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Project Report
ELECTROMAGNETIC PISTON
Submitted to the department of mechanical engineering
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted By:
Arjun sharma
Arpit garg
Mechanical Engineering
(1112840056)
Kailash kumar
Lavish sharma
(1112840057)
U.P.T.U. (LUCKNOW)
2014-15
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that, to the best of
our knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written
by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for
the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of
higher learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.
Signature:
Signature:
Date : 21.04.2015
Date : 21.04.2015
Signature:
Signature:
Roll No : 1112840057
Date : 21.04.2015
Date : 21.04.2015
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Project Report entitled ELECTROMAGNETIC
PISTON which is submitted by Arjun sharma ,Arpit garg, kailash
kumar, lavish sharma in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of degree B. Tech. in Department of Mechanical Engineering of
U. P. Technical University, is a record of the candidate own work
carried out by him under our supervision. The matter embodied in this
thesis is original and has not been submitted for the award of any
other degree.
Examiner Signature:
HOD/Director Signature :
ACKNOWLEDMENT
It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech Project
undertaken during B. Tech. Final Year. We owe special debt of gratitude to our mentor
Mr Ankur rajvanshi, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bharat Institute Of
Technology, Meerut for his constant support and guidance throughout the course of our
work. His sincerity, thoroughness and perseverance have been a constant source of
inspiration for us. It is only his cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of
the day.
We extend our grateful thanks to Asst. Professor Ankur Rajvanshi, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Bharat Institute Of Technology, Meerut for dedicating
his precious time, giving advice and helping us from the beginning to end of this
project. This work would not succeed without his great supports.
We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Professor Kuldeep
Singh Pal, Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bharat institute Of
Technology, Meerut for his full support and assistance during the development of the
project.
We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of all
faculty members of the department for their kind assistance and cooperation during the
development of our project. Last but not the least, we acknowledge our friends for their
contribution in the completion of the project.
ABSTRACT
The present inventions relates to an electromagnetic piston engine capable of producing
driving power by a reciprocal movement of a piston in a cylinder by electromagnetic
force.The present invention has the objects to provide the electromagnetic piston engine
which can do without a variety of resistance inherent combustion piston engines, which
reduces the weight corresponding to a rotary assembly portion to a smaller value even if
a great output is produced , which can be readily employed together with power
transmission mechanisms and so on for use with conventional internal combustion
piston engines, and which has a high efficiency in energy consumption.
The electromagnetic piston engine is provided with the cylinder and the piston made
each of a magnetic material as well as with as the cylinder electromagnet having the
inner wall of the cylinder magnetizable to a one magnetic pole and with the piston
magnetization unit for magnetizing a portion of the piston engageable with the cylinder
to a single magnetic pole in a fixed manner.
The magnetization of the cylinder electromagnet generates magneticmagnetic attracting
force between the cylinder and the piston to cause the piston to move in a single
direction and thereafter magnetically repellent force to transfer the piston in the opposite
direction. This series of the actions are repeated to provide a continual reciprocal
movement of piston.
CONTENTS
TOPIC NAME
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 HISTORY
3.0 HARDWARE REQUIRMENT
4.0 WOOD BASE
5.0 ELECTROMAGNET
5.1 WORKING ON PROJECT
5.2 MAGNET
5.3 MAGNETIZATION
5.4 POLE NAMING CONVENTIONS
5.5 CALCULATING MAGNETIC FORCE
6.0 PISTON
6.1 PISTONS TYPE
7.0 MICROCONTROLLER
7.1 DESCRIPTION
8.0 ANALOG DIGITAL CONVERTER
9.0 SUPPLY SECTION
9.1 TRANSFORMER
10.0 SWITCHING DEVICES
10.1 VOLTAGE RECTIFIER
11.0 RELAYS
12.0 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
13.0 CAPACITOR
14.0 RESISTOR
15.0 TRANSISTORS
7
2.0 HISTORY Lean-mixture-ratio combustion in internal- combustion engines has the. First, excess
oxygen in the charge further oxidizes unburned hydrocarbons potential of producing
low emissions and higher thermal efficiency for several reasons and carbon monoxide.
