60 (1990) 99 - 119

Powder Technology,

99

Recent Results of Triaxial Tests with Granular Materials

D KOLYMBAS and W WU
Znstztute for Sozl Mechanzcs and Rock Mechanzcs, Unzverszty of Karlsruhe, Kazserstr 12, D-7500 Karlsruhe 1
VRG)
(Recewed December 13,1988,

m rewed form June 22,1989)

SUMMARY

In this paper are presented some recent

traaxurl test results obtamed w&h dry sand,
sugar, rape, wheat and synthetic granulates
The device used was a trlaxwl apparatus
specaally desrgned to test dry sdo mater&s
The results are reported wrth a mew to faclllta tmg development and checkmg of appropnate constltu twe equations. This IS only possible if special precautions have been taken
to suppress error sources and guarantee a
homogeneous deformation
The results presented here reveal some characterlstlcs of the
sample behavlour, namely (I) even durang the
ml teal lsotroplc consohda tlon the samples
behave anasotropwally, (11) the mhomogeneous sample deformation sets m from the
begmnmg of the traaxlal compression and,
therefore, the test results cannot be evaluated
without a deconvolutlon
technique, and (ur)
with loose sands and granulates constltu ted
from soft grams, as well as at high stress
levels, a peak state 1s not obtained and, therefore, any reference to a friction angle 1s
questionable
A simple deconvolutlon
technique B also presented

(1)

f3

Loading h&ones occurrmg m practice are

very complex, and very few can be simulated
by laboratory tests. In general, deformation
occurs together with a rotation of the prmclpal stress dlrectlons. Despite several
attempts, e g the simple shear tests described
by Budhu [ 11, it has not been possible to
simulate this sort of motion m the laboratory
with a homogeneously
deformed sample.
Homogeneity of the deformation is, however,
an mdispensable property of tests which are
supposed to provide the basis for developmg
and checkmg constitutive equations. Thus, a
50

log

with
A=

INTRODUCTION

0032-5910/901$3

distmctlon should be drawn between the

laboratory tests which do not fulfil the
requirement of homogeneous deformation
(e g. the shear box test) and those which
allow homogeneous deformation to some
extent.
The mam representative of the latter group
1sthe so-called trlaxzul test, which was mtroduced mto soil mechanics m the twenties by
Ehrenberg The pnnciple of this test is as
follows: a cylmdncal sample is compressed m
the axial direction, while the hydrostatically
applied lateral stresses u2 = u3 are kept constant. During the test, the axial and lateral
displacements ui and u3, respectively, are
measured as well as the axial force F,. The
results are evaluated as follows

i (do - 22.~~)~

Of course, this evaluation presupposes that

stresses and strams are homogeneously (1.e ,
constantly) distributed withm the sample,
otherwise the above evaluation is meanmgless.
Although the tnaxlal test appears quite
simple, a series of difficulties and errors has to
be circumvented

TEST DEVICE

A new tnaxial apparatus (see Fig. 1)

has been designed m the Institute of Soil
0 Elsewer Sequola/Prmted

m The Netherlands

Loadnlg frame

Lorbdmg piston

I
3

Pressure cell

Top cap

Bottom cap

Sample

Load cell

Bellows

Spoke-wheels

Fig 2 Prmclple of the axial force measurement

SFQKE-

WHEEL

D~splacamnt
transducer

Fig 1 Layout of the trlaxlal test apparatus

Mechanics and Rock Mechamcs of the Karlsruhe Umversitya. The apparatus has been
designed for samples with the mitral dunensions h, = 10 cm and d, = 10 cm. The axial
load is exerted by movmg the loadmg piston.
The velocity of the piston can be regulated m
the range 4 pm/h to 20 mm/mm. In the present tests, a downwards piston velocity of 10
mm/h is used. The ram is fixed to the top end
plate of the specunen. The apparatus allows a
maxunum axial load of 100 kN. The maximum design confmmg pressure u2 = u3 is
1400 kPa. The tnaxial apparatus is characterized by the followmg special features
Axzal force measurement
The axial force 1s measured beneath the
pressure chamber by a load cell with a preclsion of *30 N The force is transmitted outside the pressure chamber by means of a rod
guided by two spoke-wheels (see Fig. 2). A
steel bellows is used to separate the pressurized
cell au from the atmosphere and makes it
possible to transrmt the axial force outside
the pressure chamber, while the two spokewheels (see Fig. 3) guarantee a vertical alignment of the transmission rod The influences
due to the stiffnesses of the bellows and the
*A Jomt research project (Sonderforschungsoerelch) on ~110shas been estabhshed by several mstltutes of the Umverslty of Karlsruhe with the fmanclal
support of the German Research Community (DFG)
In the framework of this project, the authors mvestlgate the mechamcal behavlour of sdo materials

Fig 3 Schematic representation of the spoke-wheels

and the bellows

spoke-wheels are determmed by an appropnate calibration.

