Objects and Complements

sometimes linking verbs, sometimes transitive verbs, or

sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on how you use them:

Objects
A verb may be followed by an object that completes the verb's
meaning. Two kinds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and
indirect objects. To determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate
the verb and make it into a question by placing "whom?" or
"what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object:
Direct Object
The advertising executive drove a flashy red Porsche.
Direct Object
Her secret admirer gave her a bouquet of flowers.
The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. An
indirect object (which, like a direct object, is always a noun or
pronoun) is, in a sense, the recipient of the direct object. To
determine if a verb has an indirect object, isolate the verb and ask
to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it. The answer
is the indirect object.
Not all verbs are followed by objects. Consider the verbs in the
following sentences:
The guest speaker rose from her chair to protest.
After work, Randy usually jogs around the canal.

Linking verb with subject complement

He was a radiologist before he became a full-time
yoga instructor.
Linking verb with subject complement
Your homemade chili smells delicious.
Transitive verb with direct object
I can't smell anything with this terrible cold.
Intransitive verb with no object
The interior of the beautiful new Buick smells strongly
of fish.
Note that a subject complement can be either a noun
("radiologist", "instructor") or an adjective ("delicious").
Object Complements
(by David Megginson)
An object complement is similar to a subject complement, except
that (obviously) it modifies an object rather than a subject.
Consider this example of a subject complement:
The driver seems tired.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

In this case, as explained above, the adjective "tired" modifies the

noun "driver," which is the subject of the sentence.

Verbs that take objects are known as transitive verbs. Verbs not
followed by objects are called intransitive verbs.

Sometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the

following example:

Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs,

depending on the context:
Direct Object
I hope the Senators win the next game.
No Direct Object
Did we win?
Subject Complements
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is
a third kind of verb called a linking verb. The word (or phrase)
which follows a linking verb is called not an object, but a subject
complement.
The most common linking verb is "be." Other linking verbs are
"become," "seem," "appear," "feel," "grow," "look," "smell,"
"taste," and "sound," among others. Note that some of these are

I consider the driver tired.

In this case, the noun "driver" is the direct object of the verb
"consider," but the adjective "tired" is still acting as its
complement.
In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or
changing something can cause their direct objects to take an object
complement:
Paint it black.
The judge ruled her out of order.
I saw the Prime Minister sleeping.
In every case, you could reconstruct the last part of the sentence
into a sentence of its own using a subject complement: "it is
black," "she is out of order," "the Prime Minister is sleeping."

Building Phrases
A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words
without a subject and predicate -- a group of grammatically-linked
words with a subject and predicate is called a clause.
The group "teacher both students and" is not a phrase because the
words have no grammatical relationship to one another. Similarly,
the group "bay the across" is not a phrase.
In both cases, the words need to be rearranged in order to create
phrases. The group "both teachers and students" and the group
"across the bay" are both phrases.
You use phrase to add information to a sentence and can perform
the functions of a subject, an object, a subject or object
complement, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
The highlighted words in each of the following sentences make up
a phrase:
She bought some spinach when she went to the corner
store.
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
They heard high pitched cries in the middle of the
night.
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs;
unfortunately, squirrels ate the bulbs and none
bloomed.
Small children often insist that they can do it by
themselves.
The Function Of Phrases
A phrase may function as a verb, noun, an adverb, or an adjective.
Verb Phrases
A verb phrase consists of a verb, its direct and/or indirect objects,
and any adverb, adverb phrases, or adverb clauses which happen
to modify it. The predicate of a clause or sentence is always a verb
phrase:
Corinne is trying to decide whether she wants to go
to medical school or to go to law school.
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called
for; therefore, he decided to make something else.
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more
independent.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.

Noun Phrases
A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated
modifiers, including adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective
clauses, and other nouns in the possessive case.
Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a
verb or verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object
of a preposition, as in the following examples:
subject

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of my neighbour's

constant piano practising" acts as an adjective modifying the noun
"sound."

Building Clauses
My father-in-law locked his keys in the trunk of a
borrowed car.
Similarly in this sentence, the prepositional phrase "of a borrowed
car" acts as an adjective modifying the noun "trunk."
We saw Peter dashing across the quadrangle.

Small children often insist that they can do it by

themselves.
object of a verb
To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.
object of a preposition
The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the
spring breakup.
subject complement
Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the
monster.
object complement
I consider Loki my favorite cat.
Noun Phrases using Verbals

Here the participle phrase "dashing across the quadrangle" acts

as an adjective describing the proper noun "Peter."
We picked up the records broken in the scuffle.
In this sentence, the participle phrase "broken in the scuffle"
modifies the noun phrase "the records."

Ice fishing is a popular winter pass-time.

However, since verbals are formed from verbs, they can also take
direct objects and can be modified by adverbs. A gerund phrase
or infinitive phrase, then, is a noun phrase consisting of a verbal,
its modifiers (both adjectives and adverbs), and its objects:
Running a marathon in the Summer is thirsty work.
I am planning to buy a house next month.

A clause is a collection of grammatically-related words including

a predicate and a subject (though sometimes is the subject is
implied). A collection of grammatically-related words without a
subject or without a predicate is called a phrase.
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences: every sentence
consists of one or more clauses. This chapter will help you to
recognise and (more importantly) to use different types of clauses
in your own writing.
Recognising Clauses
Consider these examples:
clause
cows eat grass

Adverb Phrases
A prepositional phrase can also be an adverb phrase, functioning
as an adverb, as in the following sentences.

(by David Megginson)

Since some verbals -- in particular, the gerund and the infinitive -can act as nouns, these also can form the nucleus of a noun phrase:

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "about the clown's feet"

acts as an adverb modifying the verb phrase "were capering."

She bought some spinach when she went to the corner

store.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "to the corner store" acts
as an adverb modifying the verb "went."
Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the night sky"
functions as a adverb modifying the verb "flashed."
In early October, Giselle planted twenty tulip bulbs;
unfortunately, squirrels ate the bulbs and none
bloomed.

This example is a clause, because it contains the subject "cows"

and the predicate "eat grass."
phrase
cows eating grass
What about "cows eating grass"? This noun phrase could be a
subject, but it has no predicate attached to it: the adjective phrase
"eating grass" show which cows the writer is referring to, but there
is nothing here to show why the writer is mentioning cows in the
first place.
clause
cows eating grass are visible from the highway
This is a complete clause again. The subject "cows eating grass"
and the predicate "are visible from the highway" make up a
complete thought.

Adjective Phrases
An adjective phrase is any phrase which modifies a noun or
pronoun. You often construct adjective phrases using participles or
prepositions together with their objects:
I was driven mad by the sound of my neighbour's
constant piano practising.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "in early October" acts

as an adverb modifying the entire sentence.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 P.M.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase "at 3:30 P.M." acts as an
adverb modifying the verb phrase "will meet."
The dogs were capering about the clown's feet.

clause
Run!
This single-word command is also a clause, even though it does
seem to have a subject. With a direct command, it is not necessary
to include the subject, since it is obviously the person or people
you are talking to: in other words, the clause really reads "[You]
run!". You should not usually use direct commands in your essays,
except in quotations.

Using Clauses as Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs

In fact, many noun clauses are indirect questions:

If a clause can stand alone as a sentence, it is an independent

clause, as in the following example:

noun

Independent
the Prime Minister is in Ottawa
Some clauses, however, cannot stand alone as sentences: in this
case, they are dependent clauses or subordinate clauses.
Consider the same clause with the subordinating conjunction
"because" added to the beginning:

Their destination is unknown.

noun clause
Where they are going is unknown.
The question "Where are they going?," with a slight change in
word order, becomes a noun clause when used as part of a larger
unit -- like the noun "destination," the clause is the subject of the
verb "is."
Here are some more examples of noun clauses:

Dependent clauses can stand not only for adverbs, but also for
nouns and for adjectives.
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun
in another clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the
subject or object of a verb or the object of a preposition,
answering the questions "who(m)?" or "what?". Consider the
following examples:
noun
I know Latin.
noun clause
I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native
language.
In the first example, the noun "Latin" acts as the direct object of
the verb "know." In the second example, the entire clause "that
Latin ..." is the direct object.

The books people read were mainly religious.

formal
informal
Some firefighters never meet the people they save.
formal
Some firefighters never meet the people whom they
save.
Here are some more examples of adjective clauses:

about what you bought at the mall

This noun clause is the object of the preposition "about," and
answers the question "about what?"

the meat which they ate was tainted

This clause modifies the noun "meat" and answers the question
"which meat?".

Whoever broke the vase will have to pay for it.

This noun clause is the subject of the verb "will have to pay," and
answers the question "who will have to pay?"

adverb
The committee will meet tomorrow.
adverb clause
The committee will meet when the Prime Minister is
in Ottawa.

informal
The books that people read were mainly religious.

Dependent
when the Prime Minister is in Ottawa
In this case, the clause could not be a sentence by itself, since the
conjunction "because" suggests that the clause is providing an
explanation for something else. Since this dependent clause
answers the question "when," just like an adverb, it is called a
dependent adverb clause (or simply an adverb clause, since
adverb clauses are always dependent clauses). Note how the
clause can replace the adverb "tomorrow" in the following
examples:

subject of the adjective clause, but you should usually include the
relative pronoun in formal, academic writing:

about the movie which made him cry

This clause modifies the noun "movie" and answers the question
"which movie?".

The Toronto fans hope that the Blue Jays will win
again.
This noun clause is the object of the verb "hope," and answers the
question "what do the fans hope?"

they are searching for the one who borrowed the book
The clause modifies the pronoun "one" and answers the question
"which one?".
Did I tell you about the author whom I met?

Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place
of an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an
adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun, answering questions
like "which?" or "what kind of?" Consider the following
examples:
Adjective
the red coat
Adjective clause
the coat which I bought yesterday
Like the word "red" in the first example, the dependent clause
"which I bought yesterday" in the second example modifies the
noun "coat." Note that an adjective clause usually comes after
what it modifies, while an adjective usually comes before.
In formal writing, an adjective clause begins with the relative
pronouns "who(m)," "that," or "which." In informal writing or
speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is not the

The clause modifies the noun "author" and answers the question
"which author?".
Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of
an adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause answers
questions such as "when?", "where?", "why?", "with what
goal/result?", and "under what conditions?".
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb in the following
example:
adverb
The premier gave a speech here.
adverb clause
The premier gave a speech where the workers were
striking.

Usually, a subordinating conjunction like "because,"

"when(ever)," "where(ever)," "since," "after," and "so that," will
introduce an adverb clause. Note that a dependent adverb clause
can never stand alone as a complete sentence:
independent clause
they left the locker room
dependent adverb clause
after they left the locker room
The first example can easily stand alone as a sentence, but the
second cannot -- the reader will ask what happened "after they left
the locker room". Here are some more examples of adverb clauses
expressing the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and
condition:
cause
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle because the uncle had
murdered Hamlet's father.
The adverb clause answers the question "why?".
effect
Hamlet wanted to kill his uncle so that his father's
murder would be avenged.
The adverb clause answers the question "with what goal/result?".

Some English sentences are very basic:

Shakespeare was a writer.
Einstein said something.
The Inuit are a people.
You could write an entire essay using only simple sentences like
these:
William Shakespeare was a writer. He wrote plays. It
was the Elizabethan age. One play was Hamlet. It was
a tragedy. Hamlet died. The court died too.

The adverb clause answers the question "when?". Note the change
in word order -- an adverb clause can often appear either before or
after the main part of the sentence.

The adverb clause answers the question "where?".

condition
If the British co-operate, the Europeans may achieve
monetary union.

The Structure of a Sentence

Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A
simple sentences contains only a single clause, while a compound
sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence
contains at least two clauses.

Why Sentence Structure Matters

The Simple Sentence

Although ordinary conversation, personal letters, and even some

types of professional writing (such as newspaper stories) consist
almost entirely of simple sentences, your university or college
instructors will expect you to be able to use all types of sentences
in your formal academic writing. Writers who use only simple
sentences are like truck drivers who do not know how to shift out
of first gear: they would be able to drive a load from Montral to
Calgary (eventually), but they would have a great deal of trouble
getting there.

The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which

contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one
word:

If you use phrases and clauses carefully, your sentences will

become much more interesting and your ideas, much clearer. This
complex sentence develops a major, central idea and provides
structured background information:
Since it involves the death not only of the title
character but of the entire royal court, Hamlet is the
most extreme of the tragedies written by the
Elizabethan playwrite William Shakespeare.

place
Where the whole Danish court was assembled,
Hamlet ordered a play in an attempt to prove his
uncle's guilt.

a declarative sentence will avoid any special emotional

impact;
an exclamatory sentence, used sparingly, will jolt the
reader;
an interrogative sentence will force the reader to think
about what you are writing; and
an imperative sentence will make it clear that you want
the reader to act right away.

It is not likely, however, that your essay would receive a passing

grade. This chapter helps you learn to recognise different types of
sentences and to use them effectively in your own writing.

time
After Hamlet's uncle Claudius married Hamlet's
mother, Hamlet wanted to kill him.

Just as a good driver uses different gears, a good writer uses

different types of sentences in different situations:

The adverb clause answers the question "under what conditions?"

Building Sentences

a long complex sentence will show what information

depends on what other information;
a compound sentence will emphasise balance and
parallelism;
a short simple sentence will grab a reader's attention;
a loose sentence will tell the reader in advance how to
interpret your information;
a periodic sentence will leave the reader in suspense
until the very end;

Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate
and both the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of
the following are simple sentences, because each contains only
one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm
March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on
the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a
mistake to think that you can tell a simple sentence from a
compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the
first kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the
most common sentence in the spoken language of people of all
ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for
grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but
you have to use them with care: too many simple sentences can
make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional
phrases to connect them to the surrounding sentences.

The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses (or simple sentences) joined by co-ordinating conjunctions
like "and," "but," and "or":
Simple

Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking

problem; when sober, however, he could be a
formidable foe in the House of Commons.

The Order of a Sentence

Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently"
will appear near the beginning of the second part, but it is not
required:

Canada is a rich country.

Simple

The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.

Still, it has many poor people.

Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor
people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -small children learn to use them early on to connect their ideas
and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to interrupt):
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit,
and he showed it to the class, and I got to pet it, and
Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate
part of my carrot at lunch, and ...
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use
compound sentences in written work, your writing might seem
immature.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a
sense of balance or contrast between two (or more) equallyimportant pieces of information:
Montal has better clubs, but Toronto has better
cinemas.

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least

one dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a
complex sentence contains clauses which are not equal. Consider
the following examples:
Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to
go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want
to go.
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My
friend invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The
second example joins them together into a single sentence with the
co-ordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as
independent sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader
cannot tell which is most important. In the third example,
however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause,
"Although my friend invited me to a party," has become
incomplete, or a dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a
compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most
important. When you write
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
or even

compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier
left before I could check the contents.
The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join
two originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using
a semicolon instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:

Not all sentences make a single point -- compound sentences,

especially, may present several equally-important pieces of
information -- but most of the time, when you write a sentence,
there is a single argument, statement, question, or command which
you wish to get across.

The Complex Sentence

Special Cases of Compound Sentences

There are two special types of compound sentences which you
might want to note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences
together, a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins two
complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex
sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compoundcomplex sentence:

you is less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do

not want to go.

My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to

go.
The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information
is most important to you. When you write the subordinating
conjunction "although" at the beginning of the first clause,
however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited

When you are writing your sentences, do not bury your main point
in the middle; instead, use one of the positions of emphasis at the
beginning or end of the sentence.
The Loose Sentence
If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence,
you are writing a loose sentence:
loose
I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the
privilege of living in Canada, considering the free
health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate,
the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful
winters.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada, and the writer makes the point at the very beginning:
everything which follows is simply extra information. When the
readers read about the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the
low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the
wonderful winters, they will already know that these are reasons
for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be more likely to
understand the sentence on a first reading.
Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who
almost always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated
English writers tend to use loose sentences much more often than
periodic sentences. While a periodic sentence can be useful for
making an important point or for a special dramatic effect, it is
also much more difficult to read, and often requires readers to go
back and reread the sentence once they understand the main point.
Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a
loose sentence as carefully as you would structure a periodic
sentence: it is very easy to lose control of a loose sentence so that
by the end the reader has forgotten what your main point was.
The Periodic Sentence

If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing
a periodic sentence:
periodic
Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees,
the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs,
and the wonderful winters, I am willing to pay
slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in
Canada.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in
Canada. At the beginning of this sentence, the reader does not
know what point the writer is going to make: what about the free
health care, cheap tuition fees, low crime rate, comprehensive
social programs, and wonderful winters? The reader has to read all
of this information without knowing what the conclusion will be.
The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English
writing over the past hundred years, and it has never been
common in informal spoken English (outside of bad political
speeches). Still, it is a powerful rhetorical tool. An occasional
periodic sentence is not only dramatic but persuasive: even if the
readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will read your
evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with
hostile readers, the readers will probably close their minds before
considering any of your evidence.
Finally, it is important to remember that periodic sentences are
like exclamatory sentences: used once or twice in a piece of
writing, they can be very effective; used any more than that, they
can make you sound dull and pompous.
The Purpose of a Sentence
The other classifications in this chapter describe how you
construct your sentences, but this last set describes why you have
written the sentences in the first place. Most sentences which you
write should simply state facts, conjectures, or arguments, but
sometimes you will want to give commands or ask questions.
The Declarative Sentence
The declarative sentence is the most important type. You can,
and often will write entire essays or reports using only declarative
sentences, and you should always use them far more often than
any other type. A declarative sentence simply states a fact or
argument, without requiring either an answer or action from the
reader. You punctuate your declarative sentences with a simple
period:
Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
The distinction between deconstruction and postmodernism eludes me.
He asked which path leads back to the lodge.

Note that the last example contains an indirect question, "which

path leads back to the lodge." An indirect question does not make
a sentence into an interrogative sentence -- only a direct question
can do that.
The Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends
in a question mark:
Who can read this and not be moved?
How many roads must a man walk down?
Does money grow on trees?
Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence
interrogative:
Direct/Interrogative
When was Lester Pearson prime minister?
Indirect/Declarative
I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an
indirect question does not.

Some towns in Upper Canada lost up to a third of their

population during the cholera epidemics of the early
nineteenth century!
Exclamatory sentences are common in speech and (sometimes) in
fiction, but over the last 200 years they have almost entirely
disappeared from academic writing. You will (or should) probably
never use one in any sort of academic writing, except where you
are quoting something else directly. Note that an exclamation
mark can also appear at the end of an imperative sentence.
The Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone -this type of sentence can end either with a period or with an
exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command is:
Sit!
Read this book for tomorrow.
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word
"please":
Wash the windows!
Please wash the windows.

The Rhetorical Question

Normally, an essay or report will not contain many regular direct
questions, since you are writing it to present information or to
make an argument. There is, however, a special type of direct
question called a rhetorical question -- that is, a question which
you do not actually expect the reader to answer:

Normally, you should not use imperative sentences in academic

writing. When you do use an imperative sentence, it should
usually contain only a mild command, and thus, end with a period:
Consider the Incas.
Writing Paragraphs

Why did the War of 1812 take place? Some scholars

argue that it was simply a land-grab by the
Americans ...
If you do not overuse them, rhetorical questions can be a very
effective way to introduce new topics or problems in the course of
a paper; if you use them too often, however, you may sound
patronising and/or too much like a professor giving a mediocre
lecture.
The Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is simply a more
forceful version of a declarative sentence, marked at the end with
an exclamation mark:
The butler did it!
How beautiful this river is!