Second, excess oxygen lowers the peak combustion temperatures, which inhibits the
formation of oxides of nitrogen. Third, the lower combustion temperatures increase the
mixture specific heat ratio by decreasing the net dissociation losses. The specific heat
ratio increases, the cycle thermal efficiency also increases. I
in IMEP are drastically increased, which produces sizable power fluctuations and causes
engine surge and power train vibrations. Current explanations for these variations are
flow velocity perturbations at the spark plug and spatial variations of turbulence in the
combustion chamber. These conditions control the rate of the combustion process;
therefore, lean-mixture-ratio operation involves cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder
variations in flame speed. In addition, as the mixture ratio is made leaner, the
combustion process slows and occurs over larger crank-angle intervals, thereby causing
hydrocarbon emission levels and fuel consumption to rise.
Also, the thermal boundary layer, or quenching distance, increases with leaner mixture
ratios, which also causes hydrocarbon emission levels to rise (refs. 3 and 4). Even
though excess oxygen is available to oxidize these hydrocarbons, the quenching effect
of the cylinder wall will still produce a net increase in hydrocarbon emissions. Another
problem is the lean-mixture-ratio misfire limit, which occurs near the flammability
limits of the fuel. Cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder variations can cause an
individual cylinder to exceed the lean flammability limits and thus misfire. Incipient
lean-limit misfire is characterized by high hydrocarbon emissions, rough engine
operation, and poor fuel economy.
A research system to generate hydrogen by methanol reformation was built and installed
on a multicylinder engine in an existing engine test setup. An independent and parallel
9
program on catalyst evaluation was performed but is not part of this report. An engine
test program was conducted using gasoline and additions of gaseous hydrogen and
reformed methanol to evaluate the effects of hydrogen-gasoline fuel mixtures on
exhaust emissions, extension of lean engine operating limits, and fuel flammability
limits and combustion flame speed.
This report presents a brief description of the breadboard methanol reformation system
and the results of fuel and engine testing. The data were taken in the U. S. customary
system of units and converted to SI units for this report. In Future, we will mostly use
ELETROMAGNETIC PISTON due to its profitable advantages.
10
4.0 WOOD BASE It is the basic structure of our project and provides the support of the all parts of the
piston assembly .It consists of 3 legs and 1 base surface which are attached that is
Wrap
magnet
wire
around
the soft
bolt)
iron
core (
12
5.1 Working of the project Now a days diesel, petrol piston is available. But if both are not present
these are not in use. In this project change the electric energy through the
electromagnetic coil in to mechanical energy.
In this project we develop an electromagnetic piston. When supply on then
piston start move. We generate electromagnetic field and piston move upper
side. Piston works of the switching in magnetic field.
Note: please works only 20 sec maximum.
Advantage When other fuel option not present then electromagnetic technology is very
useful to continue over speed.
5.2 MAGNET Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced
by a bar magnet
5.2.2 MAGNETIC FIELD The magnetic field (usually denoted B) is called a field (physics) because it
has a value at every point in space. The magnetic field (at a given point) is
specified by two properties: (1) its direction, which is along the orientation
of a compass needle; and (2) its magnitude (also called strength), which is
proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients along that direction.
Direction and magnitude makes B a vector, so B is a vector field. (B can
also depend on time.) In SI units the strength of the magnetic field is given
in teslas.
5.2.3 MAGNETIC MOMENT A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment, and
usually denoted ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall
magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic moment
points from the magnet's north pole to its south pole, and the magnitude
relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In SI units the
magnetic moment is specified in terms of Am.
A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and it responds to magnetic
fields. The strength of the magnetic field it produces is at any given point
proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic moment. In addition, when the
magnet is put into an "external" magnetic field produced by a different
source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient the magnetic moment
parallel to the field. The amount of this torque is proportional both to the
magnetic moment and the "external" field. A magnet may also be subject to
a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and
orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space the
magnet is subject to no net force, although it is subject to a torque.
A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I is a magnet,
with a magnetic moment of magnitude equal to IA.
5.3 MAGNETIZATION The magnetization of an object is the local value of its magnetic moment
per unit volume, usually denoted M, with units A/m. It is a vector field,
rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment), because the different
sections of a bar magnet generally are magnetized with different directions
and strengths (for example, due to domains, see below). A good bar magnet
may have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1 Am and a volume of 1 cm,
or 0.000001 m, and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is
100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million A/m. Such
a large value explains why magnets are so effective at producing magnetic
fields.
