Autoconfiguracion

M.Sc.
Information and Communication Technologies
IPv6- Autonfiguration
Anna Calveras
Protocols in Telecommunication Networks
M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies
SYLLABUS
ICMPv6
Path MTU Discovery
Neighbor Discovery
Multicast over IPv6
Address Autoconfiguration
Documentation
RFC 1981. Path MTU Discovery for IP version 6

RFC 2460. Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification
RFC 2710. Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) for IPv6
RFC 3315. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6
(DHCPv6)
RFC 3810. Multicast Listener Discovery Version 2 (MLDv2) for
IPv6
RFC 4443. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMPv6) for the
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Specification
RFC 4861. Neighbor Discovery for IP version 6 (IPv6)
RFC 4862. IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration
Documentation
Other:
RFC 2711. IPv6 Router Alert Option

RFC 3590. Source Address Selection for the Multicast Listener
Discovery (MLD) Protocol
RFC 3775. Mobility Support in IPv6
RFC4429. Optimistic Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) for
IPv6
RFC4541. Considerations for Internet Group Management
Protocol (IGMP) and Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD)
Snooping Switches
ICMPV6

5
ICMPv6
ICMPv6 vs ICMPv4
Taking profit of IPv6

Messages translation
Introducing ICMPv6 and its applications
Message header
Basic set of messages
New applications
Neighbor Discovery
Multicast over IPv6
Playing with ICMPV6
The ping/ping6 tool
ICMPv6 vs ICMPv4
Key IPv6 benefits for ICMPv6
IPv6 addresses are longer enough to

Build IP addresses based on MAC addresses
Define a lot of multicast groups
Broadcast is replaced by multicast

Multicast link-local addresses can be defined
All host, all routers
Solicited-node multicast address
Energy consumption
reduced
Taking profit of IPv6
Broadcast cannot be used, only multicast is allowed

Multicast can be send to an specific group of MACs
Remember - Nodes required addresses
A host is required to recognize the following addresses as

identifying itself:
One link-Local address for each interface

Any additional Unicast and Anycast addresses that have been
configured for the node's interfaces (manually or automatically).
The loopback address
The All-Nodes multicast addresses
The Solicited-Node multicast address for each of its unicast

and anycast addresses
Multicast addresses of all other groups to which the node
belongs
Remember - Link-Local Unicast Addresses
For use in a single link

Used:
During automatic address configuration

During neighbor discovery
When no routers are present
Routers MUST NOT forward packets with these addresses as

destination or source
10 bits
54 bits
1111111010
cccccc1gcccccccc
MAC Address
cccccccc11111111
64 bits
interface ID
11111110mmmmmmmm mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
c: company identifier
g: individual /group
cccccc0gcccccccc
u: universal / local bit

m: set by the manufacturer
ccccccccmmmmmmmm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
9
Remember - Pre-Defined Multicast Addresses
All Nodes Addresses:
All IPv6 nodes scope 1 (interface-local)

All IPv6 nodes scope 2 (link-local)
All Routers Addresses:
ff01::1
ff02::1
ff01::2
ff02::2
ff05::2
All routers in scope 1 (interface-local)

All routers in scope 2 (link-local)
All routers in scope 5 (site-local)
Solicited-Node Address: ff02::1:ffxx:xxxx
It takes the low-order 24 bits of one address and appending

them to the prefix ff02::1:ff00/104
Ex: node with address 4037::01:800:200e:8c6c has the
solicited-node address ff02::1:ff0e:8c6c
Different unicast addresses can have the same solicited-node

address
10
ICMPv6 vs ICMPv4
Understanding the change of philosophy. Some examples:
A router periodically announces its existence (Unsolicited

Router Advertisement)
IPv4: destination Address = 255.255.255.255 / 224.0.0.1
IPv6: destination Address = FF02::2
Benefits:
Not a real change, just broadcast is forbidden
A node A needs to know the MAC address of a node B

