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Project Report

ELECTROMAGNETIC PISTON
Submitted to the department of mechanical engineering
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Under the guidence of:

Submitted By:

Prof. Kuldeep singh pal (H.O.D.)


(1112840034)

Arjun sharma

Prof. Ankur Rajvanshi


(1112840035)

Arpit garg

Mechanical Engineering
(1112840056)

Kailash kumar
Lavish sharma

(1112840057)

Department of Mechanical Engineering


Bharat institute of technology
1

U.P.T.U. (LUCKNOW)
2014-15

DECLARATION
We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that, to the best of
our knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written
by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for
the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of
higher learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.

Signature:

Signature:

Name : Arjun Sharma

Name : Arpit Garg

Roll No.: 1112840034

Roll No.: 1112840035

Date : 21.04.2015

Date : 21.04.2015

Signature:

Signature:

Name : Kailash Kumar

Name: Lavish Sharma

Roll No.: 1112840056

Roll No : 1112840057

Date : 21.04.2015

Date : 21.04.2015

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Project Report entitled ELECTROMAGNETIC
PISTON which is submitted by Arjun sharma ,Arpit garg, kailash
kumar, lavish sharma in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of degree B. Tech. in Department of Mechanical Engineering of
U. P. Technical University, is a record of the candidate own work
carried out by him under our supervision. The matter embodied in this
thesis is original and has not been submitted for the award of any
other degree.

Project Guide Signature:

Examiner Signature:

HOD/Director Signature :

ACKNOWLEDMENT
It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech Project
undertaken during B. Tech. Final Year. We owe special debt of gratitude to our mentor
Mr Ankur rajvanshi, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bharat Institute Of
Technology, Meerut for his constant support and guidance throughout the course of our
work. His sincerity, thoroughness and perseverance have been a constant source of
inspiration for us. It is only his cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of
the day.
We extend our grateful thanks to Asst. Professor Ankur Rajvanshi, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Bharat Institute Of Technology, Meerut for dedicating
his precious time, giving advice and helping us from the beginning to end of this
project. This work would not succeed without his great supports.
We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Professor Kuldeep
Singh Pal, Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bharat institute Of
Technology, Meerut for his full support and assistance during the development of the
project.
We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of all
faculty members of the department for their kind assistance and cooperation during the
development of our project. Last but not the least, we acknowledge our friends for their
contribution in the completion of the project.

ABSTRACT
The present inventions relates to an electromagnetic piston engine capable of producing
driving power by a reciprocal movement of a piston in a cylinder by electromagnetic
force.The present invention has the objects to provide the electromagnetic piston engine
which can do without a variety of resistance inherent combustion piston engines, which
reduces the weight corresponding to a rotary assembly portion to a smaller value even if
a great output is produced , which can be readily employed together with power
transmission mechanisms and so on for use with conventional internal combustion
piston engines, and which has a high efficiency in energy consumption.
The electromagnetic piston engine is provided with the cylinder and the piston made
each of a magnetic material as well as with as the cylinder electromagnet having the
inner wall of the cylinder magnetizable to a one magnetic pole and with the piston
magnetization unit for magnetizing a portion of the piston engageable with the cylinder
to a single magnetic pole in a fixed manner.
The magnetization of the cylinder electromagnet generates magneticmagnetic attracting
force between the cylinder and the piston to cause the piston to move in a single
direction and thereafter magnetically repellent force to transfer the piston in the opposite
direction. This series of the actions are repeated to provide a continual reciprocal
movement of piston.

CONTENTS
TOPIC NAME
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 HISTORY
3.0 HARDWARE REQUIRMENT
4.0 WOOD BASE
5.0 ELECTROMAGNET
5.1 WORKING ON PROJECT
5.2 MAGNET
5.3 MAGNETIZATION
5.4 POLE NAMING CONVENTIONS
5.5 CALCULATING MAGNETIC FORCE
6.0 PISTON
6.1 PISTONS TYPE
7.0 MICROCONTROLLER
7.1 DESCRIPTION
8.0 ANALOG DIGITAL CONVERTER
9.0 SUPPLY SECTION
9.1 TRANSFORMER
10.0 SWITCHING DEVICES
10.1 VOLTAGE RECTIFIER
11.0 RELAYS
12.0 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
13.0 CAPACITOR

14.0 RESISTOR
15.0 TRANSISTORS
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1.0 INTRODUCTION Here we are discussing to ELECTROMAGNETIC PISTON.According to


new research, the efficiency of Electromagnetic piston is 90%. When
we will flow A.C. current in the coil, Piston will be start to vibrate.
Electromagnetic Piston changes electrical energy to mechanical
energy. When we flow the current in Electromagnetic coil which
produce magnate and this magnate push the iron rod .
Increasing the efficiency of reciprocating engines has constantly been
pursued since Otto-cycle engines were first used as vehicle power
plants. The important effects of fuel consumption on factors such as
vehicle range, operating cost, and vehicle structures have always
been important design considerations. During the past decade, the
impact of environmental factors and a national interest in energy
conservation have accentuated the need to produce clean and
efficient engines.
Improving efficiency and meeting emissions standards have been
tested and reported in the literature; these ideas include using lean
mixture ratios, stratified charges, and improved mixture distribution .

2.0 HISTORY Lean-mixture-ratio combustion in internal- combustion engines has the. First, excess
oxygen in the charge further oxidizes unburned hydrocarbons potential of producing
low emissions and higher thermal efficiency for several reasons and carbon monoxide.
Second, excess oxygen lowers the peak combustion temperatures, which inhibits the
formation of oxides of nitrogen. Third, the lower combustion temperatures increase the
mixture specific heat ratio by decreasing the net dissociation losses. The specific heat
ratio increases, the cycle thermal efficiency also increases. I

Efficient lean-mixture-ratio operation, in t e rms of good vehicle performance, I fuel


economy, and low hydrocarbon emissions, is limited for several reasons. A reduction in
indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) occurs with lean mixtures (refs. 1 and 2).
Also, at ultra lean mixture ratios, the cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder variations
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in IMEP are drastically increased, which produces sizable power fluctuations and causes
engine surge and power train vibrations. Current explanations for these variations are
flow velocity perturbations at the spark plug and spatial variations of turbulence in the
combustion chamber. These conditions control the rate of the combustion process;
therefore, lean-mixture-ratio operation involves cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder
variations in flame speed. In addition, as the mixture ratio is made leaner, the
combustion process slows and occurs over larger crank-angle intervals, thereby causing
hydrocarbon emission levels and fuel consumption to rise.

Also, the thermal boundary layer, or quenching distance, increases with leaner mixture
ratios, which also causes hydrocarbon emission levels to rise (refs. 3 and 4). Even
though excess oxygen is available to oxidize these hydrocarbons, the quenching effect
of the cylinder wall will still produce a net increase in hydrocarbon emissions. Another
problem is the lean-mixture-ratio misfire limit, which occurs near the flammability
limits of the fuel. Cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder variations can cause an
individual cylinder to exceed the lean flammability limits and thus misfire. Incipient
lean-limit misfire is characterized by high hydrocarbon emissions, rough engine
operation, and poor fuel economy.