Since the axial force is measured beneath
the pressure chamber, the measurement is not
mfluenced either by the fnction between the
loadmg piston and the sealmg or by the
confmmg pressure.
Adjustable cell pressure
Air 1sused as cell fhud. The cell pressure
can be measured with an accuracy of Au, =
Au, = +0.2 kPa with a pressure transducer. As
already mentioned, m the usual tnaxial tests,
the lateral stress is kept constant. Complex
loadmg histones can be apphed by varymg the
cell pressure. This is achieved by a computercontrolled motor valve, with which the cell
pressure can be adjusted with an accuracy of
+2 kPa
Lateral stram measurement
Problems and methods related to the lateral
stram measurement are discussed by Tatsuoka
[2]. The use of a proximity transducer is
reported by Dupas et al [3]. The method
applied by Ueng et al [4] (freezmg) is
mapphcable to dry materials. In the present
mvestigation, the lateral stram of the sample
is measured directly by means of three collars
which contact the sample m the upper,

101

tion of the sample [6]. To overcome this

effect, tall samples (ho/d,, = 2.5) have been
used m the past, and it was expected that the
end plate friction would not mfluence the
middle part of the sample. However, this
method forces the sample to deform mhomogeneously and, therefore, lubncated ends have
been used to reduce the friction between the
end plates and the sample [ 71.
In the present tests, the followmg standardized method of lubrication is apphed: A 0.05mm thick film of the grease UNISILKON,
TK44 N3RECA is applied to the surfaces of
the end plates, which are made of glass. The
grease film is then covered by a 0.3-mm thick
rubber disk. This method has been found to
successfully suppress the friction at the end
plates. The thickness of the lubncation layer
is kept constant from test to test
Fig 4 Lateral strain collars
ERROR SOURCES

middle, and lower parts, respectively These

steel collars are equipped with electric stram
gauges (see Fig. 4) and are pre-stressed m such
a way that they contact the sample with a
gentle pressure. An mcrease m the sample
diameter causes a change m the curvature of
the collars, which results m a local stram
bemg measured. With d, bemg the thickness of
the collar and r bemg the radius of curvature at
the location of the stram gauges, the stram E
of the collar caused by the displacement u3 is
given by E = d,u3/r2.
Typical values for the present apparatus are
d, = 0.15 mm, u3 = 10 mm, r = 50 mm,
resulting m a stram of E = 1 5 X 10P4 The
datalogger fmally allows the determmation of
the lateral stram of the sample with an
accuracy of +0.02 % Calibration shows a
neghgible hysteresis and a satisfactory linearity. For a detailed description of the lateral
stram measurement, the reader 1sreferred to
[5]. Because of the mcompressibmty, the
rubber membrane surroundmg the sample is
not expected to mfluence the measurement of
the lateral deformation of the sample.
End plate lubracatlon
In conventional tnaxial tests, the sample
contacts the filter stone directly. The friction
at the upper and lower end plates hmders the
lateral expansion of the sample, which is a
requirement for the homogeneous deforma-

AND CORRECTIONS

Frlctlon between the end plates and the

sample
The use of lubricated ends reduces the
friction between the end plates and the sample considerably and the deformation of the
sample becomes more uniform However, it is
generally acknowledged that the friction
cannot be ehmmated completely by using the
lubncated ends. Besides, the effect of the
friction at the end plates on the test results is
difficult to assess In the direct shear test, the
fnction angle between the lubncated end and
the sand (fine to medium) was found to be
smaller than 0.25 [8]. This fmdmg is m
accordance with that of Goto and Tatsuoka
[9], accordmg to which the friction angle was
reduced to 0 14 . 0 16 by the use of lubncated ends. Fnctlon reduction without
bedding error can possibly be achieved by
using extremely hard and smooth endplates.
For this purpose, we have examined end
plates which were ground, lapped, pohshed
and covered with a thm film of tltamumalummum mtnte. However, the friction
between sand and end plate could not be
suppressed below 2. This fmdmg 1sm accordance with the observations of Lmton et al
[lo] and Ueng et al [4]
Correctzon for the beddmg error
A problem associated with the use of the
lubncated ends is that the axial deformation