IPv4: ARP Request with destination address FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
IPv6: Neighbor Solicitation with destination the solicited-node
address derived of the unicast address of B
Benefits:
Host with a different solicited-node address will discard the
packet
Further benefits can be achieved with layer 2 support
11
ICMPv6 vs ICMPv4
Understanding the change of philosophy. Another example:
Node B MAC address: 00-24-81-8E-BF-7F
Node A wants to know the MAC address of B
Multicast aware layer 2
IGMP & MLD* Snooping Switches (RFC 4541)
Node B link-local address: 02-24-81-FF-FE-8E-BF-7F

Node B solicited-node address: FF02::1:FF-8E-BF-7F
A sends a Neighbor Solicitation packet with destination the solicitednode address FF02::1:FF-8E-BF-7F
The packet is embedded in a frame with destination the MAC
address corresponding to IPv6 multicast address 33-33-FF-8E-BF-7F
Only NIC with this multicast address registered will pass the frame to
IP level
The frame is only forwarded to the port where node B is attached
*IPv6 multicast renames IGMP to the Multicast Listener Discovery Protocol (MLP)
based on ICMPv6 messages
12
ICMPv6 vs ICMPv4
Understanding the change of philosophy. Another example:

IPv4
IPv6 + multicast promiscuous mode

IPv6 + multicast promiscuous node + MLD spoofing
Nodes processing the frame

13
ICMPv6 vs ICMPv4
Common ICMPv4 Message
Messages
translation
Destination
UnreachableNetwork
unreachable (Type 3, Code 0)
Destination Unreachable-Protocol
Destination Unreachable-Port
Destination Unreachable-Fragmentation
needed and DF set (Type 3, Code 4)
Time Exceeded-TTL expired (Type 11,
Code 0)
Parameter Problem (Type 12, Code 0)
Redirect (Type 5, Code 0)
ICMPv6 Equivalent
Destination Unreachable-No route to
destination (Type 1, Code 0)
Parameter Problem-Unrecognized Next
Header field (Type 4, Code 1)
Destination Unreachable-Port unreachable
(Type 1, Code 4)
Packet Too Big (Type 2, Code 0)
Time Exceeded-Hop Limit exceeded (Type
3, Code 0)
Parameter Problem (Type 4, Code 0 or 2)
Neighbor Discovery Redirect message
(Type 137, Code 0)
14
Starting point: the role of ICMP in IPv4 networks
Basically, ICMPv4 is intended to send error and informational

messages
Things have changed with IPv6:
ICMPv6 is a key piece in order to achieve autoconfiguration

Neighbor reachability ( ARP)
Multicast membership ( IGMP)
Address autonconfigurarion (New!)
New capabilities and better performance is possible taking

profit of IPv6 addressing system
Link-local addresses
Multicast
15
RFC 4443, Internet Control Message Protocol for the
Internet Protocol Version 6 Specification
Required for any IPv6 implementation
Message header
Type: 0-127 Error msg /128-255 Informational msg
Code: differentiates among messages of the same type
Checksum : computed with IPv6 pseudo-header
Type (1 byte)
Code (1 byte)
Checksum (2 bytes)
Message body
16
Error messages
Sent by the destination node or an intermediate router, they notify
errors in forwarding or delivery
Destination Unreachable
Packet Too Big
Time Exceeded
Parameter Problem
ICMPv6 error messages are rate limited
In order to conserve network banwidth
Recommended method: token bucket
Average rate (msg/s) % bandwidth

Burst of messages are allowed If average rate does not
exceed the overall transmission rate
17
Basic set of message Error messages
Destination Unreachable (Type = 1)

A packet cannot reach its destination
Code:
Type=1
0: No Route to Destination
1: Communications whit the Destination Administratively Prohibited
2: Beyond the Scope of Source Address
3: Address Unreachable
4: Port Unreachable
5: Source Address Failed Ingress/Egress Policy
6: Reject Route to Destination
Checksum
Code = 0-6
Unused
Portion of discarded packet

(the length of the whole ICMPv6 packet must be 1280 bytes)
1280 bytes is the minimum MTU in order to support IPv6 (RFC 2460)
18
Packet Too Big (Type = 2)

