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2.1 INTRODUCTION
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WELDING
A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of combustion
of an oxygen /air and fuel gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane)
mixture is usually referred as gas welding. The intense heat (flame) thus
produced melts and fuses together the edges of the parts to be welded,
generally with the addition of a filler metal. Operation of gas welding is
shown in Fig.
. The fuel gas generally employed is acetylene; however
gases other than acetylene can also be used though with lower flame
temperature. Oxy-acetylene flame is the most versatile and hottest of all
the flames produced by the combination of oxygen and other fuel gases.
Fig.
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WELDING
about 5700-5800F. With this flame it is possible to bring any of the socalled commercial metals, namely: cast iron, steel, copper, and aluminum,
to a molten state and cause a fusion of two pieces of like metals in such a
manner that the point of fusion will very closely approach the strength of
the metal fused. If more metal of like nature is added, the union is made
even stronger than the original. This method is called oxy-acetylene
welding.
3.5.1.2 Gas Welding Equipments
An arrangement of oxy acetylene welding set up is shown in Fig.
. The
basic tools and
equipments used for oxy-acetylene welding are following:
Oxy-fuel apparatus consists of two cylinders (one oxygen and one
acetylene) equipped with two regulators, pressure gauges, two lengths of
hose, and a blow torch. The regulators are attached to cylinders and are
used to reduce and maintain a uniform pressure of gases at the torch. The
gases at reduced pressure are conveyed to the torch by the hoses. The
regulators include high pressure and low pressure gauges to indicate the
contents of the cylinder and the working-pressure on each hose. When the
gases reach the torch they are there mixed and combustion takes place at
the welding tip fitted to the torch.
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WELDING
7. Welding torch or blow pipe with a set of nozzles and gas lighter
8. Trolleys for the transportation of oxygen and acetylene cylinders
9. Set of keys and spanners
10. Filler rods and fluxes
11. Protective clothing for the welder (e.g., asbestos apron, gloves, goggles, etc.
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WELDING
Types of flames
Based on amount of o2 flame produced can be divided into 3 types
1. Natural flame
I.
O2 : C2H2 = 1:1
II.
III.
IV.
During joining of brass ,the Zinc present in brass will get evaporated
2.Oxydising flame
I.
O2 : C2H2 = 1.15:1.5
II.
III.
IV.
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WELDING
A welding torch mixes oxygen and acetylene in the desired proportions, burns the mixture at
the end of the tip, and provides a means for moving and directing the flame.
There are two types of welding torches, namely:
a) High pressure (or equal pressure) type
b) Low pressure (or injector) type
The high pressure torch also called the equal pressure torch is most commonly used because:
a) It is lighter and simpler;
b) It does not need an injector;
c) In operation, it is less troublesome since it does not suffer from backfires to the same
extent.
Torch tips
It is the portion of the welding apparatus through which the gases pass just
prior to their ignition and burning. A great variety of interchangeable
welding tips differing in size, shape and construction are available
commercially. The tip sizes are identified by the diameter of the opening.
The diameter of the tip opening used for welding depends upon the type of
metal to be welded.
Hose pipes
The hose pipes are used for the supply of gases from the pressure
regulators. The most common method of hose pipe fitting both oxygen and
acetylene gas is the reinforced rubber hose pipe. Green is the standard
color for oxygen hose, red for acetylene, and black hose for other
industrially available welding gases.
Filler Metals:
Filler metals are used to supply additional material to the pool to assist in filling the gap (or
groove) and it forms an integral part of the weld. Filler rods have the same or nearly the same
chemical composition as the base metal and are available in a variety of compositions (for
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WELDING
welding different materials) and sizes. These consumable filler rods may be bare, or they may
be coated with flux. The purpose of the flux
a. Is to retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts being welded, by generating gaseous
shield around the weld zone.
b. The flux also helps to dissolve and remove oxides and other substances from the
work piece and so contributes to the formation of a stronger joint.
Characteristics of good flux
a. The melting point of a flux must be lower than that of either the metal or
the oxides formed, so that it will be liquid.
b. The ideal flux has exactly the right fluidity when the welding
temperature has been reached.
c. The flux will protect the molten metal from atmospheric oxidation.
d. Fflux will remain close to the weld area instead of flowing all over the
base metal for some distance from the weld.