102

measured mcludes not only the deformation

of the sample but also the deformation of the
lubrication layers (the so-called beddzng
error).
There are two mam approaches to correction of the beddmg error. The first approach
is theoretical or semi-theoretical, whereas the
second approach 1s experimental. For a
thorough exposition of the first approach, the
reader is referred to [ll]. Because of the
many sunphfications mvolved, an exact correction cannot be achieved through the
theoretical approach. In the present study,
the experimental approach wilI be discussed.
There are two experimental methods
proposed by Newland and Alley [12] and
Roscoe et al [13] respectively. In [12], the
beddmg error is corrected by evaluatmg an
isotropic compression test. The difference
between the axial and the radial stram gives
the correction for the beddmg error. This
method seems to be quite simple at first
glance. Isotropic compression tests, as will be
described m the sequel, show, however, that
the samples behave amsotropically This
renders the method by Newland and Alley
mapphcable.
The method by Roscoe et al was origmally
proposed to deal with lateral membrane
penetration and the same pnnciple was used
to correct the beddmg error by Sarsby et al
[ 141. In our mstitute, a test senes has been
carried out by Goldscheider [ 151 swnmg at an
exact determmation of the beddmg error.
Figure 5 shows the results under monotomcalIy increased normal stress for dense
Karlsruhe medium sand. A large scatter m the
test data can be readily seen. The bedding
error can be roughly accounted for by the
followmg empirical equation [ 151:

u IkN/m*l

E
E
zi

to=03mm
02

Fig 5 Beddmg error us normal stress after Goldschelder [ 15 ]

At
-1 = al[l

co

- exp(-a20)]

where At results from the compression of the

rubber membrane and from the mdentation
of grams mto it; to 1s the mitral thickness of
the rubber membrane; (TISthe normal stress,
ul = 0.3 and a2 = 0.0037 m/kN are constants dependmg on the material tested.
This fmdmg can be compared with that of
Mochlzuki et al [ 171. The bedding error
correction accordmg to eqn. (5) has been
apphed to treat the data presented m Figs. 7
and 9. This correction does not take mto
account the compression of the grease layer.
Neglecting the correction, however, appears
to be Justifiable since the thickness of the
grease layer amounts only 0.05 mm. According to Sarsby et al [ 141, the untial density
of the sample has minor influence on the
beddmg error, so that eqn. (5) can be apphed
with equal force to loose Karlsruhe medium
sand. For materials other than Karlsruhe sand,
the correction for the beddmg error 1s made
by assummg that the rubber membrane is
totally compressed at u = 1000 kPa, i.e. At =
tw Obviously, this correction overestimates
the bedding error. However, it offers an upper
bound for the bedding error.
It can be seen that no matter how the correction for beddmg error is made, theoretically or expenmentally, an exact correction
can never be expected. Without proper precautions, the correction could even brmg
about a greater error than no correction at all
Resides, the beddmg error may only mfluence
the deformation behaviour It does not have
any influence upon the strength charactenstics. Certamly, this does not mean that we
should simply overlook the bedding error
Rather, the difficulty as well as the necessity
for the correction should be appreciated.
In the haste to obtam corrections for
bedding error, experimental results are also
presented m the hterature without correction for the bedding error, e.g. [18]. We
are of the opmion that the significance of the
bedding error should be studied for certam
typical tests. The total test results, however,
should be presented without any correction.
Sufficient data, e g. thickness of the rubber
membrane and of the grease layer, the elastic
modulus and the Poisson ratio of the rubber
membrane, the density of the sample and the

103

mean diameter of the grams should be presented m case such corrections are required.
In the present paper, the beddmg error is
corrected for several typical tests m order to
show its influence on the stress-&ram behaviour, see Figs. 7 and 9. For the total tests,
however, the beddmg error is left uncorrected.
Correctaon for the effects of the lateral
membrane
The corrections to account for the effect
of the lateral membrane on the stress stram
behavlour should consider.
(1) the axial load carried by the lateral membrane;
(u) the lateral confinement caused by the
expansion of the lateral membrane durmg
compression.
A correction for the axial load carried by
the membrane has been discussed by Bishop
and Henkel [19]. There, the membrane was
assumed to have the form of a right cyhnder
durmg compression. This correction is neghgibly small. Moreover, it becomes meanmgless
as soon as the specimen bulges.
The second correction can be made usmg
the followmg equation:

(6)
In denvmg eqn. (6), the membrane 1s
assumed to have the form of a nght cylmder.
In the case of bulgmg, a mean value of the
lateral stram can be used.
In the present tests, the rubber membrane
placed around the sample has a Young modulus of E = 1400 kPa and a Poisson ratio of 0.5
[20]. In the unstretched state, the diameter
and thickness of the rubber membrane
amount 94.0 mm and 0.3 mm, respectively.
Accordmg to eqn. (6), at a lateral &am
e3 = 10% (which corresponds - roughly - to
the peak state for a sample of dense Karlsruhe
medium sand), the rubber membrane exerts a
lateral compression of ca 1.26 kPa on the
sample. If we do not take thus effect mto
account, we overestimate cp by the amount
shown m Table 1.
MATERIALS

TESTED

The materials tested are Karlsruhe sand,

sugar, wheat, rape and synthetic granulates.