When a packet cannot be forwarded because the length of the
packet is bigger than the MTU of the outer link
MTU: the MTU of the link that has motivated the sending of this
message
Type=2
Code = 0
Checksum
MTU

19
Time Exceeded (Type = 3)

Main reasons is that the hop limit field reaches the value of zero
Code:
0: Hop limit exceeded in transit
Hop limit decremented to zero

2: Fragment Reassembly Time Exceeded
60 seconds (RFC 2460)

Type=3
Checksum
Code = 0-1
Unused

20
Parameter Problem (Type =4)

A router discards a packet due to an error in a header or an
extensions header
Code:
0: Erroneous Field Encountered
1: Unrecognized Next header Type Encountered
2: Unrecognized IPv6 Option Encountered
Pointer: Identifies the octet offset within the invoking packet where
the error was detected.
Type=4
Checksum
Code = 0-2
Pointer

21
Informational messages
Provide diagnostic functions and additional host

functionality
Echo Request
Echo Reply
More messages are defined in others RFCs (see Neighbor

Discovery and MLD)
22
Basic set of message Informational messages
Echo Request (Type = 128) & Echo Reply (Type = 129)
Code = 0
Identifier: to associate request & replay messages
Sequence Number: messages ordering
Data: optional and equal for both messages
Type=128 or 129
Checksum
Code = 0
Sequence Number
Identifier
Data
23
24
PATH MTU DISCOVERY
25
Path MTU Discovery
Overview
Description
Changes from IPv4 to IPv6

ICMPv6 messages and options employed
Procedure
Applying Path MTU Discovery
An example
26
Path MTU Discovery
Overview
RFC 1981
Purpose: learn the MTU of a path in order to avoid
fragmentation
Changes from IPv4 to IPv6. RFC 2460:
1280 bytes is the minimum MTU in order to support IPv6

PMTU is strongly recommended
Otherwise, the packets sent will be no larger than 1280 octets
Note that, fragmentation is still possible but
It is discouraged
Only the source (and destination) node(s) can perform it
Using Extension header named Fragment Header
Routers never fragment packets
This contributes to do not increase their process time

Key point:
Example 802.15.4 networks (MTU=128 bytes)
27
Path MTU Discovery
Description/Procedure
ICMP error message Packet Too Big is used

Type=2
Checksum
Code = 0
MTU

Step 1: The sender assumes the link MTU of the interface on

which the traffic is being forwarded
Step 2: The sender sends IPv6 packets at the link MTU size
Step 3: A router on the path unable to forward the packet sends
an ICMP Packet Too Big msg back to the sender. This msg
contains the link MTU of the link on which the forwarding failed
Step 4: The sender resets the PMTU to the value of the MTU field
in the ICMPv6 Packet Too Big message
28
Path MTU Discovery
Procedure (II):
Path MTU updates:

If PMTU decreases
The sending host will be alerted with a ICMP Error message
Packet Too Big
Discovery process is restarted

if PMTU< the MTU of the link, PMTU can increase
When PMTU timer expired (10 minutes recommended)
PMTU = MTU of the link
29
Path MTU Discovery
Applying Path MTU Discovery
An example
Host B
Host A
MTU1
MTU2
R2
R1
MTU3
MTU1=MTU6=1500 bytes
MTU2=MTU3=2000 bytes
MTU4=1000 bytes
MTU5=2000 bytes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
R3
MTU4
R4
MTU6
MTU5
A sends a packet of 1500 bytes to B (PMTU=MTU1)

R1 forwards the packet to R2
R2 is unable to forward the packet to R3
R2 sends an ICMP msg Packet Too Big to A
A changes its PMTU to MTU4
(PMTU==min(MTU)==MTU4)
Like PMTU<MTU1 => wait for PMTU timer and restart => PMTU could be equal to MTU1
30
NEIGHBOR DISCOVERY (ND)
31
Neighbor Discovery (ND)
Overview
Description