Composition of Fluxes
Fluxes differ in their composition according to the metals with which they are to be
used. In cast iron welding, a slag forms on the surface of the puddle. The flux
serves to break this up. Equal parts of a carbonate of soda and bicarbonate of
soda make a good compound for this purpose. Nonferrous metals usually require a
flux. Copper also requires a filler rod containing enough phosphorous to produce a
metal free from oxides. Borax which has been melted and powdered is often used
as a flux with copper alloys. A good flux is required with aluminum, because there
is a tendency for the heavy slag formed to mix with the melted aluminum and
weaken the weld. For sheet aluminum welding, it is customary to dissolve the flux
in water and apply it to the rod. After welding aluminum, all traces of the flux
should be removed.
Characteristics of the oxy-acetylene welding process include:
o The use dual oxygen and acetylene gases stored under pressure in steel cylinders;
o Its ability to switch quickly to a cutting process, by changing the welding tip to a cutting
tip;
o The high temperature the gas mixture attains (~5800F);
o The use of regulators to control gas flow and reduce pressure on both the oxygen and
acetylene tanks;
o The use of double line rubber hoses to conduct the gas from the tanks to the torch;
o Melting the materials to be welded together;
o The ability to regulate temperature by adjusting gas flow
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Neutral Flame - A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal
volumes of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt
at the torch tip. (More accurately the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio is 1.1 to 1).
The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about 3260C. The
flame has a nicely defined inner cone which is light blue in colour. It is
surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced by the combination of
oxygen in the air and superheated carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases
from the inner cone. This envelope is usually a much darker blue than the
inner cone.
A neutral flame is named so because it effects no chemical change in the
molten metal and therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal. The
neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of: (i) Mild steel (ii)
Stainless steel (iii) Cast Iron (iv) Copper (v) Aluminium
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Oxidising Flame - If, after the neutral flame has been established, the
supply of oxygen is further increased, the result will be an oxidising flame.
An oxidising flame can be recognized by the small white cone which is
shorter, much bluer in colour and more pointed than that of the neutral
flame. The outer
flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the end on the
other hand the neutral and carburizing envelopes tend to come to a sharp
point. An oxidising flame burns with a decided loud roar. An oxidising flame
tends to be hotter than the neutral flame. This is because of excess oxygen
and which causes the temperature to rise as high as 3500C. The high
temperature of an oxidizing
flame (O2: C2H2 = 1.5: 1) would be an advantage if it were not for the fact
that the excess oxygen, especially at high temperatures, tends to combine
with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength
oxides. Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the
surrounding area to have a scummy or dirty appearance. For these reasons,
an oxidising flame is of limited use in welding. It is not used in the welding
of steel. A slightly oxidising flame is helpful when welding most (i) Copper
base metals (ii) Zinc base metals, and (iii) A few types of ferrous metals,
such as manganese steel and cast iron The oxidizing atmosphere, in these
cases, creates a base metal oxide that protects the base
metal. For example, in welding brass, the zinc has a tendency to separate
and fume away.
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Use of flux:
Flux is employed in the welding of such metal as cast iron. Some alloy steel and non-ferrous metals
to dissolve such as:
1. Remove impurities.
2. Control surface tension.
3. Give protection from atmosphere.
It is usually in the format paste in which the rod is dipped.
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Forehand welding
3. Fillet welding: The fillet weld is the most popular of all types of welds because there is
normally no preparation required.
4. Horizontal position welding: In horizontal welding, the weld axis is approximately horizontal,
but the weld type dictates the complete definition. For a fillet weld, welding is performed on the
upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and against an approximately vertical surface.
For a groove weld, the face of the weld lies in an approximately vertical plane
5. Flat position welding: This type of welding is performed from the upper side of the joint. The
face of the weld is approximately horizontal.
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3) Welder has considerable control over the rate of heat input, the temperature of the weld
zone, and the oxidizing or reducing potential of the welding atmosphere;
4) Oxyacetylene process is ideally suited to the welding of thin sheet, tubes, and small
diameter pipe. It is also used for repair work, maintenance and in body shops;
5) Dissimilar metals can easily be joined;
6) Can also be used for preheating, cutting metal, case hardening, soldering and
annealing.