A thesis is a single, focused argument, and most paragraphs

prove or demonstrate a thesis through explanations, examples and
concrete details. This chapter will help you learn to write and
analyse the types of paragraphs common in academic essays.
Start with an Outline
A brief outline will make it easier to develop topic sentences and
to arrange your paragraphs in the most effective order.
You should begin your outline by stating the thesis of your paper:
The English Civil War was caused by a combination of
factors, including the empowerment and organization
of Puritan forces, the absolutist tendencies of James I
and the personal ineptitude of his son Charles I.

Next, list the topic sentences for each of the paragraphs (or
sections) of the paper:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

The war and its aftereffects lasted twenty years.

Historically, the Protestants had believed themselves
persecuted.
In the 1620s Protestants dominated Parliament and
attempted to enact legislation which would provide
guidelines for both religious worship and political
representation.
During his reign in the early 1600s, James I had
attempted to silence Puritan protests and to solidify the
role of the monarchy as unquestioned head of state.
Charles I's lack of personal diplomacy and his advisers'
desire for personal power gave the Puritans the excuses
they needed to declare war on the monarchy.

You might notice that the topic sentences derive directly from the
thesis, and explain, prove, or expand on each of the thesis' claims.
Once you have an outline at hand, you can follow three steps to
help you write your paragraphs effectively:
1.
2.
3.

Use your thesis to help you organise the rest of your

paper.
Write a list of topic sentences, and make sure that they
show how the material in each paragraph is related to
your thesis.
Eliminate material that is not related to your thesis and
topic sentences.

Writing Topic Sentences

A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates
or organises an entire paragraph, and you should be careful to
include one in most of your major paragraphs. Although topic
sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph, in academic
essays they often appear at the beginning.
It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as working in two
directions simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the essay's
thesis, and thereby acts as a signpost for the argument of the paper
as a whole, but it also defines the scope of the paragraph itself.
For example, consider the following topic sentence:
Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a
special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.
If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all
sentences in the paragraph must relate in some way to fast food,
profit, and "forget sauce":

Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment

is never listed on the menu.
This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a
description of the composition of "forget sauce."
In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason
why ingredients are never listed on the packaging of
victuals sold by these restaurants.
The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of
"forget sauce" to secret fast-food industry practices.
"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes
temporary amnesia in consumers.
Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on
consumers:
After spending too much money on barely edible food
bereft of any nutritional value, most consumers swear
they will never repeat such a disagreeable experience.

This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following

paragraph. All the sentences that follow this topic sentence must
relate to it in some way.
Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim
of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying
force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the
unifying force in the paragraph.
These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis
statements and topic sentences: they both make a claim and they
both provide a focus for the writing which follows.
Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when
the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which
follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some
way.
Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to
those preceding it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting
ways a topic sentence is related to the sentences that follow it.
Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or
examples to support it.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget
sauce" takes effect, and they can be depended upon to
return and spend, older but no wiser.
Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in
the topic sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits
from adding a special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their
foods.
Analysing a Topic Sentence
Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis
statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the
thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic
sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is
the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes
a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or
prove it in some way. Topic sentences make a point and give
reasons or examples to support it.
Consider the last paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with
the topic sentence itself:
Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.

Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic

sentences act rather like tiny thesis statements.
Dividing your Argument
Starting a new paragraph is a signal to your reader that you are
beginning a new thought or taking up a new point. Since your
outline will help you divide the essay into sections, the resulting
paragraphs must correspond to the logical divisions in the essay. If
your paragraphs are too long, divide your material into smaller,
more manageable units; if they're too short, find broader topic
sentences that will allow you to combine some of your ideas.
Look at the list of sentences below:
In preparation for study some students apportion a
negligible period of time to clearing off a desk, a table,
a floor; others must scrub all surfaces and clean all
toilet bowls within 50 meters before the distraction of
dirt disappears.
Some eat or pace while they work.
Some work with deep concentration, others more
fitfully.
Students might smoke, or chew their nails, or stare
blankly at walls or at computer screens.
If asked what space is reserved for learning, many
students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the
library.

The kitchen, and the bedroom function as study spaces.

Some people need to engage in sports or other physical
activity before they can work successfully.
Being sedentary seems to inspire others.
Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and
22:00, some students do their best work before the sun
rises, some after it sets.
Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a
very few can sit and not rise until their task is
completed.
Some students work quickly and efficiently, while
others cannot produce anything without much dust and
heat.
Were these sentences simply combined they would yield nothing
but a long list of facts, not obviously related to one another, except
that they all refer to students and the way we study. There is too
much information here to include in one paragraph. The solution
is to develop two topic sentences under which all (or most) of the
above information will fit.
For most students the process of studying involves
establishing a complex set of rituals which come to be
repeated, with little variation, every time a task is
assigned by a professor.
If we add the first five sentences to this topic sentence we have a
unified but general description of the types of "rituals" or study
patterns which are such an important part of academic life.
For most students the process of studying involves
establishing a complex set of rituals which come to be
repeated, with little variation, every time a task is
assigned by a professor. In preparation for study some
students apportion a negligible period of time to
clearing off a desk, a table, a floor; others must scrub
all surfaces and clean all toilet bowls within 50 meters
before the distraction of dirt disappears. Some eat or
pace while they work. Some work with deep
concentration, others more fitfully. Students might
smoke, or chew their nails, or stare blankly at walls or
at computer screens.
The rest of the sentences are more specific. They concern the
distribution of individual time, space and effort, and relate the
rituals involved in study to those less commonly associated with
school. A topic sentence might look something like this:
Work tends, therefore, to be associated with non-workspecific environments, activities, and schedules. If
asked what space is reserved for learning, many
students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the
library. What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact,
any room in which a student habitually studies
becomes a learning space, or a place associated with

thinking. Some people need to engage in sports or

other physical activity before they can work
successfully. Being sedentary seems to inspire others.
Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and
22:00, some students do their best work before the sun
rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible
schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not
rise until their task is completed. Some students work
quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce
anything without much dust and heat.
Some organisation and a couple of topic sentences have
transformed a long and undifferentiated listing of student activities
into two unified paragraphs with a logical division between them.
Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs
A paragraph is unified when every sentence develops the point
made in the topic sentence. It must have a single focus and it must
contain no irrelevant facts. Every sentence must contribute to the
paragraph by explaining, exemplifying, or expanding the topic
sentence. In order to determine whether a paragraph is well
developed or not, ask yourself: "What main point am I trying to
convey here?" (topic sentence) and then "Does every sentence
clearly relate to this idea?"
There are several ways in which you can build good, clear
paragraphs. This section will discuss three of the most common
types of paragraph structure: development by detail, comparison
and contrast, and process. Finally, it will suggest that most
paragraphs are built of a combination of development strategies.
Paragraph Development by Detail
This is the most common and easiest form of paragraph
development: you simply expand on a general topic sentence
using specific examples or illustrations. Look at the following
paragraph (you may have encountered it before):
Work tends to be associated with non-work-specific
environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what
space is reserved for learning, many students would
suggest the classroom, the lab or the library. What
about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any room in
which a student habitually studies becomes a learning
space, or a place associated with thinking. Some
people need to engage in sports or other physical
activity before they can work successfully. Being
sedentary seems to inspire others. Although most
classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some
students do their best work before the sun rises, some
after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than
others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their
task is completed. Some students work quickly and

efficiently, while others cannot produce anything

without much dust and heat.
The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends
not to be associated only with school. The rest of the sentences
provide various illustrations of this argument. They are organised
around the three categories, "environment, activities, and
schedules," enumerated in the topic sentence. The details provide
the concrete examples which your reader will use to evaluate the
credibility of your topic sentence.
Paragraph Development by Comparison and Contrast
You should consider developing your paragraph by comparison
and contrast when you are describing two or more things which
have something, but not everything, in common. You may choose
to compare either point by point (X is big, Y is little; X and Y are
both purple.) or subject by subject (X is big and purple; Y is small
and purple.). Consider, for example, the following paragraph:
Although the interpretation of traffic signals may seem
highly standardized, close observation reveals regional
variations across this country, distinguishing the East
Coast from Central Canada and the West as surely as
dominant dialects or political inclinations. In Montreal,
a flashing red traffic light instructs drivers to careen
even more wildly through intersections heavily
populated with pedestrians and oncoming vehicles. In
startling contrast, an amber light in Calgary warns
drivers to scream to a halt on the off chance that there
might be a pedestrian within 500 meters who might
consider crossing at some unspecified time within the
current day. In my home town in New Brunswick,
finally, traffic lights (along with painted lines and
posted speed limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain
vehicles, or pickup trucks, which together account for
most vehicles on the road. In fact, were any observant
Canadian dropped from an alien space vessel at an
unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land, he
or she could almost certainly orient him-or-herself
according to the surrounding traffic patterns.
This paragraph compares traffic patterns in three areas of Canada.
It contrasts the behaviour of drivers in the Maritimes, in Montreal,
and in Calgary, in order to make a point about how attitudes in
various places inform behaviour. People in these areas have in
common the fact that they all drive; in contrast, they drive
differently according to the area in which they live.
It is important to note that the paragraph above considers only one
aspect of driving (behaviour at traffic lights). If you wanted to
consider two or more aspects, you would probably need more than
one paragraph.
Paragraph Development by Process