A review of the literature dealing with the problems of lean-mixture-ratio operation


shows that a fuel with a low lean flammability limit and a high flame speed might yield
low exhaust emissions at ultra lean conditions. Hydrogen was identified in reference 5
as having those properties and has been the subject of much investigation. Using a small
quantity, on a weight basis, of hydrogen as a supplement to gasoline was chosen as a
way to extend lean engine operation. Onboard generation of hydrogen was selected as a
feasible way to use hydrogen in a mobile application. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory I
conducted a similar program (refs. 6 and 7) in which hydrogen generated by the partial
oxidation of gasoline was used as a fuel supplement for lean engine operation. Various
commercial processes to generate hydrogen were analyzed for their applicability. The
catalytic steam reformation of methyl alcohol (methanol) using engine exhaust heat was
selected as being the most efficient process to generate hydrogen that was also compact
enough to be carried on a vehicle. One disadvantage is that it would require a second
fuel and a second fuel system.

A research system to generate hydrogen by methanol reformation was built and installed
on a multicylinder engine in an existing engine test setup. An independent and parallel
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program on catalyst evaluation was performed but is not part of this report. An engine
test program was conducted using gasoline and additions of gaseous hydrogen and
reformed methanol to evaluate the effects of hydrogen-gasoline fuel mixtures on
exhaust emissions, extension of lean engine operating limits, and fuel flammability
limits and combustion flame speed.

This report presents a brief description of the breadboard methanol reformation system
and the results of fuel and engine testing. The data were taken in the U. S. customary
system of units and converted to SI units for this report. In Future, we will mostly use
ELETROMAGNETIC PISTON due to its profitable advantages.

3.0 HARDWARE REQUIREMENT 1. Wood base


2. Piston
3. Switching device
4. Supply section
5.Electromagnetic coil
6. Piston cover

10

4.0 WOOD BASE It is the basic structure of our project and provides the support of the all parts of the
piston assembly .It consists of 3 legs and 1 base surface which are attached that is

parallel to horizontal surface .


11

5.0 Creating an Electromagnet

Wrap
magnet
wire
around
the soft
bolt)
iron
core (

Attach wire ends


to your interface
-ve + ve

12

Things to remember about electromagnets-

The more coils you make, the stronger the magnet.


Magnet wire works better, because it is thinner and more
coils you can get.
A soft iron core will make the magnet work better (a bolt).

5.1 Working of the project Now a days diesel, petrol piston is available. But if both are not present
these are not in use. In this project change the electric energy through the
electromagnetic coil in to mechanical energy.
In this project we develop an electromagnetic piston. When supply on then
piston start move. We generate electromagnetic field and piston move upper
side. Piston works of the switching in magnetic field.
Note: please works only 20 sec maximum.
Advantage When other fuel option not present then electromagnetic technology is very
useful to continue over speed.

5.2 MAGNET Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced
by a bar magnet

Magnetic field lines of a solenoid which are similar to a bar magnet as


illustrated above with the iron filings
A magnet (from Greek , "Magnesian stone") is a material or
object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is
responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on
other magnetic materials and attracts or repels other magnets. A permanent
magnet is one that stays magnetized, such as a magnet used to hold notes on
a refrigerator door. Materials which can be magnetized, which are also the
ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic. These
include iron, nickel, cobalt, some rare earth metals and some of their alloys,
and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. The other type of
magnet is an electromagnet, a coil of wire which acts as a magnet when an
electric current passes through it, but stops being a magnet when the current
stops. Often an electromagnet is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic
material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.
Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials which are
designed to stay magnetized, while "soft" ferromagnetic materials like soft
iron are attracted to a magnet but don't tend to stay magnetized.
Although ferromagnetic materials are the only ones strongly enough
attracted to a magnet to be commonly considered "magnetic", all other
substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several other types
of magnetism. Paramagnetic materials, such as aluminum and oxygen are
weakly attracted to a magnet. Diamagnetic materials, such as carbon and
water, which include all substances not having another type of magnetism,
are weakly repelled by a magnet.
The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment, while
the local strength of the magnetism in a material is measured by its
magnetization.

5.2.1 Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets

5.2.2 MAGNETIC FIELD The magnetic field (usually denoted B) is called a field (physics) because it
has a value at every point in space. The magnetic field (at a given point) is
specified by two properties: (1) its direction, which is along the orientation
of a compass needle; and (2) its magnitude (also called strength), which is
proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients along that direction.
Direction and magnitude makes B a vector, so B is a vector field. (B can
also depend on time.) In SI units the strength of the magnetic field is given
in teslas.
5.2.3 MAGNETIC MOMENT A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment, and
usually denoted ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall
magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic moment
points from the magnet's north pole to its south pole, and the magnitude

relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In SI units the
magnetic moment is specified in terms of Am.
A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and it responds to magnetic
fields. The strength of the magnetic field it produces is at any given point
proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic moment. In addition, when the
magnet is put into an "external" magnetic field produced by a different
source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient the magnetic moment
parallel to the field. The amount of this torque is proportional both to the
magnetic moment and the "external" field. A magnet may also be subject to
a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and
orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space the
magnet is subject to no net force, although it is subject to a torque.
A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I is a magnet,
with a magnetic moment of magnitude equal to IA.

5.3 MAGNETIZATION The magnetization of an object is the local value of its magnetic moment
per unit volume, usually denoted M, with units A/m. It is a vector field,
rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment), because the different
sections of a bar magnet generally are magnetized with different directions
and strengths (for example, due to domains, see below). A good bar magnet
may have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1 Am and a volume of 1 cm,
or 0.000001 m, and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is
100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million A/m. Such
a large value explains why magnets are so effective at producing magnetic
fields.
5.3.1 Two models for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currents
Magnetic pole model Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having
distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be
taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to the two different ends of a
magnet. The magnet does not have distinct "north" or "south" particles on
opposing sides. (No magnetic monopole has yet been observed.) If a bar
magnet is broken in half, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles,

the result will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and south
pole.
The magnetic pole approach is used by professional magneticians to design
permanent magnets. In this approach, the pole surfaces of a permanent
magnet are imagined to be covered with 'magnetic charge', little 'North pole'
particles on the North pole and 'South poles' on the south pole, that are the
source of the magnetic field lines. If the magnetic pole distribution is known,
then outside the magnet the pole model gives the magnetic field exactly. By
simply supplementing the pole model field with a term proportional to the
magnetization (see Units and Calculations, below) the magnetic field within
the magnet is given exactly. This pole model is also called the "Gilbert
model" of a magnetic dipole.[1] Griffiths suggests (p. 258): "My advice is to
use the Gilbert model, if you like, to get an intuitive "feel" for a problem, but
never rely on it for quantitative results."
Ampre model
Another model is the "Ampre model", where all magnetization is due to the
effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular "bound currents", also called
"Amprian currents" throughout the material. For a uniformly magnetized
bar magnet in the shape of a cylinder, the net effect of the microscopic
bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic
sheet of electric current flowing around the surface of the cylinder, with
local flow direction normal to the cylinder axis. (Since scraping off the outer
layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, it can be seen that this
is just a model, and the tiny currents are actually distributed throughout the
material). The right-hand rule due to Ampre tells which direction the
current flows. The Ampere model gives the exact magnetic field both inside
and outside the magnet. It is usually difficult to calculate the Amperian
currents on the surface of a magnet, whereas it is often easier to find the
effective poles for the same magnet.

5.4 Pole naming conventions The north pole of the magnet is the pole which, when the magnet is
freely suspended, points towards the Earth's magnetic north pole in
northern Canada. Since opposite poles (north and south) attract
whereas like poles (north and north, or south and south) repel, the
Earth's present geographic north is thus actually its magnetic south.

Confounding the situation further, the Earth's magnetic field has


reversed itself many times in the distant past.
In order to avoid this confusion, the terms positive and negative poles
are sometimes used instead of north and south, respectively.
As a practical matter, in order to tell which pole of a magnet is north
and which is south, it is not necessary to use the earth's magnetic
field at all. For example, one calibration method would be to compare
it to an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified via the righthand rule.