Limitations
1. Acetylene becomes extremely dangerous if used above 15 pounds
pressure. Pure acetylene is self-explosive if stored in the free state under a
pressure of 29.4 pounds per square inch (psi);
2. The process is typically slower than the electrical arc-welding processes;
3. Heavy sections cannot be joined efficiently.
4. For heavy sections proper penetration may not be achieved.
5. Slower speed of welding compared electric arc welding.
6. Flux used in the filler metal provides fumes which are irritating to the
eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
7. More safety is recommended in gas welding.
8. Acetylene and oxygen are expensive gases.
9. Prolonged heating of the joint may results in large HAZ.
Applications of Gas Welding 1. For joining thin materials.
2. For joining materials in whose case excessively high temperatures or
rapid heating and cooling of the job would produce unwanted or harmful
changes in the metal.
3. For joining materials in whose case extremely high temperatures would
cause certain elements in the metal to escape into the atmosphere.
4. For joining most ferrous and nonferrous metals, e.g., carbon steels, alloy
steels, cast iron, aluminium, copper, nickel, magnesium and its alloys, etc.
5. In automotive and aircraft industries. In sheet metal fabricating
plants,etc.
Gas Cutting: It is possible to rapidly oxidise (burn) iron and steel when it is
heated to a temperature between 800 to 1000 0C. When a high pressure
oxygen jet with a pressure of the order of 300 KPa is directed against a
heated steel plate, the oxygen jet burns the metal and blows it away
causing the cut. This process is used for cutting steel plates of various
thicknesses (can go up to 2 m) mainly because the equipment required is
simple and can be carried anywhere without handling the heavy steel
plates. Oxy-acetylene gas cutting outfit is similar to that of the oxyacetylene welding except for the torch tip. Here
the torch tip has a provision for preheating the plate as well as providing
the oxygen jet. Thus the tip has a central hole for oxygen jet with
surrounding holes for preheating flames. The cutting tip should be chosen
for the intended application. The size is normally dependent on the
thickness of the plate which determines the amount of preheating as well
as the oxygen jet flow required for cutting. After the steel is heated to the
kindling temperature which is about 870 0C, it gets readily combined with
oxygen
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giving iron oxide with the following reactions:
3 Fe + 2 O2 -- Fe3O4 + 6.67 MJ/Kg of iron
2Fe + O2 -- 2FeO + 3.18 MJ/Kg of iron
4 Fe + 3 O2 -- 2Fe2O3 + 4.90 MJ/Kg of iron
All the above reactions are exothermic in nature and as such would provide
a good amount of heat to preheat the steel. But this energy may not be
sufficient to bring the steel to its kindling temperature, and hence
preheating flames may have to be continued as somewhat lower rate. The
heat generated causes the metal to melt and get blown away by the
oxygen pressure. About 30 to 40 % of metal is simply blown away, while
the rest is oxidised.
The cutting can start at the edge or in the middle of the plate. After the
plate has reached the kindling temperature, the operator should release
the oxygen jet to start the cutting, moving the torch in the forehand
direction to achieve the desired cut. Drag is the amount by which the lower
edge of the drag line trails from the top edge.
A good cut is characterised by very small or negligible drag. When the torch
is moved too rapidly, the metal at the bottom does not get sufficient heat
to get oxidized and cut and hence there is a large drag. When the torch is
moved slowly, all the preheated metal is burnt away by the oxygen jet and
a large amount of slag is generated.
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Though the gas cutting is more useful with thick plates, thin sheets (less
than 3 mm) can also be cut by this process taking special precautions. Tip
size chosen should be as small as possible. If small tips are not available,
then the tip is inclined at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees. Gas cutting can be
done manually or by a machine. The manual cutting is used for general
purpose work and for straight line cutting. In machine cutting the torch is
mounted on a rail and both rail and the torch can move simultaneously
along the two mutually perpendicular axes in the horizontal plane with the
help of servo motors. There
is provision in the machine to hold more than one torch so that large
number of identical pieces can be cut at the same time.
Arc-Welding
Introduction
Arc welding is the fusion of two pieces of metal by an electric arc between
the pieces being joined the work pieces and an electrode that is guided
along the joint between the pieces. The electrode is either a rod that simply
carries current between the tip and the work, or a rod or wire that melts
and supplies filler metal to the joint.
Principle of Arc
The basic arc welding circuit is an alternating current (AC) or direct current
(DC) power source connected by a work cable to the work piece and by a
hot cable to an electrode. When the electrode is positioned close to the
work piece, an arc is created across the gap between the metal and the hot
cable electrode. An ionized column of gas develops to complete the circuit.