5.3.1 Two models for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currents
Magnetic pole model Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having
distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be
taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to the two different ends of a
magnet. The magnet does not have distinct "north" or "south" particles on
opposing sides. (No magnetic monopole has yet been observed.) If a bar
magnet is broken in half, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles,
the result will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and south
pole.
The magnetic pole approach is used by professional magneticians to design
permanent magnets. In this approach, the pole surfaces of a permanent
magnet are imagined to be covered with 'magnetic charge', little 'North pole'
particles on the North pole and 'South poles' on the south pole, that are the
source of the magnetic field lines. If the magnetic pole distribution is known,
then outside the magnet the pole model gives the magnetic field exactly. By
simply supplementing the pole model field with a term proportional to the
magnetization (see Units and Calculations, below) the magnetic field within
the magnet is given exactly. This pole model is also called the "Gilbert
model" of a magnetic dipole.[1] Griffiths suggests (p. 258): "My advice is to
use the Gilbert model, if you like, to get an intuitive "feel" for a problem, but
never rely on it for quantitative results."
Ampre model
Another model is the "Ampre model", where all magnetization is due to the
effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular "bound currents", also called
"Amprian currents" throughout the material. For a uniformly magnetized
bar magnet in the shape of a cylinder, the net effect of the microscopic
bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic
sheet of electric current flowing around the surface of the cylinder, with
local flow direction normal to the cylinder axis. (Since scraping off the outer
layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, it can be seen that this
is just a model, and the tiny currents are actually distributed throughout the
material). The right-hand rule due to Ampre tells which direction the
current flows. The Ampere model gives the exact magnetic field both inside
and outside the magnet. It is usually difficult to calculate the Amperian
currents on the surface of a magnet, whereas it is often easier to find the
effective poles for the same magnet.
5.4 Pole naming conventions The north pole of the magnet is the pole which, when the magnet is
freely suspended, points towards the Earth's magnetic north pole in
northern Canada. Since opposite poles (north and south) attract
whereas like poles (north and north, or south and south) repel, the
Earth's present geographic north is thus actually its magnetic south.
5.5 DESCRIPTIONS OF MAGNETIC BEHAVIORS There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one
of them. This section describes, qualitatively, the primary types of magnetic
behavior that materials can show. The physics underlying each of these
behaviors is described in the next section below, and can also be found in
more detail in their respective articles.
lined up. Then the material can produce a net total magnetic field, which can
potentially be quite strong.
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure (particularly its
electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above), and also on the
temperature (at high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more
difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment).
5.5.2 PHYSICS OF PARAMAGNETISM In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or
molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons
are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic ('spin')
magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic
fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic
moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these
magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the
applied field, thus reinforcing it.
5.5.3 PHYSICS OF DIAMAGNETISM In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic
electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases,
the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be
understood classically as follows:
When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus
will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a
Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on which direction the
electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on the
electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force,
pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the
orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases
the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This
results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the
applied field.
Note that this description is meant only as an heuristic; a proper
understanding requires a quantum-mechanical description.
Magnetic domains in ferromagnetic material The magnetic moment of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to
behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and
align themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called
magnetic domains or Weiss domains. Magnetic domains can be observed
with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that
resemble white lines in the sketch.There are many scientific experiments that
can physically show magnetic fields.
Effect of a magnet on the domains When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and
divides into two domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick
together more stably as shown at the right.
When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the
domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure as
shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may
not return to a unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material
being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet.
When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all
others to result in only one single domain, the material is magnetically
saturated. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie
point temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic
domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties they cause cease.
When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously
returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a
crystalline solid.
5.6 PHYSICS OF ANTIFERROMAGNETISM 5.6.1 Antiferromagnetic ordering In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the
intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in
opposite directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each
5.7 PHYSICS OF FERRIMAGNETISM 5.7.1 Ferrimagnetic ordering Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence
of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron
spins like to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not
contradictory, due to the fact that in the optimal geometrical arrangement,
there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons which point
in one direction, than from the sublattice which points in the opposite
direction.
The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, was originally believed
to be a ferromagnet; Louis Nel disproved this, however, with the discovery
of ferrimagnetism.
OTHER TYPES OF MAGNETISM
There are various other types of magnetism, such as and spin glass
(mentioned above), superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism, and
metamagnetism.