TABLE 1
CorrectIons for the frlctlon angle due to lateral membrane confmement
cp= 20

cp= 40

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

FiPa)
50
100
200
500
1000

59
30
15
06
03

48
24
12
05
02

The gram size distribution curves of the materials are given m Fig 6. In Table 2, the
extreme densities, the mean diameters of the
grams and the specific gravities are summarized.
(The maxmum and mmimum densities are
expenmentally determined by convention
according to the German Standard DIN
18126 )
SAMPLE PREPARATION

AND TESTING

PROCEDURE

Sample preparation
The specimens are prepared by pluviation.
The setup for the preparation procedure cons&s of a silo with a central outlet setting
on a distnbutmg cylinder. Three sieves are
mounted m the cylinder. The particles flowmg through the opening are distributed by
the sieves and fall homogeneously into an
auxiliary mould. Durmg pluviation, the mould
IS moved downwards with a velocity of 12
mm/mm to keep the falhng height constant.
The auxiliary mould consists of the lower end
plate and a supportmg lateral wall composed
of three removable pieces.
TABLE 2
Extreme densltles, mean duuneters of the grams and
speclfx gravities of the mvestlgated matwals
Material

Karlsruhe medmm
sand
sugar
Wheat
Rape
Luran
Lupolen
Polystyrol

rm1n
(kN/m3)

7max

dso

Ys

14 10

17 00

0.33

2 65

0 43
300
1 54
2 45
2 88
2 52

125
1 04
1 18
1.01
088

8
7
6
6
5
5

46
14
45
38
53
96

( kN/m3)

9
8
6
6
5
7

49
15
99
75
88
03

(mm)

symbol
A
.
Cl

006

02

06

2
gram

size

materlal
k%Fuhe
Sugar

Rape
Polystyrol

Luran

Lupolen

Wheat

20

[mm

Fig 6 Gram size dlstrlbutlon curves of the materials tested

Accuracy of the measurement of the m&al

densz ty
The accuracy for the mltlal density can be
estimated by conadermg the total differential
of the density
AT<

VAW+

WAV

V2

(7)

where V and W are mltlal volume and weight

of the granular mass, Ay, AV and A W are the
vanatlon of the mltlal density, of the mlt1a.l
volume and of the weight of the granular mass
respectively.
In the present tests, the mltlal diameter of
the sample 1smeasured at the upper, nuddle and
with an accuracy of 0 1 mm and the sample is
weighed with an accuracy of 0.5 g. The initial
volume V = 785 cm3 and weight W = 1354 g
have been obtamed for dense samples of
Karlsruhe medium sand. Substltutmg these
quantities m eqn. (4), we obtam AT < 0 05
kN/m3
Scatter of the m&al denslty
The mltlal density depends on the fallmg
height and the pourmg mtenslty. For a gwen
pourmg mtenaty, the density 1sproportional
to the falling height, while for a @ven falling
height, the density decreases with the mcrease
of pourmg intensity, see also [21]. It was
found that a constant falhng height of
25 cm produces dense sand samples with a
speclflc gravity of y = 17 kN/m3 Vanatlon of
the fallmg height h results m different denwties accordmg to the followmg emplrlcal
relation.
y = y. -a

exp(--bh)

(8)

where y0 = 17.0 kN/m3, a = 2 5 kN/m3 and

b = 15/m

In order to enunciate the vanatlon of the

initial density, 30 tests with the same falling
height were carried out. With the aforementioned samphng set-up, a fanly good
reproduclblhty of the mltlal density was
achieved: The mean value of the mltlal density was 7 = 16.92 kN/m3 with a standard
deviation of 0 12 kN/m3.
Test procedure
After obtammg the final sample height, the
sample surface 1sequahzed by sucking off all
roughness aspenties with vacuum. The mould
is then gently placed on the pedestal m the
tnaxlal apparatus. The three collars are
mounted on the auxiliary mould. The piston
1s moved downwards until contact between
the upper end plate (which 1smounted on the
piston) and the side walls of the auxiliary
mould 1s estabhshed Subsequently, the
rubber membrane 1sfixed to the upper plate
and a vacuum of 15 kPa 1s apphed to the
sample mtenor. As soon as the vacuum 1s
apphed, the external atmosphenc pressure
acts upon the sample and makes it stiff (I e ,
self-sustammg) so that the auxiliary wall
becomes dispensable. After removmg the
auxlhary mould, the collars are mounted on
the sample m the upper (1 cm from the top
end plate), mtermedlate (m the middle of the
sample) and lower (1 cm from the bottom
end plate) height (see Fig. 4). The pressure
cell is closed and sealed by lowenng the
chamber, which 1s made from reinforced
perspex The cell pressure 1s then mcreased
step by step followed by regulation of the
axial force This computer-controlled process
1s performed m such a way that a nearly
hydrostatic stress path 1sapphed. The vacuum
1s released as soon as the value of the cell

105

pressure reaches 15 kPa. Subsequently, the

sample is compressed m the axial direction by
movmg the piston downwards.