The arc produces a temperature of about 6000C to 7000C at the tip and
melts part of the metal being welded and part of the electrode. This
produces a pool of molten metal that cools and solidifies behind the
electrode as it is moved along the joint.
There are two types of electrodes. Consumable electrode tips melt, and
molten metal droplets detach and mix into the weld pool. Non-consumable
electrodes do not melt. Instead, filler metal is melted into the joint from a
separate rod or wire.
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The strength of the weld is reduced when metals at high temperatures
react with oxygen and nitrogen in the air to form oxides and nitrides. Most
arc welding processes minimize contact between the molten metal and the
air with a shield of gas, vapour or slag. Granular flux, for example, adds
deoxidizers that create a shield to protect the molten pool, thus improving
the weld.
Arc Welding Equipment
The main requirement in an arc welding setup is the source of electric
power. They are essentially
of two types:
a) Alternating Current Machines
1. Transformer
2. Motor or engine driven alternator
b) Direct Current Machines
1. Transformer with DC rectifier
2. Motor or engine driven generator
In AC welding normally transformer is used. It has following operational
characteristics.
1. No moving parts and less noise;
2. Less maintenance;
3. Higher efficiency;
4. Cheaper power source.
In DC arc welding a rectifier or a generator can be used to supply the
required DC power. At first input voltage is stepped down to required
voltage and then through silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is converted
from AC to DC. Its characteristics are
1. Compact setup
2. Highly reliable and efficient
3. Less noise
4. Costly setup
The welding machine can be of two types.
1. Constant current welding machines or droopers
2. Constant voltage welding machines
In constant current welding machine the change in arc current magnitude
due to change in voltage across the electrodes is very small. This machine
is very essential for manual arc welding processes since the maintenance
of constant arc is nearly impossible by a human welder. With the variation
of electrode distance from the base plate in manual arc welding the voltage
across the arc gap changes continuously but the magnitude of current
remains almost constant due to which good quality of weld can be made.
In constant voltage welding machines small change in voltage makes for an
extremely large change in the output currents. Theses machines are
generally preferred in the automatic machines since they become self
corrective. When the electrode comes a bit closer to the work, the arc
voltage drops raising the output current to very high value. This current
instantly melts the electrode and thus maintains the arc gap.
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Figure
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Figure
: Weld penetration
Duty cycle and associated currents are important as it ensures that power
source remains
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safe and its windings are not getting damaged due to increase in
temperature beyond
specified limit. The maximum current which can be drawn from a power
source depends
upon its size of winding wire, type of insulation and cooling system of the
power source.
Work time: Convention is to assume total annual work time of 4000 hours
(two shifts).
Electrode Efficiency
The efficiency of an electrode is the mass of metal actually deposited
compared with the mass of that portion of the electrode consumed. It can
be expressed as:
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efficiency % =mass of metal deposited/mass of metal of the electrode
consumedx 100
With ordinary electrodes the efficiency varies from 75 to 95 % but with
electrodes containing metallic components in the covering the efficiency
can approach 200 %(e.g. electrodes containing iron powder).The electrodes
are marked with a 6 digit numeral associated by a prefix and a suffix. The
meaning of these and the various values are shown in figure .
Figure Designation of manual metal arc welding electrode for mild steel
Arc Blow
When current flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic flux that
circles around the conductor in perpendicular planes. The centres of the
flux circles are located at the centre of the conductor. The magnetic flux is
produced in the steel and across the arc gap. The arc column is mainly
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influenced by the lines of forces crossing the arc gap. As the weld joins the
pieces together, there is less and less chance that the magnetic field will
concentrate in the arc gap. As the weld is filling the gap of the joint, it
pushes the magnetic flux ahead of the arc. As long as the flux can travel,
no serious arc blow will interrupt the weld. When flux ceases to move, it
piles up and a magnetic field of considerable strength develops. The
buildup of the flux causes a deflection of arc column as it pills away from
this heavy concentration of magnetic forces. Ionized gases that carry the
arc from the end of electrode to the workpiece are acting as flexible
conductors. This concentration of flux that pulls the arc from its intended
path is called Arc Blow.
