CHAPTER 5

SURFACES AND GUIDEWAYS

Surfaces provide supports for vehicles traveling on transportation facilities. Guideways, in addition to providing
support, also provide lateral guidance. Roadway surface types include treated soil, gravel orother aggregate surfaces,
and asphalt concrete and Portland cement concrete pavements. In addition, many low-volume roads are completely
unsurfaced. Airport surfaces include asphalt concrete and Portland cement concrete pavements, as well as turf or
aggregate-turf surfaces for low volume airports used by light aircraft. Guideways include monorail, concrete guideways
for rubber-tired vehicles, and conventional duorail steel-on-steel railroad track.
5.1 HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
5.1.1 Components

Figure 6.1 shows cross sections for typical asphalt concrete and Portland cement concrete pavements. Pavements
usually consist of a surface course (of asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete), a base course, and a subbase
constructed on top of prepared subgrade material.
Surface courses usually consist of Asphalt or Portland cement concrete.
Concrete refers to any material consisting of a mixture of aggregates, such as sand, gravel or crushed stone, fastened
together by cement.
Asphalt concrete consists of asphalt cement and aggregate. A variety of asphalt-bound materials are used to
surface roadways. Asphalt concrete usually refers to high-quality premixed material using in paving high-type
roadways.
Portland cement concrete consists of Portland cement and aggregate, usually sand and gravel or stone.
Portland cement concrete pavements may be either unreinforced or continuously reinforced with conventional
rebar.
Base courses normally consist of aggregates such as gravel or crushed rock. These may be simply compacted (in
which case they are known as aggregate bases) or stabilized by means of lime, Portland cement, or asphalt.
Subbases are usually local aggregate materials. They may consist of either unstabilized compacted aggregate.
In addition, geotextiles are sometimes used in constructing pavements. These are to add strength, control moisture,
and prevent the movement of fine materials in drainage layers.
5.1.2 Pavement Maintenance and Rehabilitation
Pavements are subject to varying degrees of distress short of outright failure that reduces their serviceability.
Pavement maintenance and rehabilitation programs are intended to restore ride quality and maintain the structural
integrity of the pavement over its full design life.
Asphalt concrete pavements are subject to a variety of types of pavements distress or failure. These include:

Alligator cracking. A series of interconnected or interlaced cracks caused by fatigue failure of the asphalt
concrete surface under repeated traffic loading.
Block cracking. Cracks forming large interconnected polygons, usually with sharp corners or angles. These
cracks are generally caused by hardening and shrinkage of the asphalt and/or reflection cracking from
underlying layers such as cement-treated base.
Transverse cracking. Cracks approximately at right angles to the pavement centerline. These may be caused
by shrinkage or differential thermal stress of the asphalt concrete, or may be reflective cracks.
Longitudinal cracking. Cracks approximately parallel to the pavement centerline. These are caused by poorly
constructed construction joints and shrinkage of the asphalt concrete surface; they may also be reflective
cracks.
Ravelling. Wearing away of the pavement surface caused by dislodging of aggregate particles and binder. This
is usually a result of insufficient asphalt binder in the mix or stripping of asphalt from particles of aggregate.
Drip track ravelling. Progressive disintegration of the surface between the wheel paths caused by dipping of
gasoline or oil from vehicles.
Bleeding or flushing. The exuding of bitumen onto the pavement surface, causing a reduction in skid
resistance. Bleeding is generally caused by excessive amounts of asphalt in the mix and/or low air voids

content. It occurs when asphalt fills the voids in the mix during hot weather and then exudes out onto the
surface of the pavement.
Maintenance and rehabilitation actions for asphalt concrete pavements include bituminous seal coats of various
types which are intended to seal cracks and restore skid resistance, asphalt concrete overlays, and recycling of asphalt
concrete pavements. In addition, failures confined to small areas, such as isolated potholes, may be patched
TYPE OF DISTRESS
Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

POSSIBLE CAUSE
1.

Excessive loading

2.

Weak surface, base, or subgrade

3.

Thin surface or base

4.

Poor drainage

5.

Any combination of 1-4

1.

Old and dried out mix

2.

Mix was placed too dry

3.

Fine aggregate mix with low

penetration asphalt & absorptive
aggregates

4.

Aggravated by low traffic volume

Maintenance Suggestions
Full-depth patch

Any surface treatment or thin overlay

Block Cracking

Edge Cracks

Longitudinal (Linear) & Transverse

Cracking

Reflection Cracking

Slippage Cracks

1.

Lack of lateral support

2.

Settlement of underlying
material

3.

Shrinkage of drying out soil

4.

Weak base or subgrade layer

5.

Poor drainage

6.

Frost heave

7.

Heavy traffic or vegetation along

edge

1.

Poorly constructed paving joint

crack

2.

Shrinkage of the asphalt layer

3.

Daily temperature cycling

4.

Cracks in an underlying layer

that reflect up through the
pavement

5.

