to inferior work-
manship or
n = 0.015
age.
for construction as in the preceding case
with deposits of
silt
but with sharp curvature or
on the bottom of channel; straight and regular channels
of ordinary brickwork;
smooth stonework;
foul
and
slightly tuberculated
iron.
= o.o2o
for channels of fine gravel; rough rubble; or tuberculated iron; or for

canals in earth, in good condition, lined with well-packed gravel, partly
covered with sediment, and free from vegetation.

for canals in earth in good condition, or composed of loose gravel without vegetation.
n = 0.0225
n = 0.025
for canals
and
rivers of tolerably
uniform cross-section, slope and direc-
tion in average condition.
n = 0.030
for canals and rivers in rather poor condition, having bed partially covered with debris, or having comparatively smooth sides and bed but a channel partially obstructed with grass, weeds or aquatic plants.
n = 0.035 f r canals and rivers in bad order and regimen, having the channel
strewn with stones and detritus or about one-third
full of
vegetation.
VELOCITY TABLES
603
Canals in earth with their channels half full of vegetation may have n ='0.040,
and when two-thirds full of vegetation may have n = 0.050. In exceptional cases
the value of n may reach 0.060.
As an indication of the extent to which the value of n affects the velocity of the
=
discharge of channels, let us take an example in which n 0.02 25. A bed width
of 10 feet, depth of 2 feet, and side slopes of i to i, with a grade of 8 feet per mile,
For
gives a velocity of 3.32 feet per second and a discharge of 79.07 second-feet.
the same channel with a value of n= 0.035 the velocity is 2.05 feet per second and
the discharge 49.2 second-feet; thus showing that with the better channel the disis 60 per cent greater than with the inferior channel.
charge
NOTE. To find velocities for slopes other than those given in this table, multiply
"
^ = 52.80 " by ten times the square root
the tabular velocity found in the column of
The velocity thus obtained is accurate for slopes greater than 6 feet
of the slope.
per mile, and approximate for
all
slopes greater than 4 feet per mile.
604
TABLES
VELOCITY TABLES
OIO'
605
606
TABLES
VELOCITY TABLES
O
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=$
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TABLES
608
OMOOroO
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VELOCITY TABLES
OIO'= $
609
610
TABLES
VELOCITY TABLES
TABLE
LIV.
611
AREA IN SQUARE FEET, A, AND HYDRAULIC RADIUS;

TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNELS, SIDE SLOPES 2
:
"a
r,
OF
TABLES
612
FIG. 250.
Standard Horseshoe and Circular Sections
for Conduits.
TABLE LV. AREA, WETTED PERIMETER AND HYDRAULIC RADIUS OF

PARTIALLY FILLED HORSESHOE AND CIRCULAR CONDUIT SECTIONS
VELOCITY TABLES
613
AREA IN SQUARE FEET, A, AND HYDRAULIC RADIUS IN

OF SEMI-CIRCULAR FLUMES FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF FREEBOARD IN FEET. F
TABLE
LVI.
FEET,
r,
TABLES
614
TABLE
LVII.
THEORETICAL VELOCITY OF WATER IN FEET PER SECOND

FOR VARIOUS HEADS
V=\/ 2gh.
Head
=32.16
VELOCITY TABLES
TABLE
615
AVERAGE WEIGHT, IN POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT, OF
LVIII.
VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
Substance
Clay, earth and
mud:
Masonry and
122-162
Clay
Earth, dry and loose
Earth, dry and shaken
Earth, dry and moderately
72-80
82-92
rammed
90-100
70-76
66-68
75-90
Earth, slightly moist, loose

Earth, more moist, loose
Earth more moist, shaken ....

Earth, more moist moderately
rammed
Eaith, as soft flowing mud ....
Earth, as soft mud well pressed
into a box
Mud,
Mud,
Mud,
no-
20
10
104-120
130
Mortar, hardened
Sand, pure quartz, dry, loose.
Sand, pure quartz, dry, slightly
shaken
Sand, pure quartz, dry, rammed
Sand, natural, dry, loose
Sand, natural, dry, shaken.
Sand, wet, voids full of water
Stone
Stone quarried, loosely piled.
.
Stone, broken,
90-115
87-106
92-110
100-120
8O-IIO
85-125
II8-I28
135 195
So-llO
112
77
rammed
Brickwork, pressed brick,
Copper, cast
Copper, rolled
125
TOO
Iron and steel, cast

Iron and steel, average
fine
joints
Brickwork, medium quality.

Brickwork, coarse, inferior soft
.
Metals and alloys:

Brass (copper and zinc)
Broaze (copper and tin)
150
materials:
common hard
79-121
140
125
Iron and
Iron and
steel,
wrought
steel,
average
Spelter or zinc
Tin, cast
487-524
524-537
537-548
548-562
438-483
450
475-494
481
425-450
450-470
IOO
bricks
Cement, pulverized, loose

Cement, pressed
Cement, set
Concrete, 1:3:6
Gravel, loose
Gravel, rammed
Masonry
Con-
80-110
wet, fluid
Brick, soft, inferior.
materials
tinued.
Stone, broken, loose
Brick, best pressed
Brick,
90-100
104-112
wet, moderately pressed.
its
its
Weight
dry, close
Masonry and
Substance
Weight
72-105
US
168-187
140
82-125
90-145
Hickory
Oak, white
Oak, red, black, etc
Pine, white
of granite or stone of
like weight:
Well dressed
Well-scabbled rubble, 20 per
cent mortar
Roughly scabbled rubble 25
to 35 per cent mortar
Well-scabbled dry rubble
Roughly scabbled dry rubble.
Masonry of sandstone or stone of
like
weight weighs about
seven-eignths of the above:
Woods, seasoned and dry:

Ash
Hemlock
165
154
150
138
125
Pine, yellow, northern

Pine, yellow, southern
Poplar
Spruce
Woods weigh one-fifth to onehalf more green than dry;
and ordinary building timber,
tolerably
seasoned,
weighs about, one-sixth more

than dry timber.
40-53
25
37-58
37-56
32-45
22-31
30-39
40-50
22-31
25
TABLES
616
TABLE
LIX.
CONVENIENT EQUIVALENTS
LENGTH
inch
=iV
=
foot =.027778 yard =.000015783 mile =2.54 centimeters.

12 inches =3 yard =.00018939 mile =.3048 meter.
foot
yard =36 inches
mile
=3
feet
=.00056818 mile =.9144 meter.
feet =1760 yards = 1.60935 kilometers.

meter = 100 centimeters =.ooi kilometer =39-37 inches =3.2808
=63360 inches =5280
feet
= 1.0936
yards
.0006213? mile.
SURFACE
I
square inch =.006944 square foot =.0007716 square yard =.0000001594 acre =.0000000002491 square mile =6. 45163 square centimeters.
square foot =144 square inches = square yard =.000022957 acre -.00000003587 square
mile =.092903 square meters.
square yard =1296 square inches =9 sqiiare feet =.0002066 acre =.0000003228 square mile
= .83613 square meter.
acre =6272640 square inches =43560 square feet =4840 square yards =.0015625 square
mile =208.71 feet square =.404687 hectare.
square mile =4014489600 square inches =27878400 square feet =3097600 square yards =
640 acres =259 hectares.
square meter = 10000 square centimeters =.0001 hectare =.000001 square kilometer = 1550
square inches = 10.7639 square feet =1.19598 square yards =.0002471 acre =.0000003861
square mile.
VOLUME
I
I
cubic inch =.004329 U. S. gallon =.0005787 cubic foot = 16.3872 cubic centimeters.
U. S. gallon =231 cubic inches =.13368 cubic foot =.00000307 acre-foot =3.78543 liters.
cubic foot =1728 cubic inches =7.4805 U. S. gallons =.037037 cubic yard =.000022957
acre-foot =28.317 liters.
I
I
cubic yard =46656 cubic inches =27 cubic feet =.00061983 acre-foot =.76456 cubic meter.
acre-foot =325851 U. S. gallons =43560 cubic feet = r6i3i cubic yards = 1233.49 cubic
meters.
cubic meter, stere or kiloliter = 1000000 cubic centimeters = 1000 liters =61023.4 cubic
inches =264.17 U. S. gallons =35.3145 cubic feet = 1.30794 cubic yards =.000810708
acre-foot.
HYDRAULICS
I
i
I
U.
water weighs 8.34 pounds avoirdupois.

cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds avoirdupois.
second-foot =448.8 U. S. gallons per minute =26929.9 U.
S. gallon of
gallons per day.

= 60 cubic feet per minute
day =31536000 cubic
=3600 cubic
S. gallons
per hour =.646317 U. S.
feet per houi
=86400 cubic
feet per
=.000214 cubic mile per year.

= .9917 acre-inch per hour = 1.9835 acre-feet per day =723. 9669 acre-feet per
feet per year
year.
= 50
miner's inches in Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska,
New
Mexico, North Dakota,
and South Dakota =40 miner's inches in Arizona,

and Oregon =38. 4 miner's inches in Colorado.
California,
Montana,
cubic meters per second = 1.699 cubic meters per minute =101.941
cubic meters per hour =2446. 58 cubic meters per day.
cubic meter per minute =.5886 second-foot =4.403 U. S. gallons per second =1.1674
acre-feet per day.
million gallons per day = 1.55 second-feet =3.07 acre-feet per day =2. 629 cubic meters
per minute.
= .028317
second-foot falling 8.81 feet = i horse-power,

second-foot falling 10 feet = 1.135 horse-power,
second-foot falling 1 1 feet = i horse-power, 80 per cent efficiency,
second-foot for i year will cover i square mile 1.131 feet or 13.572 inches deep,
inch deep on I square mile =2323200 cubic feet =.0737 second-foot for I year.
CONVENIENT EQUIVALENTS.
617
MISCELLANEOUS
foot per second =.68 mile per hour
= 1.097
kilometers per hour.

avoirdupois pound =7000 grains .4536 kilogram.
I kilogram =1000 grams =.ooi tonne =15432 grains =2.2046 pounds avoirdupois.
pounds per square inch.
i ton per square foot.
{15I kilogram per square centimeter.
Acceleration of gravity, & =32.16 feet per second.
I mil =.ooi inch.
I
I
circular mil
(.ooi)
or .0000007854 square inch.
square inch =1273240 circular mils.

