-1-

C++ (C with Classes)

Object Oriented Programming (OOP)
The

term

Object

Oriented

Programming

means

programming language that fully supports the object oriented

(features) style of programming.

Introduction
C++ is an object-oriented programming language developed by
Bjarne Stroustrup at AT & T Bell Labs in the early 1980s.
Since the class concept was the major addition to the original C
language, it is called as "C with classes". However later in 1983, the
name was changed to C++. The idea of C++ comes from the 'C'
increment operator "++", there by suggesting that C++ is an
incremented version of 'C'. C++ is a superset of C. Therefore almost all
C programs are valid C++ programs.

Difference between C & C++

C is a procedure-oriented programming language where
everything is placed in the form of procedures or functions. While we
concentrate on functions very little attention is given to the data that
are being used by various functions & any function can access the
information provided in other functions. It doesnt model the real
world problems very well. It employs top-down approach in program
design.
Where as C++ is an object-oriented programming language which
treats data as a critical element in the program and it doesnt allow
moving freely around the system. It binds the data & the functions

-2that operate on data together and protects it from accidental use of

other functions.
OOP allows us to decompose a problem into a number of entities
called objects and built data and functions around these objects.

Advantages of OOP
1. Object Oriented Approach
2. Closer to real world object
3. Dynamic Declaration
4. Data Security
5. Code Re-Usability & Extensibility

Basic concepts of Object-Oriented programming language

Class
A class is a blueprint or prototype that defines the variables and the
methods common to all objects of a certain kind.
A class is a logical construct of an object.
A class is an abstract representation of something, whereas an object
is a usable example of the class.
A class is an expanded concept of a structure in C, instead of holding
only data; it can hold both data and functions. Once a class has been
defined, you can create any number of objects based on that class.

Object
An object is an instance (example or illustration) of a class. In
terms of variables, a class would be the data type and an object
would be the variable.
An object is a physical reality.

-3An object is a software bundle of related variables and methods.

Software objects are often used to model real-world objects you find in
everyday life.

Polymorphism (many forms)

An ability to have more than one function with the same name,
each having different functionality. The function going to execute is
determined at run time. Polymorphism refers to the fact that a single
operation can have different behavior in different objects.
E.g.: Overloading, Overriding.
Overloading:
Overloading is the practice of supplying more than
one definition for a given function name in the same scope. The
compiler is left to pick the appropriate version of the function or
operator based on the arguments with which it is called.

Inheritance
The mechanism of creating new classes by deriving the features
from existing classes is called Inheritance.
In OOP the concept of inheritance provides the idea of reusability &
extensibility. This means that we can add additional features of an
existing class without modifying it. This is possible by deriving a new
class from the existing one. The new class will have the combined
features of both the classes.

Encapsulation

-4The method of packing all the data members & member

functions into a single unit called class and the process is called
Encapsulation

Data Hiding
The process of hiding the data members and member functions
from access by the other class objects other than the same class
objects.
The data is not accessible to the outside world and only those
functions which are placed in the class can access it, these functions
provide the interface between objects data and the program. The
insulation of data from direct access by the program is called data
hiding.

Data Abstraction
It is the process of accessing the data members & member
functions with the objects.
Abstraction refers to the act of representing essential features without
including the background details and explanations. Classes use the
concept of abstraction and defined as a list of abstraction attributes.
Since the classes use the concept of data abstraction they are known
as Abstract Data Type (ADT).

Data Binding
Binding refers to the act of associating an object or a class with
its member. If we can call a method fn() on an object o of a class c, we
say that the object o is binded with the method fn(). This happens at
compile time and is known as static or compile - time binding.

-5The calls to the virtual member functions are resolved during runtime. This mechanism is known as dynamic binding. The most
prominent reason why a virtual function will be used is to have a
different functionality in the derived class. The difference between a
non-virtual member function and a virtual member function is the
non-virtual member functions are resolved at compile time.

Structure of C++ program:

Include files
Class declaration
Member functions definition
Main function
{
Local declaration;
Object declaration;
Executable coding;
}

Syntax for Class Declaration

class class_name
{
access_specifier_1:
data members;
access_specifier_2:

-6member functions;
.
} object_names;
where class_name is a valid identifier for the class, object_names is an
optional list of names for objects of this class. The body of the
declaration can contain members, which can be either data or
function declarations, or optionally access specifiers.
All is very similar to the declaration on structures, except the new
thing called access specifier.
An access specifier is one of the following three keywords:
private, public or protected. These specifiers modify the access rights
that the members following them acquire:

private members of a class are accessible only within the class

and by the public members of the same class or from their
friends.

protected members are accessible from members of their same

class and from their friends, but also from members of their
derived classes.

public members are accessible from anywhere in the program

where the object is visible.

By default, all members of a class declared with the class keyword

have private access for all its members.
Function Definitions outside the class

-7Member functions that are declared inside a class have to be

defined separately outside the class. They should have a function
definition outside the class as

return_type class_name :: function_name(arguments list)

{
function body;
}
The membership label class_name :: tells the compiler that the
function belongs to the class class_name. That is the scope of the
function is restricted to the class_name specified in the header line.
The symbol "::" is called Scope Resolution operator.
The scope operator (::) specifies the class to which the member being
declared belongs, granting exactly the same scope properties as if this
function definition was directly included within the class definition.
The only difference between defining a class member function
completely within its class and to include only the prototype and later
its definition, is that in the first case the function will automatically be
considered an inline member function by the compiler, while in the
second it will be a normal (not-inline) class member function, which in
fact supposes no difference in behavior.
Inline Function
They are shortcut functions that are not actually called; rather
their code is expanded at the point of execution. If a function is
declared with the keyword inline, the compiler does not call the actual

-8function instead it copies the code from the inline function directly
into the calling function.
Inline is a hint to the compiler that you would like the function to be
inlined. The compiler is free to ignore the hint and make a real
function call.

this pointer:
"this" is a pointer that points the address of the current object.
The unique pointer is automatically passed to a member function
when it is called. The pointer "this" acts as an implicit argument to all
the member functions.

Object Arrays
We know that an array can be of any data type including struct;
similarly we can also have arrays of variables that are of the type
class. Such variables are called arrays of objects.

class employ
{
char name[10];
int age;
public:
void inputdata();
void outputdata();
};
ex:employ emp[5];

-9Create A Class With The Name Bank And Create An Array With 5
Cells And Accept Data And Print Data.
Example for an Object Arrays.
# include <stdio.h>
# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>

class bank
{
int acno,cbal;
char cname[20];
public:
void input();
void output();
};
void bank::input()
{
cout<<"ENTER A/C NUMBER :";
cin>>acno;
cout<<"ENTER CUSTOMER NAME :";
cin>>cname;
cout<<"ENTER CURRENT BALANCE

:";

cin>>cbal;
}
void bank::output()
{
cout<<"ACCOUNT NUMBER IS

:"<<acno<<endl;

cout<<"CUSTOMER NAME IS :"<<cname<<endl;

cout<<"CURRENT BALANCE IS

:"<<cbal<<endl;

- 10 }
void main()
{
int i;
bank b[5];
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
cout<<"ENTER VALUES FOR CELL :"<<i<<endl;
b[i].input();
}
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
cout<<"THE VALUES OF THE CELL

:"<<i<<endl;

b[i].output();
getch();
}
}
Stream
A stream is defined as a collection of pre-defined objects. The
iostream (Input/Output stream) defines the following two objects.

cout
cout

is

an

object,

defined

in

standard

output

stream(ostream).The standard output stream normally flows to the

screen. cout is an object of the class ostream with assign, which is
derived from ostream class.