5.5 DESCRIPTIONS OF MAGNETIC BEHAVIORS There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one
of them. This section describes, qualitatively, the primary types of magnetic
behavior that materials can show. The physics underlying each of these
behaviors is described in the next section below, and can also be found in
more detail in their respective articles.

Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally


thought of as 'magnetic'; they are attracted to a magnet strongly
enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials are the only
ones that can retain magnetization and become magnets; a common
example is a traditional refrigerator magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials,
which include ferrites and the oldest magnetic materials magnetite and
lodestone, are similar to but weaker than ferromagnetics. The
difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to
their microscopic structure, as explained below.

Paramagnetic substances such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen are


weakly attracted to a magnet. This effect is hundreds of thousands of
times weaker than ferromagnetic materials attraction, so it can only be
detected by using sensitive instruments, or using extremely strong
magnets. Magnetic ferrofluids, although they are made of tiny
ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered
paramagnetic since they can't be magnetized.

Diamagnetic substances such as carbon, copper, water, and plastic are


even more weakly repelled by a magnet. All substances not possessing
one of the other types of magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes
most substances. Although force on a diamagnetic object from an

ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely strong


superconducting magnets diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead
and even frogs can be levitated so they float in midair.
Superconductors repel magnetic fields from their interior and are
strongly diamagnetic.
5.5.1 PHYSICS OF MAGNETIC BEHAVIORS Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:

Electric currents, or more generally moving electric charges, create


magnetic fields (see Maxwell's Equations).

Many particles have nonzero "intrinsic" (or "spin") magnetic


moments. (Just as each particle, by its nature, has a certain mass and
charge, each has a certain magnetic moment, possibly zero.)

In magnetic materials, the most important sources of magnetization are,


more specifically, the electrons' orbital angular motion around the nucleus,
and the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment (see Electron magnetic dipole
moment). The other potential sources of magnetism are much less important:
For example, the nuclear magnetic moments of the nuclei in the material are
typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments,
so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials.
(Nuclear magnetic moments are important in other contexts, particularly in
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI).)
Ordinarily, the countless electrons in a material are arranged such that their
magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to
some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic
magnetic moments (as a result of the Pauli exclusion principle; see Electron
configuration), or combining into "filled subshells" with zero net orbital
motion; in both cases, the electron arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the
magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the electron
configuration is such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled
subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will
contribute magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so
that the material will not be magnetic.
However, sometimes (either spontaneously, or due to an applied external
magnetic field) each of the electron magnetic moents on will be, on average,

lined up. Then the material can produce a net total magnetic field, which can
potentially be quite strong.
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure (particularly its
electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above), and also on the
temperature (at high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more
difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment).

5.5.2 PHYSICS OF PARAMAGNETISM In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or
molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons
are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic ('spin')
magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic
fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic
moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these
magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the
applied field, thus reinforcing it.

5.5.3 PHYSICS OF DIAMAGNETISM In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic
electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases,
the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be
understood classically as follows:
When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus
will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a
Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on which direction the
electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on the
electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force,
pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the
orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases
the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This
results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the
applied field.
Note that this description is meant only as an heuristic; a proper
understanding requires a quantum-mechanical description.

Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in


paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is
overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired electrons.
5.5.4 P HYSICS OF FERROMAGNETISM A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons.
However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moments wanting to
be parallel to an applied field, there is also in these materials a tendency for
these magnetic moments to want to be parallel to each other. Thus, even
when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the material can keep
each other continually pointed in the same direction.
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the
Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic
properties. This is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the
energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order.
Magnetic Domains

Magnetic domains in ferromagnetic material The magnetic moment of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to
behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and
align themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called
magnetic domains or Weiss domains. Magnetic domains can be observed
with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that
resemble white lines in the sketch.There are many scientific experiments that
can physically show magnetic fields.

Effect of a magnet on the domains When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and
divides into two domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick
together more stably as shown at the right.
When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the
domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure as
shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may
not return to a unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material
being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet.
When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all
others to result in only one single domain, the material is magnetically
saturated. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie
point temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic
domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties they cause cease.
When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously
returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a
crystalline solid.

5.6 PHYSICS OF ANTIFERROMAGNETISM 5.6.1 Antiferromagnetic ordering In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the
intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in
opposite directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each

neighbor is 'anti-aligned', the substance is antiferromagnetic.


Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment, meaning no field is
produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other
types of behaviors, and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying
temperatures, materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite
directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of
neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a spin glass, and is an example of
geometrical frustration.antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic
and ferrimagnetic properties.

5.7 PHYSICS OF FERRIMAGNETISM 5.7.1 Ferrimagnetic ordering Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence
of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron
spins like to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not
contradictory, due to the fact that in the optimal geometrical arrangement,
there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons which point
in one direction, than from the sublattice which points in the opposite
direction.
The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, was originally believed
to be a ferromagnet; Louis Nel disproved this, however, with the discovery
of ferrimagnetism.
OTHER TYPES OF MAGNETISM
There are various other types of magnetism, such as and spin glass
(mentioned above), superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism, and
metamagnetism.
COMMON USES OF MAGNETS

Hard disks record data on a thin magnetic coating.

Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape.


The information that makes up the video and sound is encoded on the
magnetic coating on the tape. Common audio cassettes also rely on
magnetic tape. Similarly, in computers, floppy disks and hard disks
record data on a thin magnetic coating.

Credit, debit, and ATM cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip
on one side. This strip encodes the information to contact an
individual's financial institution and connect with their account(s).

Common televisions and computer monitors: TV and computer


screens containing a cathode ray tube employ an electromagnet to
guide electrons to the screen. Plasma screens and LCDs use different
technologies.

Speakers and Microphones: Most speakers employ a permanent


magnet and a current-carrying coil to convert electric energy (the
signal) into mechanical energy (movement which creates the sound).
The coil is wrapped around a bobbin attached to the speaker cone, and
carries the signal as changing current which interacts with the field of
the permanent magnet. The voice coil feels a magnetic force and in
response moves the cone and pressurizes the neighboring air, thus
generating sound. Dynamic microphones employ the same concept,
but in reverse. A microphone has a diaphragm or membrane attached
to a coil of wire. The coil rests inside a specially shaped magnet.
When sound vibrates the membrane, the coil is vibrated as well. As
the coil moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is induced across

the coil. This voltage drives a current in the wire that is characteristic
of the original sound.

Magnetic hand separator for heavy minerals

Electric motors and generators: Some electric motors (much like


loudspeakers) rely upon a combination of an electromagnet and a
permanent magnet, and much like loudspeakers, they convert electric
energy into mechanical energy. A generator is the reverse: it converts
mechanical energy into electric energy by moving a conductor
through a magnetic field.

Transformers: Transformers are devices that transfer electric energy


between two windings of wire that are electrically isolated but are
coupled magnetically.

Chucks: Chucks are used in the metalworking field to hold objects.


Magnets are also used in other types of fastening devices, such as the
magnetic base, the magnetic clamp and the refrigerator magnet.

Compasses: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer


free to align itself with a magnetic field, most commonly Earth's
magnetic field.

Art: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs,


and other ornamental articles, allowing them to be attached to
refrigerators and other metal surfaces.

Science Projects: Many topic questions are based on magnets. For


example: how is the strength of a magnet affected by glass, plastic,
and cardboard?