COMMON USES OF MAGNETS
Credit, debit, and ATM cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip
on one side. This strip encodes the information to contact an
individual's financial institution and connect with their account(s).
the coil. This voltage drives a current in the wire that is characteristic
of the original sound.
Magnets have many uses in toys. M-tic uses magnetic rods connected to
metal spheres for construction
Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper
clips) that are either too small, too hard to reach, or too thin for fingers
to hold. Some screwdrivers are magnetized for this purpose.
SAFETY
Human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic
fields, and there is no scientific evidence showing a health hazard associated
with exposure to these fields. However, if a ferromagnetic foreign body is
present in human tissue, the magnetic field will interact with it, which can
pose a serious safety risk.[2]
Children sometimes swallow small magnets from toys; and this can be
hazardous if two or more magnets are swallowed, as the magnets can pinch
or puncture internal tissues; one death has been reported.[3]
MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION
Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:
Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item
retaining some of the magnetism on removal. Vibration has been
shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials aligned with the earth's
magnetic field and which are subject to vibration (e.g. frame of a
conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism.
A magnetic field much stronger than the earth's can be generated
inside a solenoid by passing direct current through it.
then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the
magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial
demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard
disks, and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs.
5.8 TYPES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS -
COMPOSITES
5.8.2 Ceramic or ferrite -
Ticonal magnets are an alloy of titanium, cobalt, nickel, and aluminum, with
iron and small amounts of other elements. It was developed by Philips for
loudspeakers.
Injection molded
elements are used in compact high-strength magnets where their higher price
is not a concern. The most common types of rare earth magnets are
samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets.
SINGLE-MOLECULE MAGNETS (SMMS) AND SINGLE-CHAIN MAGNETS (SCMS)
In the 1990s it was discovered that certain molecules containing
paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment at very
low temperatures. These are very different from conventional magnets that
store information at a "domain" level and theoretically could provide a far
denser storage medium than conventional magnets. In this direction research
on monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two main
attributes of an SMM are:
1. a large ground state spin value (S), which is provided by
ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic coupling between the paramagnetic
metal centres.
2. a negative value of the anisotropy of the zero field splitting (D)
Most SMM's contain manganese, but can also be found with vanadium, iron,
nickel and cobalt clusters. More recently it has been found that some chain
systems can also display a magnetization which persists for long times at
relatively higher temperatures. These systems have been called single-chain
magnets.
NANO-STRUCTURED MAGNETS
Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves called magnons that
coalesce into a common ground state in the manner of a Bose-Einstein
condensate.[4][5]
COSTS
The current cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are
flexible and ceramic magnets, but these are also among the weakest types.
Neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets are among the strongest. These cost
more per kilogram than most other magnetic materials, but due to their
intense field, are smaller and cheaper in many applications.[6]
TEMPERATURE
Temperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature
known as the Curie point, it loses all of its magnetism, even after cooling
An electromagnet in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into
one or more loops, known as a solenoid. When electric current flows
through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is concentrated near (and
especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those for a
magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined via the right
hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the
electromagnet are proportional to the number of loops of wire, to the crosssection of each loop, and to the current passing through the wire.
If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic
properties (e.g., cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field.
However, if it is wrapped around a "soft" ferromagnetic material, such as an
iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to
thousandfold increase of field strength.
Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors,
junkyard cranes, and magnetic resonance imaging machines. Some
applications involve configurations more than a simple magnetic dipole, for
example quadrupole and sextupole magnets are used to focus particle beams.
UNITS AND CALCULATIONS IN MAGNETISM How we write the laws of magnetism depends on which set of units we
employ. For most engineering applications, MKS or SI (Systme
International) is common. Two other sets, Gaussian and CGS-emu, are the
same for magnetic properties, and are commonly used in physics.
In all units it is convenient to employ two types of magnetic field, B and H,
as well as the magnetization M, defined as the magnetic moment per unit
volume.
1. The magnetic induction field B is given in SI units of teslas (T). B is
the true magnetic field, whose time-variation produces, by Faraday's
Law, circulating electric fields (which the power companies sell). B
also produces a deflection force on moving charged particles (as in
TV tubes). The tesla is equivalent to the magnetic flux (in webers) per
unit area (in meters squared), thus giving B the unit of a flux density.
In CGS the unit of B is the gauss (G). One tesla equals 104 G.