No. 10 Birmingham gage wire has a diameter of 134 mils and a cross-sectional area of
17956 circular mils.
i horse-power =5694120 foot-gallons per day =550 foot-pounds per second =33,000 footpounds per minute = 108,000 foot-pounds per hour =2545 B.T.U. per hour =76 kilogrammeters per second = 1.27 kilogrammeters per minute =746 watts.
i horse-power boiler rating, requires the evaporation of 343 pounds per hour of water at
212 F. to dry steam at the same temperature; or the expenditure of 33,317 B. T. U.;
and in practice is developed by burning 3! to 4$ pounds per hour of coal under 10 to
i
12 square feet of heating surface.

I
i
B.T.U. =778 foot-pounds.

pound of bituminous coal contains about 14,100 B.T.U. or 11,000,000 foot-pounds of
energy.
INDEX
American Society
"A"
frame dams described, 384
Abandoned
of Agricultural Engi-
neers, data, 148
Analysis of
irrigated lands, 185
soils, table,
Shoshone Dam,
Acoustic current meter, 156
illustrated,
474
Acre-foot, definition of, 165
Ancient irrigation works, mention, 2
table of equivalents, 616

Acre-inch, definition of, 165
Androscoggin River, flood and area, 592
Advantages
Anticlinal valley as reservoir site, 345
of irrigation, 5
Agricultural
Department experiments
on duty of water, 143-145

Fria, underground waters, 47
Application of water to land, 111-136

Appropriation, water, doctrine of, 496-
500
Agua
water
Appurtenance to land,
Air in running water, 293
rights,
500, 501
Air-lift
pumping, 92
Alcohol pumping engines, 85, 86
Aquatic plants, growth
of,
521-524
Aqueduct, Ganges Canal, India, 301
Aldershot, sewage irrigation at, 126
Nadrai, India, 313
Alexander, W. H., book by, 63

Alfalfa as a nurse crop, 105, 106
Strawberry Valley, illustrated, 336

Arabs, irrigation by, in Sahara, 62
Arch Bridge pressures, 447

dam, definition of, 443
dams, design of, 469-474
as preventive of alkali, 13
Algeria, area irrigated in, 4
Alinement of canals, 212-215

Alkali, concrete lining protection, 238
spillway, East Park, 485
in canals, prevention of, 521
Ardeche River
or injurious salts, 8-15
596
Areas irrigated in countries, table, 4
rise of, brief discussion, 190, 191
resistance to, table, 11,12

tests of
Alkaline
cement
salts,
reservoirs, table, 598

-- river
drainage basins,
pipe, 199, 200
discussion
of,
flood, France, 355, 595,
592-596
Argentina, area irrigated, 4
8-15
soils, effect on metal, 308-314

Allegheny River, flow and area, 592
Arizona Canal, data about, 230

Arkansas River, flow of, 42
Allier River, France, flood, 595
Arrowhead Dam, height and
All Saints
tion,
Church, pressure on founda447
Alvord,
J.
W., book on
floods,
Arrowrock
coffer
Dam, and
Alluvial soils, definition of, 7
length, 599
Reservoir, evaporation, 71
dam,
illustrated,
gunnite, 452
balanced valve, 365
63
Ambursen type dam, mention, 487. See

Hollow Dams.
American River, flood and area, 593
flow of, 42
data, 600
plans and section, 458-460

pressure, 447
specifications,
Folsom dam, 385
535-546
Reservoir, area, cost, etc., 598
619
402
INDEX
620
Arroyo Seco, flood and area, 594
Artesian areas, 50, 51
48-59
books on,
Bargaglino Cr., Italy, flood, 596

Don H., address by, 26
Bark,
article by, 15
wells,
63,
book by, 152
64
Ash Fork Dam, Arizona, 487-490

data, 600
Ashti Dam, India, data, 599

Asse River, France, flood, 595
Assiout Dam, Egypt, data, 600
Barossa
data, 6co
Dam,
pressure, 447
Assuan Dam, data, 600

silt removal at, 376, 377
steel canal below. 241,
bulletin by, 183
seepage data, 234

Barker Dam, data, 600
Barrin Juick Dam, data, 600

Basic Creek, flood and area, 594
242
Bassano Dam, design mention, 477, 478
Assyria, records of irrigation in, 2
Baum
Auckland Dam, data, 600
472
Bazin formula, pipe, 326
Beacon Brook, N. Y., flood, 595
Bear River, flood and area, 594
Aupa
River, Germany, flood, 596

Ausable River, flood and area, 593
Australia, area irrigated in, 4
Co., F. G., constant angle
Goulburn Weir, 397
flow
Rainfall records, 356
canal drop, 285
regulator gates in, 254

Australian salt-bush and alkali, 13
water meter, 177

Austrian Soc. E. and Arch., pressure
Automatic recording gage, 160, 161

shutters and gates, 392
Tieton, 280-282
Dam
crib dam, illustrated, 401

Bear Grass Creek, flood and area, 594
Bear Valley Dam, plan and section, 473
pressure on, 447
failure explained,
422
Reservoir, area and capacity, 598

Azischos Dam, data, 600
Beaumont
M.
O., pressure data,
447
N., book on sewage, 64
"Baffle piers" at dams, 477, 478
Balanced valves, 360, 365

364-369
Balmorhea Dam, data, 599
Ban Dam,
France, data, 600
Barage du
Nil,
mention
Dam,
paving, illustrated,
of,
387
section of, 406
in, 2
data, 600
illustrated,
plant, 98
makers, 382
data, 600
material used, 423

gravel blanket on, 436
outlet works of, 358
specification clause, 559

Bacteria, sewage irrigation and, 128
I.
Dam,
Belle Fourche
Baker,
pumping
dam
418
Babylonia, records of irrigation

Backfilling over drain tiles, 197
Baker,
rice
first
"Before and After" irrigation views,

IOO-IOI
Azusa hydrant meter, 173
Badana Dam,
Little, 600,
601
Beavers,
Beetaloo
spillways, 275-277
44
Bear Valley Dams, Big and
data, 447
Avalon
of,
dam,
Reservoir data, 598

tunnel data, 334
Bench marks,
specification, clause, 553
Beneficial uses of water, law of, 497, 499

Berlin, deep well near, 51
Betwa Dam,
India, data, 600

weir flashboards, illustrated, 393
Bezwara Weir, India, section, 391

Bhatgur Dam, India, data, 600
Big Bear Valley Dam, data, 600
Bigelow, F. H., paper on evaporation, 71
Billings,
Mont., analysis
soils,
INDEX
Bjorling's formulas for water wheels,
scraper, description of, 229
Buckley,
"Black Alkali,"
definition of, 8
Black Lick River, flood and area, 594

Bleone River, France, flood, 595
W.
Buck
R B., book on
Budlong Creek, N. Y.,
80, 82
Bligh,
621
book by, 495
G.,
pressure data, 447

Blue Nile, irrigation waters
of,
of Soils, analyses by, 9

of
Standards alkali
tests,
gates, illustrated,
Burkholder,
J. L., article
by, 201
Chart of Rio Grande, 187,

291
stilling basin,
pipe manufacture, illustrated,
328,
Burns Creek, superpassage,

3i6
Burrin Juick
329
project, cost of canal lining on, 243.
See also Arrowrock

River, flow
Dam.
hydrograph
of,
Valley, analysis
Dam,
Dam
"Burro"
1 88
illustrated,
pressure, 447
described, 382
Burrowing animals, 525, 526

Butterfly valves, illustrated, 362, 366,
43
of,
199,
200
255
chute and
area,
Buech River, France, flood and area, 595

Bumping Lake Dam data, 598
Bureau
Bureau
River, Silesia, flood, 595
dam and
and
flood
595
section, 433
Burdick, C. B., book on floods, 63
25
Boat gaging station, illustrated, 162

Bober Dam, Germany, data, 600
Boise canal
irrigation by, 71
367
34
soils,
By-pass, Umatilla Canal, 288
ground water charts, 186-189

steel
flume
in,
307
Bond, specification clause, 548

Boonton Dam, N. J., data, 600
Border methods of irrigation, 112-117,
Cabbage Tree Dam, data, 600

Cable station, stream gaging, 161
Cache La Poudre, flow of, 42
124
Borings,
Borrow
seepage
dam
foundations, 493, 494
558
data and section, 437,
pits, specification clause,
Bowman Dam,
Cairo, Barage
Calaveras
by, 495
Nil near, 387
du
Dam,
245
to,
Wm., book
data, 599
failure of, 429,
599
Bow
Cain,
River, flow
44
Box turnout, U. S. R. S.,' plans, 267
Boyds Corner Dam, data, 600
of,
River, flood
and
430
area, 594
Calcium carbonate and
alkali,
California, irrigation in,
Brasimone Dam, data, 600
rainfall records,
Brazil rainfall records, 356
State Board of Health, 5
Breaks in canals discussed, 271

Breast-wheels, description
of,
81
Bridge Pont-y-Prydd, pressure on, 447

Bridgeport Dam, data, 600
Bridges over canals, 335-337
steel,
specifications,
Briggs, L.
J.,
579-584
book by, 25
investigations of, 20, 21
14
book on, 63
356
stovepipe well drilling, 57
Galloway Canal,
Cal., silt in, 25
weir at, 388-390
Camp,

Canada, area irrigated in, 4
Canada Creek, W., N. Y. flood, 594
Canal cross sections, illustrated, 204
lining,
236-245
and prevention,
Broad River, flood and area, 593

Brodie data on masonry pressure, 447
losses
Brooklyn Bridge, pressure on, 447

Brown, Hanbury, books by, 152, 527
specifications,
riders, duties of,
233,
234
503
557-559
structures, chapter on,
247-369
INDEX
622
Canal superintendent, duties
of,
502,
zone, rainfall records, 357
Canals,
Chartrain
Dam,
data, 600
Chattahoochee River, flood and area,
503
list
of
U.
S.
R.
S.,
592, 593
Chaustiere Dam, data, 600
230-232
and laterals, chapter on, 202-246