Paragraph development by process involves a straightforward

step-by-step description. Those of you in the sciences will
recognise it as the formula followed in the "method" section of a
lab experiment. Process description often follows a chronological
sequence:
The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the
rod. This should be about half-way up the cork handle,
absolutely firm and solid, but not tense or rigid. All
four fingers are curved around the handle, the little
finger, third finger and middle finger contributing most
of the firmness by pressing the cork solidly into the
fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The
forefinger supports and steadies the grip but supplies
its own firmness against the thumb, which should be
along the upper side of the handle and somewhere near
the top of the grip. (from Roderick Haig-Brown, "Fly
Casting")
The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this
paragraph to describe the process of establishing the "grip of the
hand on the rod," and this is exactly what he does, point by point,
with little abstraction.
Paragraph Development by Combination
Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a
combination of methods. It may begin with a brief comparison, for
example, and move on to provide detailed descriptions of the
subjects being compared. A process analysis might include a brief
history of the process in question. Many paragraphs include lists
of examples:
The broad range of positive characteristics used to
define males could be used to define females too, but
they are not. At its entry for woman Webster's Third
provides a list of "qualities considered distinctive of
womanhood": "Gentleness, affection, and domesticity
or on the other hand fickleness, superficiality, and
folly." Among the "qualities considered distinctive of
manhood" listed in the entry for man, no negative
attributes detract from the "courage, strength, and
vigor" the definers associate with males. According to
this dictionary, womanish means "unsuitable to a man
or to a strong character of either sex."
This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a
comparison and contrast of contemporary notions of "manliness"
and "womanliness" with an extended list of examples.

Diction
Your diction is simply your choice of words. There is no single,
correct diction in the English language; instead, you choose
different words or phrases for different contexts:
To a friend
"a screw-up"
To a child
"a mistake"
To the police
"an accident"
To an employer
"an oversight"
All of these expressions mean the same thing -- that is, they have
the same denotation -- but you would not likely switch one for the
other in any of these three situations: a police officer or employer
would take "screw-up" as an insult, while your friends at the bar
after a hockey game would take "oversight" as an affectation.

the dictionary defines *** as ...

key to the future
facing a dim future
drive a wedge between
starving students
enough (for ***) to handle
in today's world
the *** generation
the impossible dream
enough to worry about without ...
putting the cart before the horse
a bird in the hand
glitzy, high-tech world
There is no simple formula that you can apply to decide what is a
clich or a catch phrase, but the more you read, the better your
sense of judgement will become. Remember, though -- if you
think that a phrase in your writing is clever, and you know that
someone has used the phrase before, then you are best rewriting it
into your own words.
Special Considerations for Catch Phrases

Catch Phrases
Under pressure to create (usually against a deadline), a writer will
naturally use familiar verbal patterns rather than thinking up new
ones. Inexperienced writers, however, will sometimes go further,
and string together over-used phrases or even sentences. Consider
the following example:
When all is said and done, even a little aid can go a
long way in a country suffering from famine.
The argument is commendable, but its written expression is poor
and unoriginal. First, consider the phrase "when all is said and
done." Once, this phrase was clever and original, but so many
millions of writers and speakers have used it so many times over
so many years that the phrase has become automatic and nearly
meaningless. This type of worn-out phrase is called a catch
phrase, and you should always avoid it in your writing, unless
you are quoting someone else: you own, original words are always
more interesting.
A particularly stale catch phrase -- especially one which was once
particularly clever -- is a clich. In the example given above, the
phrase "a little aid can go a long way" fits into the formula "a little
*** can go a long way," seriously lowers the quality of the
writing. Essentially, a clich is a catch phrase which can make
people groan out loud, but the difference between the two is not
that important -- just remember that neither usually belongs in
your writing.
Here are some more sample clichs and catch phrases from
students' essays:

While clichs and catch phrases have no place in academic essays,

there are some times of writing where you should use pre-existing
formulas. Such documents include scientific papers, legal briefs,
maintenance logs, and police reports (to name a few) -- these are
highly repetitive and largely predictable in their language, but they
are meant to convey highly technical information in a standard,
well-defined format, not to persuade or entertain a reader -creativity in an auditor's report, for example, would not be highly
prized.
On the other hand, catch phrases are not appropriate in less
technical areas. Journalists, especially, are under a pressure to
produce a large amount of writing quickly, and those who are less
talented or unable to meet the pressure will often end up writing
entire articles made up of over-used catch phrases like "war-torn
Bosnia," "grieving parents," or "besieged capital."
Connotations and Denotations
The relationship between words and meanings is extremely
complicated, and belongs to the field of semantics. For now,
though, what you need to know is that words do not have single,
simple meanings. Traditionally, grammarians have referred to the
meanings of words in two parts:
denotation
a literal meaning of the word
connotation
an association (emotional or otherwise) which the
word evokes

For example, both "woman" and "chick" have the denotation

"adult female" in North American society, but "chick" has
somewhat negative connotations, while "woman" is neutral.

if not for centuries. Be aware, however, that some people still

consider it unacceptable for formal writing.

Subject
You use the subject case for a noun or pronoun which
stands alone, is the subject of a clause, is the subject
complement, or stands in apposition to any of these.

For another example of connotations, consider the following:

Object

You use the object case for the object of a preposition,

a verb, or a verbal, or for any noun or pronoun which
stands in apposition to one of these.

negative
There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.
neutral
There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in
the city.

Possessive
You use the possessive case for any noun or pronoun
which acts an an adjective, implicitly or explicitly
modifying another element in the sentence.

positive
There are over 2,000 homeless in the city.
All three of these expressions refer to exactly the same people, but
they will invoke different associations in the reader's mind: a
"vagrant" is a public nuisance while a "homeless" person is a
worthy object of pity and charity. Presumably, someone writing an
editorial in support of a new shelter would use the positive form,
while someone writing an editorial in support of anti-loitering
laws would use the negative form.
In this case, the dry legal expression "with no fixed address" quite
deliberately avoids most of the positive or negative associations of
the other two terms -- a legal specialist will try to avoid
connotative language altogether when writing legislation, often
resorting to archaic Latin or French terms which are not a part of
ordinary spoken English, and thus, relatively free of strong
emotional associations.
Many of the most obvious changes in the English language over
the past few decades have had to do with the connotations of
words which refer to groups of people. Since the 1950's, words
like "Negro" and "crippled" have acquired strong negative
connotations, and have been replaced either by words with neutral
connotations (ie "black," "handicapped") or by words with
deliberately positive connotations (ie "African-Canadian,"
"differently-abled").
Noun and Pronoun Characteristics
In addition to their various classifications, nouns pronouns have
three major characteristics: case, number, and gender.

Nouns always take the same form in the subject case and the
object case, while pronouns often change their form. Both nouns
and pronouns usually change their form for the possessive case:
Subject Case
The man travelled to Newfoundland.
He travelled to Newfoundland.
Object Case
The taxi drove the man to the airport.
The taxi drove him to the airport.
Possessive Case
The baggage handlers lost the man's suitcase.
The baggage handlers lost his suitcase.
For further information, see possessive nouns, possessive
pronouns, and possessive adjectives.
Noun and Pronoun Number
The number of a noun or pronoun is either singular, if it refers to
one thing, or plural, if it refers to more than one thing (if the noun
or pronoun is the subject, then its number will also affect the
verb). Note the difference in number in the following examples:
Singular
That woman is concerned about this issue.
She is concerned about this issue.
Plural
Those women are concerned about this issue.
They are concerned about this issue.

Noun and Pronoun Case

The case of a noun or pronoun determines how you can use it in a
phrase or clause. There are three cases in Modern English (as
opposed to eight in Classical Latin, four in German, and only two
in French):

It is important to note that the pronoun "they" is in the processing

of becoming singular as well as plural. For example, one might
say

For more information, see noun plurals.

Noun and Pronoun Gender
Unlike the Romance languages (such as French, Spanish, and
Italian), English has three genders for nouns and pronouns:
masculine, feminine, and neuter.
Generally, the English language uses natural gender rather than
grammatical gender -- that is, the gender of a word is usually
based on its biology (so there is little need to remember whether a
word is masculine or feminine). A noun that refers to something
with male sexual organs is masculine, a noun that refers to
something with female sexual organs is feminine and most other
nouns are neuter by default.
There was a time when you could use the masculine gender by
default when you did not know a person's natural gender, but very
few people accept this usage any longer.
There are, moreover, a few tricky points. First, you may refer to
all animals in the neuter gender, or you may refer to them by their
natural gender:
Neuter
What a beautiful dog! Does it bite?
Natural Gender
What a beautiful dog! Does she bite?
Second, You usually assign mythical beings (such as gods) to a
natural gender, even if you do not believe that the beings have
actual sexual organs:
God is great. God is good. Let us thank her for our
food.
Finally, people sometimes assign natural gender to inanimate
objects, especially if they live or work closely with them. When
engineers were mostly men, for example, they tended to refer to
large machines in the feminine:
She is a fine ship.
For more information, see the discussion of gender-specific nouns.

A person called and they did not leave their name.

Noun and Pronoun Person
This construction allows the speaker to avoid identifying the
gender of a person, and it has been common in speech for decades,

Personal pronouns always belong to one of three persons: first

person if they refer to the speaker or writer (or to a group
including the speaker or writer), second person if they refer to the
audience of the speaker or writer (or to a group including the
audience), and third person if they refer to anyone else (if the
noun or pronoun is the subject, then its person will also affect the
verb). Nouns and other types of pronouns are always in the third
person. Note the differences in person in the following examples:
First Person
I will come tomorrow.
Bob showed the budget to us.
Second Person
You should not forget to vote.
Where is your coat?
Third Person
It arrived yesterday.
How can you stand working with them?
Traditionally, you were required to use the third person in formal
academic writing, but some people now accept the first person.
Whichever you choose, however, you must be consistent.