Spatter
At the conclusion of a weld small particles or globules of metal may
sometimes be observed
scattered around the vicinity of the weld along its length. This is known as
spatter and may occur through:
1. Arc blow making the arc uncontrollable.
2. The use of too long an arc or too high an arc voltage.
3. The use of excessive current.
Figure : Spatter
Duty cycle=
Power Efficiency
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WELDING
Welding power sources draw power when idling. Efficiency is greater when
idling is reduced and the operating factor is close to 100 percent. The
higher the operating factor, the more efficient the process. The following
are ways to improve efficiency:
Use the most efficient welding process. Use gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) instead of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Typically, operating
factors for SMAW fall between 10 to 30 percent; operating factors for GMAW
fall between 30 to 50 percent.
Use multi-process inverter power sources. Modern inverter power sources
can be used for several welding processes and save time and effort when
switching processes. For example, the Miller XTM 304 can be used for
GMAW, FCAW, SMAW and GTAW.
Automate when possible. Manage repetitive operations by applying
advances in automation and computer programming.
Reduce idling time. Cut the time spent on pre-welding tasks such as
assembly, positioning, tacking and cleaning, and on follow-up operations,
such as slag removal and defect repair.
Power Source Performance
Certain characteristics determine the energy efficiency of power sources:
Power factor: Power factor is the ratio of real electrical power made
available by the welding power source for producing a welding arc (the
power you can use) to the "apparent" electrical power supplied by the
utility (the power you pay for). The older technology of transformer-rectifier
power sources can have power factors in the order of 75 percent; modern
inverter power sources have power factors close to 100 percent.
Arc-on power and idling power: Transformer-rectifier power sources use
more power in arc-on and idling modes than modern inverter power sources
do with the same output.
To compare the performance of power sources use the following formula:
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Advantages
1. SMAW is the simplest and most versatile of the arc welding
processes.
2. Thesimplicity and portability of SMAW equipment allow use of this
process in a wide variety of applications from refinery piping to cross
country pipelines, and even underwater to repair offshore structures.
3. SMAW can be used in any position or location that can be reached
with an electrode. Joints in blind areas can be welded, including the
back sides of pipes in restricted areas that are inaccessible for most
other welding processes, by using bent electrodes.
4. SMAW is used to join a wide variety of ferrous and nonferrous
materials including carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels,
nickel based alloys, cast iron, and some copper alloys
5. SMAW is used to join a wide variety of ferrous and nonferrous
materials including carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels,
nickel based alloys, cast iron, and some copper alloys.
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Disadvantages
1. Even though SMAW is a highly versatile process, it has several
characteristics that make the deposition rate lower than with semiautomatic or automatic processes
2.
Electrodes are of fixed length and welding must be stopped after each
electrode has
been consumed.
3. The stub of the electrode is lost, and time is lost for changing
electrodes.
4. The slag must be removed from the weld after each pass before
subsequent passes can be deposited. These steps lower welding
efficiency by about 50%.
5. Smoke and fumes present a problem with SMAW, and ventilation is
required in confined spaces.
6.
The view of the weld puddle is somewhat obscured by the protective
slag that covers the freezing weld metal and by the smoke.
7.
Extra welder skill is needed to make radiograph-quality welds in pipe
or plate when welded from one side.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), heat is generated by creating an arc,
in an inert shielding gas, between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and
the work. GTAW melts the area of the work under the arc without melting
the tungsten electrode. Figure shows the equipment for GTAW. The GTAW
process can be used either manually or automatically. Filler metal can be
added to the weld by introducing a bare rod into the zone of the arc.
Welding techniques are similar to those for oxyfuel gas welding, but the arc
and molten puddle are shielded from the atmosphere by a blanket of inert
gas, usually argon, helium, or mixtures of these. Inert gas is fed through
the torch and around the tungsten. Welds produced with the GTAW process
have a smooth surface that is free of slag and low in hydrogen content. One
variation of the GTAW process (pulsed GTAW) uses a power source that
pulses the welding current. This permits a higher average current for better
penetration and weld puddle control, particularly on root passes. Pulsed
GTAW is especially useful for out-of-position pipe welding on stainless steel
and nonferrous materials such as nickel based alloys.
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2.
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Current Density - To understand why gas metal arc welding can deposit weld metal
at a rapid rate, it is necessary that the term "current density" be understood.
Figure shows a 1/4" coated electrode and a 1/16" solid wire drawn to scale. Both
are capable of carrying 400 amperes. Notice that the area of the 1/16" wire is only
1/16 that of the core wire of the coated electrode. We can say that the current
density of the 1/16" wire is 16 times.
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION - The equipment used for gas metal arc welding is
more complicated than that required for shielded metal arc welding. Initial cost is
relatively high, but the cost is rapidly amortized due to the savings in labor and
overhead achieved by the rapid weld metal deposition.