2. The magnetic field H is given in SI units of ampere-turns per meter
(A-turn/m). The "turns" appears because when H is produced by a
current-carrying wire, its value is proportional to the number of turns
of that wire. In CGS the unit of H is the oersted (Oe). One A-turn/m
equals 4 x 10-3 Oe.
3. The magnetization M is given in SI units of amperes per meter (A/m).
In CGS the unit of M is the emu, or electromagnetic unit. One A/m
equals 10-3 emu. A good permanent magnet can have a magnetization
as large as a million amperes per meter. Magnetic fields produced by
current-carrying wires would require comparably huge currents per
unit length, one reason we employ permanent magnets and
electromagnets.
4. In SI units, the relation B = 0(H + M) holds, where 0 is the
permeability of space, which equals 4 x 10-7 tesla meters per ampere.
In CGS it is written as B = H + 4M. [The pole approach gives 0H in
SI units. A 0M term in SI must then supplement this 0H to give the
correct field within B the magnet. It will agree with the field B
calculated using Amperian currents.]
Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the relation M = H
in SI, where is the (dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility. Most nonmagnetic materials have a relatively small (on the order of a millionth), but
soft magnets can have on the order of hundreds or thousands. For materials
satisfying M = H, we can also write B = 0(1 + )H = 0rH = H, where
r = 1 + is the (dimensionless) relative permeability and = 0r is the
magnetic permeability. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex,
history-dependent, behavior described by what are called hysteresis loops,
which give either B vs H or M vs H. In CGS M = H, but SI = 4CGS, and
= r .
Caution: In part because there are not enough Roman and Greek symbols,
there is no commonly agreed upon symbol for magnetic pole strength and
magnetic moment. The symbol m has been used for both pole strength (unit
= Am, where here the upright m is for meter) and for magnetic moment
(unit = Am). The symbol has been used in some texts for magnetic
permeability and in other texts for magnetic moment. We will use for
magnetic permeability and m for magnetic moment. For pole strength we
5.9 CALCULATING THE MAGNETIC FORCE Calculating the attractive or repulsive force between two magnets is, in the
general case, an extremely complex operation, as it depends on the shape,
magnetization, orientation and separation of the magnets.
Force between two magnetic poles The force between two magnetic poles is given by:
where
F is force (SI unit: newton)
qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: ampere
meter)
is the permeability of the intervening medium (SI unit: tesla meter per
ampere, henry per meter or newton per ampere squared)
r is the separation (SI unit: meter).
The pole description is useful to practicing magneticians who design realworld magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than
a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not
simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will
be more useful.
Force between two nearby attracting surfaces of area A and equal
but opposite magnetizations M
where
A is the area of each surface, in m
M is their magnetization, in A/m.
0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4 x 10-7 tesla-meters per
ampere
[3]
where
B0 is the magnetic flux density very close to each pole, in T,
A is the area of each pole, in m2,
L is the length of each magnet, in m,
R is the radius of each magnet, in m, and
PISTON ENGINES
Main article: Reciprocating engine
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Internal combustion engine piston, sectioned to show the gudgeon pin.
The piston of an internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of
the expanding combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top
of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the connecting rod
and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a
swivelling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is mounted within the
piston: unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead.
The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move
in the connecting rod. A few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose
in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and
the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, usually by circlips.
Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of
narrow iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the
crown. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press
against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used:
the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings have
narrow edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many
proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings.
Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life,
some racing pistons may be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron,
but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could
be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion
temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and
Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.
A few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise
effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During
World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the
infamously unreliable H.O.R. double-acting two-stroke diesel engine.
Although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine
was not repeated.
Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia
Commons
engine's usual piston rod and separate crosshead and were instead the first
engine design to place the gudgeon pin directly within the piston. Otherwise
these trunk engine pistons bore little resemblance to the trunk piston: they
were of extremely large diameter and were double-acting. Their 'trunk' was a
narrow cylinder placed mounted in the centre of this piston.
Media related to Trunk pistons at Wikimedia Commons
6.2 Crosshead pistons Large slow-speed Diesel engines may require additional support for the side
forces on the piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The
main piston has a large piston rod extending downwards from the piston to
what is effectively a second smaller-diameter piston. The main piston is
responsible for gas sealing and carries the piston rings. The smaller piston is
purely a mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide
and also carries the gudgeon pin.
Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for highspeed engines.
Media related to Crosshead pistons at Wikimedia Commons
6.3 Slipper pistons A slipper piston is a piston for a petrol engine that has been reduced in size
and weight as much as possible. In the extreme case, they are reduced to the
piston crown, support for the piston rings, and just enough of the piston skirt
remaining to leave two lands so as to stop the piston rocking in the bore. The
sides of the piston skirt around the gudgeon pin are reduced away from the
cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to reduce the reciprocating mass, thus
making it easier to balance the engine and so permit high speeds. A
secondary benefit may be some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall,
however as most of this is due to the parts of the piston that are left behind,
the benefit is minor.
Media related to Slipper pistons at Wikimedia Commons
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or indiscriminate. Please help to clean it up to meet Wikipedia's quality
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There are two special type of pistons used in air cannons: close tolerance
pistons and double pistons. While in close tolerance pistons, O-rings serve as
a valve, O-rings are not used in double piston types.
Close-tolerance pistons have a number of disadvantages: They can swell and
stick, their properties alter due to atmospheric changes, and they fit tightly in
the cylinder with close tolerances. Backlash may suck some of the bin
material into the valve which can cause the piston to stick.
Common features of double piston construction: They cannot swell and
stick, they fit loosely in the cylinder (no tight tolerances), atmospheric
changes do not affect them, and foreign material entering the cylinder
doesn't cause sticking.
DRAWBACKS This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.
No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this section if
you can. (March 2009)
Since the piston is the main reciprocating part of an engine, its movement
creates an imbalance. This imbalance generally manifests itself as a
vibration, which causes the engine to be perceivably harsh. The friction
between the walls of the cylinder and the piston rings eventually results in
wear, reducing the effective life of the mechanism.
The sound generated by a reciprocating engine can be intolerable and as a
result, many reciprocating engines rely on heavy noise suppression
equipment to diminish droning and loudness. To transmit the energy of the
piston to the crank, the piston is connected to a connecting rod which is in
turn connected to the crank. Because the linear movement of the piston must
be converted to a rotational movement of the crank, mechanical loss is
experienced as a consequence. Overall, this leads to a decrease in the overall
efficiency of the combustion process. The motion of the crank shaft is not
smooth, since energy supplied by the piston is not continuous and it is
impulsive in nature. To address this, manufacturers fit heavy flywheels
which supply constant inertia to the crank. Balance shafts are also fitted to
7.0 CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING A MICROCONTROLLERThe basic criteria for choosing a microcontroller suitable for the application
are:
1) The first and foremost criterion is that it must meet the task at hand
efficiently and cost effectively. In analyzing the needs of a microcontrollerbased project, it is seen whether an 8- bit, 16-bit or 32-bit microcontroller
can best handle the computing needs of the task most effectively. Among the
other considerations in this category are:
(a) Speed: The highest speed that the microcontroller supports.
(b) Packaging: It may be a 28-pin DIP (dual inline package) or a QFP
(quad flat package), or some other packaging format. This is important in
terms of space, assembling, and prototyping the end product.
(c) Power consumption:
products.
(d) The number of I/O pins and the timer on the chip.
(f) How easy it is to upgrade to higher performance or lower consumption
versions.
(g) Cost per unit: This is important in terms of the final cost of the product
in which a microcontroller is used.
2) The second criterion in choosing a microcontroller is how easy it is to
develop products around it. Key considerations include the availability of an
assembler, debugger, compiler, technical support.
3) The third criterion in choosing a microcontroller is its ready availability in
needed quantities both now and in the future.
7.1 DESCRIPTION This powerful (200 nanosecond instruction execution) yet easy-to-program
(only 35 single word instructions) CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit
microcontroller packs Microchip's powerful PIC architecture into an 28pin package and is upwards compatible with the PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX
and PIC16C7X devices. The PIC16F72 features 5 channels of 8-bit Analogto-Digital (A/D) converter with 2 additional timers, capture/compare/PWM
function and the synchronous serial port can be configured as either 3-wire
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) or the 2-wire Inter-Integrated Circuit
(IC) bus. All of these features make it ideal for more advanced level A/D
applications in automotive, industrial, appliances and consumer applications.