Cane Creek, flood and area, 594
Canvas Dam used in irrigation, 112, 113
Canyon Creek Dam, Utah, data, 599
Cheat River, flood and area, 593

Check and farm turnout, illustrated, 264
Check system of irrigation, Salt River,
Capillarity of soils, table of, 18
Checks, drops and chutes, 282-290

used in irrigation, illustrated, 116
Capillary movement in soil, 16, 17,

Carbon dioxide in tunnel, 335
Carbonate of sodium, 8,
Carey Act, mention of, 3
18
152
Cherryvale Creek, Kansas, flood, 595
Chezy formula, 163

China, mention of irrigation
in, 2,
experiments, return seepage by,

245
43
regulator, 251-257
Carver's data on hydraulic rams, 92

Casey, Col. T. L., masonry pressure, 447
Casselman River, flood and area, 593
Hongkong, 356
Chinamen, market gardening of, 58
Church, Irving P., book on fluids, 182
Chute or inclined drop, 212

Chutes, checks and drops, 282-290
Chuviscar Dam, Mexico, data, 600
"Cienegas," term for swamps, 194

Cippoletti weir, book on, 182
Cast-iron specifications, 563
definition of, 166, 167
Castlewood
formula for, 167

Clarion River, flood and area, 593
Cataract
Dam, section, 438

Dam, data, 600
Clarke, Sir Andrew,
Catawba
River, flood
gates, lateral illustrated, 269
and area, 592, 593

Catskill Creek, flood and area, 594
Cattaraugus Creek, flood and area, 593
Cavour Canal, Italy, views, 298
Cedar River, flood and area, 594
flow of, 44
Cement
drains, use of, 198-200
gun work, Arrowrock Dam, 452

lining canals, coefficient. 235
Cement, specification
rainfall at
bulletins by, 182, 246
of,
Chemical properties, metal, 578

River, flood and area, 592
Cherry Creek, Colo., water supply, 59
Chemung
Carlsbad canals, lining and costs, 242

Carpenter, L. G., book on duty of water,
Carson River, East, flow
illustrated, 122
clause, 536, 537,
559, 565, 566
Centrifugal pumps, 86-90
Classification,
masonry data, 447

masonry dams, 443
Clay in hydraulic fill dams, 428

Clay, used in earth dams, 423
Cleaning canals of silt, 520, 521
Cleaning up, specification clause, 553
Clear Lake Reservoir, data, 598
Clearing of irrigable lands, 104
Clentangy River, flood and area, 593

Climatic conditions, specifications, 552
Climatology of U. S., book on, 63
Closed drains, definition
Coast Range and
191
28
of,
rainfall,
Certified check, specification clause, 547
Coefficient of roughness, 602, 603
Chagres River, flood and area, 593
Coefficients of friction, table, 448
Chamberlain, T. C. report on wells, 63

Chandler, A. E., book by, 501
Coffer
Changes, specification clause, 550, 551

Chapter House, Elgin, pressure on, 447
Charges for water, basis, 514, 515
U. S. R. S. table, 146
dam, Arrowrock Dam, 402
Coghlan,
silt
data, 371
Cohoes Iron Weir, section, 486, 489

Cold Spring Earn, building, illustrated,
427
INDEX
Corrugation system of irrigation, 119,

120
Cold Springs Dam, flood at, 355

Reservoir data, 598
Colorado River, bulletin on, 63
Cost, clearing lands, 104-106
drainage ditches, article on, 201

drains, U. S. R. S., 200, 201
flow of, 42
headgates, 251, 253, 256

value of silt of, 25
Columbia River flow of, 43
maximum
623
earth dams, table, 599
estimates
flow of, 592
masonry dams,
pumped
flumes
used,
531-533
10
table, 600, 601
puddling, canal lining, 243
274
Dam,
lined canals, U. S. R. S., 242, 243
air used in pumping, 92

Compression, on masonry, 447
Concentrated crest spillway, illustrated,
Compressed
Conconully
of, projects,
leveling land,
irrigation water, 511
Reservoirs of U.
illus-
S.
R.
S.,
598
porous canals, 244, 245

tunnels, built by U. S. R. S., 334
silting
trated, 431
outlet works, 359,
360
water, Reclamation Service projects,
section of, 435
Reservoir, water records, 40

tunnel data, 334
146
well drilling, 57
Cosumnes River, flood and area, 593

Cottonwood Creek, flood and area, 594
Coulon River, France, flood and area,
Concrete, canal lining, 237-245

gravel, pressure on, 447
pipe specifications, 574-576

specifications, 540-543*
595
559~56i
turnout, lateral, illustrated, 270

Cone, V. M., bulletin by, 183
Court decision, Salt River, 149

Covell Creek Dam, Australia, data, 601
flume invented by, 179
Cowgill's diagram of flood irrigation, 117
"Constant angle" dams, 472, 473

Dam, book on, 495
Construction, earth dams, 424-426
Continuous stave pipe, 324
Contract specifications, text of, 547-554
Contracted
orifice, definition of,
169
Contraction joints, concrete lining, 237

in
dams, 453
548
Coolgardie Dam, data, 600
Cooperation with water users, 504
Coosawattee River, flood and area, 593
Corbett Dam, cross section, 248, 249
- Tunnel,
data, 334
Kachess Dam, 414

Minidoka Dam, 436
wall, concrete,
concrete,
earth,
Bumping Lake, 433
gravel in
dam, 423
puddle, Conconully
steel,
Core
Dam,
435
Otay Dam, 438
walls, earth
W.
P.,
book by, 495
Crib work, underground, 59, 60
Cronholm, F. N., article by, 201

Crops and duty of water, 139-142
Crossings, drainage, 293-299
highway, 335-337
Cross River Dam, data, 600
,
Contractor, specification clause, 548

Contractor's bond, specification clause,
Core
Creager,
Creager's compressive tests, 446

Crib dams, illustrated, 401, 402
dams, discussed, 422
and subgrade, 210-212

Croton Dam, cross-section, 464
N. Y., data, 601
Cross-section
Old, section, 479

Croton Falls Dam, data, 600
Croton watershed, paper on, 380
Crowley Creek Dam, data, 600
,
Cuba, rainfall records, 3^7

Cubic foot per second, definition, 165
Cultivation and duty of water, 140, 141
Cultivation under irrigation, 515, 516
Culverts, irrigation canals, 314-323
Current meter measurements, 171. 172
Current meters, description of, 155-163
INDEX
624
Current wheel on Salmon River, 89
"Cusec"
Austria, flood, 596

for irrigation,
steel,
Dam,
books on, 495
Domodossola Dam, Italy, data, 599

Drag line excavator, view of, 192
chapter on, 184-201
and health,
irrigation
systems, design
Drake, E.
Dean and
Drilling
Follansbee, bulletin by, 63
Deer Flat Embankment, cross
section,
dam
and
turnout, canal, 268
598
DuBois, A. Jay, book translated by, 183

Durance River, France, flood, 595
leakage, 347~349
Defective work, specifications, 553
Dehree Weir, India, illustrated, 391

Del Rio, Texas, pumping plant, 95-97
Delaware River, flow and area, 592
Delays, specification clauses, 549, 550
Derwent Dam, Eng., data, 600

Deschutes River, book on, 63
of,
foundations, 493-495
pump at, 90
Drops, checks and chutes, 282-290
"Dry lakes," formation of, 345
area, 593
;
191-193
of,
report by, 183
face,
418
Deerflat Reservoir, area, cost, etc.
Drilling wells, methods, 53-57
Drop and
416
Deer Flat Embankment, gravel
F.,
5,
193-198
of,
Drains, classification
underground water, 47
Davis, A. P., books by, 98, 201, 380
canal,
Valley, value
silt in,
25
Duryea, Edwin, paper on evaporation,

7i
Duty
sewage water for
of
water, books on,

,
Dyer, C.
irrigation,
list,
130
15, 152
chapter on, 137-152
W.
D., paper on weirs, 182
43
outlet, Tumalo, 347

Desert Land Act, mention
Masonry Dams,
of, 3,
497
455, 475
Dethridge meter for measuring water,
175-176
and
area, 594
Devil's River, flow of, 44
DeVries, analysis of
soils
by,
9,
10
Point, definition of, 27

drilling
Eads Bridge, pressure on
dam
foundations, 494
Direct explosion pumps, 95-97
piers,
447
Earth, evaporation from, 69, 70
Earthen dams, discussion

Earthquakes,
Devil's Creek, flood
Diamond
293-299
crossings,
63
Deerfield River flood
40
592-596
Drainage, books on, list, 201
tables, height, cost, etc., 599-601

underground water, 61
Darton, N. H., report on deep borings,
Dew
effect of,
of rivers,
submerged, 61
Design,
data, 599
Drainage area,
chapters on, 381-495
flow
475-490
overfall,
Dixville
illustrated,
no
Ditching machine, view of, 228

Diversion dams or weirs, 382-404
113
of
illustration of, 107
Ditching, irrigable lands,
D'Arcy pipe formula, 326

Dalles, flow Columbia at, 592
list
"V"
Ditcher,
Dams, canvas and
streams,
Discharge records of streams, 42-44

Ditch riders, duties of, 503
data, 599
Cylinder drop, Franklin Canal, 289
Damages,
of
154-157
Cuyamaca Dam,
Dabrowka Creek,
measurements
Discharge
definition of, 165
rock-fill
of,
405
dams and, 441
Earthwork, specification clauses, 556559

East Carson River, flow of, 43
East Park
Dam,
data, 600
spillway, 482, 485, 486
Diversion
Dam,
view, 482
INDEX
East Park Reservoir, area,
cost,
etc.,
Evaporating pan, illustration

Evaporation and
books on, list
598
Economy
of water, 504-511
Eder River, Germany, flood, 595