The equipment necessary for gas metal arc welding is listed below:
1) Power source
2) Wire feeder
3) Welding gun
4) Shielding gas supply
5) Solid electrode wire
6) Protective equipment
The
basic
equipment
necessary for semiautomatic
gas metal arc welding is shown in Figure .
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Advantages
o Faster than TIG
o Deeper penetration
o Both thick & thin jobs possible
o Easy to mechanize
o No flux
Disadvantages
o Complex
o Air drafts may disrupt the gas shielding
o Higher base metal cooling rates
o Not for outdoors
Applications
o Welding tool steels & dies
o Manufacturing refrigerator parts
o Aircraft, civil, automotive industry
o Non ferrous metals & their alloys
RESISTANCE WELDING
In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated by their
resistance to the flow of an electrical current. Usually this is the only source
of heat, but a few of the welding operations combine resistance heating
with arc heating, and possibly with combustion of metal in the arc. The
process applies to practically all metals and most combinations of pure
metals and those alloys, which have only a limited plastic range, are
welded by heating the parts to fusion (melting). Some alloys, however, may
welded without fusion; instead, the parts are heated to a plastic state at
which the applied pressure causes their crystalline structures to grow
together. The welding of dissimilar metals may be accomplished by melting
both metals frequently only the metal with the lower melting point is
melted, and an alloy bond is formed at the surface of the un melted metal.
In resistance welding processes no fluxes are employed, the filler metal is
rarely used and the joints are usually of the lap type. The amount of heat
generated in the workpiece depend on the following factors:
(1) Magnitude of the current,
(2) Resistance of the current conducting path, and
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Mathematically, H = IVt
= I(IR)t
= I2Rt
Where H = heat generated in joules
I = current in Amp.
R = resistance in ohms
t = time of current flow in seconds.
17.7.1 Types of Resistance welding
The major types of resistance welding are given as under:
(1) Spot Welding
(2) Seam Welding
(3) Projection Welding
(4) Resistance Butt Welding
(5) Flash Butt Welding
(6) Percussion Welding
(7) High Frequency Resistance Welding
(8) High Frequency Induction Welding
Some of the above important welding processes are discussed as under,
17.7.1.1 Spot Welding
In this process overlapping sheets are joined by local fusion at one or more
spots, by the concentration of current flowing between two electrodes. This
is the most widely used resistance welding process. A typical resistance
spot welding machine is shown in Fig. 17.23. It essentially consists of two
electrodes, out of which one is fixed. The other electrode is fixed to a rocker
arm (to provide mechanical advantage) for transmitting the mechanical
force from a pneumatic cylinder. This is the simplest type of arrangement.
The other possibility is that of a pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder being
directly connected to the electrode without any rocker arm. For welding
large assemblies such as car bodies, portable spot welding machines are
used. Here the electrode holders and the pneumatic pressurizing system
are present in the form of a portable assembly which is taken to the place,
where the spot is to be made. The electric current, compressed air and the
cooling water needed for the electrodes is supplied through cables and
hoses from the main welding machine to the portable unit. In spot welding,
a satisfactory weld is obtained when a proper current density is maintained.
The current
density depends on the contact area between the electrode and the workpiece. With the continuous use, if the tip becomes upset and- the contact
area increases, the current density will be lowered and consequently the
weld is obtained over a large area. This would not be able to melt the metal
and hence there would be no proper fusion. A resistance welding schedule
is the sequence of events that normally take place in each of the welds.
The events are:
1. The squeeze time is the time required for the electrodes to align and
clamp the two
work-pieces together under them and provide the necessary electrical
contact.
2. The weld time is the time of the current flow through the work-pieces till
they are
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heated to the melting temperature.
3. The hold time is the time when the pressure is to be maintained on the
molten
metal without the electric current. During this time, the pieces are expected
to be
forged welded.
4. The off time is time during which, the pressure on the electrode is taken
off so that
the plates can be positioned for the next spot.
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17.7.1.2 Resistance Seam Welding
It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein spot welds overlap each
other to the desired
extent. In this process coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced by
the heat obtained from
the resistance to electric current (flow) through the work pieces held
together under pressure
by circular electrodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping
resistance-spots welds made
progressively along a joint by rotating the circular electrodes. The principle
of seam welding is
shown in Fig. 17.24(a) and resistance seam welding process set up is shown
in Fig. . The
seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that circular rolling
electrodes are used to
produce a continuous air-tight seam of overlapping welds. Overlapping
continuous spot welds
seams are produced by the rotating electrodes and a regularly interrupted
current.