7.1.1 DEVICE SPECIFICATION High Performance RISC CPU Only 35 single word instructions to learn
All single cycle instructions except for program branches, which are
two-cycle
Interrupt capability
Peripheral Features -
CMOS Technology:
Pin Description
8.0 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER (A/D) MODULE The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter module has five inputs for the
PIC16F72. The A/D allows conversion of an analog input signal to a
corresponding 8-bit digital number. The output of the sample and hold is the
input into the converter, which generates the result via successive
approximation. The analog reference voltage is software selectable to either
the devices positive supply voltage (VDD) or the voltage level on the
RA3/AN3/VREF pin. The A/D converter has a unique feature of being able
to operate while the device is in SLEEP mode. To operate in SLEEP, the A/D
conversion clock must be derived from the A/Ds internal RC oscillator.
A device RESET forces all registers to their RESET state. This forces the
A/D module to be turned off and any conversion is aborted. The ADCON0
register, shown in Register 10-1, controls the operation of the A/D module.
The ADCON1 register, shown in Register 10-2, configures the functions of
the port pins. The port pins can be configured as analog inputs (RA3 can
also be a voltage reference) or a digital I/O.
The instruction set is highly orthogonal and is grouped into three basic
categories:
Byte-oriented operations
Bit-oriented operations
Literal and control operations
All instructions are executed within one single instruction cycle, unless a
conditional test is true or the program counter is changed as a result of an
instruction. In this case, the execution takes two instruction cycles, with the
second cycle executed as a NOP. One instruction cycle consists of four
oscillator periods. Thus, for an oscillator frequency of 4 MHz, the normal
instruction execution time is 1 s. If a conditional test is true, or the
program counter is changed as a result of an instruction, the instruction
execution time is more.
9.2
Basic principle -
and
where:
and
and
and
are the
secondary windings
time derivatives
In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding also links
the secondary, and so
, from which the well-known transformer
equation follows:
The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio
of the number of turns; alternatively, that the volts-per-turn is the same in
both windings. The conditions that determine Transformer working in STEP
UP or STEP DOWN mode are:
Ns > Np
Ns < Np
10.0 SWITCHING DEVICES 10.1 RectifierA bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit
as shown below, that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any
polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most common application, for
conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is
known as a bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides full wave rectification
from a two wire AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped transformer) but
has two diode drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a center tap
based design for the same output voltage.
The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the
voltage at the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.
10.2 Basic Operation When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right
along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply
via the lower one.
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner,
current flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the
lower colored path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the
lower right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit
not only produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can
provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it
permits normal functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC
input-power supply wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry
it powers against damage that might occur without this circuit in place).
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was
always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single
four-terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge
configuration became a standard commercial component and is now
available with various voltage and current ratings.
10.3 Output Smoothing For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave
bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a
capacitor may be important because the bridge alone supplies an output
voltage of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC
where C and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long
as the load resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer
than the time of one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a
well smoothed DC voltage across the load resistance. In some designs, a
series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can
Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical
mechanism, or passive or active electronic components. Depending on the
design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. With the
exception of shunt regulators, all voltage regulators operate by comparing
the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any
difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element. This
forms a negative feedback servo control loop. If the output voltage is too
low, the regulation element is commanded to produce a higher voltage. For
some regulators if the output voltage is too high, the regulation element is
commanded to produce a lower voltage; however, many just stop sourcing
current and depend on the current draw of whatever it is driving to pull the
voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage is held roughly constant.
The control loop must be carefully designed to produce the desired tradeoff
between stability and speed of response.
LM7805 (3-Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulator)
The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three terminal positive
regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making
them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection,
making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided,
they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as
fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components
to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
Features
Output Current up to 1A
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
Thermal Overload Protection
Short Circuit Protection
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection
11.0
Relays
Photographs Rapid Electronics
A relay is an
switch.
the coil of the
field, which
the switch
electrically operated
Current flowing through
relay creates a magnetic
attracts a lever and changes
contacts. The coil current
can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double
throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit that can be completely
separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a
relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection
inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and
mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a
12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate
from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a
transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value
required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555
timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without
amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets
of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are
readily available. For further information about switch contacts and the
terms used to describe them please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires
directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case
of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil
will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils
produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can
destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must
connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch
contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when
the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one
set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making
the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is off.
to smooth the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They
are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular
frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.