TABLE 3
Maxlmum &rams under hydrostatic loadmg
Material

OBSERVATIONS

DURING HYDROSTATIC

COMPRESSION

Although there is enormous experimental

research concemmg tnaxlal tests m the hterature, most of the references are centered on
the material behaviour under devlatonc loadmg. Only a few references describe the material behaviour under hydrostatic loadmg
[22,23]. The reasons are as follows. firstly,
the deformation developed at this stage is
usually small compared with that durmg shear
and 1s considered to be neghgible, secondly,
exact measurement of the deformation durmg
the hydrostatic loadmg 1smore difficult than
durmg the subsequent compression
In the present tests, the axial and lateral
deformations dunng hydrostatic loadmg are
measured by a commercial displacement
transducer mounted between the two end
plates and the three collars described m the
section on L.&era1 strazn measurement
The displacement transducer permits measurement of axial stram with an accuracy of
+O 02% (by absence of the beddmg error)
Illustrated m Fig. 7 are the test results with
different materials evaluated with and without correction for the beddmg error
It can be seen that the small magnitude of
deformation durmg hydrostatic loadmg can
only be expected for dense sand. For loose
sand, however, especially for granular materials consistmg of compressible particles, e.g.
rape and wheat, the deformations resulting
from hydrostatic loadmg can be as large as
those during the subsequent shear The values
of the maximum stram (max(ei , es)) at the
end of the isotropic loadmg are given m
Table 3
The beddmg error has a stnkmg mfluence
on the deformation behavlour durmg isotropic compression This is especially the case
when the resultmg strams are small, see for
mstance Fig. 7(a) and (b).
An mterestmg observation is that the axial
stram is usually not equal to the lateral stram
although the loadmg path apphed is hydrostatic The mitral amsotropy 1s found to
depend on the mitral density of the sample.

Dense Karlsruhe medium sand

Loose Karslruhe medium sand
sugar
Wheat
Rape
Lupolen

0 267
0 496
1 241
1840
5 467
4 143

Dense sand behaves nearly isotropically,

whereas loose sand seems to be stiffer m the
axial direction than m the circumferential
direction, see Fig. 7(a) and (b). This mitral
amsotropy of sand under hydrostatic loading
has also been reported by other mvestlgators
[22, 231. The tests m Fig. 7 with dlfferent materials and mltial densities show a
great diversity of the deformation behaviour
under hydrostatic loadmg, both quantitatively
and qualitatively, dependmg on the materials
and densities concerned The mitral amsotropy has been found to persist dunng the
subsequent shear and has a remarkable mfluence upon the strength and deformation
dunng shear [ 241

RESULTS OF TRIAXIAL

COMPRESSION

Figure 8 shows some of the typical test

results on dense and loose Karlsruhe medium
sand Cauchys stress and logarithmic stram
are used for the evaluation. No corrections
are made m the evaluation either for the
bedding error or for the membrane effects
The symbols 0, C and A stand for the correspondmg quantities denved with reference to
the upper, middle and lower part of the sample It can be seen from Fig. 8 that three
stress stram and volumetnc stram curves are
obtamed as a consequence of the mhomogeneous deformation
Quan tztatzve descrzptzon of the tests and
determznatzon of the parameters
Quan tz ta tzve descrzp tzon of the tests
The followmg parameters are used to
describe the stress stram and volumetnc strain
curves quantitatively.

106
0

E,C%I

0%

90

Dr =
0

J
7

,J

?I

02

D,

= 12 2%

CI

corrected

uncorrected

./.

&,[%I

0 7

o/

uncorrected
/

corrected

E,C%l

(4

E,t%l

02

04

@I
2

E,C%I

- E,C%l

D
/

.
.

.
.

/
/

/,O

:/

CI

.A

D, =

./,
18 2%

corrected

uncorrected

D. = 78 6%
0

zy

;/D

corrected

uncorrected

E,[%l
0

0 5

(d)

(cl
6

E,[%l

E,C%l
D, ~00%

Dr = 62 4%

corrected

uncorrected

/.,

/.