Conceptual host data structures
Procedure
Router Discovery
Address Resolution
Neighbor Unreachability Detection
Redirect Function
32
Neighbor Discovery
Overview
RFC 4861
Purpose: IPv6 nodes on the same link use ND to discover
each other's presence, to determine each other's link-layer
addresses, to find routers, and to maintain reachability
information about the paths to active neighbors
ND only generates link traffic
Offline packets are not forwarded by routers
Packets are coded with Hop count = 255
If Hop count is <> 255, packet is silently discarded
Security reasons
ND replaces ARP!
to determine link-layer address & test address
uniqueness
No more ARP frames in IPv6 networks
New feature:
Neighbor Unreachability Detection (NUD)
33
ICMPv6 vs ICMPv4
IPv4 to IPv6 mapping of functions

IPv4 Neighbor Function
IPv6 Neighbor Function
ARP Request message
Neighbor Solicitation message
ARP Reply message
Neighbor Advertisement msg.
ARP cache
Neighbor cache
Gratuitous ARP
Duplicate address detection (DAD)
*Router Solicitation message (optional)
Router Solicitation (required)
*Router Advertisement message (optional)
Router Advertisement (required)
Redirect message
Redirect message
*Only used by Mobile IPv4
34
Neighbor Discovery
Description
Option format
Type: type of the option
Length: The length of the option (including the type and length
fields) in units of 8 octets
Value: includes specific fields of the options
Type (1 byte)
Length (1 byte)
Value (n bytes)
35
Neighbor Discovery
Description
5 new ICMPv6 informational messages
Router Solicitation (Type=133, Code=0)

Router Advertisement (Type=134, Code=0)
Neighbor Solicitation (Type=135, Code=0)
Neighbor Advertisement (Type=136, Code=0)
Redirect (Type=137, Code=0)
Theses messages can include zero or more of the following

options
Source/Target Link-layer Address
Prefix Information
Prefixes the router is given service
Redirected Header
Better route
MTU
Route Information
36
Neighbor Discovery
Router Solicitation message
Objective: the discovery of on-link routers

IPv6
From: link-local address or unspecified address (::)
To: link-local scope all-routers multicast address (FF02::2)
Ethernet
From: NIC MAC address
To: 33-33-00-00-02
Type=133
Checksum
Code = 0
Reserved
Options
Source Link-Layer Address option
37
Neighbor Discovery
Router Advertisement message
Objective: provide information related to autoconfiguration to

on-link host
IPv6
From: Link-local address
To:
link-local scope all-nodes multicast address (FF02::1), or
unicast address of the host that has sent a Router Solicitation msg
from an unicast address
When response to router solicitation
Ethernet
From: NIC router MAC address
To:
33-33-00-00-01, or
The unicast MAC address of the host that sent Router Solicitation
msg form an unicast address
When response to router solicitation

38
Neighbor Discovery
Router Advertisement message - Fields

Type=134
Code = 0
Checksum
Current Hop Limit
Flags
Router Lifetime
Reachable Time
Retransmission Timer
Options
Source Link-Layer Address option
MTU option
Prefix Information options
Adevertisement Interval option
Home Agent Information option
Route Information options
39
Multicast over IPv6
Overview

Host and routers implications
Layer 2 interaction
MLD description

Procedure
Timers and counters
58
Multicast over IPv6
Overview
Purpose: MLD (Multicast Listener Discovery) is used by an IPv6 router to

discover the presence of multicast listeners on directly attached links, and
to discover which multicast addresses are of interest to those neighboring
nodes
Host support - Multicast traffic reception
Multicast support is now mandatory

RFC 3810: MLDv2 replaces IGMPv3
Apps are associated to multicast groups

1 multicast group 1 IPv6 multicast address
Socket is created to join the multicast group
Driver is instructed to pass to higher layers MAC address corresponding
to IPv6 multicast address
MLD is used to inform local routers of this joining

Also for link-local scope multicast addresses
IGMP & MLD Snooping Switches (RFC 4541)

Host support - Sending multicast traffic
All hosts can sent packets to a multicast address
59
Multicast over IPv6
Overview
Router Support - Multicast traffic reception