Edinburg, sewage irrigation at, 126
Egin Bench subirrigation, 133
Egypt, abandoned irrigation lands
in,
185
area irrigated
in, 4
book on irrigation in,
625
of,
67
41
rainfall,
of, 71
chapter on, 65-72

table, cities of U. S., 69
table on,
by months,
72
Evaporometer, observations, 68
Excavating machinery, views of, 192
Excavation, specification clauses, 538-
records of irrigation in, 2

reference to irrigation works, v
540
Expansion joints, concrete lining, 237
- in dams, 453, 457-461
steel lined canals in, 241,
Experience, specification clause, 551
Einsidedel
Dam,
71
242
data, 600
Explosion, pumps, direct, 95-97
power, specification clause. 537

Elephant Butte Dam, data, 600
Electric
Extra work, specification clause, 550
Eyach River, Germany,
flood,
596
cross section, 454
construction, 455, 462
design against uplift, 453

pressure, 447
Reservoir, table data, 598
silt
Elkhorn
in discussed,
Cr., flood
and
Famine
377-380
Embankments,
Deer
J. T.,
book by, 182
pressure data, 447
discharge formula, 596
228
rules for, 405.
in India, 185
Fanning,
area, 594
of,
discussed, 444,
447, 449
Elliott, C. G., Bulletin by, 201
Elevating grader, view
masonry dams
Failure,
See also
Farm laterals, construction

Farm turnout and check,
Flat.
of,
no
illustration,
264
Engineer, specification clause, 543
Fay Lake
Engines for pumping, 84-86

Ensign, balanced valve, 360, 365
Eolian soils, definition of, 7
361
Feather River, flood and area, 592
flow of, 42
Federal vs. Private irrigation," 6
Fernow, B. E., evaporation data by, 70
,
"
type of land, 219

Erosion and canal design, 214
prevention
of, in canals, 519,
520
Dam,
pressure on, 447

Estanzuela River, Mexico, flood, 595
Estimates and reports, specifications,
536
531-533
Etcheverry, B. A. books by, 15,
26, 98,
lined canal experiments by, 242
data by, 373
Eucalyptus globulus,
surveys, 101-103
Filtration,
127
Financial
intermittent
28,
29
method,
obligations,
126,
specification
clause, 551
Fippin and Lyon, book by, 26

analysis of soils by, 9
Fish Cr. N. Y., flood and area, 594
Fish screens, Umatilla project, 483
Fishkill Cr., flood
136, 246
silt
soil
of cost of project,
and
Fertilizing effects of sewage,
data, 599
Esopus Cr., flood and area, 594

Estacado Dam, paper on grouting, 495
Fertility
Fertilizing effect of sediments, 25
protection against, 290-295
Escondido
outlet works, illustration, 360,
Fitzgerald,
and
area,
59^
Desmond, evaporation
ex-
periments, 66
effect of, 6
Flashboard, automatic, dams, 392, 393
INDEX
626
Formula, flow
Flashboard weirs, 388-390

,
Laguna
use
257
of,
Flathead project, sink holes, 224-226
loss of
Fleming, \V. B. book on pumps, 98

Flinn, A. D., paper on weirs, 182
book by, 380

and
Flint River, flood
of,
no
thickness of
weirs, 167, 168
592-596
Fort
Fortier, Sam'l,
books on, 182, 183
tables,
604-610
Uncompahgre
Valley,
pressures on, 447
Fox Cr. Crossing, L. Yellowstone,

trated, 320
illus-
France, area irrigated
trated, 322
tables, hydraulic data, 613
Flumes, chapter on, 299-308

metal, specifications, 576-579
J.,
136-152
Foundations, masonry dams, 490-493
Flume, Bear River Canal, 295

concrete, standard plans, 296
Flynn, P.
182
6, 26,
on duty of water, 148
Fluctuations of ground water, 186-189
steel,
books by,
percolation of water by, 48

Foundation, earth dams, 405-409
Florida, subirrigation in, 135, 136
spillway, illustrated,
63, 64
of water,
Shaw canal
277
Flooding method of irrigation, in. 112
Flow
dam, 456
velocity head, 614
Floods and spillways, 354-358
books on,
70
siphon spillway, 275

stream measurement, 163-170
flows of rivers, examples, 355-358

prevention, reference to, 380
seepage losses, 235
measurement, 155
Flood discharges, table
head siphon, 318
orifices,
area, 593
Float, for leveling, illustrated,

Floats, stream
in turnout, 268, 269-271
Kutter's, 602, 603

lateral capacity, 221
gates, illustrated, 253
book on
irrigation canals,
Follensbee and Dean, bulletin by, 63
W. W., article by, 380

book on silt by, 26
Rio Grande silt, 379-380
Follett,
examples
in,
illus-
of silt in, 25
flood flows in, 355
Francis formula for weirs, 167

Franklin Canal, cylinder drop, 289
Free board of canal banks, 210
French open weirs, illustrated, 394, 396

Fresno scraper, view of, 109
Friction, coefficients, table of,
448
'
silt
data
of,
Frozen streams, measurements
371
for plants, chapter on,
of, 162,
163
Folsom canal gates, illustrated, 262

and weir, illustrated, 383, 385
Dam, data, 600
Food
Friez recording stream gage, 160
22-26
Foote measuring weir, 173-175

Forbes, R. H., bulletin by, 26
Furens
Dam,
France, data, 600
River, France, flood, 596
Furrow
Irrigation, bulletin on, 15
in Idaho, illustrated, 125
methods, 117-119
system
irrigation,
Cal.,
illustrated
Foreign countries, area irrigated, 4
Forms, concrete, specifications, 561

pipe, Boise project, illustrated, 329
Formula, arch dams, 469

canal design, 202
erosion
and canal design, 214
flood discharge, 596, 597

flow in pipe, 326, 330
G
Gaging streams, 153-157
Galvanized sheets, advantages
Ganges Canal aqueduct, 301
super passage, 311
weirs, sections, 391
of,
309
INDEX
Ganguillet and Kutter formula, 164
Garden City windmill and reservoir, 88
Garland Canal, dimensions, 232

turnout, 268
Gas engines for pumping, 84. 85

Gas tar, waterproofing dam with, 453
Gasoline pumping engines, 85, 86
627
Gravel protection, Deer Flat Reservoir,

4i5-4i7
Grease wood, presence of, 102, 104
Great Forks, analysis soils at, 9

Great Salt Lake, origin irrigation,
Greaves,
Chas.,
evaporation
ments, 66
Gate, cast iron, lateral illustrated, 269
Green,
Gate House, Conconully Dam, 360

Gates, canal wood and metal, 250-254
Green River, flow
data on, 411, 412
volume of, 599

Lake Dam, data, 600
Geologic structure and rainfall, 41
Geological Survey current meters, 156
stream flow records, 39
German patent
Gila
sites,
roller
River report
of,
344-346
data, 600
Glatzer Neisse River, Germany, flood,
595
Godivery Weir, India, section, 391

Goldbach River, Germany, flood, 596
Goodwin Dam, Cal., data, 600

Goodyear Cr., flood and area, 595
Dam,
Goss, Arthur,
book by, 26
gates, Australia, 254
Weir, Australia, illustrated, 397

Grade of lands for irrigation, 100
Grader, elevating, view
Grand River,
Dam,
flow
of,
228
fluctuation, 186-189
required depth to, 195
supply for pumping, 74
dam
foundations, 492, 493
Gunnison tunnel, data, 334, 335

"Gunnite" on face /Yrrowrock Dam, 452
Gurley recording stream gage, 160
Gypsum and alkali, 14, 15
formation, reservoirs
in,
leakage of canals
227
lining, 243,
244
lands subsidence, 225

tunnels, data, 334
345, 349, 350
H
Habra Dam,
Algiers, data,
Hall,
600
W.
H., book on irrigation in Cali-
fornia, 63
Hamlin, Homer, book on Salinas Valley,

64
tests,
63
44
Granite ashlar, pressure on, 447

Granite Reef Dam, plan and section, 476
in flood, 481
Granite Springs Dam, data, 600

Grant-Mitchell meter, 177
Gravel core, view Sherburne Dam, 434
rainfall,
33
Hanna, F. W., article by, 246

hand book by, 183
recording meter,
of,
in,
Hamlin's chart of California
396-400
Grande Ronde River, flow
book on pumps, 98
Grinnell well in Paris, 50
underflow
42
illustrated,
Grand Valley canals
of,
B.,
Haehl, H. L., evaporation report, 71

Hale's Bar Dam, data, 600
data, 600
soil
Goulburn Canal
W.
data, 87
Messrs., 63, 182
Glacial soils, definition of, 7
Gorzente
44
of,
foundations, sp cifications, 542, 543

Grover, N. C. & J. C. Hoyt, book by
dams, 394
380
Dam, Belgium,
report by, 182
Ground water
Grouting
- stream flow
records, 42
Gillepe
Gregory,
pump
Gem
Geology, reservoir
J. S.,
hydrography, 35
water wheels on, 80
361-369
reservoir, illustrated,
Gatun Dam, design mentioned, 407-477
experi-
Happy canyon
steel
73
flume, illustrated,
322
Harding, S. T. O. and M., book by, 527
Harrison, C. L., paper by, 495
Hart, R. A., bulletin by, 201
Haskell current meter, 155, 156
Hatfield Dam, data, 600
INDEX
628
Hauser Dam, New, Mon., data, 601
Hawaii, area irrigated
Hawaiian Islands,
pumping
in,
Hoyt, J. C., bulletin by, 183

Huacal Dam, Mexico, data, 600
article on,
Hudson
98
Prof. Robt., well reports, 63
Hay,
silt
"Human
Hazen, Allen, formula, 46, 47

loss of, formula,
Head,
Head
gates,
canal 248-262
6
78
Highway
at,
radius in canals, 205

radius tables, 604-613
335-337
ram, data, 91, 92

rams,
experiments by, 14, 15, 21

Louis C., meter invented by, 176
meter
Robt. T., book by, 63
for
dams, 426-436
jump, Granite-reef Dam, 481
33
soil
Hill, Prof.
147
formulae, 163-170
Hilgard, E. W., book by, 15

bulletin by, 26
Hill,
at,
plant, 90
Hydrant, Azusa, meter, 173

Hydraulic data tables, 611-617
books on, 64, 182, 183
fill
stream flow
crossings,
pumping
98
equivalents, table, 616, 617
book by, 63
Cal.,
pump, 95-
article by,
Huntley, duty of water
precipitation charts by, 36, 37