.
/

/0

F
0

E,C%l
2

E,C%l
6

(e)

II

(f)

Fig 7 Deformations under hydrostatic loading for (a) dense Karlsruhe medium sand, (b) loose Karlsruhe medmm
sand, (c) sugar, (d) wheat, (e) rape and (f) lupolen

- the mtral slope of the stress stram curve, E,

.
cQ-c&
E,= v
(9)
61
El= 0

- the ml&l cldatancy angle, Go

Jlo=&iA
El e,=o

(10)

107
-21

--l!

-4

D, = IL 2 %

U3 -2OOkPa

10

15

AXIAL STRAIN [Xl

10

15

AXIAL 5TRAIN

(a)

20
[Xl

(b)

Fig 8 Typical trlaxlal tests on (a) dense Karlsruhe medium sand and (b) loose Karlsruhe medmm sand

-the

fn&on

9= alTSlil

angle at the limit state, cp

u1-u3
i

@l+

(73

max

(11)

0.4

-the axial stram at the hmlt state, elf

- the dllatancy angle at the hmlt state, 9
$ = arctan;

i
El

(12)
E,=Cf

In the above equations, ilf 1sthe axial stram

rate at fdure.
De termma tlon of the parameters
It can be seen that the parameters E,, J/0 and
$ are defined by stress and stram rates at a gwen
stress or stram state The rate quantltles are
difficult to evaluate exactly from the test
data. In the present paper, these parameters
are obtamed by a numerical denvatlon procedure, m which the denvatlve at the stress
state elk (the stress state of the kth reading)
is obtamed by calculatmg the slope of the
straght hne passmg through four nelghbounng pomts usmg the least mean square
method
Effect of the bedding error on the test result
As has been shown m the section on
Observations durmg hydrostatic compression,
the beddmg error has a stnkmg influence on
the results durmg lsotroplc compression In
order to demonstrate the effect of the
bedding error on the subsequent tnaxlal

10

15

AXIAL STRAIN IX1

Fig 9 affect of the beddmg error on the test result

compression, a typical test with Karlsruhe

medium sand evaluated with and wlthout
correction for the beddmg error 1sshown m
Fig. 9. It can be seen that the mfluence of the
beddmg error on the result 1svery small.
The parameters gwen m Table 4 serve to
appreciate the beddmg error quantltatmely.
It can be seen that the beddmg error has a
remarkable mfluence on the mltlal slope of
the stress stram curve E, and the mltlal
d&&ncy angle $O. This fact makes the evaluation of these parameters even more difficult
Whereas the beddmg error has still quite a
small mfluence on the dllatancy angle and the
axial stram at the lmut state, $ and elf, It has
no influence on the fnctlon angle cp.

108
TABLE 4

TABLE 5

Parameter of the trlaxlal test m Fig 9 evaluated wlthout and with correction for the bedding error

Obtamed scatter of the parameters

Parameter

Uncorrected

Corrected

cp

43 53
560
26 57
-35 10
6 27%

43 53
720
26 57
-31 63
6 13%

Eolu3

ReproducMlty
of the tests
The test results are subjected to systematic
and stochastic errors. The stochastic error can
only be appreciated when a number of tests
are performed. This demands that repeated
tests under the same condltlons should be
conducted to confirm the vahdlty of the tests.
Despite the unportance of reproduclblllty
of the tests, the theme 1sseldom addressed. In
the present tests, reproduclblllty 1sstudied by
performing tests under the same mltlal density and the same confmmg pressure. The
word Same should be understood m the sense
of the section on Sample preparation and
testing procedure For each test, a repeated
test 1scmed out m the present study. If a
large deviation 1s observed, a further test 1s
conducted. As an example, Figure 10 shows
five repeated tests on dense Karlsruhe
medium sand It can be seen that apart from
test No 5, the reproduclblhty 1squite satlsfymg. Upon readmg the test record, we noticed
that the supportmg vacuum was extracted too