Magnets have many uses in toys. M-tic uses magnetic rods connected to
metal spheres for construction

Toys: Due to their ability to counteract the force of gravity at close


range, magnets are often employed in children's toys such as the
Magnet Space Wheel to amusing effect.

Magnets can be used to make jewelry. Necklaces and bracelets can


have a magnetic clasp, or may be constructed entirely from a linked
series of magnets and ferrous beads.

Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper
clips) that are either too small, too hard to reach, or too thin for fingers
to hold. Some screwdrivers are magnetized for this purpose.

Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate


magnetic metals (iron, steel, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals
(aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can be used in the
so-called "magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected with a
magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty.

Magnetic levitation transport, or maglev, is a form of transportation


that suspends, guides and propels vehicles (especially trains) via
electromagnetic force. The maximum recorded speed of a maglev
train is 581 kilometres per hour (361 mph)

Magnets may be used to connect some cables to serve as a fail-safe if


the cord is pulled.

SAFETY
Human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic
fields, and there is no scientific evidence showing a health hazard associated
with exposure to these fields. However, if a ferromagnetic foreign body is
present in human tissue, the magnetic field will interact with it, which can
pose a serious safety risk.[2]
Children sometimes swallow small magnets from toys; and this can be
hazardous if two or more magnets are swallowed, as the magnets can pinch
or puncture internal tissues; one death has been reported.[3]
MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION
Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:

Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a


magnetic field and hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective
method, and is similar to the industrial processes used to create
permanent magnets.

Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item
retaining some of the magnetism on removal. Vibration has been
shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials aligned with the earth's
magnetic field and which are subject to vibration (e.g. frame of a
conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism.
A magnetic field much stronger than the earth's can be generated
inside a solenoid by passing direct current through it.

Stroking - An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to


the other repeatedly in the same direction.

Magnetized materials can be demagnetized in the following ways:

Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature - the molecular motion


destroys the alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes
all magnetization.

Hammering or jarring - the mechanical disturbance tends to


randomize the magnetic domains. Will leave some residual
magnetization.

Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field, such as that


generated by a solenoid with an alternating current through it, and

then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the
magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial
demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard
disks, and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs.
5.8 TYPES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS -

A stack of ferrite magnets


5.8.1 MAGNETIC METALLIC ELEMENTS Many materials have unpaired electron spins, and the majority of these
materials are paramagnetic. When the spins interact with each other in such
a way that the spins align spontaneously, the materials are called
ferromagnetic (what is often loosely termed as "magnetic"). Due to the way
their regular crystalline atomic structure causes their spins to interact, some
metals are (ferro)magnetic when found in their natural states, as ores. These
include iron ore (magnetite or lodestone), cobalt and nickel, as well the rare
earth metals gadolinium and dysprosium (when at a very low temperature).
Such naturally occurring (ferro)magnets were used in the first experiments
with magnetism. Technology has since expanded the availability of magnetic
materials to include various manmade products, all based, however, on
naturally magnetic elements.

COMPOSITES
5.8.2 Ceramic or ferrite -

Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered


iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate ceramic. Due to the low cost of
the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or

nonmagnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic component such as


radio antennas, for example) of various shapes can be easily mass produced.
The resulting magnets are noncorroding, but brittle and must be treated like
other ceramics.
Alnico

Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of


aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements
added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior
mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields
and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion
and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as
desirable as a metal.
Ticonal

Ticonal magnets are an alloy of titanium, cobalt, nickel, and aluminum, with
iron and small amounts of other elements. It was developed by Philips for
loudspeakers.
Injection molded

Injection molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and


magnetic powders, allowing parts of complex shapes to be manufactured by
injection molding. The physical and magnetic properties of the product
depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in magnetic strength
and resemble plastics in their physical properties.
Flexible

Flexible magnets are similar to injection molded magnets, using a flexible


resin or binder such as vinyl, and produced in flat strips, shapes or sheets.
These magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible,
depending on the binder used. Flexible magnets can be used in industrial
printers.

'Rare earth' (lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied f electron shell


(which can accommodate up to 14 electrons.) The spin of these electrons can
be aligned, resulting in very strong magnetic fields, and therefore these

elements are used in compact high-strength magnets where their higher price
is not a concern. The most common types of rare earth magnets are
samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets.
SINGLE-MOLECULE MAGNETS (SMMS) AND SINGLE-CHAIN MAGNETS (SCMS)
In the 1990s it was discovered that certain molecules containing
paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment at very
low temperatures. These are very different from conventional magnets that
store information at a "domain" level and theoretically could provide a far
denser storage medium than conventional magnets. In this direction research
on monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two main
attributes of an SMM are:
1. a large ground state spin value (S), which is provided by
ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic coupling between the paramagnetic
metal centres.
2. a negative value of the anisotropy of the zero field splitting (D)
Most SMM's contain manganese, but can also be found with vanadium, iron,
nickel and cobalt clusters. More recently it has been found that some chain
systems can also display a magnetization which persists for long times at
relatively higher temperatures. These systems have been called single-chain
magnets.
NANO-STRUCTURED MAGNETS
Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves called magnons that
coalesce into a common ground state in the manner of a Bose-Einstein
condensate.[4][5]
COSTS
The current cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are
flexible and ceramic magnets, but these are also among the weakest types.
Neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets are among the strongest. These cost
more per kilogram than most other magnetic materials, but due to their
intense field, are smaller and cheaper in many applications.[6]
TEMPERATURE
Temperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature
known as the Curie point, it loses all of its magnetism, even after cooling

below that temperature. The magnets can often be remagnetised however.


Additionally some magnets are brittle and can fracture at high temperatures.
ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into
one or more loops, known as a solenoid. When electric current flows
through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is concentrated near (and
especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those for a
magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined via the right
hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the
electromagnet are proportional to the number of loops of wire, to the crosssection of each loop, and to the current passing through the wire.
If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic
properties (e.g., cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field.
However, if it is wrapped around a "soft" ferromagnetic material, such as an
iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to
thousandfold increase of field strength.
Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors,
junkyard cranes, and magnetic resonance imaging machines. Some
applications involve configurations more than a simple magnetic dipole, for
example quadrupole and sextupole magnets are used to focus particle beams.
UNITS AND CALCULATIONS IN MAGNETISM How we write the laws of magnetism depends on which set of units we
employ. For most engineering applications, MKS or SI (Systme
International) is common. Two other sets, Gaussian and CGS-emu, are the
same for magnetic properties, and are commonly used in physics.
In all units it is convenient to employ two types of magnetic field, B and H,
as well as the magnetization M, defined as the magnetic moment per unit
volume.
1. The magnetic induction field B is given in SI units of teslas (T). B is
the true magnetic field, whose time-variation produces, by Faraday's
Law, circulating electric fields (which the power companies sell). B
also produces a deflection force on moving charged particles (as in
TV tubes). The tesla is equivalent to the magnetic flux (in webers) per