Henshaw, Lewis, bulletin by, 63
Herndon,
direct-explosion
Humphrey, H. A.,
Humus, lack of, 8
C., article by, 6
J.,
side of irrigation," 6
97
Hemet Dam, valve plug, illustrated, 362

Hemlock Dam, data, 600
Henne Dam, Germany, data, 600
Henry, A.
data, 371, 373
Humphrey,
5,
sewage irrigation, 129, 130

Height of Dams, table of, 599-601
Hellreigel's data on plant water, 23
flume invented by,
93
380
E., report by,
Humboidt River, flow of, 43

Hume-Bennett Dam, data, 600
318
Headworks, canal, 247-262

Health and irrigation discussed,
Henny, D.
River, flow and area, 592,
Hughes, D.
plant, 86
Yakima
Valley, 88, 92
Hydro-electric pumping, 92, 95

Hydrographers, duties of, 503, 504
Hydrographic manual, 183

Hydrographs of rivers, 33-35
Hydrology, books on, 63, 495
measuring water, 176
rainfall in, 357

Hindia Barrage, data, 600
History of irrigation, 2-4
Hiwassee River, flood and area, 593
Himalaya Mts.,
Hydrometric surveys, reports on, 183

Hydrostatic uplift on dams, 451-453
Hygroscopic water, in
soils, 16,
17
Hollister, G. B., bulletin by, 183
Hollow concrete dams, 478-487
Holyoke Dam, section
I
of,
475
Hondo
Reservoir, leakage, 350

Hoosic River, flood and area, 593
Ice,
dam design, paper on, 495

pressures on dams, 450, 451
Horse-power equivalents, 616, 617

Horseshoe Bend Dam, data, 599
snow and, evaporation of, 68

Imperial Valley silt conditions, 222
India, area irrigated in, 4
section, hydraulic tables, 612
Horton, R. E., weir tables, 182

Hot air pumping engines, 85, 86
book on
Hotzenplotz River, Germany, flood, 595

Howden Dam, England, data, 600
Hoyt,
J. C., article
by, on rainfall, 63
and Grover, N.
182
C.,
book by,
measuring streams through, 163
pressure in
irrigation in, 6, 71
famine and malaria
notch drop
in,
rainfall records of,
63,
in,
185
284
356
reference to irrigation works of,

unit of flow, "cusec," 165
INDEX
See
India, wells, irrigation from, 58.
Ganges Canal.
Indian Government's
investigations, 5
type weirs, illustrated, 390, 391

River Dam, N. Y., data, 600
Ingot iron, effect of alkali on, 309
Injurious salts or alkali, 8-15
Inspection gallery specifications, 54-56

Integration method of stream measure,
ment, 7.58
"Intermittent filtration" methods, 126,
127
Internal combustion engines, 84, 85
Interstate Canal flume, 303, 308, 310
629
Jerome Reservoir, leakage, 351

John Day River, flow of, 44
Johnson grass and sheep, 525
Johnston, C. T., book by, 501
Jorgenson, L. R., book by, 495
on arch dams, 469
Jorgenson's arch design, 484

Jump, hydraulic, Granite-reef
Jumper, clearing lands
Reservoir, data, 598
Keechelus
outlet, illustrated,
Kennebec River,
Keno Canal
Kensico
239
siphons, illustrated, 317, 318

Investigation of a project, 528-533
lola, Kans., stream flow at, 34
Irawaddy River, India,
flood,
Irrigable lands, chapter on,
on.
99-110
end each
See
rules,
Dam, N.
Y., data, 600
diversion
weir,
illustrated,
388,
Khojok.Pass, tunnel for water, 59

Khrishna River, India, flood, 596
Kinder River Dam, data, 599
King, F. H., book by, 15, 201
King's data on plant water, 23
Ariz., dam at, 403, 404

Kiskiminetas River, flood and area, 593
Klamath project, Lost River Dam, 252
Kingman,
111-136
rotation methods, 512-514
Italians,
area, 592

flow of, 42
Institutions," book, 501

of,
and
389
chapter.
methods
flood
spillway, illustiated, 274
Keokuk Dam, Iowa, data, 600

Kern River, flow of, 42
596
Iron pipes, subirrigation by, 136

Iron weir, Cohoes, section, 486, 489
definition of,
366
pressure, 447
sections, 204
"
Dam
headworks, 259
books
481
Kachess Dam, cross section and data,

414, 420
lateral gates, 269
Irrigation,
Dam,
105
Reservoir data, 598
gates, illustrated, 251
lining, view,
of,
Utah, 150-152
market gardening by, 58

4
project spillway, illustrated, 274

tunnel data, 334
Italy, area irrigated in,
Kneale and Tannatt, bulletin, 201

J
Kuichling, Emil, paper by, 63
Jackson, L. D'A., book by, 64

Jackson Lake Dam, view of, 260
formula discharge, 596

Prof., flood records,

Jaffa,
M.
E., soil
experiments
of,
13
Jamaica rainfall records, 356

James, George Wharton, book by, 6
James River Valley Wells, 51
Japan, area irrigated in, 4
rainfall records, 356
Java, area irrigated in, 4
358
Kutter's formula, 164

for pipe,
tables,
326
602-610
La Boquilla Dam, Mexico, data, 601

La Grange Dam, Cal., data, 601
section,
480
INDEX
630
La Jalpa Dam, Mexico, data,
La Mesa Dam, data, 599
Labrador, evaporation
Dam,
Lagastrello
Laguna
Lined canal section, 211, 213

Lining canals, 236-241
601
65
in,
Dam headgates, illustrated, 251,
plan and section, 386, 387
Dam
outlet, illustrated,
Little
of,
Lake Bonneville, settlement
601
363
408
Reservoir, data table, 598
plan
Lippincott, J. B., book by, 380

Lister Dam, Germany, data, 601
Lithgow Dam, pressure, 447

Bear Valley. See Bear Valley,
253, 256
Lahontan
Egypt, 241, 242
steel, canal,
Italy, data, 599
of canal at,
Little
Tennessee River, flood and area,
593
Local conditions, specification clause,
227
55i
Lake Cheesman Dam, data, 601

Lake Conchos, evaporation on, 71
Lake Fife Dam, India, data, 601
Lake McMillan, leakage, 349, 350
Lakes as reservoir sites, 342, 343
Lands, irrigable, chapter on, 99-110
Landslides on canals, 526, 527
values, effect on irrigation, 3
Laramie River, flow of, 44
Dam,
data, 599
Reservoir, flood
and
area, 594
Lock-bar pipe described, 326
Log
hoist, specification clause,
Loire River, flood
of,
546
355
Los Angeles, sewage irrigation, 130

Losses, canal and prevention, 233, 234
early irrigation, 3
seepage/ 234-236
Lost River and Tule Lake, 352
diversion works, illustrated, 252
Loughridge, R. H., book by, 15, 26
investigations of, n, 12, 20
Larue, E. C., bulletin by, 63
Louisiana, rice irrigation in, 86, 97, 98
Las Vegas Dam, data, 599
Low-head pumping plants, 86

Lower Otay Dam. See Otay.
Lower Yellowstone Canal drop, 287
Lateral canal systems, 217-224

Laterals, canals and, chapter on, 202-246
farm, construction of, no
sluiceway, 278
Lauchensee Dam, data, 601

Lava, reservoir
Law
site in, 345,
of water, chapter on,
Lawes and
Gilbert's data
culverts, illustrated, 315,
351
316
section, 387
496-501
pipe
on water, 23
sand gate, 340
Lawson, silt data, 371

Leaching of soils, 12-13
inlet,
294
siphon, illustrated, 320

soils by, 8
Lyon, analysis of
Leakage, canal, discussed, 224-227

reservoir, discussed,
Dam,
346-354
Lyon and
Fippin, book by, 15, 26

soil, 18
experiments on
Leasburg Canal gates, illustrated, 250

sand box, illustrated, 339
diversion weir, section, 478

Leffel turbine, water-wheel, 83
Leipsic,
Length
deep well near, 51

and duty of water, 138
of season
Leveling irrigable lands, 107-110

of land, necessity for, 103
Lewis, John H., book by, 501

Lick Observatory Records of rainfall,
356
Lined canal, Okanogan,
McAdie, A. G., book on rainfall, 64

McAlester Dam, data, 599
McCall's Ferry
McCausland,
McCloud
Dam,
480
section,
bulletin by, 63
River, flood
and
area, 593
McDowell, Ariz., stream flow

MacMillan Dam, data, 599
at,
35
Lake, data, 598

Reservoir, leakage, 349. 350
illustrated, 321
Mahan,
F. A.,
book on water wheels, 98
INDEX
Maintenance, operation and, chapter,
502-527
work, when to do, 518, 519
Malaria, effects of irrigation, 5, 6
in India, 185
of, 43
Malleable castings, specifications, 564
Manholes, drain lines, 197, 198
Manning, Robt., book by, 64

Marklissa Dam, Germany, data, 601
Masonry Dams, chapter
on, 442-495
workmanship
specifica-
data, 601
Mead, D. W., book by,
63, 183
silting canals, 244, 245
pumping
plant, 93-95
rainfall tables,
Minitare Darn outlet, illustrated, 362,
366
Reservoir, table data, 598
Missouri River, flow of, 43
"Modoc Lava Beds," leakage, 352

Moehne Dam, Germany, data, 601
River, flood
Moisture in
and
area, 592
16-21
soil,
flood and area, 593

Monongahela River, flow and area, 592
Montrose and Delta Canal headgates,
Monocacy River
548-549
Mauer Dam, Germany,

,
project, lateral system, 218,
219
Mohawk
table of data, 600, 601
tions,
Minidoka
Malheur River, flow
Material and
631
260
32
Morena Dam,
Elwood, book by, 501
data, 599
Morin's coefficients of friction, 448
Means, Thos. H., water investigations,
Moritz, E. A., articles by, 183, 246
Morris
62
Measurement
of irrigation water, 153-
183
water to the user, 164, 165
Dam, Conn., data, 599