In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective

"spoken."
We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.

While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly"

suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the
grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a
whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various
places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an
adverb:

The book Seema was looking for is under the sofa.

Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.
In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire
sentence.
Conjunctive Adverbs
You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together.
Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also,"
"consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however,"
"incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile,"
"nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then,"
"therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough
to join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are conjunctive
adverbs:

Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb

"waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly-spoken words would return to haunt the
rebel.

In this example the compound verb is made up of the auxiliary

verb "will" and the verb "meet."
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder
if someone will call the owner.
In this sentence the first compound verb is made up of the two
auxiliary verbs ("has" and "been") and a present participle
("barking"). The second compound verb is made up of the
auxiliary verb "will" and the verb "call."
Auxiliary Verbs

The government has cut university budgets;

consequently, class sizes have been increased.
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called
for; therefore, he decided to make something else.
The report recommended several changes to the ways
the corporation accounted for donations; furthermore,
it suggested that a new auditor be appointed
immediately.
The crowd waited patiently for three hours; finally, the
doors to the stadium were opened.
Batman and Robin fruitlessly searched the building;
indeed, the Joker had escaped through a secret door in
the basement.
Compound Verbs

The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.

Here the compound verb is made up of the auxiliary verb "was"

and the present participle "looking."
They will meet us at the newest caf in the market.

The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.

In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made"
and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was
constructed.

The compound verb in this sentence is made up of the auxiliary

"were" and the past participle "destroyed."

Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."

What is an Adverb?
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a
phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place,
cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when,"
"where," "how much".

Karl Creelman bicycled around in world in 1899, but

his diaries and his bicycle were destroyed.

You construct a compound verb out of an auxiliary verb and

another verb.
In particular, you may use an auxiliary verb (also known as a
helping verb) with the verb in order to create the many of the
tenses available in English.
In each of the following sentences, the compound verb appears
highlighted:

The most common auxiliary verbs are "be," "do," and "have", and
you may also use these verbs on their own. You use "Will" and
"shall" to express future time.
In each of the following examples, a verb commonly used as an
auxiliary verb appears as a simple predicate:
She is the chief engineer.
The tea cups are in the china cabinet.
Garth does this kind of thing frequently.
My roommates and I do the laundry every second
week.
I can't complete my assignment because he still has my
notes.
They have several kinds of gelato in the display case.
Other common auxiliaries are "can," "could," "may," "might,"
"must," "ought," "should," "will," and "would." A verb like these
is called a modal auxiliary and expresses necessity, obligation, or
possibility.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is a
modal auxiliary:

Zora was pleased to learn that she could take several

days off.
The small freckled girl told her neighbours that she
would walk their dog for an appropriate fee.
Henry told Eliza that she ought to have the hole in the
bucket fixed.
The principal told the assembled students that the
school board might introduce a dress code next
autumn.
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo
in our hair for twenty minutes.
Several words may intervene between the auxiliary and the verb
which goes with it, as in the following sentences:
They have not delivered the documents on time.
The treasure chest was never discovered.
The health department has recently decided that all
high school students should be immunised against
meningitis.
Will you walk the dog tonight?
The ballet corps was rapidly and gracefully
pirouetting about the stage.

The sound of the choir carried through the cathedral.

The verb "carried" is used intransitively in this sentence and takes
no direct object. The prepositional phrase "through the cathedral"
acts as an adverb describing where the sound carried.
The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.
The intransitive verb "arrived" takes no direct object, and the noun
phrase "four hours late" acts as an adverb describing when the
train arrived.
Since the company was pleasant and the coffee both
plentiful and good, we lingered in the restaurant for
several hours.
The verb "lingered" is used intransitively and takes no direct
object. The prepositional phrase "in the restaurant for several
hours" acts as an adverb modifying "lingered".

The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without a direct

object, as in the following examples:
INCOMPLETE
The shelf holds.
COMPLETE
The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers.
INCOMPLETE
The committee named.
COMPLETE
The committee named a new chairperson.
INCOMPLETE
The child broke.
COMPLETE
The child broke the plate.
An intransitive verb, on the other hand, cannot take a direct
object:
This plant has thrived on the south windowsill.
The compound verb "has thrived" is intransitive and takes no
direct object in this sentence. The prepositional phrase "on the
south windowsill" acts as an adverb describing where the plant
thrives.

intransitive
The cook watched while the new dishwasher
surreptitiously picked up the fragments of the broken
dish.
In this example, the verb "watched" is used intransitively and
takes no direct object.
intransitive
The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see
the rock star get into her helicopter.
Here the verb "moves" is used as an intransitive verb and takes no
direct object.
transitive

The painting was hung on the south wall of the

reception room.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Depending on the type of object they take, verbs may be
transitive, intransitive, or linking.

In this example, the verb "watch" is used transitively and takes the
noun phrase "the latest production of The Trojan Women" as a
direct object.

The compound verb "was hung" is used intransitively and the

sentence has no direct object. The prepositional phrase "on the
south wall of the reception room" acts as a adverb describing
where the paint hung.
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on
their context in the sentence. In the following pairs of sentences,
the first sentence uses the verb transitively and the second uses the
same verb intransitively:
transitive
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo
in our hair for twenty minutes.
In this example, the verb "leave" takes a direct object, the noun
phrase "this goo".
intransitive
We would like to stay longer, but we must leave.
In this example, the verb "leave" does not take a direct object.
transitive
The audience attentively watched the latest production
of The Trojan Women.

Every spring, William moves all boxes and trunks from

one side of the attic to the other.
In this sentence "moves" is used as a transitive verb and takes the
noun phrase "all the boxes and trunk" as a direct object.
Written by Heather MacFadyen
Linking Verbs
A linking verb connects a subject to a subject complement which
identifies or describes the subject, as in the following sentences:
The play is Waiting for Godot.
In this sentence, the linking verb "is" links the noun phrase "the
play" to the identifying phrase "Waiting for Godot," which is
called a subject complement.
Some of us thought that the play was very good.
In this sentence, the verb "was" links the subject complement
"very good" to subject "the play".
Others thought it became tedious after the first fifteen
minutes.
In this sentence, the linking verb "became" links the subject "it" to
the subject complement "tedious." The phrase "after the first

fifteen minutes" functions as a adverb modifying the clause "it

became tedious".
The cast appears disorganised and confused; perhaps
Beckett intended this.
Here "appears" is functioning as a linking verb that connects the
subject "the cats" to its subject complement "disorganised and
confused".
The play seems absurd to me.

Here the verb "sounded" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "his
horn."
Linking
Cynthia feels queasy whenever she listens to banjo
music.
In this sentence, the adjective "queasy" is a subject complement
that describes Cynthia.
Transitive
The customer carefully feels the fabric of the coat.

The subject "the play" is joined to its subject complement

"absurd" by the linking verb "seems".
Linking verbs are either verbs of sensation ("feel," "look,"
"smell," "sound," "taste") or verbs of existence ("act," "appear,"
"be," "become," "continue," "grow," "prove," "remain," "seem,"
"sit," "strand," "turn").
Many linking verbs (with the significant exception of "be") can
also be used as transitive or intransitive verbs. In the following
pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the highlighted verb as a
linking verb and the second uses the same verb as either a
transitive or an intransitive verb:
Linking
Griffin insists that the water in Winnipeg tastes
terrible.

Here the noun phrase "the fabric of the coat" is the direct object of
the verb "feels" and identifies what the customer feels.

Transitive
I tasted the soup before adding more salt.
Here the noun phrase "the soup" identifies what "I tasted." "The
soup" is the direct object of the verb "tasted."
Linking
My neighbour's singing voice sounds very squeaky
despite several hours of daily practice.
In this example, the phrase "very squeaky" is a subject
complement that describes or identities the nature of the "singing
voice."
Transitive
Upon the approach of the enemy troops, the gatekeeper sounded his horn.

Note that only transitive verbs can use their past participles as
adjectives, and that unlike other verbals, past participles do not
take objects (unless they are part of a compound verb).
The Gerund
A gerund is a noun formed from a verb. To make a gerund, you
add "-ing" to the verb, just as with a present participle. The
fundamental difference is that a gerund is a noun, while a
participle is an adjective:
gerund
I enjoy running. ("Running" is a noun acting as the
direct object of the verb "enjoy.")

Verbals

participle

A verbal is a noun or adjective formed from a verb. Writers

sometimes make mistakes by using a verbal in place of a verb, and
in very formal writing, by confusing different types of verbals.
This section covers three different verbals: the participle (which
acts as an adjective), the gerund (which acts as a noun), and the
infinitive (which also acts as a noun).
The fundamental difference between verbals and other nouns and
adjectives is that verbals can take their own objects, even though
they are no longer verbs:
Gerund

In this sentence, the adjective "terrible" is a subject complement

that describes a quality of the water.

a ruined city
a misspelled word

Stay away from running water. ("Running" is an

adjective modifying the noun "water".)
Using Verbals
There are two common problems that come up when writers use
verbals. The first is that since verbals look like verbs, they
sometimes cause students to write fragmentary sentences:
[WRONG] Oh, to find true love!
[WRONG] Jimmy, swimming the most important race
of his life.

Building a house is complicated.