It must place the network adapter to a special listening mode
Multicast promiscuous mode
Analyzes IEEE defined Individual/Group bit (I/G)

I/G=0 Unicast
I/G=1 Multicast
If (I/G==1) the frame is passed to upper layers
cccccc0gcccccccc
ccccccccmmmmmmmm
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
c: company identifier u: universal / local bit

g: individual /group m: set by the manufacturer
60
Multicast over IPv6
Overview
Router Support - Multicast traffic forwarding
Forwarding is done taking into the account the scope of the

multicast destination address
If (scope > link-local)
Packets are analyzed to determine forwarding interfaces
Else
Packets are processes but not forwarded

Multicast forwarding table
Shows multicast groups with at least a member for a specific
multicast address on a specific link
Multicast membership information is exchanged between
routers using a multicast routing protocol
E.g. Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)
61
Multicast over IPv6
Multicast MLD&IGMP snooping switches
Cisco Catalyst 3650
3Com 4800G
They support multicast L2 and L3 interaction
More management so more energy consumption
Related documentation
Cisco: configuring IPv6 MLD Snooping
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/switches/lan/catalyst3750/software/r
elease/12.2_35_se/configuration/guide/swv6mld.html
3Com Switch 4800G Family Command reference
http://support.3com.com/documents/switches/4800G/SW4800G_Com
mand_ReferenceCMT.pdf
62
Multicast over IPv6
RFC 2710. Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) or

MLDv1description
3 new ICMPv6 informational messages

Multicast Listener Query (Type=130)
General Query / Specific Query
Multicast Listener Report (Type=131)
Multicast Listener Done (Type=132)
Other particularities in IPv6 header

Hop-limit=1
Hop-by-hop Options extensions header with Router Alert option
(RFC 2711)
To be sure that the router process packet to multicast
addresses for which the router is not a group member
IPv6 Header
Next Header =0
(hop-by-hop)
Hop-by-Hop Options H.
Router Alert Option
Next Header=58
MLD Message
63
Multicast over IPv6
Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) description
RFC 3810. Multicast Listener Discovery Version 2 (MLDv2) for

IPv6
Only two messages:
A modified version of Multicast Listener Query (Type=130)
A modified version of Multicast Listener Report (Type=143)
Backwards compatible
Support Multicast Listener Report and Done (Type=131 and
132)
Also:
Hop-limit=1
Hop-by-hop Options extensions header with Router Alert
option
64
Multicast over IPv6
MLDv2 description - Procedure
Routers send modified Multicast Listener Query

3 types of queries:
General query:
There is any host interested in multicast traffic?

Multicast-address specific query:
There is any host interested in traffic to this multicast

address?
Multicast-address-and source specific query:
There is any host interested in traffic to this multicast

address from this source?
From: link-local address of the interface of the sender
To: specific multicast address queried or all-nodes multicast
address (FF01::1)
65
ADDRESS
AUTOCONFIGURATION
72
Overview of the IPv6 autoconfiguration approaches
Stateless vs stateful
Autoconfigured address states

Based on previous seen messages
Stateless Address Autoconfiguration (new in IPv6)
Description
Procedure
Applying Stateless Address Autoconfiguration

Link-local and global addresses
Stateful Address Autoconfiguration
DHCPv6
Description
73
Stateless
RFC 4862. IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration
Purpose: To specify the steps a host takes in deciding how to autoconfigure its interfaces
in IPv6. These steps are:
generating a link-local address
FE80::/64 + EUI64 derived interface
generating global addresses using stateless address autoconfiguration
Using information provided by Router Advertisment
join the solicited-node a multicast address
MLD (Multicast Listener Discovery) report
and the DAD (Duplicate Address Detection) procedure to verify the uniqueness of the
addresses on a link
Neighbor Solicitation message
Provides an alternative to DHCPv6
Autoconfiguration can be performed without any server and specific protocol support
Note that:
DAD has to be performed for global and link-local addresses
If global and link-local address are based on EUI64 only solicited-node multicast address
exist and then only a MLD report has to be sent
74
Stateful
Configuration is based on a the usage of a configuration protocol
DHCPv6 (RFC 3315)
Mixed approach is possible