- 11 -

<<
The operator << is called insertion or put to operator. It directs
the contents of the variable on its right to the object on its left.
Screen <----- cout <----- << <--- variable
e.g; screen<---cout<<"welcome";

cin
cin is an object, defined in standard input stream (istream). This
stream represents data coming from the keyboard. cin is an object of
istream with assign class, which is derived from istream class.

>>
This operator is called extraction or get from operator. It takes
the value from the stream on its left and places it in the variable on its
right.
Keyboard ---> cin ---> >> ---> variable
eg: keyboard-->cin>>x;

Basic Data Types

Built-in-Data types: int, char, float, double, void
User-defined types: structure, union, class, enumeration
Derived types: array, function, pointer, reference

Reference Variable
A reference variable provides an alias (alternative name) for a
previously defined variable.
Syntax:

data_type &ref_var_name = variable;

- 12 E.g.: int x = 200;

int &xref = x;
A reference variable must be initialized at the time of declaration. This
establishes the correspondence between the reference and the data
object that it names. Here the "&" is not an address operator. The
notation datatype followed by "&" means that it is the reference to that
datatype.

Example for Reference Variable

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
# include <iostream.h>
void main()
{
int a=200;
int &b=a;
int &c=b;
clrscr();
cout<<"A VALUE IS :"<<a<<endl;
cout<<"B VALUE IS :"<<b<<endl;
cout<<"C VALUE IS :"<<c<<endl;
getch();
b=55;
cout<<"A VALUE IS :"<<a<<endl;
cout<<"B VALUE IS :"<<b<<endl;
cout<<"C VALUE IS :"<<c<<endl;
getch();

- 13 c=3500;
cout<<"A VALUE IS :"<<a<<endl;
cout<<"B VALUE IS :"<<b<<endl;
cout<<"C VALUE IS :"<<c<<endl;
getch();
}

Default Arguments
C++ allows calling a function without specifying all its
arguments. In such cases the function assigns a default value to the
parameter which does not have a matching argument in the function
call. We have to specify the default values when the function is
declared. The compiler looks at the prototype (declaration) to see how
many arguments the function uses and alerts the program for
possible default values. One important point is that only the trailing
arguments can have default values i.e. you must add default from
right to left. It is not possible to provide a default value to a particular
argument in the middle of the argument list.

Ex:

int add (int x, int y=0, int z=0);

int mul (int a=1,int b=20,int c=40)
Ex:

add (10,20,30);
add (10,20);
add (10);
add ();

does not allow because there is no default

value for argument x.

Another Example for Default arguments

- 14 # include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
int add(int a,int b,int c=0,int d=0,int e=0)
{
return (a+b+c+d+e);
}
void main()
{
int m,n,p,q,r;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER ANY FIVE INTEGERS :"<<endl;
cin>>m>>n>>p>>q>>r;
cout<<"ADDITION OF 2 NUMBERS
ARE

:"<<add(m,n)<<endl;

cout<<"ADDITION OF 3 NUMBERS ARE :"<<add(m,n,p)<<endl;

cout<<"ADDITION OF 4 NUMBERS ARE :"<<add(m,n,p,q)<<endl;
cout<<"ADDITION OF 5 NUMBERS ARE :"<<add(m,n,p,q,r)<<endl;
getch();
}

Memory Management Operators (Dynamic Memory Allocation)

The part of the computer memory available to programmers, is
divided into two areas: The Stack and The Heap (or Free Store).
The Stack is used for those items that have a definite size and
lifetime, for example, variables, arrays, etc. All the elements of a
program where they are explicitly defined before compilation are
stored statically.

- 15 The Heap represents the remaining unused memory. This part of

memory is generally used during the execution of the program. Any
object that is created at run time is a dynamic object. Such an object
has an unknown size and lifetime.
Creating dynamic objects is very useful in creating highly interactive
programs.
Memory Management operators:
C uses malloc() and calloc() functions to allocate memory
dynamically at runtime. Similarly it uses the function free() to free
dynamically

allocated

memory.

Although

C++

supports

these

functions, it also defines two unary operators 'new' and 'delete' that
perform the task of allocating and freeing the memory in a better and
easier way. Since these operators manipulate memory on the free
store, these are also known as free store operators.
To allocate the memory space dynamically during run time we
can use new operator & in order to free the memory space which is
allocated with new we can use the operator delete.

The 'new' operator can be used to create objects of any type.

Syntax:
pointer_variable_name = new datatype

Here pointer_variable is a pointer of type datatype. The new

operator allocates sufficient memory to hold a data objects of TYPE
datatype and return the address of the object. The datatype may be
any valid datatype. The pointer variable holds the address of the
memory space allocated.
E.g.

int *p;

- 16 float *q;
p = new int[10];
q = new float [20];
Where p is a pointer of type int and q is a pointer of type float.
When a data object is no longer needed, it is destroyed to release
the memory space for reuse, in that case we can use 'delete' operator.

Syntax:
delete pointer_variable;

The pointer_variable is the pointer that points to a data object

created with new operator.
E.g.

delete p;
delete []p//for freeing an array of size
delete q;
sales s;
sales *q;
q =&s;
qinput() or sales.input();
qprint() or sales.print();

Example Program for Dynamic Memory Allocation.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,*a,*p;

- 17 clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER NUMBER OF CELLS";
cin>>n;
a=new int[n];
for(p=a;(p-a)<n;p++)
{
cout<<"ENTER ANY VALUE TO ARRAY :";
cin>>*p;
}
clrscr();
for(p=a;(p-a)<n;p++)
{
printf("THE CELL NUMBER IS

%d\t:",(p-a));

printf("THE CELL ADDRESS IS

\n:",p);

cout<<"VALUE OF ARRAY

:"<<*p<<endl;

}
delete a;
getch();
}

Example Program for Object Arrays with Dynamic Memory

Allocation.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class st
{
int sno, m1, m2, m3;

- 18 char sna[20];
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT NUMBER:";
cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S NAME:";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER THE MARKS OF THREE SUBJECTS:";
cin>>m1>>m2>>m3;
}
int get_tot()
{
return(m1+m2+m3);
}
void print()
{
cout<<"STUDENT NUMBER IS:"<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"STUDENT'S NAME IS:"<<sna<<endl;
cout<<"MARKS IN THREE SUBJECTS
ARE:"<<m1<<"\t"<<m2<<"\t"<<m3<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
st *p,*p1;
int tot,av,n;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER NUMBER OF CELLS:";

- 19 cin>>n;
p=new st[n];
for(p1=p;(p1-p)<n;p1++)
p1->accept();
clrscr();
cout<<"THE VALUE OF THE ARRAY IS :";
for(p1=p;(p1-p)<n;p1++)
{
tot=p1->get_tot();
av=tot/3;
printf("THE ADDRESS OF CELL IS \n",p1);
cout<<"THE VALUE OF CELL IS

:"<<(p1-p)<<endl;

p1->print();
cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE :"<<tot<<endl;
cout<<"AVERAGE MARKS ARE :"<<av<<endl;
getch();
}
delete p;
}