Morrison data on pressure, 447
Moselle River, France, flood, 595
Valley, value silt in, 25
Measuring devices, 165-182

vi2w of, detail of, 263
water, books on, 182-183
Mosquitoes and irrigation, 5, 6

Mountain Dell Dam, Utah, data, 601
Mulching and alkali, 14
Medina Dam, Texas, data, 601

Meer Allum Dam, plans of, 472
Merced Dam, Cal., data, 599
evaporation, 66
Mullins. Lieut. -Gen. J., book by, 182
Murphy, D. W., article by, 201
Mercedes Dam, Mexico, data, 601
Murgab
Mesquite, clearing land
Metal flumes,
of,
E. C., bulletins by, 98, 183
104
specifications,
Valley,
headgates
abandoned lands, 185
576-579
work, specification clauses, 545, 546
Meters
for measuring water, 155-163

water works not suitable, 172
Meyer, A.
F.,
book by, 495
voids in rock, 491
Miami Valley
work of, 354, 355

Mill Brook, N. Y., flood and area, 595
Creek, Pa., flood and area, 594
floods,
Mineral food for plants, 23, 24

"Miner's inch," and duty of water, 149
definition of, 165
value
of,
616
Minidoka Canal
Dam,
gate, 250
section of, 436
261
in,
"N"
value, Kutters formula,
164, 602,
603
Nadrai Aqueduct, India, 313

Narora weir, India, illustrated, 391
Narrows Dam, uplift data, 453
Navier's formula, arches 469
Necaxa Dam, Mexico, data, 599

failure, 428, 429
Neches Canal pumping plant, 98
Needle valves, illustrated, 362, 368
Neosho River,
flow
flood
of, 34,
43
and
area. 592
INDEX
632
Nettleton, E.
S.,
book by, 64
Open
drains, definition of, 191
New Croton Dam. See Croton Dam.

New Dam, Mexico, data, 601
New Hauser Dam, Mon., data, 601
New River, flood and area, 592
Operation and
Newell, F. H., artesian well report, 64

article by, 6
Orange grove
charges, U. S. R.
Optimum water
S., 146
supply, 18-20
irrigation, illustrated, 122
Oregon, water supply
of,
book on, 63
books by, 98, 152, 527
Organization, specifications
report by, 183
Orifices,
Newell and Murphy, book by, 98

Nicaragua, report en hydrography
table,
Orme, Dr. H.
Nile, barage on, at Cairo, 387
S.
Otay
Valley, silt irrigation in, 25

Nitrates and plant food, 23, 24
Dam,
Co.,
See
also
Whalen Dam,
257, 259
River, flow
44
Interstate
and
of alfalfa
599
views
of, 439, 440, 471

Outlet works, reservoir, 358-369
Overfall dams, illustrated, 475, 490
Overhaul, specification clause, 558

Overshot water-wheels, 81, 82
India, illustrated, 284
Interstate Canal, 286
Nurse crop
O., investigations of, 5
H., sewage irrigation book, 64

Dam, core wall, 438, 440
lower length, height and volume,
section, 477
Canal
Notch drop,
80, 181
failure of, 441
Nitrogen and plant food, 24
of,
Dam.
experiments, 374-376
irrigation, 511, 512
Norwich Water
North Platte.
535, 536
Orland project, lined canal, O. & M.

See also East Park
costs, 242.
of rainfall, 357
silt
of,
measuring 168-172
formulae, 170
of,
380
Night
maintenance, chapter
on, 502-527
Overturning, failure of
rye, 105, 106
Owl Creek Dam,
dams
by, 449
gravel blanket, 436
material used, 423

outlet works, 359
O
O'Shaughnessy, M. M.,
article by,
paving, illustrated, 418

section of, 406.
See also Belle
98
Ocmulgee River flood and area, 592

Oconee River, flood and area, 594
Oder Dam, Germany, data, 601
Fourche.
Owyhee
River, flow
of,
43

Ohio River, flow of, 592
Oil lining, canals, coefficient, 235
Pacific Slope, rainfall on,
Okanogan
Pacoima Creek, dam
Canal,
lining,
illustrated,
321
Paris,
project, chute, 294

irrigation methods, 513
tunnel data, 334
Pas
32-34
on, 403
deep well in, 50

Riot Dam, France, data, 601
Du
Pasadena, Cal., sewage irrigation, 130

Passaic River, flood and area, 593
Okhla weir, India, illustrated, 391

Old Croton Dam. See Croton Dam.
Olive Bridge Dam, N. Y., data, 601
pressure on foundation, 447
Patents, specification clause, 553, 554

Pathfinder Dam, Wyo., data, 601
Ontario Colony, Cal., water supply, 59
Pecos Irrigation Co., canals, leakage,
Open and
closed weirs, 386-388
view
of,
470
227
INDEX
Pecos River, flow
of,
J. W., report on wells, 64

Precipitation charts of U. S., 36
44
Powell,
Lake McMillan, 349

Valley Dams, data, 599
,
in
Pelton water wheels, 84
Peguonnock Rivei,
633
U.
S.,
maps
flood,
Periar
29-31
Preparation of land for irrigation, 104-
594
no
Percolation of water in dams, 417-423

in soils,
of,
Prehistoric irrigation works, 2
and duty, 140
48
rate of, 46, 47
Preparing land, bulletin on, 136
views
Pressures on masonry, table, 447
Dam,
of,
123
India, data, 601
dams, 444-447
Price current meter, 155-157
Price River, flow of, 44
section, 463
Permeability of
soils, table,
47
Persia, records of irrigation in, 2
Priming canals, Grand Valley, 243, 244
Peru, area irrigated in, 4

Philippines, area irrigated
"Principles of irrigation practice," book,

6
in,
rainfall records, 356

Piche evaporometer observations, 68
Pilarcitos
Dam,
387
536
Piling, specification clause, 544,
545
Pinal Creek, flood and area, 594

Pinon, clearing lands of, 105
Pipe, concrete, specifications, 574-576
formulae discussed, 326, 330
irrigation, sub-irrigation, 134, 135
manufacture, illustrated, 328, 329

steel, specifications,
turnouts, U. S. R.
plans, 266
vitrified, specifications, 590,
wood
591
stave, specifications, 567-571
Pipes, concrete, metal
Project manager, duties
and wood, 323-
330
flow of water in, paper on, 183
Piscataquis River, flood, 594
of,
502
Proposal, specification clauses, 547

Prosser siphon and bridge, illustrated,
327
Protection of earth dams, 413-417
Protection of work, specification clause,
553
Provo River, flow
572-574
S.,
Federal irrigation," 6
vs.
Progress of work, specification clause,
data, 599
Pile weirs described, 384,
"Private
Profits of irrigation discussed, 4, 5
of,
44
Puddling, cost in lining canals, 243

Pumping, books on, 98

for irrigation,
Pumps,
73-98
86-90
Purchase specifications, 555-556
centrifugal,
Putah Creek,
flood
and
area, 593, 594
Pishkun tunnels, data, 334

Plant food, chapter on, 22-26
growth and water, 22, 23

Platte River, cribwork on, 59, 60
Quantities, specification clause, 552
Queis River, Germany, flood, 595, 596
Plowing as remedy for alkali, 13

Po Valley Canal structures, Italy, 298
Pocolet River, flood and area, 594
Pomona, Cal., irrigation at, 98

Pompton River, flood and area, 594
R
Rafter, Geo. W., book on sewage, 64
Rainfall and duty of water, 138, 139
books on,
63,
Poncelot water wheels, 81
character
of,
Potassium and plant food, 23, 24

Potholes in canals, 224, 225
discussion of, 27-37
Potomac River, flow and area, 592

Powder River, flow of, 43
government
64
41
excessive, records, 356, 357

projects, 145
of Cal., report on, 64
INDEX
634
Rio Grande,
Rainfall records, tables, 356, 357

runoff and, 40, 41
U.
S.
Ram.
maps of, 29-31

See Hydraulic ram, 91, 92
book on, 26
silt,
data, 25, 371, 372
Ramapo River, flood and area, 594

Rands, H. A., paper by, 495
Raritan River, flood and area, 593
Rating curve for stream measurement,
deposits,
Panama,
377-379
flood,
595
Valley, duty of water in, 147
seepage, 185
water fluctuation, 187
162
Rawhide
wells in, 58
crossing, illustrated, 317
"Reclaiming the arid West," book, 6

Reclamation Act, passage of, 3
"
Record," article on water, 152

Reclamation Service, canal linings, 238244
canals, table of, 230-232
Rio Mora, flood and area, 593, 594

Riparian doctrine of water right, 496
River discharge, books on, 63
Cal.,
Riverside,
Road
Roads and
of water, 144, 145
& M.
plant, 90
Rockfill, specification clause, 545
dams, 436-441
table of. 599
spillway standards, 272, 273
Rock
turnouts, plans, 266-270
for pipe discussed,
view
324
Regulator gates, canal, 250-256

Reinforced concrete dams, 478-487
Reinforcement bars, specifications, 559,
562
536
S.
R.
S.,
table,
of,
427
Rondout Creek, flood and area, 594

Rookery Building. Chicago, pressure,
447
Roosevelt
Remedies for alkali, 12-15

Remscheid Dam, table of data, 60 1
Reports and estimates, specifications,
by U.
sections of canals, 207, 208
Roller dams, illustrated, 394-400

Rolling earth dams, 425, 426
Reconnaissance of project, 528

Recording water meters, 172-179
Reservoirs, built
335-337
fences, specification clause,
553
reservoirs, 598
Redwood
crossings,
on canal banks, 210
charges, table, 146
pipe formulae, 330
pumping
illustrated,
Rivers, flood discharge table, 592-596
drains, table of, 200, 201
duty
irrigation
115, 122
drainage problem, 185
O.
bulletin on, 63
flow of, 42-44
Dam,
plan and section, 467,
468
table of, data, 601
pressure on, 447