unit area (in meters squared), thus giving B the unit of a flux density.
In CGS the unit of B is the gauss (G). One tesla equals 104 G.
2. The magnetic field H is given in SI units of ampere-turns per meter
(A-turn/m). The "turns" appears because when H is produced by a
current-carrying wire, its value is proportional to the number of turns
of that wire. In CGS the unit of H is the oersted (Oe). One A-turn/m
equals 4 x 10-3 Oe.
3. The magnetization M is given in SI units of amperes per meter (A/m).
In CGS the unit of M is the emu, or electromagnetic unit. One A/m
equals 10-3 emu. A good permanent magnet can have a magnetization
as large as a million amperes per meter. Magnetic fields produced by
current-carrying wires would require comparably huge currents per
unit length, one reason we employ permanent magnets and
electromagnets.
4. In SI units, the relation B = 0(H + M) holds, where 0 is the
permeability of space, which equals 4 x 10-7 tesla meters per ampere.
In CGS it is written as B = H + 4M. [The pole approach gives 0H in
SI units. A 0M term in SI must then supplement this 0H to give the
correct field within B the magnet. It will agree with the field B
calculated using Amperian currents.]
Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the relation M = H
in SI, where is the (dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility. Most nonmagnetic materials have a relatively small (on the order of a millionth), but
soft magnets can have on the order of hundreds or thousands. For materials
satisfying M = H, we can also write B = 0(1 + )H = 0rH = H, where
r = 1 + is the (dimensionless) relative permeability and = 0r is the
magnetic permeability. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex,
history-dependent, behavior described by what are called hysteresis loops,
which give either B vs H or M vs H. In CGS M = H, but SI = 4CGS, and
= r .
Caution: In part because there are not enough Roman and Greek symbols,
there is no commonly agreed upon symbol for magnetic pole strength and
magnetic moment. The symbol m has been used for both pole strength (unit
= Am, where here the upright m is for meter) and for magnetic moment
(unit = Am). The symbol has been used in some texts for magnetic
permeability and in other texts for magnetic moment. We will use for
magnetic permeability and m for magnetic moment. For pole strength we

will employ qm. For a bar magnet of cross-section A with uniform


magnetization M along its axis, the pole strength is given by qm = MA, so
that M can be thought of as a pole strength per unit area.
FIELDS OF A MAGNET
Far away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet is almost
always described (to a good approximation) by a dipole field characterized
by its total magnetic moment. This is true regardless of the shape of the
magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is nonzero. One characteristic of a
dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of
the distance from the magnet's center.
Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated, and
more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet.
Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field,
plus a quadrupole field, plus an octupole field, etc.
At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long,
skinny bar magnet with its north pole at one end and south pole at the other,
the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the
distance from that pole.

5.9 CALCULATING THE MAGNETIC FORCE Calculating the attractive or repulsive force between two magnets is, in the
general case, an extremely complex operation, as it depends on the shape,
magnetization, orientation and separation of the magnets.
Force between two magnetic poles The force between two magnetic poles is given by:

where
F is force (SI unit: newton)
qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: ampere
meter)

is the permeability of the intervening medium (SI unit: tesla meter per
ampere, henry per meter or newton per ampere squared)
r is the separation (SI unit: meter).
The pole description is useful to practicing magneticians who design realworld magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than
a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not
simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will
be more useful.
Force between two nearby attracting surfaces of area A and equal
but opposite magnetizations M

where
A is the area of each surface, in m
M is their magnetization, in A/m.
0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4 x 10-7 tesla-meters per
ampere

Force between two bar magnets


The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end-to-end
is given by:

[3]
where
B0 is the magnetic flux density very close to each pole, in T,
A is the area of each pole, in m2,
L is the length of each magnet, in m,
R is the radius of each magnet, in m, and

x is the separation between the two magnets, in m


B0 =M relates the flux density at the pole to the magnetization
of the magnet.

6.0 PISTON A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas


compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is
the moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight
by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding
gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod.
In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the
crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid
in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering
and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.

PISTON ENGINES
Main article: Reciprocating engine
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Internal combustion engine piston, sectioned to show the gudgeon pin.
The piston of an internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of
the expanding combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top
of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the connecting rod
and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a
swivelling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is mounted within the
piston: unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead.
The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move
in the connecting rod. A few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose
in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and
the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, usually by circlips.
Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of
narrow iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the

crown. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press
against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used:
the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings have
narrow edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many
proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings.
Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life,
some racing pistons may be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron,
but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could
be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion
temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and
Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.
A few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise
effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During
World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the
infamously unreliable H.O.R. double-acting two-stroke diesel engine.
Although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine
was not repeated.
Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia
Commons

6.1 Trunk pistons Trunk piston for a modern diesel engine


Trunk pistons are long, relative to their diameter. They act as both piston and
also as a cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for part of its
rotation, there is also a side force that reacts along the side of the piston
against the cylinder wall. A longer piston helps to support this.
Trunk pistons have been a common design of piston since the early days of
the reciprocating internal combustion engine. They were used for both petrol
and diesel engines, although high speed engines have now adopted the
lighter weight slipper piston.
A characteristic of most trunk pistons, particularly for diesel engines, is that
they have a groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin, not just the rings
between the gudgeon pin and crown.
The name 'trunk piston' derives from the 'trunk engine', an early design of
marine steam engine. To make these more compact, they avoided the steam

engine's usual piston rod and separate crosshead and were instead the first
engine design to place the gudgeon pin directly within the piston. Otherwise
these trunk engine pistons bore little resemblance to the trunk piston: they
were of extremely large diameter and were double-acting. Their 'trunk' was a
narrow cylinder placed mounted in the centre of this piston.
Media related to Trunk pistons at Wikimedia Commons

6.2 Crosshead pistons Large slow-speed Diesel engines may require additional support for the side
forces on the piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The
main piston has a large piston rod extending downwards from the piston to
what is effectively a second smaller-diameter piston. The main piston is
responsible for gas sealing and carries the piston rings. The smaller piston is
purely a mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide
and also carries the gudgeon pin.
Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for highspeed engines.
Media related to Crosshead pistons at Wikimedia Commons

6.3 Slipper pistons A slipper piston is a piston for a petrol engine that has been reduced in size
and weight as much as possible. In the extreme case, they are reduced to the
piston crown, support for the piston rings, and just enough of the piston skirt
remaining to leave two lands so as to stop the piston rocking in the bore. The
sides of the piston skirt around the gudgeon pin are reduced away from the
cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to reduce the reciprocating mass, thus
making it easier to balance the engine and so permit high speeds. A
secondary benefit may be some reduction in friction with the cylinder wall,
however as most of this is due to the parts of the piston that are left behind,
the benefit is minor.
Media related to Slipper pistons at Wikimedia Commons

6.4 Deflector pistons Two-stroke deflector piston

Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase


compression, where the gas flow within the cylinder must be carefully
directed in order to provide efficient scavenging. With cross scavenging, the
transfer (inlet to the cylinder) and exhaust ports are on directly facing sides
of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture passing straight across
from one port to the other, the piston has a raised rib on its crown. This is
intended to deflect the incoming mixture upwards, around the combustion
chamber.[1] Much effort, and many different designs of piston crown, went
into developing improved scavenging. The crowns developed from a simple
rib to a large asymmetric bulge, usually with a steep face on the inlet side
and a gentle curve on the exhaust. Despite this, cross scavenging was never
as effective as hoped. Most engines today use Schnuerle porting instead.
This places a pair of transfer ports in the sides of the cylinder and
encourages gas flow to rotate around a vertical axis, rather than a horizontal
axis.[2]
Media related to Deflector pistons at Wikimedia Commons Steam engines
Cast-iron steam engine piston, with a metal piston ring spring-loaded against
the cylinder wall.
Steam engines are usually double-acting (i.e. steam pressure acts alternately
on each side of the piston) and the admission and release of steam is
controlled by slide valves, piston valves or poppet valves. Consequently,
steam engine pistons are nearly always comparatively thin discs: their
diameter is several times their thickness. (One exception is the trunk engine
piston, shaped more like those in a modern internal-combustion engine.)
Early (c. 1830) piston for a beam engine. The piston seal is made by turns of
wrapped rope.

Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress gases.