Applications
1. It is used for making leak proof joints in fuel tanks of automobiles.
2. Except for copper and high copper alloys, most other metals can be
seam welded.
3. It is also used for making flange welds for use in watertight tanks.
17.7.1.3 Resistance Projection Welding
Fig. shows the projection welding. This process is a resistance welding
process in which two or more than two spot welds are made simultaneously
by making raised portions or projections on predetermined locations on one
of the workpiece. These projections act to localize the heat of the welding
circuit. The pieces to be welded are held in position under pressure being
maintained by electrodes. The projected contact spot for welding should be
approximately equal to the weld metal
MEMORY In-Line INSTITUTION-BHUBANESWAR-9040640809
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thickness. The welding of a nut on the automotive chasis is an example of
projection welding.
Advantages and disadvantages of resistance welding
Advantages
Simple, low power requirements
High speed & low cost
Not hazardous, no extra material cost
Disadvantages
Only butt joint is possible
Molten metal expulsion i.e. flash needs to be removed
Very rigid machine is required
Applications
Combinations of metals can be welded
Production of shafts, gears & valves
Production of cutting tools & their bodies
Welding together the small forgings
17.8.2 Friction Welding
In this process, the heat for welding is obtained from mechanically induced
sliding motion between rubbing surfaces of work-pieces as shown in Fig.
17.27. In friction welding, one part is firmly held while the other (usually
cylindrical) is rotated under simultaneous application of axial pressure. As
these parts are brought to rub against each other under pressure, they get
heated due to friction. When the desired forging temperature is attained,
the rotation is stopped and the axial pressure is increased to obtain forging
action and hence welded joint. Most of the metals and their dissimilar
combinations such as aluminium and titanium, copper and steel, aluminium
and steel etc. can be welded using friction welding.
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Simple, low power requirements
High speed & low cost
Not hazardous, no extra material cost
Disadvantages
Only butt joint is possible
Molten metal expulsion i.e. flash needs to be removed
Very rigid machine is required
Applications
Combinations of metals can be welded
Production of shafts, gears & valves
Production of cutting tools & their bodies
Welding together the small forgings
Thermite Welding
Thermite welding (TW) (sometimes called thermit welding) is a process
which joins metals by heating them with super heated liquid metal from a
chemical reaction between a metal oxide and aluminum or other reducing
agent, with or without the application of pressure. Filler metal is obtained
from the liquid metal. The heat for welding is obtained from an exothermic
reaction or chemical change between iron oxide and aluminum. This
reaction is shown by the following formula:
8A1 + 3fe304 = 9Fe + 4A1203 + Heat
The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 2482C. The
super heated steel is contained in a crucible located immediately above the
weld joint. The exothermic reaction is relatively slow and requires 20 to 30
seconds, regardless of the amount of chemicals involved. The parts to be
welded are aligned with a gap between them. The super heated steel runs
into a mold which is built around the parts to be welded. Since it is almost
twice as hot as the melting temperature of the base metal, melting occurs
at the edges of the joint and alloys with the molten steel from the
crucible.Normal heat losses cause the mass of molten metal to solidify,
coalescence occurs, and the weld is completed. If the parts to be welded
are large, preheating within the mold cavity may be necessary to bring the
pats to welding temperature and to dry out the mold. If the parts are small,
preheating is often eliminated. The thermit welding process is applied only
in the automatic mode. Once the reaction is started, it continues until
completion.
Themite welding utilizes gravity, which causes the molten metal to fill the
cavity between the parts being welded. It is very similar to the foundry
practice of pouring a casting. The difference is the extremely high
temperature of the molten metal. The making of a thermit weld is shown in
figure . When the filler metal has cooled, all unwanted excess metal may
be removed by oxygen cutting, machining, or grinding. The surface of the
completed weld is usually sufficiently smooth and contoured so that it does
not require additional metal finishing.
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Advantages
No costly power supply, on site repairs/welding is possible
Disadvantages
Economical for heavier sections & that too for ferrous
metals only.
Applications
Rail-road repairs
Repairing or welding of large crankshafts, machine
frames
Welding for cast pieces together
For replacing broken teeth on large gears
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