Function Overloading
'Function overloading' means we have to perform the different
operations by using the same method.
The compiler will come to know the execution of a particular
function depending on the maching of number of arguments & their
return type during the function call

Ex: int sum(int)

int sum(int,int)

- 20 void sum(float, int)

void sum(float, int,int)

In the above example we are using the same method 'sum' but
the first method 'sum' performing it's operation by taking only one
argument of 'type' & the second method 'sum' performing its operation
by taking two arguments of type 'int' and so on.
Ex:sum(15) //will make a call to first function sum
sum(25,60)//will make a call to second function sum

STATIC MEMBERS
If we want to declare the data members that is common to all
the objects created in that class we have to declare those data
members as the static data members & the syntax for declaring static
data member is
static data-type variable-name; Ex: static int a;
The above data member 'a' will be shared by all the objects created in
that class i.e only one copy of that data member is created for all the
object without creating a separate copy. Whenever we create a data
member as a static it will be initialized to '0' automatically, and we can
define the value for the static data members outside the class i.e with
the help of the scope resolution operator & it's syntax is
data-type class-name :: data-member-name=value
Ex:
int example :: a; It means the value of a is initialized to 0
int example :: a=10; It means the value of a is initialized to 10

Static member function:

- 21 We can also declare a member function as a static. The syntax

for declaring a member function as static is
Syntax: static return-type function-name(arguments);

Inheritance:

The process of creating a new class by deriving the features from

existing
classes. It provides the concept of reusability & extensibility.
The term 'reusability' means the ability to use the data provided in
one class by another class & 'Extensibility' provides the ability to add
some more data members & member functions to the already existing
class

- 22 The main class is called as 'base class' & the class which is acquiring
the features of the base class is called as derived class & the syntax
for defining the derived class is

class derived_class_name : access_specifier base_class_name

{
//data members & member function of derived class
}
The

'access-specifer'

specifies

the

method

of

accessing

the

information provided in the base class & it will be accessed in any one
of the three ways.
1. private
2. protected
3. public

Inheriting in private mode: If the derived class acquires the features

of base class in private mode

base
private
protected
public

derived
will become
''

private
private
private

Inheriting in protected mode:

If we acquire the features of base

class in 'protected mode' its characteristics will be

base
private

derived
will become

private

- 23 protected

"

protected

public

"

protected

Inheriting in public mode: In 'public' access specifier the following

the characteristics of the base class in derived class

base

derived

private

will become

private

protected

"

private

public

"

public

In all the above three cases the 'private' data members of the
base class is not inheritable. If we want to access those 'private' data
members we have to declare a function in 'public' mode

in the base

class & with that member function we can access them in the derived
class
If we want to define those data members in the derived class itself we
have declare those data members in 'protected' mode, but these will be
available up to one level only i.e it's accessible to the immediate class
which is accessing it's features
Both 'private' & 'protected' data members are not accessible in the
main() function. 'public' data-members & member functions will be
accessible anywhere in our program i.e they are accessible in the
main() function also

Reusability is another important feature of OOP. It is always nice if we

could reuse something that already exists rather than trying to create
the same all over again. C++ strongly supports the concept of
reusability. The C++ classes can be reused in several ways. Once a

- 24 class has been written and tested, it can be adopted by other

programmers to send their requirements. Creating new classes,
reusing the properties of the existing ones basically does this. The
mechanism of deriving a new class from an old one is called
"Inheritance" (or derivation). The old class referred to as the base class
and the new one is called derived class.

The derived class inherits some or all the properties of the base
class. A class can also inherit properties from more than one class of
from more than one level.

A derived class with only one base class is called single

inheritance, and one derived class with several base classes is called
multiple inheritance. On the other hand, the properties of one class
may be inherited by more than one class. This process is known as
hierarchical inheritance. The mechanism of deriving a class from
another derived class is known as multilevel inheritance. The
combination of any of two inheritances is called hybrid inheritance.

Defining a Derived Class

A derived class is defined by specifying it's relationship with the
base class in addition to it's own details.
Syntax:

class derived class_name : visibility_mode

name
{

};

-------

-------

-------

//members of derived class

base class

- 25 The colon (:) indicates that the derived class name is derived
from the base class name. The visibility mode is optional and if
present, it may be either private or public. The default visibility mode
is private. This mode specifies whether the features of the base class
are privately derived or publicly derived.
When a base class is privately inherited by a derived class,
public members of the base class become private members of the
derived class and therefore the public members of the base class can
only be accessed by the member functions of the derived class. They
are inaccessible to the objects of the derived class. A public member of
a class can be accessed by its own objects using the dot operator. The
result is that no member of the base class is accessible to the objects
of the derived class.
When a base class is publicly inherited by a derived class,
public members of the base class becomes the pubic members to the
derived class and therefore they are accessible to the objects of the
dedrived class.
In both the cases private members are not inherited and
therefore the private members of a base class will never become the
members of it's derived class.
E.g.:
class B:public A
{
- - - - - - //members of class B
---------------};

- 26 Example Program for Single Inheritance.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
class a
{
int x,y;
void input(int p,int r)
{
x=p;
y=r;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"X VALUE IS :"<<x<<endl;
cout<<"Y VALUE IS :"<<y<<endl;
}
class b:public a

//deriving a derived class

{
int m,n;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER TWO INTEGERS :";
cin>>m,n;
}
void display()
{
cout<<"M VALUE IS

:"<<m<<endl;

- 27 cout<<"N VALUE IS

:"<<n<<endl;

}
};
void main()
{
b t;

//object declared for class b

clrscr();
t.input(253,445);//member function of base class
t.accept();

//function of the derived class

clrscr();
t.print();

//function of the base class

t.display(); //function of the derived class

getch();
}

Example Program for Multilevel Inheritance or a Derived Class

from another Derived Class.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <string.h>
# include <conio.h>
class student
{
int sno;
char sna[10],sadd[10];
public:
void input()
{

- 28 cout<<"ENTER STUDENT NUMBER :";

cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S NAME :";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S ADDRESS :";
cin>>sadd;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"STUDENT NUMBER IS

"<<sno<<endl;

cout<<"STUENT'S NAME IS "<<sna<<endl;

cout<<"STUDENT'S ADDRESS IS

"<<sadd<<endl;

}
};
class fees:public student
{
int tf,fp,due;
char cou[10];
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER COURSE NAME

:";

cin>>cou;
cout<<"ENTER TOTAL FEE

:";

cin>>tf;
cout<<"HOW MUCH FEE IS PAID
cin>>fp;
due=tf-fp;
}

:";

- 29 void display()
{
cout<<"COURSE NAME IS

:"<<cou<<endl;

cout<<"TOTAL FEE IS :"<<tf<<endl;

cout<<"FEE PAID IS

:"<<fp<<endl;

cout<<"DUE FEE IS

:"<<tf-fp<<endl;

}
};
class marks:public fees
{
int tm,mm,mp,mc,am;
char res[15];
public:
void marksin()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN MATHS :";
cin>>mm;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN PHYSICS

:";

cin>>mp;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN CHEMISTRY :";
cin>>mc;
}
void resout()
{
tm=mm+mp+mc;
am=tm/3;
if(am>75)
strcpy(res,"DISTINCTION");
else if(am>=60)

- 30 strcpy(res,"FIRST CLASS");
else if(am>=50)
strcpy(res,"SECOND CLASS");
else if(am>=35)
strcpy(res,"THIRD CLASS");
else
strcpy(res,"FAILED");
cout<<"MARKS IN MATHS ARE

:"<<mm<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN PHYSICS ARE

:"<<mp<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN CHEMISTRY ARE

:"<<mc<<endl;

cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE :"<<tm<<endl;

cout<<"AVERAGE MARKS ARE

:"<<am<<endl;

cout<<"RESULT IS--------------:"<<res<<endl;
}
};

void main()
{
clrscr();
marks obj; //object declaration
obj.input();//member function of class student
obj.accept();//member function of class fees
obj.marksin();//member function of class marks
clrscr();
obj.output(); //member function of class student
obj.display();//member function of class fees
obj.resout();//member function of class marks
getch();
}

- 31 -

Multiple Inheritance:
A class can inherit the attributes of two or more classes. This is
known as multiple inheritance. Multiple inheritance allows combining
the features of several existing classes as a starting point for defining
a new class.