DHCPv6 + Router Advertisement message

DHCPv6 messages are simpler than DHCPv4
75
Stateless Address Autoconfiguration
RFC 4429. Optimistic Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) for

IPv6
Purpose: To minimize address configuration delays in the

successful case, to reduce disruption as far as possible in the
failure case, and to remain interoperable with unmodified hosts
and routers
Idea:
IPv6 provide several ways to construct and unique IPv6 address
New address state

Optimistic ( deprecated)
When DAD is done, the address moves to Prefered
81
RFC3315: DHCPv6
DHCPv6 infrastructure
Clients
Servers
Relays
UDP protocol
Clients listens port 546
Servers and relays listens port 547
DHCPv6 vs DHPCv4
Messages structure simpler (see following slides)
Each action has its related message
Relay interaction
All_DHCP_Relay_Agents_and_Servers address FF02::1:2
82
DHCPv6 message fields Client Server
Message Type
Transaction ID
To group DHCPv6 messages that belongs to the same transaction
Options
Message-Type
Options
Option-Code
Option-Data
Transaction ID
Option_Len
83
DHCPv6 message fields Relay Server

Message-Type
Hop-Count
Link-Address
Link-Address (16 octets=2+3*4+2)
Link-Address
Peer-Address
Peer-Address (16 octets=2+3*4+2)
Peer-Address
Options
84

DHCPv6
DHCPv4 Equivalent
SOLICIT
DHCPDISCOVER
ADVERTISE
DHCPOFFER
REQUEST, RENEW, REBIND
DHCPREQUEST
REPLY
DHCPACK/DHCPNAK
RELEASE
DHCPRELEASE
INFORMATION-REQUEST
DHCPINFORM
DECLINE
DHCPDECLINE
CONFIRM
N/A
RECONFIGURE
DHCPFORCERENEW
RELAY-FORW, RELAY-REPLY
N/A
89
DHCPv6 scenarios & messages

Solicit, Advertise, Request, Confirm, Renew, Rebind, Replay,
Release, Decline, Reconfigure, Information-Request
DHCP client
DHCP client
DHCP
server
Relay
DHCP
server
Relay-Forward, Relay-Replay
DHCP client
Relay
90

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M.Sc.

Information and Communication Technologies

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

RFC 1981. Path MTU Discovery for IP version 6

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

RFC 2711. IPv6 Router Alert Option

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Taking profit of IPv6

Introducing ICMPv6 and its applications

Playing with ICMPV6

The ping/ping6 tool

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Key IPv6 benefits for ICMPv6

IPv6 addresses are longer enough to

Broadcast is replaced by multicast

Taking profit of IPv6

Broadcast cannot be used, only multicast is allowed

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Remember - Nodes required addresses

A host is required to recognize the following addresses as

One link-Local address for each interface

The loopback address

The All-Nodes multicast addresses

The Solicited-Node multicast address for each of its unicast

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Remember - Link-Local Unicast Addresses

For use in a single link

During automatic address configuration

Routers MUST NOT forward packets with these addresses as

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

u: universal / local bit

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Remember - Pre-Defined Multicast Addresses

All Nodes Addresses:

All IPv6 nodes scope 1 (interface-local)

All Routers Addresses:

All routers in scope 1 (interface-local)

Solicited-Node Address: ff02::1:ffxx:xxxx

It takes the low-order 24 bits of one address and appending

Different unicast addresses can have the same solicited-node

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Understanding the change of philosophy. Some examples:

A router periodically announces its existence (Unsolicited

A node A needs to know the MAC address of a node B

Protocols in Telecommunication Networks

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies

Understanding the change of philosophy. Another example:

Node B MAC address: 00-24-81-8E-BF-7F

Node A wants to know the MAC address of B

Multicast aware layer 2

IGMP & MLD* Snooping Switches (RFC 4541)

Node B link-local address: 02-24-81-FF-FE-8E-BF-7F

M.Sc. Information and Communication Technologies