Longitudinal segregation caused

by the improper operation of the
paver
Differential movement between
the asphalt and concrete layers

1.

2.

Can deteriorate further under

heavy traffic

1.

Lack of a good bond between

surface layer and the course
beneath due to dust, oil, dirt,
rubber, water and other nonadhesive material

Improve drainage. Remove vegetation

close to edge. Fill cracks with asphalt
emulsion slurry or emulsified asphalt
Crack seal/fill

Improve drainage by removing the

source that traps the water
Seal crack or fill with asphalt emulsion
slurry or light grade of asphalt mixed
with fine sand.
Provide side drainage ditches
Crack seal/fill

Crack seal/fill

Partial or full-depth patch

Corrugations & Shoving

2.
3.

Tack coat has not been used

Mixture has a high sand content

4.

Vehicular turning or stopping

movements in pavements with a
low-strength surface mix

1.
2.
3.
4.

Mixtures too high in asphalt

Low air voids
Fine aggregate content too high
Excessive moisture or
contamination in the granular
base

5.

Smooth or rounded aggregate

6.

Incorrect asphalt grade

1.

2.

Consolidation or lateral
movement of any of the
pavement layers or the
subgrade under traffic
Insufficient design thickness

3.

Lack of compaction

4.

Weaknesses in the pavement

layers due to moisture
infiltration

5.

Weak asphalt mixtures

1.

Settlement or failure in the

lower pavement layers

2.

Improper construction
techniques

1.

Expansive soils (which swell in

the presence of moisture)

2.

Frost heave (in which ice lenses

grow beneath the pavement,
causing the pavement to crack)

1.

A portion of a pavement has

been removed and replaced
A portion of a pavement where
additional material has been
added

Rutting

Settlement/Grade Depressions

Upheaval/Swell

Utility Cuts/Patch Failure

Pot Hole

2.

3.

Poor installation techniques such

as inadequate compaction,
inferior or improper materials

4.

Failure of the surrounding or

underlying pavement

1.

Continued deterioration of
another type of distress, such as
thawing of a frozen subgrade,
cracking, raveling, or a failed

Deep or full-depth patch

Cold mill and overlay or thin surface

patch

Cold mill and overlay

Thin surface patch
Infrared patch

Full-depth patch

Replace patch with deep or full-depth

patch

Partial, full-depth or injection patching

patch after pieces of the original

pavement surface have been
dislodged

Raveling/Weathering

Bleeding

2.

Poor surface mixtures

3.

Weak spots in the base or

subgrade

4.

Severity of the surrounding

distress and traffic action
accelerate potholes

1.

Asphalt binder has hardened

excessively

2.

Poor-quality mixture

3.

Usually requires the presence of

both traffic and water to occur

1.

Improperly constructed seal coat

2.

Too much asphalt in a mix

3.

Too heavy a prime or bond/tack

coat

4.

Excessive sealant in the cracks

or joints under an overlay

5.

Traffic can contribute to bleeding

if the asphalt layers become
overcompacted and excess
asphalt is forced to the surface

Polished Aggregate

Chip Seals, Sandwich Seals, thin

overlay

Any surface treatment except fog seal

1.

Loss of Aggregate on Surface

Treatments

Any surface treatment or thin overlay

Soft aggregates that polish

quickly under traffic

1.

Aggregate n ot spread
immediately

2.

Asphalt may have cooled to

much

3.

Aggregate too dusty or too wet

when spread

4.

Not rolled immediately after

placing it may not become
seated

5.

Steel-wheeled roller alone was

Hot coarse sand spread over affected

areas
Rolled immediately after spreading
with a pneumatic-tired roller

used for compaction

Longitudinal/Transverse Streaking

6.

Weather too cool when

treatment applied

7.

Fast traffic too soon after

application

1.

Aggregate not spread

immediately

2.

Improper spray bar height

causing incorrect overlap of the
spray fans

3.

Changing spray bar height as

the distributor load decreases

4.

Nozzle problems (incorrect

angle, incorrect size, different
sizes, plugged or restricted
nozzles, or ones with
imperfections)

5.

Nozzle control linkage problem

6.

Inconsistent pump speed or

pressure to the nozzles, and
varying distributor travel speed

7.

Improper application
temperature (allowing the
asphalt material to cool); and
Improper binder choice
(viscosity too high for existing
conditions and equipment)

Re-seal surface using proper

procedure and adjustment of
equipment

Types of pavement distress affecting Portland cement concrete pavements include the following:

Faulting. Elevation differences between adjacent slabs at transverse joints. Faulting is usually the result of pumping, and is a
major source of Portland concrete pavement failure.

Settlement. Local sagging in the pavement caused by differential

settlement, consolidation, or movement of the underlying earth
mass.

Blow ups. Localized upward buckling and shattering of the slabs

at transverse joints or cracks. Blow ups can occur when traverse
joints are filled with incompressible solid materials. They are
especially common where pavement is sanded in winter to
counteract icy conditions and in areas subject to large
temperature changes.