Syntax:
class derived_class : visibility label base class, visibility label base
class
{
-- - - - - - - - - ------------------------------}
Where visibility label is either public or private. Comma
separate the base classes.

Protected Members:
C++ provides a third visibility modifier protected, which serve a
limited purpose in inheritance. A member declared as protected is
accessible by the member functions with in its class and any class
derived from it as the public member of the base class. It cannot be
accessed by the functions outside these classes.
When a protected member is inherited in public mode, it
becomes protected in the derived class too and therefore it is
accessible by the member functions of the derived class. It is also
ready for further inheritance.

- 32 -

A protected member is inherited in the private mode derivation,

that becomes private in the derived class. Although it is available to
the member functions of the derived class. It is not available for
further inheritance since private members cannot be inherited.

E.g.:
class A
{
protected:
int a;
------------------};
class B:public A
{
- - - - - - //members of class A are
- - - - - - //protected to class B
-----};
class C:private B
{
- - - - - - //members of class A are
- - - - - - //private to class C
-----};
class D:public C
{

- 33 - - - - - - //members of class A cannot be

- - - - - - //accessed in class D
-----};

Example

Program

For

Multiple

Inheritance

And

Protected

Members. (Two Or More Base Classes One Derived Class Is Called

Multiple Inheritance).

# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
class employ
{
protected:
int eno,bs;
char ena[10],eadd[15];
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NUMBER :";
cin>>eno;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NAME

:";

cin>>ena;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY ADDRESS :";
cin>>eadd;
cout<<"ENTER BASIC SALARY
cin>>bs;
}
};

:";

- 34 class allow
{
protected:
int da,hra,cca;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER DA:";
cin>>da;
cout<<"ENTER HRA:";
cin>>hra;
cout<<"ENTER CCA:";
cin>>cca;
}
};
class ded
{
protected:
int pf,it;
public:
void dedinput()
{
cout<<"ENTER PROVIDENT FUND:";
cin>>pf;
cout<<"ENTER INCOME TAX:";
cin>>it;
}
};
class salary:public employ,public allow,public ded

- 35 {
int tall,tded,gs,ns;
public:
void calc_sal()
{
tall=da+hra+cca;
tded=pf+it;
gs=bs+tall;
ns=gs-tded;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"EMPLOY NUMBER IS:"<<eno<<endl;
cout<<"EMPLOY NAME IS

:"<<ena<<endl;

cout<<"EMPLOY ADDRESS IS

:"<<eadd<<endl;

cout<<"BASIC SALARY IS

:"<<bs<<endl;

cout<<"EMPLOY'S DA IS
cout<<"EMPLOY'S HRA IS

:"<<hra<<endl;

cout<<"EMPLOY'S CCA IS

:"<<cca<<endl;

cout<<"EMPLOY'S PF IS

:"<<pf<<endl;

cout<<"EMPLOY'S IT IS

:"<<it<<endl;

cout<<"TOTAL ALLOWANCES

:"<<tall<<endl;

cout<<"TOTAL DEDUCTIONS

:"<<tded<<endl;

cout<<"EMPLOY'S GROSS SALARY IS

:"<<gs<<endl;

cout<<"EMPLOY'S NET SALARY IS

:"<<ns<<endl;

}
};
void main()
{

:"<<da<<endl;

- 36 salary s;
s.input();
s.accept();
s.dedinput();
clrscr();
s.calc_sal();
s.output();
getch();
}

Hierarchical Inheritance:
In the hierarchical inheritance different classes are derived from
one base class. A subclass can be constructed by inheriting the
properties of the base class. A subclass can serve as a base class for
the lower classes and so on.

Example Program for Hierarchical Inheritance.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include<string.h>
class student
{
int sno;
char sna[10],sadd[10];
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S NUMBER

:";

- 37 cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S NAME :";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER STUDET'S ADDRESS

:";

cin>>sadd;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"STUDENT'S NUMBER IS

:"<<sno<<endl;

cout<<"STUDENT'S NAME IS

:"<<sna<<endl;

cout<<"STUDENT'S ADDRESS IS

:"<<sadd<<endl;

}
};
class lang
{
int mt,me;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN TELUGU:";
cin>>mt;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN ENGLISH

:";

cin>>me;
}
void display()
{

cout<<"TELUGU MARKS ARE

:"<<mt<<endl;

cout<<"ENGLISH MARKS ARE

:"<<me<<endl;

- 38 };
class mathes:public lang
{
int mm,mp,mc;
public:
void sentry()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN MATHS :";
cin>>mm;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN PHYSICS

:";

cin>>mp;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN CHEMISTRY:";
cin>>mc;
}
void sprint()
{
cout<<"MARKS IN MATHS ARE

:"<<mm<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN PHYSICS ARE

:"<<mp<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN CHEMISTRY ARE

:"<<mc<<endl;

cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE :"<<mt+me+mm+mp+mc<<endl;

}
};
class computers:public lang
{
int mmt,mph,mcs;
public:
void sentry()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN MATHS :";

- 39 cin>>mmt;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN PHYSICS

:";

cin>>mph;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN COMPUTERS:";
cin>>mcs;
}
void sprint()
{
cout<<"MARKS IN MATHS ARE

:"<<mmt<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN PHYSICS ARE

:"<<mph<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN COMPTERS ARE

:"<<mcs<<endl;

cout<<"TOTAL MARKS
ARE

:"<<mt+me+mmt+mph+mcs<<endl;

}
};
class arts:public lang
{
int mhs,mec,mci;
public:
void sentry()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN HISTORY

:";

cin>>mhs;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN ECONOMICS:";
cin>>mec;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN CIVICS :";
cin>>mci;
}
void sprint()

- 40 {
cout<<"HISTORY MARKS ARE

:"<<mhs<<endl;

cout<<"ECONOMICS MARKS ARE :"<<mec<<endl;

cout<<"CIVICS MARKS ARE :"<<mci<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE :"<<mt+me+mhs+mec+mci<<endl;
}
};
void main()
{
mathes m;
computers cs;
arts a;
clrscr();
m.accept();
m.sentry();
clrscr();
cs.accept();
cs.sentry();
clrscr();
a.accept();
a.sentry();
clrscr();
m.display();
m.sprint();
getch();
cs.display();
cs.sprint();
getch();
a.display();

- 41 a.sprint();
getch();
}

Example for Hybrid Example. (The Combination Of Any Two

Inheritance Is Called Hybrid Inheritance.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>
class student
{
protected:
int sno;
char sna[20],sadd[25];
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER STUENT NUMBER :";
cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S NAME :";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER STUDENT'S ADDRESS:";
cin>>sadd;
}
};
class test:public student
{