FOR LIQUIDS
Main article: Reciprocating pump
FOR GASES
Main article: Reciprocating compressor
AIR CANNONS

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or indiscriminate. Please help to clean it up to meet Wikipedia's quality
standards. Where appropriate, incorporate items into the main body of the
article. (November 2008)
There are two special type of pistons used in air cannons: close tolerance
pistons and double pistons. While in close tolerance pistons, O-rings serve as
a valve, O-rings are not used in double piston types.
Close-tolerance pistons have a number of disadvantages: They can swell and
stick, their properties alter due to atmospheric changes, and they fit tightly in
the cylinder with close tolerances. Backlash may suck some of the bin
material into the valve which can cause the piston to stick.
Common features of double piston construction: They cannot swell and
stick, they fit loosely in the cylinder (no tight tolerances), atmospheric
changes do not affect them, and foreign material entering the cylinder
doesn't cause sticking.

DRAWBACKS This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.
No cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this section if
you can. (March 2009)
Since the piston is the main reciprocating part of an engine, its movement
creates an imbalance. This imbalance generally manifests itself as a
vibration, which causes the engine to be perceivably harsh. The friction
between the walls of the cylinder and the piston rings eventually results in
wear, reducing the effective life of the mechanism.
The sound generated by a reciprocating engine can be intolerable and as a
result, many reciprocating engines rely on heavy noise suppression
equipment to diminish droning and loudness. To transmit the energy of the
piston to the crank, the piston is connected to a connecting rod which is in
turn connected to the crank. Because the linear movement of the piston must
be converted to a rotational movement of the crank, mechanical loss is
experienced as a consequence. Overall, this leads to a decrease in the overall
efficiency of the combustion process. The motion of the crank shaft is not
smooth, since energy supplied by the piston is not continuous and it is
impulsive in nature. To address this, manufacturers fit heavy flywheels
which supply constant inertia to the crank. Balance shafts are also fitted to

some engines, and diminish the instability generated by the piston's


movement.

7.0 CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING A MICROCONTROLLERThe basic criteria for choosing a microcontroller suitable for the application
are:
1) The first and foremost criterion is that it must meet the task at hand
efficiently and cost effectively. In analyzing the needs of a microcontrollerbased project, it is seen whether an 8- bit, 16-bit or 32-bit microcontroller
can best handle the computing needs of the task most effectively. Among the
other considerations in this category are:
(a) Speed: The highest speed that the microcontroller supports.
(b) Packaging: It may be a 28-pin DIP (dual inline package) or a QFP
(quad flat package), or some other packaging format. This is important in
terms of space, assembling, and prototyping the end product.
(c) Power consumption:
products.

This is especially critical for battery-powered

(d) The number of I/O pins and the timer on the chip.
(f) How easy it is to upgrade to higher performance or lower consumption
versions.
(g) Cost per unit: This is important in terms of the final cost of the product
in which a microcontroller is used.
2) The second criterion in choosing a microcontroller is how easy it is to
develop products around it. Key considerations include the availability of an
assembler, debugger, compiler, technical support.
3) The third criterion in choosing a microcontroller is its ready availability in
needed quantities both now and in the future.

7.1 DESCRIPTION This powerful (200 nanosecond instruction execution) yet easy-to-program
(only 35 single word instructions) CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit
microcontroller packs Microchip's powerful PIC architecture into an 28pin package and is upwards compatible with the PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX
and PIC16C7X devices. The PIC16F72 features 5 channels of 8-bit Analogto-Digital (A/D) converter with 2 additional timers, capture/compare/PWM
function and the synchronous serial port can be configured as either 3-wire
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) or the 2-wire Inter-Integrated Circuit
(IC) bus. All of these features make it ideal for more advanced level A/D
applications in automotive, industrial, appliances and consumer applications.

7.1.1 DEVICE SPECIFICATION High Performance RISC CPU Only 35 single word instructions to learn

All single cycle instructions except for program branches, which are
two-cycle

Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction


cycle

2K x 14 words of Program Memory, 128 x 8 bytes of Data Memory


(RAM)

Pin out compatible to PIC16C72/72A and PIC16F872

Interrupt capability

Eight-level deep hardware stack

Direct, Indirect and Relative Addressing modes

Peripheral Features -

High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA

Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler

Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented


during SLEEP via external crystal/clock

Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and


postscaler
Capture, Compare, PWM (CCP) module
- Capture is 16-bit, maximum resolution is 12.5 ns
- Compare is 16-bit, maximum resolution is 200 ns
- PWM maximum resolution is 10-bit
8-bit, 5-channel analog-to-digital converter
Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master/Slave) and I2C
(Slave)
Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

CMOS Technology:

Low power, high speed CMOS FLASH technology

Fully static design

Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V

Industrial temperature range

Low power consumption:


- < 0.6 mA typical @ 3V, 4 MHz
- 20 micro A typical @ 3V, 32 kHz
- < 1 micro A typical standby current
Special Microcontroller Features 1,000 erase/write cycle FLASH program memory typical

Power-on Reset (POR), Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator


Start-up Timer (OST)
Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for
reliable operation
Programmable code protection
Power saving SLEEP mode
Selectable oscillator options
In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via 2 pins

Processor read access to program memory

PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC16F72 -

Fig 4.8 Pin Diagram of Microcontroller

Pin Description

8.0 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER (A/D) MODULE The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter module has five inputs for the
PIC16F72. The A/D allows conversion of an analog input signal to a
corresponding 8-bit digital number. The output of the sample and hold is the
input into the converter, which generates the result via successive
approximation. The analog reference voltage is software selectable to either
the devices positive supply voltage (VDD) or the voltage level on the
RA3/AN3/VREF pin. The A/D converter has a unique feature of being able
to operate while the device is in SLEEP mode. To operate in SLEEP, the A/D
conversion clock must be derived from the A/Ds internal RC oscillator.

The A/D module has three registers:


A/D Result Register ADRES
A/D Control Register 0 ADCON0
A/D Control Register 1 ADCON1

A device RESET forces all registers to their RESET state. This forces the
A/D module to be turned off and any conversion is aborted. The ADCON0
register, shown in Register 10-1, controls the operation of the A/D module.
The ADCON1 register, shown in Register 10-2, configures the functions of
the port pins. The port pins can be configured as analog inputs (RA3 can
also be a voltage reference) or a digital I/O.

Fig 4.11 A to D Reg1


The ADRESS register contains the result of the A/D conversion. When the
A/D conversion is complete, the result is loaded into the ADRESS register,
the GO/DONE bit (ADCON0<2>) is cleared, and A/D interrupt flag bit
ADIF is set. The block diagram of the A/D module is shown. The value in
the ADRESS register is not modified for a Power-on Reset. The ADRESS
register will contain unknown data after a Power-on Reset. After the A/D
module has been configured as desired, the selected channel must be
acquired before the conversion is started. The analog input channels must
have their corresponding TRIS bits selected as an input. After acquisition
time has elapsed, the A/D conversion can be started. The following steps
should be followed for doing an A/C conversion:

1. Configure the A/D module:


Configure analog pins/voltage reference and digital I/O (ADCON1)
Select A/D input channel (ADCON0)
Select A/D conversion clock (ADCON0)
Turn on A/D module (ADCON0)

2. Configure A/D interrupt (if desired):


Clear ADIF bit
Set ADIE bit
Set GIE bit
3. Wait the required acquisition time.
4. Start conversion:
Set GO/DONE bit (ADCON0)
5. Wait for A/D conversion to complete, by either:
Polling for the GO/DONE bit to be cleared OR
Waiting for the A/D interrupt
6. Read A/D Result register (ADRES), clear bit ADIF if required.
7. For next conversion, go to step 1 or step 2 as required. The A/D
conversion time per bit is defined as TAD. A minimum wait of 2 TAD is
required before the next acquisition starts.
8.1 INSTRUCTION SET SUMMARY Each PIC16F72 instruction is a 14-bit word divided into an OPCODE that
specifies the instruction type and one or more operands that further specify
the operation of the instruction. The PIC16F72 instruction set summary in
Table below lists byte-oriented, bit-oriented, and literal and control
operations. Table below shows the opcode field descriptions. For byte-

oriented instructions, f represents a file register designator and d


represents a destination designator. The file register designator specifies
which file register is to be used by the instruction. The destination designator
specifies where the result of the operation is to be placed. If d is zero, the
result is placed in the W register. If d is one, the result is placed in the file
register specified in the instruction. For bit-oriented instructions, b
represents a bit field designator which selects the number of the bit affected
by the operation, while f represents the number of the file in which the bit
is located. For literal and control operations, k represents an eight or
eleven-bit constant or literal value.