Parameter

Scatter

AP

0 37
110
2 93
2 07
0 33%

AEolo3
Z.
Ae,,

early m test No. 5. Therefore, test No. 5 1s

excluded from the evaluation. Table 5 shows
the obtamed scatter of several parameters
Lateral expansion
Accurate measurement of the lateral stram
showed that, contrary to a widespread opmion, bulging (z e , unequal expansions along
the sample height) occurs not only m the
neighborhood of the peak stram but from the
very beganrung of the truaxlal compresston, see
for instance Fig. 11. It can be seen from Fig
11 that dense samples develop a stronger
nonuniform deformation than loose samples
If bulgmg occurs as a spontaneous blfurcatlon (cf. [25]) it should be avoidable by
proper lubncatlon - at least m the mltlal
stage of the compression However, our tests
show that although the lubrlcatlon suppresses
considerably the amount of bulgmg (to a
degree which cannot be perceived by the
naked eye), slight bulgmg 1sstfl present from
the begmnmg of ax& compression. This fact
has also been reported m [8] If bifurcation
(1 e , non-uruqueness of the sample deformation path and onset of mhomogeneous
deformation) has to be excluded, the reason
for bulgmg has to be sought m some mlt1a.l
mhomogenelty of the sample and (assummg
that, owing to our precautions, the mlt1a.l
density 1s constant throughout the sample)
this can only be the mhomogenelty of the
mltlal stress field due to gramty.
In the meanwhile, it has also been theoretically and numencally corroborated (as will
be shown m a forthcommg pubhcatlon) that
this mltlal stress mhomogenelty, however
small, 1sresponsible for bulgmg which grows
with mcreasmg deformation. It ISonly at the
final stage of the tests, when bulgmg 1svisible
to the naked eye, see Fig. 12. The falure
mode m Fig. 12 has been observed m more
than thtiy tests on dense sand samples and m

D, = 96 5 O/o

11

5
radial

lot

U3 =300 kPa

10
dIsplaceme&

Dr = 11 8%

a3 = 300 kPa

[ mm 1

2
radial

4
displacement

6
I mm

(b)
Fig 11 Evolution of the lateral deformation durmg trlaxlal compression for (a) dense Karlsruhe medium sand
and (b) loose Karlsruhe medium sand

(4

(b)

Fig 12 A sample of dense Karlsruhe medium sand (a) before and (b) after the test The test was termmated
at e1 = 12% A vacuum of 100 kPa was applied to support the sample

most of the tests on other mater& Note

that m most of the previously used experrmental techniques no means were provided to
follow separately the lateral deformations of
the upper, middle, and lower parts of the
sample
In several tests with loose sand samples,
a shght barrelling has also been observed,

I e , the expansion m the middle 1s larger than

that m the lower part of the sample. Thus
however, does not contradict the above
reasoning about the mfluence of gravrty. As
discussed m the section on Fnctlon between
the end plates and the sample, the boundary
condltlons are not ideal. Fnctlon exists at
the end plates, which hmders the lateral

110

expansion of the sample. As loose samples are

much weaker than dense samples, the mfluence of the friction might overwhelm the
gravity and become dominant In addition,
the mitral density mhomogeneities are more
pronounced m loose samples
This fmdmg imposes the necessity for some
deconvolution technique (z e , back calculation towards the results of a fictitious homogeneously deformed sample) of the data
obtamed Of course, this cannot be undertaken without some assumptions concernmg
the real (but unknown) deformation field.
Takmg mto account that at the lower sample
end the mitral axial stress is, due to gravity,
somewhat higher than at the upper end and
that bulgmg is always manifested as a greater
lateral expansion at the lower part of the
sample, it is assumed that both the axial and
the lateral deformations proceed faster at the
lower than at the upper sample end. This also
means that the axial stram e1 is not homogeneously distributed over the sample and
that the quantity log,,[ (h, - u r/h,-,] is merely
a mean value 5i taken over the sample height.
This means futhermore that, whereas the
lower part of the sample has reached, say, the
peak deformation and the hnut state, the
upper part is still m an earher stage of the
deformation
The deconvolution can be undertaken
under the assumption that the genume upper,
middle, and lower axial deformations fulfil
the conditions
El,U/EZ,U

= Cl/T,

El.JEZ,I

= Zllf2

el.dE2.1

= Cl/52

with P2= (e2,u + Q + e2J/3.

The subscripts u, 1, 1 denote the upper,
mtermediate and lower collars, respectively
This procedure leads to three stress-stram
curves, one for each part of the sample, which
comcide more or less, see for example Fig 13.
Limit state
The stress-stram curves of tnaxial compression are expected to obtam a maximum value
which is called peak. The correspondmg stress
state 1scalled a Zzmzt state. Often, the peak is
followed by a decrease of the stress deviator
lul - us1 upon continued deformation This
stress decay is termed softenmg. It should be