- 42 protected:
int mm,mp,mc;
public:
void mentry()
{
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN MATHS :";
cin>>mm;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN PHYSICS
cin>>mp;
cout<<"ENTER MARKS IN CHEMISTRY:";
cin>>mc;
}
};
class sports
{
protected:
int sm;
public:
void sentry()
{
cout<<"ENTER SPORTS MARKS

:";

cin>>sm;
}
};
class result:public test, public sports
{
int tot,avg;
char res[20];
public:

:";

- 43 void findres()
{
tot=mm+mp+mc;
avg=tot/3;
if(sm>50)
avg=avg+5;
if(avg>=75)
strcpy(res,"DISTINCTION");
else if(avg>=60)
strcpy(res,"FIRST CLASS");
else if(avg>=50)
strcpy(res,"SECOND CLASS");
else if(avg>=35)
strcpy(res,"THIRD CLASS");
else if(avg<35)
strcpy(res,"FAILED");
}
void display()
{
cout<<"STUDENT NUMBER IS
cout<<"STUDENT'S NAME IS

:"<<sno<<endl;
:"<<sna<<endl;

cout<<"STUDENT'S ADDRESS IS :"<<sadd<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN MATHS ARE

:"<<mm<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN PHYSICS ARE :"<<mp<<endl;

cout<<"MARKS IN CHEMISTRY ARE:"<<mc<<endl;
cout<<"TOTAL MARKS ARE
cout<<"AVERAGE MARKS ARE
cout<<"RESULT OBTAINED
}

:"<<tot<<endl;
:"<<avg<<endl;
:"<<res<<endl;

- 44 };
void main()
{
result r;
clrscr();
r.input(); //member function of student class
r.mentry(); //member function of test class
r.sentry(); //member function of sports class
r.findres(); //member function of result class
clrscr();
r.display();
getch();
}

Friend function
A friend function is a special function which is not a member
of any class but it is declared to access the private member data
& functions provided in that class.
C++ allows a common function to be made friendly with one or
more classes, there by allowing the function to have access to the
private data of these classes, such a function need not be a member of
any of these classes, only thing is to declare that function as a friend
to the class.

Syntax for defining a friend function

class sample

- 45 {
private:
member declaration;
public:
member function declaration;

friend return_type function_name(arguments); //friend

};
The function declaration should be preceded by the keyword "friend".
The function definition does not use the keyword friend or the scope
resolution operator "::". The functions that are declared with the key
word friend are known as friend functions. A function can be
declared as a friend in any number of classes.

A friend function should possess the following characteristics

(1)It is not in the scope of the class to which it has been
declared as friend
(2)It cannot be called with the scope resolution operator
(3)It can be invoked just like a normal function without help of any
object
(4)It can be declared either in public or private without affecting its
meaning
(5)Usually it has the objects as arguments
(6)It cannot access the member names directly and has to use an
object name and dot membership operator with each member name
(Ex. s.a);

Friend Function Example.

# include <iostream.h>

- 46 # include <conio.h>
class sample;
class myclass
{
int a;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER VALUE FOR A:";
cin>>a;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"A VALUE IS

:"<<a<<endl;

}
friend int getsum(myclass m,sample a)
};
class sample
{
int x;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER A VALUE

:";

cin>>x;
}
//friend function declaration
friend int getsum(myclass m,sample s)
};

- 47 int getsum(myclass m,sample s)

{
return(m.a+s.x);
}
void main()
{
myclass c;
sample d;
int t;
clrscr();
c.input();
d.accept();
t=getsum(c,d); //friend function calling
clrscr();
c.output();
d.accept();
cout<<"TOTAL VALUE IS

:"<<t<<endl;

getch();
}
2nd Example for a Friend Function.
# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class allow;
class ded;
class employ
{
int eno,bs;
char ena[10];

- 48 public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NUMBER :";
cin>>eno;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NAME

:";

cin>>ena;
cout<<"ENTER BASIC SALARY

:";

cin>>bs;
}
friend void calc_sal(employ e,allow a,ded d);
};
class allow
{
int da,hra,cca;
public:
void getallow()
{
cout<<"ENTER DA, HRA, CCA :"<<endl;
cin>>da>>hra>>cca;
}
friend void calc_sal(employ e,allow a,ded d);
};
class ded
{
int pf,it;
public:
void getded()
{

- 49 cout<<"ENTER PF, IT :"<<endl;

cin>>pf>>it;
}
friend void calc_sal(employ e,allow a,ded d);
};
void calc_sal(employ e,allow a,ded d)
{
int gs,ns,tall,tded;
tall=d.pf+d.it+a.cca;
tded=d.pf+d.it;
gs=e.bs+tall;
ns=gs-tded;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NUMBER :"<<e.eno<<endl;
cout<<"ENTER EMPLOY NAME

:"<<e.ena<<endl;

cout<<"ENTER BASIC SALARY

:"<<e.bs<<endl;

cout<<"DA IS

:"<<a.da<<endl;

cout<<"HRA IS

:"<<a.hra<<endl;

cout<<"CCA IS

:"<<a.cca<<endl;

cout<<"PF IS

:"<<d.pf<<endl;

cout<<"IT IS

:"<<d.it<<endl;

cout<<"GROSS SALARY IS

:"<<gs<<endl;

cout<<"NET SALARY IS :"<<ns<<endl;

}
void main()
{
employ emp;
allow all;
ded s;

- 50 clrscr();
emp.accept();
all.getallow();
s.getded();
calc_sal(emp,all,s);
getch();
}

Friend Functions with Objects as Arguments and Return Type.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
class test;
class sample
{
int a;
float b;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER ANY INTEGER AND FLOAT VALUES
cin>>a>>b;
}
void display()
{
cout<<"A VALUE IS

:"<<a<<endl;

cout<<"B VALUE IS

:"<<b<<endl;

}
friend sample setsum(sample x,test y);
};

:"<<endl;

- 51 class test
{
int m;
float n;
public:
void accept()
{
cout<<"ENTER INTEGER AND FLOAT
cin>>m>>n;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"M VALUE IS

:"<<m<<endl;

cout<<"N VALUE IS

:"<<n<<endl;

}
friend sample setsum(sample x,test y);
};
sample setsum(sample x,test y)
{
sample r;
r.a=x.a+y.m;
r.b=x.b+y.n;
return r;
}
void main()
{
sample s,p;
test t;
clrscr();

:"<<endl;

- 52 s.input();
t.accept();
clrscr();
p=setsum(s,t);
cout<<"VALUE OF FIRST OBJECT IS

:"<<endl;

s.display();
cout<<"VALUE OF SECOND OBJECT IS

:"<<endl;

t.print();
cout<<"VALUE OF RESULT OBJECT IS

:"<<endl;

p.display();
getch();
}

Constructors
A constructor is a special member function whose task is to
initialize the objects or variables of a class. The constructor is invoked
implicitly (automatically) whenever an object is created. It is called
constructor, because it will be called implicitly upon the construction
of an object.
A constructor is declared as follows.
class class_name
{
data members;
public:
class_name(arguments) //constructor
{
statements;

- 53 }
};

E.g.:
class sample
{
private:
int a,b;
float x,y;
public:
sample() //constructor function
{
a=100;
b=200;
x=35.15;
y=564.25;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
sample s;
getch();
}

Characteristics of a constructor
1. It should have the same name as the class name
2. They are invoked automatically when the objects are
created.