The instruction set is highly orthogonal and is grouped into three basic
categories:

Byte-oriented operations
Bit-oriented operations
Literal and control operations

All instructions are executed within one single instruction cycle, unless a
conditional test is true or the program counter is changed as a result of an
instruction. In this case, the execution takes two instruction cycles, with the
second cycle executed as a NOP. One instruction cycle consists of four
oscillator periods. Thus, for an oscillator frequency of 4 MHz, the normal
instruction execution time is 1 s. If a conditional test is true, or the
program counter is changed as a result of an instruction, the instruction
execution time is more.

8.2 GENERAL FORMAT FOR INSTRUCTIONS -

Fig 4.12 General format

9.0 SUPPLY SECTION 9.1 Transformers


A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another by magnetic coupling without requiring relative motion between its
parts. It usually comprises two or more coupled windings, and, in most
cases, a core to concentrate magnetic flux. A transformer operates from the
application of an alternating voltage to one winding, which creates a timevarying magnetic flux in the core. This varying flux induces a voltage in the
other windings. Varying the relative number of turns between primary and
secondary windings determines the ratio of the input and output voltages,
thus transforming the voltage by stepping it up or down between circuits.

9.2

Basic principle -

The principles of the transformer are illustrated by consideration of a


hypothetical ideal transformer consisting of two windings of zero resistance
around a core of negligible reluctance. A voltage applied to the primary
winding causes a current, which develops a magnetomotive force (MMF) in
the core. The current required to create the MMF is termed the magnetising
current; in the ideal transformer it is considered to be negligible. The MMF
drives flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.

Figure 26: The ideal transformer as a circuit element

An electromotive force (EMF) is induced across each winding, an effect


known as mutual inductance. The windings in the ideal transformer have no
resistance and so the EMFs are equal in magnitude to the measured terminal
voltages. In accordance with Faraday's law of induction, they are
proportional to the rate of change of flux:

and

Equation 7: EMF induced in primary and secondary windings

where:
and
and

are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary windings,


are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary windings,

and
are the
secondary windings

time derivatives

of the flux linking the primary and

In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding also links
the secondary, and so
, from which the well-known transformer
equation follows:

Equation 8: Transformer Equation

The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio
of the number of turns; alternatively, that the volts-per-turn is the same in
both windings. The conditions that determine Transformer working in STEP
UP or STEP DOWN mode are:
Ns > Np

Equation 9: Conditon for STEP UP

Ns < Np

10.0 SWITCHING DEVICES 10.1 RectifierA bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit
as shown below, that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any
polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most common application, for
conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current (DC) output, it is
known as a bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier provides full wave rectification
from a two wire AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped transformer) but
has two diode drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a center tap
based design for the same output voltage.

Figure 9: Schematic of a bridge rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the
voltage at the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.

10.2 Basic Operation When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right
along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply
via the lower one.

When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner,
current flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the
lower colored path.

Figure 10: AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals

In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the
lower right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit
not only produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can
provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it
permits normal functioning when batteries are installed backwards or DC
input-power supply wiring "has its wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry
it powers against damage that might occur without this circuit in place).
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was
always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single
four-terminal component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge
configuration became a standard commercial component and is now
available with various voltage and current ratings.

10.3 Output Smoothing For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave
bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a
capacitor may be important because the bridge alone supplies an output
voltage of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude.

Figure 11: Bridge Rectifier with smoothen output

The function of this capacitor, known as a 'smoothing capacitor' (see also


filter capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the raw output
voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that
the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the
output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive
load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of
the bridge tends to be cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This
charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of
load current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the
capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the
capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage / current.

The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC
where C and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long
as the load resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer
than the time of one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a
well smoothed DC voltage across the load resistance. In some designs, a
series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can

then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs,


often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be
sensitive to supply voltage noise.

Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical
mechanism, or passive or active electronic components. Depending on the
design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. With the
exception of shunt regulators, all voltage regulators operate by comparing
the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any
difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element. This
forms a negative feedback servo control loop. If the output voltage is too
low, the regulation element is commanded to produce a higher voltage. For
some regulators if the output voltage is too high, the regulation element is
commanded to produce a lower voltage; however, many just stop sourcing
current and depend on the current draw of whatever it is driving to pull the
voltage back down. In this way, the output voltage is held roughly constant.
The control loop must be carefully designed to produce the desired tradeoff
between stability and speed of response.
LM7805 (3-Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulator)
The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three terminal positive
regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making
them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection,
making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided,
they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as
fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components
to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

Figure 18: Internal block Diagram

Figure 19 : Fixed Output Regulator -

Features

Output Current up to 1A
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
Thermal Overload Protection
Short Circuit Protection
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

11.0

RELAYS Circuit symbol for a


relay

Relays
Photographs Rapid Electronics
A relay is an
switch.
the coil of the
field, which
the switch

electrically operated
Current flowing through
relay creates a magnetic
attracts a lever and changes
contacts. The coil current

can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double
throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit that can be completely
separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a
relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection
inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and
mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a
12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate
from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a
transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value
required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555
timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without
amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets
of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are
readily available. For further information about switch contacts and the
terms used to describe them please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires
directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case
of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil
will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils
produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can
destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must
connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch
contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when
the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one
set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making
the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.

NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.

NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is on.

Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is off.

12.0 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

It is often required to produce a signal whose frequency or pulse rate is very


stable and exactly known. This is important in any application where
anything to do with time or exact measurement is
crucial. It is relatively simple to make an oscillator that produces some sort
of a signal, but another matter to produce one of relatively precise frequency
and stability. AM radio stations must have a carrier frequency accurate
within 10Hz of its assigned frequency, which may be from 530 to 1710 kHz.
SSB radio systems used in the HF range (2-30 MHz) must be within 50 Hz
of channel frequency for acceptable voice quality, and within 10 Hz for best
results. Some digital modes used in weak signal communication may require
frequency stability of less than 1 Hz within a period of several minutes. The
carrier frequency must be known to fractions of a hertz in some cases. An
ordinary quartz watch must have an oscillator accurate to better than a few
parts per million. One part per million will result in an error of slightly less
than one half second a day, which would be about 3 minutes a year. This
might not sound like much, but an error of 10 parts per million would result
in an error of about a half an hour per year. A clock such as this would need
resetting about once a month, and more often if you are the punctual type. A
programmed VCR with a clock this far off could miss the recording of part
of a TV show. Narrow band SSB communications at VHF and UHF
frequencies still need 50 Hz frequency accuracy. At 440 MHz, this is slightly
more than 0.1 part per million.
Ordinary L-C oscillators using conventional inductors and capacitors can
achieve typically 0.01 to 0.1 percent frequency stability, about 100 to 1000
Hz at 1 MHz. This is OK for AM and FM broadcast receiver applications
and in other low-end analog receivers not requiring high tuning accuracy. By
careful design and component selection, and with rugged mechanical
construction, .01 to 0.001%, or even better (.0005%) stability can be