In this example, the noun phrase "a house" is the direct object of
the verbal "building", even though "building" is a noun rather than
a verb.
The Participle
A participle is an adjective formed from a verb. To make a
present participle, you add "-ing" to the verb, sometimes
doubling the final consonant:
"think" becomes "thinking"
"fall" becomes "falling"
"run" becomes "running"
The second type of participle, the past participle, is a little more
complicated, since not all verbs form the past tense regularly. The
following are all past participles:
the sunken ship

The second problem is a very fine point, which most editors and
some teachers no longer enforce. Although they look the same,
gerunds and present participles are different parts of speech, and
need to be treated differently. For example, consider the following
two sentences:
I admire the woman finishing the report.
I admire the woman's finishing the report.
In the first example, "finishing" is a participle modifying the noun
"woman": in other words, the writer admires the woman, not what
she is doing; in the second example, "finishing" is a participle,
modified by the possessive noun "woman's": in other words, the
writer admires not the woman herself but the fact that she is
finishing the report.
Forming and Using Verb Tenses
English speakers form many verb tenses by combining one of
principal parts of the verb with one or more auxiliary verbs.

In order to form verb tenses you need a good grasp of the

auxiliaries and the principal parts of the verb. There are four
principal parts: the basic form, the present participle, the past
form, and the past participle.

The past participle of regular verbs is usually identical to the past

form, while the past participle of irregular verbs is often different:

brought, brought
burst
burst, burst

walked
painted
thought
grown
sung

The basic form (or root of the verb is the form listed in the
dictionary and is usually identical to the first person singular form
of the simple present tense (except in the case of the verb "to be"):

buy
bought, bought
cast
cast, cast
catch
caught, caught
choose

walk
paint
think
grow
sing
The infinitive form of the verb is a compound verb made up of
the the preposition "to" and the basic form of the verb:
to walk
to paint
to think
to grow
to sing

Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs form the past participle and the past form without
"-(e)d" or "-t", and frequently their past form and past participle
are different. For example, the past form of the verb "break" is
"broke" and the past participle is "broken".

walking
painting
thinking
growing
singing
Note that you cannot use the present participle as a predicate
unless you use an auxiliary verb with it -- the word group "I
walking to the store" is an incomplete and ungrammatical
sentence, while word group "I am walking to the store" is a
complete sentence. You will often use the present participle as a
modifier.
The past form of verbs is a little trickier. If the verb is regular (or
weak, you can create the past form by adding "-ed", "-d", or "-t"
to the present form. When a basic form ends in "-y", you changed
the "-y" to "-i-"; in many cases you should also double terminal
consonants before adding "-ed" (see the section on Spelling words
with Double Consonants).
walked
painted
thought
grew
sang

clung, clung
come
came, come
creep
crept, crept
cut

This list contains the most common verbs that form their past
tenses irregularly:

cut, cut
deal
dealt, dealt
dig

arise

dug, dug

arose, arise

dive

awoke or awaked, awaked or awoken

do

awake
awaken

To form the present participle, add "-ing" to the basic form of the
verb:

chose, chosen
cling

awakened, awakened
bear (to carry)
bore, borne
bear (to give birth)
bore
beat
beat, beaten or beat
be
was, been
become
became, become
begin
began, begun
bet
bet, bet
bid
bid, bid (to, offer)
bid (to order, invite)
bade, bidden
bind
bound, bound
bite
bit, bitten
bleed
bled, bled
blow
blew, blown
break
broke, broken
breed
bred, bred
bring

dived or dove, dived

did, done
draw
drew, drawn
dream
dreamed or dreamt, dreamed or dreamt
drink
drank, drunk
drive
drove, driven
eat
ate, eaten
fall
fell, fallen
feed
fed, fed
feel
felt, felt
fight
fought, fought
find
found, found
flee
fled, fled
fly
flew, flown
forbid
forbade, forbidden
forget
forgot, forgotten
forgive
forgave, forgiven
forsake

forsook, forsaken
freeze

meant, meant
meet

froze, frozen
get

met, met
mistake

got, got or gotten

give

mistook, mistaken

gave, given

overcame, overcome

went, gone

paid, paid

ground, ground
grew, grown
hang (to suspend)
hung, hung
hang (to execute)
hanged, hanged
have
had, had
hear
heard, heard
hide
hid, hidden
hit
hit, hit
hold
held, held
hurt
hurt, hurt
keep
kept, kept
kneel
knelt or kneeled, knelt or kneeled
knit
knitted or knit, knitted or knit
know
knew, known
lay
laid, laid
lead
led, led
leap
leaped or leapt, leaped or leapt
leave
left, left
lend
lent, lent
let
let, let
lie
lay, lain
light
lighted or lit, lighted or lit
lose
lost, lost
make
made, made
mean

spoke, spoken
speed

prove

grow

slunk, slunk
speak

pay

grind

slung, slung
slink

overcome

go

slid, slide
sling

sped or speeded, sped or speeded

spend

proved, proved or proven

put

spent, spent
spin

put, put
quit

spun, spun
spit

quit, quit
read

spit or spat, spit or spat

split

read, read
ride

split, split
spread

rode, ridden
ring

spread, spread
spring

rang, rung
rise

sprang or sprung, sprung

stand

rose, risen
run

stood, stood
steal

ran, run
say

stole, stolen
stick

said, said
see

stuck, stuck
stink

saw, seen
seek

stank or stunk, stunk

strew

sought, sought
sell

strewed, strewn
stride

sold, sold
send

strode, stridden
strike

sent, sent
set

struck, struck
string

set, set
shake

strung, strung
strive

shook, shaken
shed

stove or strived, striven or strived

swear

shed, shed
shoot

swore, sworn
sweep

shot, shot
shrink

swept, swept
swell

shrank or shrunk, shrunk

shut

swelled, swelled or swollen

swim

shut, shut
sing

swam, swum
swing

sang, sung
sink

swung, swung
take

sank, sunk
sit

took, taken
teach

sat, sat
slay

taught, taught
tear

slew, slain
sleep

tore, torn
tell

slept, slept
slide

told, told
think

thought, though
thrive

In each of these sentences, the transitive verb "lay" is used to

describe the fact that someone had placed something somewhere.

throve or thrived, throve or thriven

throw

1.
2.
3.
4.

the simple past ("I went")

the past progressive ("I was going")
the past perfect ("I had gone")
the past perfect progressive ("I had been going")

threw, thrown
thrust
thrust, thrust
wake
woke or waked, waked or woken
weep
wept, wept
win
won, won

Sit and Set

The verbs "sit" and "set" are also frequently confused. The
intransitive verb "sit" means "to rest" or "to occupy a seat". The
present participle is "sitting", and both the past part and the past
participle are "sat".

wind
wound, wound
wring
wring, wrung
write
wrote, written
Frequently-Confused Verbs

Charlie will be surprised when he learns that he is

sitting on a freshly painted bench.
We sat in the corridor outside the dean's office all
afternoon.
The student delegate is persistent; they have sat in the
excruciatingly uncomfortable chairs outside the dean's
office for several hours.

Writers often confuse the verb pairs "lie" and "lay" and "sit" and
"set".

In each of these sentences, the verb "sit" is used in conjunction

with a adverbial phrase to describe the position of the subject.

"Lie" and "Lay"

The transitive verb "set" is means "to place," "to put," or "to lay".
The present participle of "set" is "setting", and both the past form
and the past participle are "set":

The verb "lie" is an intransitive verb which means "to recline" or

"to be situated". The present participle of "lie" is "lying," the past
form is "lay" and the past participle is "lain":
The cup is lying on the floor.
The cat lay in the sun all morning.
The newspapers had lain on the verandah for two
weeks before anyone noticed that Mr. Gilfillian had
disappeared.
In each of these examples, the intransitive verb "lie" is used (in
conjunction with an adverbial phrase) to describe the location of
the subject.
The verb "lay" is a transitive verb which means "to place" or "to
put". The present participle of "lay" is "laying", and both the past
form and the past participle is "laid":
I was laying the cups and saucers on the table when I
dropped one.
Jenkins laid the suspicious parcel on the
commissioner's desk.
The supervisor had laid a cup of scalding coffee on the
counter only moments before the bulldozer rammed
into the construction office.

The clockmaker was setting his tools on the bench

when the hooligans came into his shop.
Germaine set plates and soup bowls on the table.
Once we had set the clock ahead an hour, we went to
bed.
In each of these sentence, the verb "set" is used to describe the
placing of an object in a specific place.
Using Verb Tenses
A verb indicates the time of an action, event or condition by
changing its form. Through the use of a sequence of tenses in a
sentence or in a paragraph, it is possible to indicate the complex
temporal relationship of actions, events, and conditions
There are many ways of categorising the twelve possible verb
tenses. The verb tenses may be categorised according to the time
frame: past tenses, present tenses, and future tenses.

The four present tenses are

1.
2.
3.
4.

the simple present ("I go")

the present progressive ("I am going")
the present perfect ("I have gone")
the present perfect progressive ("I have been going")

Note that the present perfect and present perfect progressive are a
present not past tenses -- that idea is that the speaker is currently
in the state of having gone or having been going.
The four future tenses are
1.
2.
3.
4.

the simple future ("I will go")

the future progressive ("I will be going")
the future perfect ("I will have gone")
the future perfect progressive ("I will have been
going")

Verb Tense: Aspect

Verb tenses may also be categorised according to aspect. Aspect
refers to the nature of the action described by the verb. There are
three aspects: indefinite (or simple), complete (or perfect),
continuing (or progressive).
The three indefinite tenses, or simple tenses, describe an action
but do not state whether the action is finished:

the simple past ("I went")

the simple present ("I go")
the simple future ("I will go")

A verb in the indefinite aspect is used when the beginning or

ending of an action, an event, or condition is unknown or
unimportant to the meaning of the sentence. The indefinite aspect
is also used to used to indicate an habitual or repeated action,
event, or condition.
The three complete tenses, or perfect tenses, describe a finished
action:

Verb Tense: Time

The four past tenses are

the past perfect ("I had gone")

the present perfect ("I have gone")

the future perfect ("I will have gone")

A verb in the complete aspect indicates that the end of the action,
event, or condition is known and the is used to emphasise the fact
that the action is complete. The action may, however, be
completed in the present, in the past or in the future.
The three incomplete tenses, or progressive tenses, describe an
unfinished action:

the past progressive ("I was going")

the present progressive ("I am going")
the future progressive ("I will be going")

A verb in the continuing aspect indicates that the action, event, or

condition is ongoing in the present, the past or the future.
It is also possible to combine the complete tenses and the
incomplete tenses, to describe an action which was in progress
and then finished:

The simple present is used to express general truths such as

scientific fact, as in the following sentences:
Rectangles have four sides.
Canada Day takes place on July 1, the anniversary of
the signing of the British North America Act.
The moon circles the earth once every 28 days.
Calcium is important to the formation of strong bones.
Menarche and menopause mark the beginning and the
ending of a woman's reproductive history.
The simple present is used to indicate a habitual action, event, or
condition, as in the following sentences:
Leonard goes to The Jumping Horse Tavern every
Thursday evening.
My grandmother sends me new mittens each spring.
In fairy tales, things happen in threes.
We never finish jigsaw puzzles because the cat always
eats some of the pieces.
Jesse polishes the menorah on Wednesdays.
The simple present is also used when writing about works of art,
as in the following sentences.

Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the

present progressive tense. In each sentence the on-going nature of
the action is emphasised by the use of the present progressive
rather than the simple present.
Nora is looking for the first paperback editions of all of
Raymond Chandler's books.
Deirdre is dusting all the shelves on the second floor of
the shop.
The union members are pacing up and down in front of
the factory.
KPLA is broadcasting the hits of the 70s this evening.
The presses are printing the first edition of tomorrow's
paper.
The present progressive is occasionally used to refer to a future
event when used in conjunction with an adverb or adverbial
phrase, as in the following sentences.
The doors are opening in 10 minutes.
The premier is arriving on Tuesday.
Classes are ending next week.
The publisher is distributing the galley proofs next
Wednesday.

the past perfect progressive ("I had been going")

the present perfect progressive ("I have been going")
the future perfect progressive ("I will have been
going")

The Function of Verb Tenses

The Simple Present Tense
The simple present is used to describe an action, an event, or
condition that is occurring in the present, at the moment of
speaking or writing. The simple present is used when the precise
beginning or ending of a present action, event, or condition is
unknown or is unimportant to the meaning of the sentence.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
simple present tense and each sentence describes an action taking
place in the present:
Deborah waits patiently while Bridget books the
tickets.
The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers.
The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see
the rock star get into her helicopter.
The Stephens sisters are both very talented; Virginia
writes and Vanessa paints.
Ross annoys Walter by turning pages too quickly.

Lolly Willowes is the protagonist of the novel

Townsend published in 1926.
One of Artemisia Gentleschi's best known paintings
represents Judith's beheading of Holofernes.
The Lady of Shallot weaves a tapestry while watching
the passers-by in her mirror.
Lear rages against the silence of Cordelia and only
belatedly realizes that she, not her more vocal sisters,
loves him.
The play ends with an epilogue spoken by the fool.
The simple present can also be used to refer to a future event
when used in conjunction with an adverb or adverbial phrase, as in
the following sentences.
The doors open in 10 minutes.
The premier arrives on Tuesday.
Classes end next week.
The publisher distributes the galley proofs next
Wednesday.
The lunar eclipses begins in exactly 43 minutes.
The Present Progressive
While the simple present and the present progressive are
sometimes used interchangeably, the present progressive
emphasises the continuing nature of an act, event, or condition.

The Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is used to describe action that began in
the past and continues into the present or has just been completed
at the moment of utterance. The present perfect is often used to
suggest that a past action still has an effect upon something
happening in the present.
Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following
sentences is in the present perfect tense.
They have not delivered the documents we need.
This sentence suggest that the documents were not delivered in the
past and that they are still undelivered.
The health department has decided that all high school
students should be immunised against meningitis.
The writer of this sentence uses the present perfect in order to
suggest that the decision made in the past is still of importance in
the present.
The government has cut university budgets;
consequently, the dean has increased the size of most
classes.

Here both actions took place sometime in the past and continue to
influence the present.

Artemisia Gentilsechi probably died in 1652.

The storyteller began every story by saying "A long
time ago when the earth was green."

The heat wave has lasted three weeks.

In this sentence, the writer uses the present perfect to indicate that
a condition (the heat wave) began in past and continues to affect
the present.
Donna has dreamt about frogs sitting in trees every
night this week.
Here the action of dreaming has begun in the past and continues
into the present.
The Present Perfect Progressive Tense
Like the present perfect, the present perfect progressive is used
to describe an action, event, or condition that has begun in the past
and continues into the present. The present perfect progressive,
however, is used to stress the on-going nature of that action,
condition, or event.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
present perfect progressive tense and each sentence suggests that
the action began in the past and is continuing into the present.
That dog has been barking for three hours; I wonder if
someone will call the owner.
I have been relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for
the gifts I buy for my large family.
They have been publishing this comic book for ten
years.
We have been seeing geese flying south all afternoon.
Even though the coroner has been carefully examining
the corpse discovered in Sutherland's Gully since early
this morning, we still do not know the cause of death.

The Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense is used to refer to actions that took place
and were completed in the past. The past perfect is often used to
emphasis that one action, event or condition ended before another
past action, event, or condition began.

The Past Progressive Tense

The past progressive tense is used to described actions ongoing
in the past. These actions often take place within a specific time
frame. While actions referred to in the present progressive have
some connection to the present, actions referred in the past
progressive have no immediate or obvious connection to the
present. The on-going actions took place and were completed at
some point well before the time of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
past progressive tense.
The cat was walking along the tree branch.
This sentence describes an action that took place over a period of
continuous time in the past. The cat's actions have no immediate
relationship to anything occurring now in the present.
Lena was telling a story about the exploits of a red cow
when a tree branch broke the parlour window.
Here the action "was telling" took place in the past and continued
for some time in the past.
When the recess bell rang, Jesse was writing a long
division problem on the blackboard.

Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the

past perfect.
Miriam arrived at 5:00 p.m. but Mr. Whitaker had
closed the store.
All the events in this sentence took place in the past, but the act of
closing the store takes place before Miriam arrives at the store.
After we located the restaurant that Christian had raved
about, we ate supper there every Friday.
Here the praise ("had raved") precedes the finding ("located") of
the restaurant. Both actions took place sometime before the
moment of speaking or writing.
The elephant had eaten all the hay so we fed it oats for
a week.
In this sentence, both actions take place in the past, but the eating
of the hay ("had eaten") preceded the eating of the oats ("fed").
The heat wave had lasted three weeks.

This sentence describes actions ("ran" and "was writing") that

took place sometime in the past, and emphasises the continuing
nature of one of the actions ("was writing").

While the sentence "The heat wave has lasted three weeks"
suggests that a condition began in the past and continues into the
present, this sentence describes an action that began and ended
sometime in the past ("had lasted"). By using the past perfect the
writer indicates that the heat wave has no connection to any events
occurring in the present.

The archivists were eagerly waiting for the delivery of

the former prime minister's private papers.

After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more

independent.

Here the ongoing action of "waiting" occurred at some time

unconnected to the present.

Here the learning took place and was completed at a specific time
in the past. By using the past perfect rather than the simple past
("learned"), the writer emphasises that the learning preceded the
feeling of independence.

The Simple Past Tense

The simple past is used to describe an action, an event, or
condition that occurred in the past, sometime before the moment
of speaking or writing.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
simple past tense and each sentence describes an action taking
place at some point in past.

Between 1942 and 1944 the Frank and Van Damm

families were hiding in a Amsterdam office building.

The Past Perfect Progressive Tense

A flea jumped from the dog to the cat.
Phoebe gripped the hammer tightly and nailed the
boards together.
The gem-stones sparkled in a velvet lined display case.

In this sentence, the action of hiding took place over an extended

period of time and the continuing nature of the hiding is
emphasised.

The past perfect progressive is used to indicate that a continuing

action in the past began before another past action began or
interrupted the first action.

Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following

sentences is in the past perfect progressive tense.

The simple future is used to refer to actions that will take place
after the act of speaking or writing.

Here, the plumbers' act of soldering ("will have soldered") will

precede the act of leaving ("leave").

The toddlers had been running around the school yard

for ten minutes before the teachers shooed them back
inside.

Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the

simple future tense.

By the time you get back from the corner store, we will
have finished writing the thank you letters.

They will meet us at the newest caf in the market.

Will you walk the dog tonight?
At the feast, we will eat heartily.
Bobbie will call you tomorrow with details about the
agenda.
The Smiths say that they will not move their chicken
coop.

In this sentence, the act of returning from the store ("get back")
takes place after the act of writing ("will have written").

Here the action of the toddlers ("had been running") is ongoing in

the past and precedes the actions of the teachers ("shooed") which
also takes place in the past.
We had been talking about repainting the front room
for three years and last night we finally bought the
paint.

The Future Progressive Tense

In this example, the ongoing action of "talking" precedes another
past action ("bought").
A construction crew had been digging one pit after
another in the middle of my street for three days before
they found the water main.
Here, the action of digging ("had been digging") took place in the
past and occurred over a period of time. The digging was followed
by the action of finding ("found").
Madeleine had been reading mystery novels for several
years before she discovered the works of Agatha
Christie.
In this sentence the act of discovery ("discovered") occurred in the
past but after the ongoing and repeated action of reading ("had
been reading").
The chef's assistant had been chopping vegetables for
several minutes before he realized that he had minced
his apron strings.
This sentence is a bit more complex in that it contains three
different past verb tenses. The sequence of tenses conveys a
complex set of information. The past perfect progressive ("had
been chopping") is used to emphasise the ongoing nature of the
past act of chopping. While a second past perfect progressive
("had been mincing") could be used, the past perfect ("had
minced") is used to suggest that act of mincing was completed.
The simple past ("realized") is used to describe the action closest
to the present, an action that followed both the chopping and the
mincing.
The Simple Future Tense

The future progressive tense is used to describe actions ongoing

in the future. The future progressive is used to refer to continuing
action that will occur in the future.
Each of the highlighted compound verbs in the following
sentences is in the future progressive tense.