- 54 3. They cannot be called explicitly.

4. Like C++ functions they can have default arguments.
5. They do not return any value not even void
6. They cannot be inherited but the derived class can call
the base class constructor
7. It cannot be virtual
8. We cannot refer to their addresses
9. They will make implicit called to new & delete operator
when memory allocation is required

Types of constructors (3 Types)

1. Default constructor (Non Parameterized): It wont take any
arguments.
2.

Parameterized

constructor: It can take

any no. of

arguments.
3. Copy constructor: It will take a reference of an object as an
argument.

Example for Constructors

# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class test
{
int a;
float b;
long c;
public:
test() //constructor function

- 55 {
a=230;
b=654.13;
c=54865;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"INTEGER VALUE IS :"<<a<<endl;
cout<<"FLOAT VALUE IS
cout<<"LONG VALUE IS

:"<<b<<endl;
:"<<c<<endl;

}
};

void main()
{
clrscr();
test t,s,r;
clrscr();
cout<<"VALUES OF T ARE

:"<<endl;

t.output();
cout<<"VALUES OF S ARE

:"<<endl;

s.output();
cout<<"VALUES OF R ARE

:"<<endl;

r.output();
getch();
}

Example for Constructor Function.

- 56 # include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
class stud
{
int sno,tf,fp,due;
char sna[10],cou[10];
public:
stud()
{
cout<<"enter student's number

:";

cin>>sno;
cout<<"enter student's name :";
cin>>sna;
cout<<"enter course name

:";

cin>>cou;
cout<<"enter total fee is

:";

cin>>tf;
cout<<"enter fee paid

:";

cin>>fp;
due=tf-fp;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"student's number is :"<<sno<<endl;
cout<<"student's name is

:"<<sna<<endl;

cout<<"course name is

:"<<cou<<endl;

cout<<"total name is

:"<<tf<<endl;

cout<<"fee paid is

:"<<fp<<endl;

cout<<"due fee is

:"<<due<<endl;

- 57 }
};

void main()
{
clrscr();
stud s,t,u;
clrscr();
cout<<"values of s"<<endl;
s.output();
cout<<"values of t"<<endl;
t.output();
cout<<"values of u"<<endl;
u.output();
getch();
}

Example for Constructor with Arguments.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>
class sales
{
int sno,samt;
char sna[10];
public:
sales(int a,char n[],int b)
{
sno=a;

- 58 strcpy(sna,n);
samt=b;
}
void output()
{
cout<<"SALES MAN NUMBER IS

:"<<sno<<endl;

cout<<"SALES MAN NAME IS

:"<<sna<<endl;

cout<<"SALES AMOUNT IS

:"<<samt<<endl;

}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
sales t(100,"RAVI",2500);
sales b=sales(101,"KIRAN",3000);
cout<<"VALUES OF T

:"<<endl;

t.output();
cout<<"VALUES OF B

:"<<endl;

b.output();
getch();
}

Constructors in derived class:

If the base class contain a constructor with one or more
arguments, then it is mandatory for the derived class to have a
constructor and to pass the arguments to the bas class constructors,
since while applying inheritance we usually create the objects by
using the derived class. Thus, it makes sense for the derived class to
pass arguments to the base class constructor. When both the base

- 59 class & derived class contain constructors, the base constructor is

executed first and then the constructor in the derived class is
executed.

The syntax for defining the constructor in the derived class is

Constructor(arglist) : initialization-section
{
assignment section
}
Destructor
A destructor as the name implies, is used to destroy the objects
that have been created by a constructor. Like a constructor, the
destructor is also a member function whose name is same as the class
name and is preceded by a tilde (~) symbol.
takes any arguments nor returns any value.

A destructor neither
It will be invoked

implicitly by the compiler upon exit from the program to clean up the
storage that is no longer accessible.
The destructor fulfills the opposite functionality. It is automatically
called when an object is destroyed, either because its scope of
existence has finished (for example, if it was defined as a local object
within a function and the function ends) or because it is an object
dynamically assigned and it is released using the operator delete.
The destructor must have the same name as the class, but preceded
with a tilde sign (~) and it must also return no value.
The use of destructors is especially suitable when an object assigns
dynamic memory during its lifetime and at the moment of being

- 60 destroyed we want to release the memory that the object was

allocated.
Overloading Constructors
Like any other function, a constructor can also be overloaded
with more than one function that have the same name but different
types or number of parameters. Remember that for overloaded
functions the compiler will call the one whose parameters match the
arguments used in the function call. In the case of constructors,
which are automatically called when an object is created, the one
executed is the one that matches the arguments passed on the object
declaration:

Important: Notice how if we declare a new object and we want to use

its default constructor (the one without parameters), we do not include
parentheses ():

Operator Overloading
C++ has the ability to provide the special meaning to an existing
operator. The mechanism of giving such special meaning to an
operator is known as operator overloading.
This is done with help of a special function, called operator function,
which describes the task.
Syntax:

return_type class_name :: operator op(arg_list)

{
function_body;
}

- 61 where return_type is the type of value returned by the specified

operation and op is the operator being overloaded. The keyword
"operator" should precede the "op". operator op is the function name.

It can be either member function or friend function.

The basic

difference is a friend function will have only one argument for unary
operator & two for binary operator. But the member function will have
no arguments for unary operator & one argument for binary operator

Some Operator Which Cannot Be Overloaded Are

1). & ->
2) sizeof() [operator]
3) scope resolution operator(::)
4) conditional operator(:?)

Example for Operator Overloading Of Unary Operator:

# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
class exam
{
int a;
float b;
long c;
public:
exam()
{
a=10;
b=25.65;

//constructor function

- 62 c=42500;
}
exam operator ++() //operator overloading function
{
a+=100;
b+=100;
c+=100;
return *this;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"A VALUE IS

:"<<a<<endl;

cout<<"B VALUE IS

:"<<b<<endl;

cout<<"C VALUE IS

:"<<c<<endl;

}
};

void main()
{
exam e;
int x=15;
clrscr();
cout<<"VALUE BEFORE FUNCTION CALLING
e.print();
cout<<"x value is :"<<x<<endl;
++e;

//operator function calling

x++;
cout<<"value after function calling "<<endl;
e.print();

:"<<endl;

- 63 cout<<"x value is :"<<x<<endl;

getch();
}

Output:

Values before function calling

A value is 10, B value is 25.65, C value is 42000 and X

value is 15.
Values after function calling
A value is 110, B value is 125.65, C value is 142000 and
X value is 16.