THEORY OF OPERATION
Main article: Capacitance
14.0 RESISTOR Resistors are used to limit the value of current in a circuit. Resistors offer
opposition to the flow of current. They are expressed in ohms for which the
symbol is . Resistors are broadly classified as
(1)
Fixed Resistors
(2)
Variable Resistors
Fixed Resistors :
The most common of low wattage, fixed type resistors is the molded-carbon
composition resistor. The resistive material is of carbon clay composition.
The leads are made of tinned copper. Resistors of this type are readily
available in value ranging from few ohms to about 20M, having a
tolerance range of 5 to 20%. They are quite inexpensive. The relative size of
all fixed resistors changes with the wattage rating.
Another variety of carbon composition resistors is the metalized
type. It is made by deposition a homogeneous film of pure carbon over a
glass, ceramic or other insulating core. This type of film-resistor is
sometimes called the precision type, since it can be obtained with an
accuracy of 1%.
Lead
Colour Coding
Fixed Resistor
A Wire Wound Resistor :
It uses a length of resistance wire, such as nichrome. This wire is wounded
on to a round hollow porcelain core. The ends of the winding are attached to
these metal pieces inserted in the core. Tinned copper wire leads are attached
to these metal pieces. This assembly is coated with an enamel coating
powdered glass. This coating is very smooth and gives mechanical
protection to winding. Commonly available wire wound resistors have
resistance values ranging from 1 to 100K, and wattage rating up to about
200W.
Coding Of Resistor :
Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed on
the body. However there are some resistors that are too small in size to have
numbers printed on them. Therefore, a system of colour coding is used to
indicate their values. For fixed, moulded composition resistor four colour
bands are printed on one end of the outer casing. The colour bands are
always read left to right from the end that has the bands closest to it. The
first and second band represents the first and second significant digits, of the
resistance value. The third band is for the number of zeros that follow the
second digit. In case the third band is gold or silver, it represents a
multiplying factor of 0.1to 0.01. The fourth band represents the
manufactures tolerance.
RESISTOR COLOUR CHART
0 black
0 black
0 black
0 black
1 brown
1 brown
1 brown
1 brown
2 red
2 red
2 red
2 red
3 orange
3 orange
3 orange
3 orange
4 yellow
4 yellow
4 yellow
4 yellow
5 green
5 green
5 green
5 green
6 blue
6 blue
6 blue
6 blue
7 purple
7 purple
7 purple
7 purple
orange9 and
gold
white
9 white
9 white
9 white
The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the resistor.
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show
these small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold,
which means 0.1 and silver which means 0.01. The first and second
bands represent the digits as normal.
For example:
red,
violet,
gold
bands
represent
blue, green, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56
27 0.1 = 2.7
The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor.
Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For
example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within
10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of
390).
VARIABLE RESISTOR:
In electronic circuits, sometimes it becomes necessary to adjust the values of
currents and voltages. For n example it is often desired to change the volume
of sound, the brightness of a television picture etc. Such adjustments can be
done by using variable resistors.
Although the variable resistors are usually called rheostats in
other applications, the smaller variable resistors commonly used in
electronic circuits are called potentiometers.
Emitter : The section on one side that supplies charge carriers is called
emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base.
Collector : The section on the other side that collects the charge is called
collector. The collector is always reversed biased.
Base : The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the
emitter and collector is called base.
output is taken across the load Rc connected in the collector circuit. The
collector current flowing through a high load resistance Rc produces a large
voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the input appears in the
amplified form in the collector circuit.
16.0 CONNECTORS Connectors are basically used for interface between two. Here we use
connectors for having interface between PCB and 8051 Microprocessor Kit.
There are two types of connectors they are male and female. The one,
which is with pins inside, is female and other is male.
These connectors are having bus wires with them for connection.
For high frequency operation the average circumference of a coaxial cable
must be limited to about one wavelength, in order to reduce multimodal
propagation and eliminate erratic reflection coefficients, power losses, and
signal distortion. The standardization of coaxial connectors during World
War II was mandatory for microwave operation to maintain a low reflection
coefficient or a low voltage standing wave ratio.
Seven types of microwave coaxial connectors are as follows:
1.APC-3.5
2.APC-7
3.BNC
4.SMA
5.SMC
6.TNC
7.Type N
BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.datasheets.com
www.technowave.co.in
www.microtutorials.com
www.overclockers.com