If this year is like last year, I will have finished my

holiday shopping long before my brother starts his.
In this example, the act of finishing ("will have finished") occurs
well before the act of starting ("starts").
They will have written their first exam by the time we
get out of bed.
Here, the act of getting out of bed occurs sometime after the
writing of the exam.
The Future Perfect Progressive Tense

The glee club will be performing at the celebration of

the town's centenary.
Ian will be working on the computer system for the
next two weeks.
The selection committee will be meeting every
Wednesday morning.
We will be writing an exam every afternoon next week.
They will be ringing the bells for Hypatia next month.
The Future Perfect Tense
The future perfect is used to refer to an action that will be
completed sometime in the future before another action takes
place.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
future perfect tense.
The surgeon will have operated on 6 patients before
she attends a luncheon meeting.

The future perfect progressive tense is used to indicate a

continuing action that will be completed at some specified time in
the future. This tense is rarely used.
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
future perfect progressive tense.
I will have been studying Greek for three years by the
end of this term.
In this sentence, the future perfect progressive is used to indicate
the ongoing nature of the future act of the studying. The act of
studying ("will have been studying") will occur before the
upcoming end of term.
By the time the meeting is over, the committee will
have been arguing about which candidate to interview
for three hours.

In this sentence, the act of operating ("will have operated") takes

place in the future sometime before the act of attending
("attends").

Similarly in this sentence, the ongoing nature of a future act ("will

have been arguing") is emphasised by the use of the future perfect
progressive. The act of sustained arguing will take place before
the meeting is over.

The plumber and his assistant will have soldered all the
new joins in pipes before they leave for the next job.

When he returns, the wine will have been fermenting

for three months.

Here the ongoing action of fermentation will precede ("will have

been fermenting") the act of returning.

Using Verb Tenses in Sequence

Using verbs in correct sequence is often difficult, especially for
those people whose cradle tongue is not English or whose cradle
tongue does not uses a similar tense system. The situation is
further complicated by the fact that context, idiom, and style play
as large a role in determining tense sequence as grammatical rules.
In order to determine correct verb sequence, you must be able to
identify independent and dependent clauses. The sequence of
tenses in complex sentences is usually determined by the tense of
the verb in the independent clause. (In compound sentences, use
the tenses that fit the logic of the sentence.)
Present Tenses in Sequence
In general, present tenses may be followed by a wide variety of
tenses as long as the sequence fits the logic of the sentence.
The four present tenses are the simple present, the present
progressive, the present perfect, and the present perfect
progressive. When these tenses are used in an independent clause,
the verb in the dependent clause can be a present tense verb, a past
tense verb or a future tense verb, as in the following sentences.
Deborah waits patiently while Bridget books the
tickets.
The simple present tense is used in both the independent clause
and the dependent clause.
They have not delivered the documents we need.
The verb of the independent clause "They have not delivered the
documents" is in the present perfect tense. The verb in the
dependent clause "we need" is in the simple present tense. The
simple future could also be used in the dependent clause ("we will
need").
I have been relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for
the gifts I buy for my large family.
In this sentence the compound verb of the independent clause ("I
have been relying on my Christmas bonus to pay for the gift") is

in the present perfect progressive. The simple predicate of the

dependent clause ("I buy for my large family") is in the simple
present ("buy"). The simple future could also be used ("will buy").

Since actions of the second dependent clause ("that Christian had

raved about") precedes the other actions in the sentence, the past
perfect is most appropriate verb tense.

Even though the coroner has been carefully examining

the corpse discovered in Sutherland's Gully since early
this morning, we still do not know the cause of death.

We fed the elephant oats for a week because it had

eaten all the hay.

In this sentence the compound verb of the independent clause

("we still do not know the cause of death") is in the simple present
tense. The simple predicate of the dependent clause ("Even though
the coroner has been carefully examining the corpse discovered in
Sutherland's Gully since early this morning") in the present
perfect progressive tense ("has been . . . examining").
The government has cut university budgets;
consequently, the dean has increased the size of most
classes.
In this compound sentence, both predicates are in the present
perfect. The simple future could also be used in the second
independent clause ("consequently, the dean will increase the size
of most classes") if the writer wants to suggest that the dean's
action will take place in the future.
Past Tenses in Sequence
When the verb in the independent clause is the past tense, the verb
in the dependent clause is usually in a past tense as well. The past
tenses are the simple past, the past progressive, the past perfect,
and the past perfect progressive.
The verb in dependent clause should accurately reflect the
temporal relationship of the two clauses.
If the action in the dependent clause occurred before action in the
independent clause, the past perfect is usually the most
appropriate tense for the dependent clause, as in the following
sentences.
Miriam arrived at 5:00 p.m. but Mr. Whitaker had
closed the store.
The action of dependent clause ("but Mr. Whitaker had closed the
store") is described with a past perfect tense ("had closed")
because the act of closing takes place before the act of arriving.
The simple predicate of the independent clause ("by the time
Miriam arrived") is in the simple past.
After we located the restaurant that Christian had raved
about, we ate supper there every Friday.

In this sentence, both actions take place in the past, but the action
of the independent clause (the feeding oats) follows the action of
dependent clause (the eating of the hay) and as a result, the
predicate of the dependent clause is in the past perfect ("had
eaten").
After she had learnedd to drive, Alice felt more
independent.
In this example the predicate of the dependent clause is in the past
perfect ("had learned") because the act of learning preceded the
independent clause's the act of feeling independent.
If the action in the dependent clause, occurs at the same time as
the action in the independent clause, the tense usually match. So if
the simple past is used in the independent clause, the simple past
may also used in the dependent clause.
When the verb of the independent clause is one of the progressive
tenses, the simple past is usually the most appropriate tense for the
dependent clause, as in the following sentences:
Lena was telling a story about the exploits of a red cow
when a tree branch broke the parlour window.
Here the action "was telling" took place in the past and continued
for some time in the past. The breaking of the window is described
in the simple past.
When the recess bell rang, Jesse was writing a long
division problem on the blackboard.
This sentence describes actions ("ran" and "was writing") that
took place sometime in the past, and emphasis the continuing
nature of the action that takes place in the independent clause
("was writing").
One of the most common source of verb sequence error arises
from a confusion of the present perfect ("has walked") and the
past perfect ("had walked"). Both tense convey a sense of
pastness, but the present perfect is categorised as a present tense
verb.
One of the easiest ways of determining whether you've used the
perfect tenses correctly is to examine the auxiliary verb.

Remember "has" is a present tense auxiliary and "had" and "have"

are past tense auxiliaries. The future tense auxiliary is "will."

present subjunctive: "paint"

walks
present subjunctive: "walk"
thinks
present subjunctive: "think"
is
present subjunctive: "be"

Using Verb Moods

A verb may be in one of three moods: the indicative mood, the
imperative mood, and the subjunctive mood.

Except for the verb "be," the past tense subjunctive is

indistinguishable in form from the past tense indicative. The past
tense subjunctive of "be" is "were".
painted
past subjunctive: "painted"

The Indicative Mood

walked

The indicative mood is the most common and is used to express

facts and opinions or to make inquiries. Most of the statements
you make or you read will be in the indicative mood.

thought

past subjunctive: "walked"

The highlighted verbs in the following sentences are all in the

indicative mood:
Joe picks up the boxes.
The german shepherd fetches the stick.
Charles closes the window.
The Imperative Mood
The imperative mood is also common and is used to give orders
or to make requests. The imperative is identical in form to the
second person indicative.
The highlighted verbs in the following sentences are all in the
imperative mood:
Pick up those boxes.
Fetch.
Close the window.
The Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive mood has almost disappeared from the language
and is thus more difficult to use correctly than either the indicative
mood or the imperative mood. The subjunctive mood rarely
appears in everyday conversation or writing and is used in a set of
specific circumstances.
You form the present tense subjunctive by dropping the "s" from
the end of the third person singular, except for the verb "be".
paints

past subjunctive: "thought"

was
past subjunctive: "were"
The subjunctive is found in a handful of traditional
circumstances. For example, in the sentence "God save the
Queen", the verb "save" is in the subjunctive mood. Similarly, in
the sentence "Heaven forbid", the verb forbid is in the subjunctive
mood.
The subjunctive is usually found in complex sentences. The
subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses to express unreal
conditions and in dependent clauses following verbs of wishing or
requesting.
The subjunctive mood is used in a dependent clause attached to an
independent clause that uses a verb such as "ask," "command,"
"demand," "insist," "order," "recommend," "require" "suggest," or
"wish."
The subjunctive mood is also used in a dependent clause attached
to an independent clause that uses an adjective that expresses
urgency (such as "crucial," "essential", "important," "imperative,"
"necessary," or "urgent").
Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the
subjunctive mood.
It is urgent that Harraway attend Monday's meeting.
The Member of Parliament demanded that the Minister
explain the effects of the bill on the environment.
The sergeant ordered that Calvin scrub the walls of the
mess hall.
We suggest that Mr. Beatty move the car out of the no
parking zone.
The committee recommended that the bill be passed
immediately.

If Canada were a tropical country, we would be able to

grow pineapples in our backyards.
If he were more generous, he would not have chased
the canvassers away from his door.
I wish that this book were still in print.
If the council members were interested in stopping
street prostitution, they would urge the police to pursue
customers more vigorously than they pursue the
prostitutes.