Example Program for Operator Overloading a Binary Operator "+":

# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class sample
{
int a,b;
float m,n;
public:
void get_data()
{
cout<<"ENTER ANY TWO INTEGERS AND TWO FLOATS
cin>>a>>b>>m>>n;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"FIRST INTEGER IS

:"<<a<<endl;

:";

- 64 cout<<"SECOND INTEGER IS

:"<<b<<endl;

cout<<"FIRST FLOAT IS

:"<<m<<endl;

cout<<"SECOND FLOAT IS

:"<<n<<endl;

//operator overloading function

sample operator +(sample s)
{
sample t;
t.a=this->a+s.a;
t.b=this->b+s.b;
t.m=this->m+s.m;
t.n=this->n+s.n;
return(t);
}
};

void main()
{
sample p,q,r;
clrscr();
p.get_data();
q.get_data();
clrscr();
r=p+q; //function calling
cout<<"values of first object

:"<<endl;

p.print();
cout<<"values of second object
q.print();

:"<<endl;

- 65 cout<<"addition object values are

:"<<endl;

r.print();
getch();
}

Example Program For Overloading A Binary Operator "*":

# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
class sales
{
int sno,nou;
char sna[10];
public:
sales()

//constructor

{
cout<<"ENTER SALES MAN NUMBER

:"<<endl;

cin>>sno;
cout<<"ENTER SALES MAN NAME :"<<endl;
cin>>sna;
cout<<"ENTER NUMBER OF UNITS

:"<<endl;

cin>>nou;
}
void print()
{
cout<<"SALES MAN NUMBER IS

:"<<sno<<endl;

cout<<"SALES MAN NAME IS

:"<<sna<<endl;

cout<<"NUMBER OF UNITS ARE

:"<<nou<<endl;

- 66 }
int operator *(int n)
{
return(nou * n);
}
};
void main()
{
sales s;
int rpu,samt;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER RATE PER UNIT

:"<<endl;

cin>>rpu;
clrscr();
samt=s*rpu; //operator function calling
s.print();
cout<<"RATE PER UNIT IS

:"<<rpu<<endl;

cout<<"SALES AMOUNT IS

:"<<samt<<endl;

getch();
}

Abstract class:
An abstract class is one that is not used to create objects. It is
designed only to act as a base class upon which the other classes may
build.

Polymorphism:

- 67 Polymorphism means one name multiple forms. Polymorphism

can be classified into
1. Compile time polymorphism
a. Function overloading
b. Operator overloading

The overloaded member functions are selected for invoking my

matching arguments both type and number.

This information is

known to the compiler at the compile time and therefore, the compiler
is able to select the appropriate function for a particular call at the
compile time itself. This is called early binding or static binding or
static linking. Its also known as compile time polymorphism, early
binding simply means that an object is bound to its function call at
compile time.

2. Runtime polymorphism
a. Virtual functions

The process of selecting the appropriate member function during run

time is known as runtime polymorphism also known as late binding

Pointers to Objects:
Object pointers are useful for creating objects at run-time. We
can also use an object pointer to access the public members of an
object. The syntax for defining a pointer to an object is

Class name pointer-variable-name

Ex: item *ptr;

- 68 -

We can refer to the member functions of item in two ways

Ex: ptr->getdata();//by using ->operator
(*ptr).getdat();
We can also created the objects with the help of new operator as
follows
Item *ptr=new item;

The above statement allocates enough memory for the data members
in the object structure and assigns the address of the memory space
to ptr.

Virtual functions:
A virtual function is a member function of a class, whose
functionality can be over-ridden in its derived classes. It is one that is
declared as virtual in the base class using the virtual keyword. The
virtual nature is inherited in the subsequent derived classes and the
virtual keyword need not be re-stated there. The whole function body
can be replaced with a new set of implementation in the derived class.

How does a Virtual Function work?

Whenever a program has a virtual function declared, a v - table
is constructed for the class. The v-table consists of addresses to the
virtual functions for classes that contain one or more virtual
functions. The object of the class containing the virtual function
contains a virtual pointer that points to the base address of the
virtual table in memory.
Whenever there is a virtual function call, the v-table is used to resolve
to the function address. An object of the class that contains one or

- 69 more virtual functions contains a virtual pointer called the vptr at the
very beginning of the object in the memory. Hence the size of the
object in this case increases by the size of the pointer. This vptr
contains the base address of the virtual table in memory. Note that
virtual tables are class specific,
i.e., there is only one virtual table for a class irrespective of the
number of virtual functions it contains. This virtual table in turn
contains the base addresses of one or more virtual functions of the
class. At the time when a virtual function is called on an object, the
vptr of that object provides the base address of the virtual table for
that class in memory. This table is used to resolve the function call as
it contains the addresses of all the virtual functions of that class. This
is how dynamic binding is resolved during a virtual function call.

Rules for virtual functions:

1. The virtual functions must be member of some class
2. They cannot be static members
3 .They are accessed by using object pointers
4. It can be friend of another class
5. We cannot have virtual constructors but we can have virtual
destructors
6. While a base pointer point to any type of the derived object
the reverse is not possible

Pure virtual functions:

When we declare a function as virtual inside the base class and
redefine in the derived class the function defined inside the base class
is seldom used for performing any task. It only serves as a
placeholder. Such functions are called do-nothing functions.

- 70 A do-nothing function may be defined as follows

Virtual void display() = 0;

Such functions are called pure virtual functions

File Streams
Remember that a C++ program views input (or output) as a
stream of bytes. On input, a program extracts (>>) bytes from an
input stream.
On output, a program inserts (<<) bytes into the output stream. The
stream acts as a mediator between the program and the stream's
source or destination.
In this same manner, input and output data is handled by use of a
stream buffer.

A buffer is a block of memory used as an intermediate, temporary

storage area for the transfer of information between a program and a
device (e.g. file).

Many real-life problems handle large volumes of data and in

such situations we need to use some of the devices such as floppy
disk or hard disk to store the data. The data is stored in these devices
using the concept of files. A file is a collection of related data stored in

- 71 a particular area on the disk. Programs can be designed to perform

the read and write operations on these files

A program typically involves either or both of the following kinds

of data communication

(1) Data transfer between the console unit and the program
(2) Data transfer between the program and a disk file

The I/O system of C++ contains a set of classes that define the file
handling methods. These include ifstream, ofstream and fstream.
These classes are derived from fstreambase

Class

Contents

fstreambase

Provides operations common to the file stream.

Serves as a base for fstream, ifstream and ofstream
class. Contains open() and close() functions

ifstream

Provides input operations. Contains open() with

default
input mode. Inherits the functions get(),getline(),
read(),
seekg() and tellg() functions from ostream

ofstream

Provides output operations.

Contains open() with

default output mode. Inherits put(), seekp(), tellp()

and write()
functions from ostream

- 72 -

fstream

Provides support for simultaneous input and output

operations.

Contains open() with default input

mode. Inherits all the functions from istream and

ostream classes through iostream

For opening a file we must first create a file stream and then
link to the file name. A file stream can be defined using the classes
ifstream, ostream, and fstream that are contained in the header file
fstream.

The class to be used depend upon the purpose, that is,

whether we want to read data from file or write data to it. A file can be
opened in two ways.

(1)Using the constructor function of the class

(2)Using the member function open() of the class

The first method is used when we use only one file in the
system.

The second method is used when we want manage with

multiple files using one stream.

Opening file using constructor:

A constructor is used to initialize an object while it is being
created. Here a file name is used to initialize the file stream object.
This involves the following steps
1. Create a file stream object to manage the stream using the
appropriate class. That is to say, the class ofstream is used to create
the output stream and the class ifstream to create the input stream.
2. Initialize the file object with the desired file

- 73 For example, the following statement opens a file named

results for output
ofstream outfile(results);

Opening Files using open ():

The function open() can be used to open multiple files that use
the same stream object. There are two forms for open() method

With One argument:

File-stream-class stream-object;
Stream-object.open(filename);

Ex:ifstream fin;

With two arguments:

Stream-object.open(filename,mode);

File mode parameters:

Parameter

Meaning

ios::in

opening file for reading only

ios::out

opening file for writing only

Detecting end of file:

Detecting end-of-file is necessary for preventing any further
attempt to read the data from the file. We can use the following
methods for detecting the end of the file

- 74 By using while loop for ex:while(fin)\

By using the method eof() for

ex:
if(fin1.eof()!=0)
{
exit(1);
}
eof() is a member function of ios class. It returns a non-zero
value if the end of the file is encountered and a zero otherwise.