achieved. The better figures will undoubtedly employ temperature


compensation components and regulated power supplies, together with
environmental control (good ventilation and ambient temperature regulation)
and battleship mechanical construction. This has been done in some
communications receivers used by the military and commercial HF
communication receivers built in the 1950-1965 era, before the widespread
use of digital frequency synthesis. But these receivers were extremely
expensive, large, and heavy. Many modern consumer grade AM, FM, and
shortwave receivers employing crystal controlled digital frequency synthesis
will do as well or better from a frequency stability standpoint.
An oscillator is basically an amplifier and a frequency selective feedback
network (Fig 1). When, at a particular frequency, the loop gain is unity or
more, and the total phaseshift at this frequency is zero, or some multiple of
360 degrees, the condition for oscillation is satisfied, and the circuit will
produce a periodic waveform of this frequency. This is usually a sine wave,
or square wave, but triangles, impulses, or other waveforms can be
produced. In fact, several different waveforms often are simultaneously
produced by the same circuit, at different points. It is also possible to have
several frequencies produced as well, although this is generally undesirable.

13.0 CAPACITORA capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a


pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential
difference (voltage) exists across the conductors, an electric field is present
in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow
separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are
often called plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric
between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors
and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an
electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference,

to smooth the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They
are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular
frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

THEORY OF OPERATION
Main article: Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric


field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor


A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive
region.The non-conductive substance is called the dielectric medium,
although this may also mean a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region
chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be selfcontained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from an
external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite
charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric contains an electric field.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric
circuits.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C,
defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between
them

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing


the capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of
incremental changes:

In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on


each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
ENERGY STORAGE
Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the
conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the
charge separation persists and energy is stored in the electric field. If charge
is later allowed to return to its equilibrium position, the energy is released.
The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of
energy stored, is given by:

14.0 RESISTOR Resistors are used to limit the value of current in a circuit. Resistors offer
opposition to the flow of current. They are expressed in ohms for which the
symbol is . Resistors are broadly classified as
(1)

Fixed Resistors

(2)

Variable Resistors

Fixed Resistors :
The most common of low wattage, fixed type resistors is the molded-carbon
composition resistor. The resistive material is of carbon clay composition.
The leads are made of tinned copper. Resistors of this type are readily
available in value ranging from few ohms to about 20M, having a
tolerance range of 5 to 20%. They are quite inexpensive. The relative size of
all fixed resistors changes with the wattage rating.
Another variety of carbon composition resistors is the metalized
type. It is made by deposition a homogeneous film of pure carbon over a
glass, ceramic or other insulating core. This type of film-resistor is
sometimes called the precision type, since it can be obtained with an
accuracy of 1%.

Lead

Colour Coding

Tinned Copper Material

Molded Carbon Clay Composition

Fixed Resistor
A Wire Wound Resistor :
It uses a length of resistance wire, such as nichrome. This wire is wounded
on to a round hollow porcelain core. The ends of the winding are attached to

these metal pieces inserted in the core. Tinned copper wire leads are attached
to these metal pieces. This assembly is coated with an enamel coating
powdered glass. This coating is very smooth and gives mechanical
protection to winding. Commonly available wire wound resistors have
resistance values ranging from 1 to 100K, and wattage rating up to about
200W.

Coding Of Resistor :
Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed on
the body. However there are some resistors that are too small in size to have
numbers printed on them. Therefore, a system of colour coding is used to
indicate their values. For fixed, moulded composition resistor four colour
bands are printed on one end of the outer casing. The colour bands are
always read left to right from the end that has the bands closest to it. The
first and second band represents the first and second significant digits, of the
resistance value. The third band is for the number of zeros that follow the
second digit. In case the third band is gold or silver, it represents a
multiplying factor of 0.1to 0.01. The fourth band represents the
manufactures tolerance.
RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

0 black

0 black

0 black

0 black

1 brown

1 brown

1 brown

1 brown

2 red

2 red

2 red

2 red

3 orange

3 orange

3 orange

3 orange

4 yellow

4 yellow

4 yellow

4 yellow

5 green

5 green

5 green

5 green

6 blue

6 blue

6 blue

6 blue

7 purple

7 purple

7 purple

7 purple

8 silver yellow, violet,8 silver


silver
8 silver
For 8example,
if a resistor has
a colour band sequence:

orange9 and
gold
white

9 white

9 white

9 white

Then its range will be

Yellow=4, violet=7, orange=10,

gold=5% =47K 5% =2.35K

Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.

The third band indicates the number of zeros.

The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the resistor.

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show
these small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold,
which means 0.1 and silver which means 0.01. The first and second
bands represent the digits as normal.
For example:
red,
violet,
gold
bands
represent
blue, green, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56

27 0.1 = 2.7

The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor.
Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For
example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of 10% will have a value within
10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of
390).

A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:


silver 10%,
gold 5%,
red 2%,
brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.

VARIABLE RESISTOR:
In electronic circuits, sometimes it becomes necessary to adjust the values of
currents and voltages. For n example it is often desired to change the volume
of sound, the brightness of a television picture etc. Such adjustments can be
done by using variable resistors.
Although the variable resistors are usually called rheostats in
other applications, the smaller variable resistors commonly used in
electronic circuits are called potentiometers.

15.0 TRANSISTORS A transistor is an active device. It consists of two PN junctions formed by


sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of
opposite types.
There are two types of transistor:
1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor

An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors


separated by a thin section of p-type. However a p-n-p type semiconductor is
formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type.

Transistor has two pn junctions one junction is forward biased and


other is reversed biased. The forward junction has a low resistance path
whereas a reverse biased junction has a high resistance path.
The weak signal is introduced in the low resistance circuit and output
is taken from the high resistance circuit. Therefore a transistor transfers a
signal from a low resistance to high resistance.
Transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on
one side is emitter and section on the opposite side is collector. The middle
section is base.

Emitter : The section on one side that supplies charge carriers is called
emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base.

Collector : The section on the other side that collects the charge is called
collector. The collector is always reversed biased.

Base : The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the
emitter and collector is called base.

A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an


amplifier. The weak signal is applied between emitter-base junction and

output is taken across the load Rc connected in the collector circuit. The
collector current flowing through a high load resistance Rc produces a large
voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied in the input appears in the
amplified form in the collector circuit.

16.0 CONNECTORS Connectors are basically used for interface between two. Here we use
connectors for having interface between PCB and 8051 Microprocessor Kit.
There are two types of connectors they are male and female. The one,
which is with pins inside, is female and other is male.
These connectors are having bus wires with them for connection.
For high frequency operation the average circumference of a coaxial cable
must be limited to about one wavelength, in order to reduce multimodal
propagation and eliminate erratic reflection coefficients, power losses, and
signal distortion. The standardization of coaxial connectors during World
War II was mandatory for microwave operation to maintain a low reflection
coefficient or a low voltage standing wave ratio.
Seven types of microwave coaxial connectors are as follows:

1.APC-3.5
2.APC-7
3.BNC
4.SMA
5.SMC
6.TNC
7.Type N

BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.datasheets.com
www.technowave.co.in
www.microtutorials.com
www.overclockers.com

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