Reservoir, area, capacity, etc., 598
Rotation system of irrigation, 182, 512-
5i4
598
storage, chapter on, 342-369
Residual soils, definition of, 7
Run-off, laws
Return flow measurements of, 245, 246

Returns of irrigation, 4, 5
Rhine River, Switzerland, flood, 595
Russia, area irrigated
Rice irrigation, 97, 98

pumping for, 86
production in U. S. by States, 97
Right of way, specification clause, 553
Rio Das Lages Dam, data, 601
of,
40-45
Russell, T., evaporation experiments, 68
Russian
Rye
Ryves,
St.
in,
0^.524, 525
as a nurse crop, 106
thistle, pest
Col., discharge formula,
597
Louis Bridge, pressure on, 447
St. Louis,
deep well
in,
51
INDEX
St.
Mary Lake Dam,
mixture, for, 420
London, pressure on, 447

St. Peter's, Rome, pressure on, 447
Sacaton grass and alkali, 10
Sacramento River, flow and area, 592
St. Paul's,
635
Sandy
regions, clearing of, 105-106
Sanitary works, books on, 64

Sanitation, specification clause, 553
Santa Ana Canal
lining, 237,
240
sand box, 338
flow studied, 42, 354
flume, Cal., 302, 304

River, flow of, 42
Safety conditions of dams, 381, 382

Sagebrush indication of fertility, 102, 104
Sahara Desert, waters of, 62
Santa Catarina River, flood, 593

Santa Ysabel Creek, flood, 594
Salinas Valley, Cal., report on, 64
Saturation of earth dams, 409-411, 419-
Salmon River, current wheel
Dam,
423
on, 89
data, 601
hydraulic fill-dams, 428

soil
design, 472,473
discussed, 19
Salt-bush and alkali, 13
Savannah River, flow and
Salt Lake, origin of irrigation at, 2
Saw, submarine, weeds, 523
Salt River, flow
and
hydrograph
Sawmill, specification clause, 537
area, 592
of, 35,
Schantz, H. L., book by, 25
42
Scheidenhelm, F. W., paper by, 495

Scheidenhelm's coefficient of friction,
Project, irrigation, 513
Valley, court decision, 149
duty water
in,
448
147
irrigation, illustrated, 122,
value of
silt of,
124
San
San
San
San
San
and
alkali,
& Wolf,
book by, 98
on soils, 48
Schoharie Creek, flood and area, 593
Scioto River, flood and area, 593
Schuyler, J. D., book by. 380
Schlichter
Schlichter's experiments
25
Salton Sea, evaporation on, 72

Salts, injurious,
area, 592
8-15
Andres Dam, data, 599

Carlos Project report, 380
gates designed by, 360-362
Diego flume, Cal., 302

Fernando submerged dam, 403
pressure data, 447

Scobey, F. C. bulletin by, 183
Gabriel River, flood and area, 594

flow of, 42
Scoop wheels, 90, 94, 95

Scraper, Fresno, view of, 109
San Joaquin River, flow of, 33, 42

Valley, windmills in, 75
San Jose Dam, Mexico, data, 601

San Luis Rey, Cal. River, flood, 593
Valley, abandoned lands, 185
sub-irrigation, 133, 134
San Marcial, Rio Grande, silt at, 372

San Mateo Dam, Cal., data, 601
plans and section, 466
San Pablo Dam, data, 599
San River, Austria, flood, 595
slip, illustration of,
"Seal," water, of tunnel, 331

Season, length, and duty of water, 138
"Second
foot," definition of, 165

table of equivalents, 616
Sections of canals, illustrated, 204
Sediment
rolled along bottom, 373-376

Sedimentation of Reservoirs, 370-380
tank for sewage, 131

Sediments, fertilizing effect
formulae, 235
Sand boxes, illustrated, 338-340

Sand traps, canal, 337-341
and manholes, 197
losses, canal, 202,
Sandstone, pressure on, 447

in soil surveys, 103
of,
Seepage in dams, 417-423
Sand, specifications, 560
Sandy land
106
Screw pump, 87
234-236
346-354
Rio Grande Valley, 147
reservoir, discussed,
signs of, 185-191

Seine,
open weirs on, 387, 394
25
INDEX
636
Seligman
Dam,
Seros Project
Settlement
Ariz., data, 601
Dams,
of
Dam,
Grand
lands,
225
Sevier River, flow
Six-tenths of depth
data, 599
Valley,
Slip scraper, illustration of, 106
Slope of lands for irrigation, 100

Slopes of earth dams, 409-417
130-133
of,
fertilizing, effect of, 128,
129
irrigation, 125, 127, 128
trated,
in
America," 63
in clearing canals, 525
and
flood
area, 592,
Snake River, flow of, 43

Canyon, leakage to, 351
Dam, section of, 436
power plant on, 93-95
593
Dam
Sherburne Lake
Snow and
material, 423
434
Shifting channels and stream measurements, 159
Shoshone Dam, Wyo., data, 601
section,
diagram, 474
Soane Canal
sluice gate, illustrated, 395
weir flashboards, illustrated, 392
Sodium carbonate, effects

sulphate and alkali, 14
Soil conditions
of, 1 1
Y., data, 601
and
rainfall, 41
moisture, chapter on, 16-21
Reservoir data, 598
survey of lands, 101-103
and duty of water, 139

books on, 15
Soils
tunnel, data, 334
automatic, illustrated,
392,
393
Siam, area irrigated in, 4
Sickness.
See Health and Malaria.
Side slopes of canals, 209
Nevada Mts. and
rainfall,
33
Signature, specification clause, 547

Silt allowance in canal design, 203
bearing water, effect
ice, evaporation on, 68

Snowfall, effect on stream flow, 37, 38
Sodom Dam, N.
pressure, 447
Desert before and after, 100, 101
Project, Corbett Dam, 248, 249
Sierra
illus-
340
standard design, 278
health and, 129, 130
Shenandoah River,
Lower Yellowstone,
Sluiceway,
books on, 64
"Sewage purification
419
Sliding failure of dams, 447-449

Slides of canal banks, 526, 527
data, 599
farms, laying out
Shutters,
of measur-
Slichter's percolation experiments,
44
of,
Sewage disposal, 123-127
Sheep used
method
ing stream flow, 158

Slichter, C. S., underground waters, 64
of,
chapter on, 7-15

Somerset Dam, data, 599
Sorgues River, waters for irrigation, 25
South America, area irrigated, 4
South Dakota, largest well in, 51

South Platte River, flow of, 42
seepage
to,
245
Spanish irrigation systems,
25
Dam
books on, 380
Spaulding
conditions, Imperial Valley, 222

deposits in canals, 520, 521
Specifications, chapter on, 534-591
removal from reservoirs, 376-380

table of weight of, 371
370-380
Spillways, canal, illustrated, 271-282
Sink holes, leakage from, 350

in canals,
Spiral lap
illustrated,
seam
Sprague River
224-227
Siphon spillways,
Sperenburg deep well, 51

Spiers Falls, N. Y., Dam, data, 601
Spillway, East Park Dam, 485
provisions, 354-358
Silting leaky canals, 244, 245
of reservoirs,
design, mention, 473
275-277
Siphons, large canal, 317-320

Six-mile Creek, flood and area, 594
pipe, 326
Dam, view
of,
258
Spring Canyon flume, 303, 308, 310

Spring Valley Water Co. well experi
ments, 59
INDEX
637
Springs in foundation of dams, 408, 409

Sprinkling earth dams, 425, 426
Spokane River, flow of, 44
Sugar beets and alkali, 10

Sugar Loaf Dam, data, 599
Sulphur Creek wasteway, 293
Spou, Ernest, book on wells, 64

Stanislaus River, flood and area, 593
Sunland River, flood and area, 595
Stanley, F. W., book on Florida, irriga-
Sunnyside Canal, dimensions, 232

Sun River tunnels, data, 334
tion, 136
Starch Factory Cr., Conn., flood, 595
Stave pipe specifications, 566-571
Steam-power pumping engines, 86

Steam R.R., specification clause, 537
Steel bars, specifications, 562, 563
579-584
bridges, specifications,
castings, specifications, 564
dam
used in irrigation, 113
dams,
illustrated,
flumes, 303-308
lined canal, Egypt, 241, 242
mild, effect of alkali on, 309
specifications,
326
572-574
Stony
Superpassage, Ganges Canal, illustrated,
3n
Suppressed
orifice, definition,
Survey of reservoir
sites,
169
353, 354
stakes, specification clause, 553
Surveys of a project, 528-533

Suspension of contract, specifications,
549
Swanzy Dam, Wales, data, 601

Sweetwater Dam, Cal., data, 601
- spillway,
354, 355
Reservoir, seepage into, 246
structural, specifications, 561, 562

Stevens automatic stream gage, 160
Stilling basin
Susquehanna River, flow and area, 592

Swamp reclamation and drainage, 185
487-490
pipe, discussed, 325,
Sunlight in arid regions,
and drop, 291

and area, 593
Cr., Cal., flood
flood and area, 594

Sweetwater valve plug, illustrated, 362
Swingle, Z. T., bulletin by, 26

Synclinal Valley as reservoir site, 345
Stony River Dam, paper on, 495

Storage dams, illustrated, 404-436
reservoirs, chapter on,
- U.
S.
R.
S., table,
342-369
598
water and evaporation,

Stove pipe method of well
W.
70, 71
drilling, 57
book on India, 380

Strawberry Dam, section of, 410
Strange,
I.,
tunnel, data, 334
Tannatt and Kneale, bulletin by, 201

Tansa Dam, India, data, 601
lined canal, illustrated, 336
37-40
records in U. S. tables, 42-44
measurement methods, 153-157
Telephone, specification clause, 537
system specifications, 586-590

Tennessee River, flow and area, 592
Little, flow
Ternay Dam,
Subgrade of canals, 210-212
Terraced
Sub-irrigation discussed, 133-136

for weeds, 523
Submerged dams,
weir,
illustrated,
402-404
measuring water, 166
Subsidence, Grand Valley lands, 225