Fail() This method returns true when an input or output operation has
failed

READ() AND WRITE(): To read and write the class objects onto the file
we have to use the methods read() and write() and its syntax is

Infile.read((char *)&v, sizeof(v));

Outfile.write((char *)&v,sizeof(v));

The above two functions will take two arguments

1. Address of the variable
2. Size of the variable

ios::in

Open for input operations.

ios::out

Open for output operations.

ios::binar
y

Open in binary mode.

- 75 Set the initial position at the end of the file.

ios::ate

If this flag is not set to any value, the initial position is the
beginning of the file.
All output operations are performed at the end of the file,

ios::app

appending the content to the current content of the file.

This flag can only be used in streams open for output-only
operations.
If the file opened for output operations already existed

ios::trunc before, its previous content is deleted and replaced by the

new one.
All these flags can be combined using the bitwise operator OR (|). For
example, if we want to open the file example.bin in binary mode to add
data we could do it by the following call to member function open():
ofstream myfile;
myfile.open ("example.bin", ios::out | ios::app | ios::binary);
Each one of the open() member functions of the classes ofstream,
ifstream and fstream has a default mode that is used if the file is
opened without a second argument:
class

default mode parameter

ofstream

ios::out

ifstream

ios::in

fstream

ios::in | ios::out

For

ifstream

and

ofstream

classes,

ios::in

and

ios::out

are

automatically and respectivelly assumed, even if a mode that does not

include them is passed as second argument to the open() member
function.

The default value is only applied if the function is called without

- 76 specifying any value for the mode parameter. If the function is called
with any value in that parameter the default mode is overridden, not
combined.

File streams opened in binary mode perform input and output

operations independently of any format considerations. Non-binary
files are known as text files, and some translations may occur due to
formatting of some special characters (like newline and carriage return
characters).

Since the first task that is performed on a file stream object is

generally to open a file, these three classes include a constructor that
automatically calls the open() member function and has the exact
same parameters as this member. Therefore, we could also have
declared the previous myfile object and conducted the same opening
operation in our previous example by writing:
ofstream myfile ("example.bin", ios::out | ios::app | ios::binary);
Combining object construction and stream opening in a single
statement. Both forms to open a file are valid and equivalent.

Templates
Templates in one the important features of C++ which enables
us to create generic programming. It is an approach where generic
types are used as parameters in algorithms so that they work for a
variety of suitable data types and data structures. It can be
considered as a kind of macro. They are also called as parameterized
classes or functions.

- 77 -

We can define templates for both classes and functions. A

template can be used to create a family of classes or functions. A
template can be contributed as a kind of macro. When an object of a
specific type is defined for actual use, the template definition for that
class is substituted with the required data type. Since a template is
defined with a parameter that would be replaced by the specified data
type at the time of actual use of the class or function, the templates
are some times called parameterized classes or functions.

The class template definition is very similar to an ordinary class

definition except the prefix 'template <class T>' and the use of type T.
This prefix tells the compiler that we are going to declare a template
and use T as a type name in the declaration.

The general format for class template is

template <class T> class classname

{
class member specification with anonymous type T
wherever appropriate
}

The general format for template function

template <class T> return_type function_name (arguments of type T)
{
body of function
}

- 78 Example Program for Template Function.

# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
template<class A>
A add(A x,A y)
{
return x+y;
}
void main()
{
int m,n;
float f,p;
long l,r;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER TWO INTERGER

:"<<endl;

cin>>m>>n;
cout<<"ENTER TWO FLOATS :"<<endl;
cin>>f>>p;
cout<<"ENTER TWO LONGS

:"<<endl;

cin>>l>>r;
cout<<"FIRST INTEGER IS

:"<<m<<endl;

cout<<"SECOND INTEGER IS :"<<n<<endl;

cout<<"FIRST FLOAT IS:"<<f<<endl;
cout<<"SECOND FLOAT IS

:"<<p<<endl;

cout<<"FIRST LONG IS :"<<l<<endl;

cout<<"SECOND LONG IS

:"<<r<<endl;

cout<<"SUM OF INTEGERS IS :"<<add(m,n)<<endl;

cout<<"SUM OF FLOATS IS :"<<add(f,p)<<endl;

- 79 cout<<"SUM OF LONGS IS

:"<<add(l,r)<<endl;

getch();
}
Example

Program

to

Template

Functions

Templates.
# include <iostream.h>
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
template<class A,class B>
A add (A x,B y)
{
return(x+y);
}
void main()
{
int m;
float f;
long l;
clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER AN INTEGER :"<<endl;
cin>>m;
cout<<"ENTER A FLOAT VALUE :"<<endl;
cin>>f;
cout<<"ENTER A LONG VALUE :"<<endl;
cin>>l;
clrscr();
cout<<"INTEGER VALUE IS :"<<m<<endl;
cout<<"FLOAT VALUE IS

:"<<f<<endl;

cout<<"LONG VALUE IS

:"<<l<<endl;

with

Multiple

- 80 cout<<"SUM OF INTEGER AND FLOAT VALUE IS :"<<add(m,f)<<endl;

cout<<"SUM OF FLOAT AND INTEGER VALUE IS :"<<add(f,m)<<endl;
cout<<"SUM OF LONG AND FLOAT VALUE IS

:"<<add(l,f)<<endl;

cout<<"SUM OF LONG AND INTEGER VALUE IS :"<<add(l,m)<<endl;

getch();
}
Example Program for Class Templates.
# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
template<class A>
class sample
{
A n,m,f;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"ENTER FIRST VALUE :";
cin>>n;
cout<<"ENTER SECOND VALUE :";
cin>>m;
cout<<"ENTER THIRD VALUE :";
cin>>f;
}
A total()
{
return(n+m+f);
}
void output()
{

- 81 cout<<"FIRST VALUE IS

:"<<n<<endl;

cout<<"SECOND VALUE IS :"<<m<<endl;

cout<<"THIRD VALUE IS

:"<<f<<endl;

}
};
void main()
{
sample <int> T1; //object declared with integer members
sample <float> T2;

//object declared with float members

sample <long> T3;

//object declared with long members

clrscr();
cout<<"ENTER INTEGER VALUES :"<<endl;
T1.input();
cout<<"ENTER FLOAT VALUES :"<<endl;
T2.input();
cout<<"ENTER LONG VALUES :"<<endl;
T3.input();
clrscr();
cout<<endl<<"INTEGER VALUES ARE :"<<endl;
T1.output();
cout<<"TOTAL VALUE IS :"<<T1.total()<<endl;
cout<<endl<<"FLOAT VALUES ARE :"<<endl;
T2.output();
cout<<"TOTAL VALUE IS :"<<T2.total()<<endl;
cout<<endl<<"LONG VALUES ARE :"<<endl;
T3.output();
cout<<"TOTAL VALUE IS :"<<T3.total()<<endl;
getch();
}