Joint or crack spalling. The breakdown or disintegration of slab

edges at joints or cracks, usually resulting in the loss of sound
concrete and the progressive widening of the joint or crack.

Surface attrition or surface abrasion. Abnormal surface wear,

usually resulting from poor-quality surface mortar or coarse
aggregate.

Surface polish. Loss of the original surface texture due to traffic

action.
Maintenance and rehabilitation actions for Portland cement
concrete pavements include installation of edge drains to reduce
pumping, grinding of slabs to correct faulting, replacement of
badly cracked or deteriorated slabs, asphalt concrete overlays,
grooving to reduce hydroplaning, and use of special thin
concrete surface treatments.
5.2 RAILROAD TRACK
Railroad track serves to provide guidance for rail vehicles and to
spread wheel loads so as to keep bearing pressure on the
subgrade within acceptable limits. This latter function is similar
to that of highways pavements, and the design of railroad tracks
is similar in many ways to that of flexible highway pavements.
5.2.1 Overall Track Structure
The overall track structure typically consists of subgrade, ballast,
ties, rails, and rail fastenings. These are arranged as follows:
The ballast rests on the subgrade,
The ties are embedded in the ballast
The rails usually rest on tie plates and are fastened to the ties by
spikes
Other track fastening include joint bars, which are used to fasten
rails together longitudinally;
Gage bars, which are steel bars used to maintain gage at critical
locations such as curve and switches

5.2.2 Major Track Component: Ballast

Major track components include ballast, ties and rail. Ballast
consists of a layer of crushed stone, crushed slag, gravel, or
similar material which is placed on top of the subgrade and in
which the ties are embedded. Ballast is not universally used; it is
rarely used on bridges or in tunnels, for instance, and in these
cases the track is usually anchored directly to the bridge structure
or the floor of the tunnel. Ballast has a number of functions. These
include:
Distributing tie loads to the subgrade
Anchoring track against lateral, vertical and longitudinal
movement
Providing for drainage of water away from rails and ties
In cold climates, reducing frost heave by preventing capillary
action and providing insulation for the subgrade
Facilitating maintenance, especially maintenance of track grade
and replacement of ties
Retarding growth of vegetation in the immediate vicinity of the
track structure
Providing some resilience to help absorb dynamic loads
In order for it to perform these functions effectively, it is important
that ballast consist of some type of granular material. Ideally, it
would be strong, angular, open graded aggregate, which will
provide high strength and stability through interlocking of the
particles as well as high permeability to facilitate drainage.
5.2.3 Major Track Components: Ties
Ties are used to maintain gage and to transmit wheel loads from
the rails to the ballast. In North America, wood ties are the most
common variety, with some use of pre-stressed concrete ties.
Elsewhere in the world, non-wood ties are fairly common.
Tie dimensions are usually as follows: depth, 7 inches
(180mm); width, 8 to 9 inches (200 to 230 mm); length, 8 to 9 ft
(2.4 to 2.7 m) for ordinary track, but up to 22 ft (6.7 m) for ties
used in turnouts and crossovers.
Ties must be spaced a minimum of 10 inches (255 mm)
face-to-face to allow tamping of ballast under them; this means
that for 8-in (200 mm) ties a center-to-center spacing of 18 in
(455 mm) is the minimum possible.
5.2.4 Major Track Components: Rails
Rails support and provide guidance for the flanged wheels on rail
vehicles and transmit wheel load to the ties. As previously stated,
rails are designated in terms of the shape of their cross sections
(with certain standard designs available) and by their weight per
unit length, usually quoted in pounds/yard. Rail weights in
common use range from approximately 85 lb/yd (42kg/m) to 150
lb/yd (75 kg/m), with weights of 110 lb/yd (55 kg/m) or greater
recommended for lines used by 100-ton cars.
Rails like ties, rarely fail because of excessive bending
stress, but are subject to a variety of types of wear and to failures
from metallurgical defects. Most cases in which rails actually
break are attributable to defects, with transverse cracking being
perhaps the most dangerous type of defect.
5.2.5 Track Maintenance
Common maintenance tasks include restoration of
horizontal and vertical alignment, replacement of worn or
defective ties or rails, and cleaning or restoration of ballast. When
possible, these are combined into a single operation, often
referred to as track resurfacing. This operation consists of jacking
rails up to the desired elevation, removing and cleaning dirty
ballast, and replacing defective ties and rails.

Rail anchors, which are used to resist the longitudinal motion of

rails relative to ties.
Railways must also include special provisions to handle
intersecting, merging, and diverging track. Traffic can be
interchanged between lines only by means of diverging and
merging, since trains cannot turn sharp corners. Since the
vehicles cannot be steered, the track itself must be used to guide
the train to the proper branch at a merge or divert point, and this
is accomplished by means of a switch.