Sub-surface water sources, 45-48
and
area, 593
Tension in masonry discussed, 465
Structures, canal, chapter on, 247
Submarine saw
and area, 596

book on land, 136
River, India, flood
report by, 152
Valley flume, illustrated, 310

flow, discussion of,
Talbot, A. N., article by, 63

Talla Dam, Scotland, data, 599
Teele, R. F.,
Reservoir, data, 598
Stream
Tait, C. E., bulletins by, 98, 136
Fr., data,
601
hillside irrigation, illustrated,
120, 121
Texas, rice irrigation in, 97, 98

Theresa concrete weir, section, 486
Thompson,
S. E.,
Three-mile Falls
tion,
483
book by, 495
Dam,
plans and sec-
INDEX
638
Dam, data, 599

Tieton Canal flume plans, 297
Throttle
Ubaya
lined canal, 211, 213
595
Umatilla by-pass drop, 288
Canal lining, view, 239, 243
section, 208
section, illustrated, 241, 281

steel flume,
306
tunnels, data, 334
Tile drains, sizes of, 191-193
Project,
used in drainage work, 196, 197

sub-irrigation, 134, 135
Uncompahgre
of
of,
water on, 147
43
tunnels, data, 334
Valley drops, 290

duty of water in, 147
dams, 382-384
Dam, N. Y., data, 601
Titicus
flume, illustrated, 322

tests, bulletin on, 63
496-501
Underflow
Toccoa River, flood and area, 594

Toncan metal, alkali and, 309
Topography and rainfall, 41
of irrigable lands, 99-101
Trapezoidal channels, table data,
Trench excavator
duty
River, flow
Timber, specification clause, 544
Titles, water,
River, France, flood and area,
Underground
irrigation, 135, 136
waters, 45-48
books on, 63, 98

Undershot water wheels,
6n
illustrated, 78-
81, 89
for drainage, 192
Unit
prices, specification clause, 552
Trenching machinery, bulletin on, 201

Triunfo Creek Dam, Cal., data, 601
United States, area irrigated in, 4

Uplift, hydrostatic on dams, 451-453
Truckee Canal drop, illustrated, 283

lining, view, 240
waste way, illustrated, 279
Upper Deer Flat Embankment
River, flow
Urft
43
of,
Tsar Canal, Turkestan, 261

Tucson, Ariz., sewage irrigation
at,
128
Tugaloo River, flood and area, 593

Tule Lake, leakage from, 352
Dam, Germany, data, 601

Urnasch River, Switzerland, flood, 596
Use of water, doctrine of, 496, 499
Use of Water in Irrigation," book, 6
Utah experiments on duty of water, 141143
Tumalo Reservoir, leakage, 346, 347

Tumble weeds in canals, 194
rules for irrigation, 150-152
Tunneling for water, 59-61

Tunnels, discussion of, 330-335
V
"V"

specifications,
table length
584-586
and
334
Tuolumne River, flow of, 42
flood
and
cost,
gates and headgates
in,
in,
and
dams, 362
needle. 362-369
of
approach to weirs, 168

602-610
tables, flow of water,
and leakage, 227
Ventilation of tunnels, 333
Venturi flume, 178, 179

water meter, 177, 178
reservoir leakage, 351
Tygart River, flood and area, 593

Typhoid fever and sewage irrigation,
521-524
Velocity head tables, 614

in canals, discussion of, 215-217
Turnouts, lateral canal, 263-271

Turtle Creek, flood and area, 594
Falls canals
iron,
Valves, butterfly
in canals, clearing.
185
261
Turlock Canal, cross-section, 207
Twin
Valve plugs, cast
stability of dams, 451

Vapor engines for pumping, 84, 85
Vegetation and rainfall, 41. 42
82, 83
Turkestan, abandoned lands
ditcher, illustration of, 107
Van Buren's
area, 593
Turbine water wheels,
section,
416
29
formula,
78
INDEX
Water works meters not
Verdun River, France,
flood, 595
Victor turbine water wheel, 83
Villar Dam, Spain, data, 601
Wave
by, 495
Weight, various substances, table, 615
Weights and measures equivalents, 616,
data, 601
617
Weir
formulae, 167, 168
Weirs and
coefficients,
books on, 182,
183
area, 51
measuring water by, 166-168
data, 60 1
or diversion dams, 382-404
Reservoir, permeability, 47
Waldeck Dam, Ger., data, 601

Walnut Canyon Reservoir leakage,
350,
35i
Wanague
holes, concrete canal lining, 237
Wegmann, Edward, book
pressure on foundation, 447
Walnut Grove Dam,
River, flow of, 44

Weeds, clearing canals of, 521-524
Weep
Vogesen Mts., rainfall in, 32

Voids in stone, 491, 492
Volume of Dams, table of, 599-601
Wachu setts Dam,
table, 72
Weber
Vitrified pipe, specifications, 590, 591
Waco, Tex., artesian
suitable, 172
action on gravel slope, 417
Weather Bureau, evaporation
Vistula River, Galicia, flood, 595
Vyrnwy Dam, Wales,
639
failure of, 441
various kinds described, 384-391

Weisbach, P. J., book by, 183
pipe formula discussed, 326
Weiser River, flow of, 43
Wells, artesian, 48-59
War Department report, San Carlos, 380

"Wash borings," dam foundations, 494
books on, 63, 64
Washington Monument, pressure on,
in
deep, examples
of, 50,
51
'
dams, drainage, 454
in drainage ditches, 194
447
Waste water, discussed, 511,512

Waste ways, discussion of, 277, 278
Water and plant growth, 22, 23
irrigation from in India, 58

Werre River, Germany, flood and
area,
application of, to land, 111-136

character of, 61-63
595
West Gallatin River, flow of, 43
Whalen Dam, views of, 257-259
concrete specification clause, 560
Wheel
consumed by crops, table, 23

economy discussed, 504-5 1 1
Duty
scraper, view of, 425

Wheels^ water, for pumping, 78-84
See
Law, books
bulletin
logged lands, 184, 185

133, 134
measurement, chapter on, 153-183

proofing dams, by gunnite, 453
rights, claapter on, 496-501
supply and plant life, 18-20
investigation of, 528-529
table, effect of rise of, 10,
185
users, cooperation with, 504
waste discussed, 511, 512

wheels, pumping, books on, 98
pumping
with, 78-84
water
of,
25
of, 6, 25, 26,
152
on evaporation, 71
& M. conclusions, 511

plant water, data on, 23
Wigwam Dam, Conn., data, 601
O.
Willamette River, flow of, 43

Willcocks, Sir William's visit,
Williams
chapter on, 27-64
rise of, 184,
Nile, irrigation
Widtsoe, John A., book
on, 501
San Louis Valley,
Whippany
White
of Water.
Willow
Dam,
Ariz.",
Cr., Ore., flood
Wilson, H. M., books
data, 601
and
area, 594
of, 6, 26,
152
bulletin by. 98
first edition by, V
Wilting coefficient, definition
Wind and evaporation, 68
of,
20
erosion of canal banks. 524, 525
INDEX
640
Yakima County, water
Windmills, books on, 98

capacity table, 77, 79
for irrigation,
River, flow
75-78
Wind
pressures, tables of, 76, 77

Winter operation of canals, 516-518
Wire
of,
44
tunnels, data, 334
Valley, analysis soils of, 9
furrow, irrigation, 118
reinforcement, pipe, illustrated,
328
hydraulic rams, 92
wound wooden
pipe,
324

Yarnell, D. L., bulletin by, 201
Wofelsbrund Dam, Ger., data, 601

Wolff, A. R., book on windmill, 77
Wollny, data by, on plant water, 23
Yellowstone
Wood stave pipe
Youghiogheny River,
specifications,
Wooden
Workmanship,
Dam, lower, 387

River, flow of, 43
Yuba River, flood and

Yuma, Ariz., furrow
Canal
River, narrows
dam at,
453
area,
area, 593, 594

irrigation,
illus-
headgates,
illustrated,
251,
253, 256]
siphon spillway, 276
Yadkin Narrows Dam, data, 601
and
trated, 119
specification clause, 548,
549
flood
593
566-571
drains, use of, 198
Workmen,
Wupper
appropriation,
498
Zola
Dam,
Spain, data, 601
Zuni
Dam
failure,
352
$*?.
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Main

JOHN WILEY & SONS,

Including Geographic, Exploratory, and Military

Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged.

8vo, xxix -\195 figures, in-

Ant. Soc. C.E.; Director

and Chief Engineer

Irrigation IVorks Constructed by

C.E.; Former Chief Engineer and Irrigation

SEVENTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

TOTAL ISSUE TWELVE THOUSAND

COPYRIGHT, 1896, 1903, 1905, 1909

ARTHUR P. DAVIS and HERBERT

BRAUNWORTH & CO.

PREFACE TO SEVENTH EDITION

and quickly took

place as the recognized stand-

passage through six successive

of the first edition

the large irrigation works of engineering interest were mostly

and operators, gave the early

value as contributions to western knowledge of this subject.

upon the practice

William Willcocks, on his

America, said he was

was that irrigation could be practiced at

PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION

.the undersigned was requested to revise this work

cap of having his time very fully occupied by

of the sixth edition relating to

subterranean water supply has been

and about 40 per cent of the illustrations have been utilized.

soils, plant food, operation and maintenance, and other lines

contact with the irrigator, such as the preparation of land,

any other branches

to treat these nor indeed

Functions of Water in Plant Growth

Discharge of Western Streams

Storage of Artesian Water

Capacity of Common Wells

Evaporation from Earth

PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION

Ground- water Supply

Internal Combustion Engines

WATER TO THE LAND

Sewage Irrigation on Health

Preparation of Ground and Ditches

Skill of the Irrigator

Care with which Water

Inquiry of American Society of Agricultural Engineers

Design of a Drainage System

Cement Pipe Drains

CANALS AND LATERALS

Canal Losses and their Prevention

Protection against Erosion

Behavior of Various Metals in Presence

Classes of Storage Works

Leakage from Reservoirs

Rectangular Pile Weirs

Indian Type Weirs

Automatic Drop Shutters

Design of Gravity Dams

Cooperation with Water Users

Contract Specifications of the Reclamation Sendee