10

5
AXIAL

STRAIN

15

WI

Fig 13 Deconvoluted stress strain and volumetric

stram curves for dense Karlsruhe medwm sand

noted that a too drastic softenmg should be

attributed to pronounced mhomogeneities of
the deformation rather than to the material
behavlour. Actually, a test should be terminated as soon as the mhomogeneities become
pronounced, smce any contmuation of this
test is meanmgless (the measurements
obtamed cannot be evaluated m the sense of a
unique stress stram curve)
It is commonly expected that a contmued
deformation will lead eventually to the socalled critical state, where no further volume
changes (dilatancy) occur. However, m the
course of tnaxial compression this critical
state is usually not obtamed withm the range
of feasible homogeneous deformations. As
mentioned above, the deformation of the
sample cannot be increased arbitrarily without the onset of mevitable mhomogeneities.
It must be added that for loose sand samples and for samples tested at high confining
pressure as well as for other granular materials
consistmg of soft grams, e.g wheat and
rape, a limit state m the above sense is not
obtamed and the stress-stram curves mcrease
contmuously as shown m Fig. 15(d) and (e)
Agam it could be argued that after a sufficient
stram the peak would, probably, be reached.
However, this cannot be achieved due to the
limited range of feasible deformation A
senous difficulty arises from this fact m the
determmation of the friction angle.
Collapse
A curious effect was observed dunng tests
with the synthetic granulate polystyrol,

111

AXIAL STRAIN

[XI

Fig 14 Trlaxlal test on polystyrol

whose grams are angular and hard. This effect

mmics the collapse of loess soil upon mundation. A sudden collapse (also called stickslip) takes place as the deviatonc stress I u1 usI attams a certam value as shown m Fig. 14.
The collapse is accompanied by an abrupt
reduction m axial stress and a hght sound
emission
Whether collapse occurs seems to depend
upon the shape and hardness of the grams. In
addition, the gram size distribution might be
also a controllmg factor. Indeed, the gram
size distribution of polystyrol has been found
to be extremly uniform, as shown m Fig. 6.
Besides, collapse has also been found to occur
m potato powder [ 261.

BAROTROPY

AND PYKNOTROPY

Baro tropy
The term barotropy 1s used to signify the
dependence of the mechamcal behaviour of
the materials on the stress level [ 271 If the
relations descnbmg barotropy are known, the
results obtamed can be extrapolated towards
low pressure levels, which are of mterest for
silo design but also extremely difficult m
experimentation.
In the present tests, barotropy is mvestigated by conductmg tests with samples of the
same m1tia.ldensity under varymg confmmg
pressures. The test results with Karlsruhe
medium sand, sugar, wheat, rape and luran
are shown in Fig 15. For clarity, only the

stress stram and volumetnc strain curves

plotted usmg the mean value of the stress and
stram over the sample height are shown.
Given m Fig. 16 is the dependence of the
fnction angle cp,derived from Fig. 15, on u3
for Karlsruhe medium sand, sugar, wheat,
rape and luran. As no hmit state can be
reached except for dense Karlsruhe sand, the
friction angle 1sevaluated at the axial stram
of 10%. It can be seen from Fig 16 that the
friction angle decreases with mcreasmg confmmg pressure. The fact that the fnction
angle depends on the confmmg pressure is a
common feature at least for the granular
materials covered by the present tests. For
rape and luran, we have almost a hnear dependence of cpon u3.
The dependence of the dilatancy angle $
on the confmmg pressure is shown m Fig. 17.
Agam, the dllatancy angle $1~ calculated with
respect to the axial stram of e1 = 10% for
materials for which no limit state was
obtamed. G 1sfound to decrease with mcreasmg confining pressure In other words,
dilatancy 1s suppressed by mcreasmg confmmg pressure The fact that both cpand $
decrease with elevatmg confmmg pressure can
be explamed by the stress dllatancy theory
developed by Rowe [2&S].
A statement pertinent to the above discussions should be made at this stage As shown
m the section on Quantitative description of
the tests, it is a difficult task to evaluate rate
quantities from expenmental data. Frequently, the test results are fitted into a
theory, e.g the stress dllatancy theory. The
fnction angle can be evaluated with great
confidence. The dllatancy angle, however, can
only be evaluated with a poor confidence
The results depend largely on the evaluation
method, which has been rarely mentioned m
the literature
The dependence of the mitral slope of the
stress stram curve on the confmmg pressure
(see Fig 18) can be described by the empmcal relation proposed by Janbu [29]
n

(13)
where K and n are material constants, pa 1s
the atmospheric pressure.
The dependence of the mitral dllatancy
angle on the confmmg pressure is grven m

112

&=I6

(4

AXIAL

STRAIN

1'0
AXIAL

STRAIN

2 %

tX1

115

$0

WI

AXIAL

STRAIN

[Xl

d:l:t:llt:i~l:l:l:l:l~l:~l
1'0

(e)

AXIAL

STFAIN

[Xl

Fig 15 Trlaxlal tests on (a) dense Karlsruhe medium sand, (b) loose Karlsruhe medmm sand, (c) sugar, (d) wheat,
(e) rape and (f) luran

Fig. 19. It can be seen from Fig. 19 that for

Karlsruhe sand the mltml dllatancy angle
remams nearly constant vrespectlve of the

stress level and the mltlal den&y. In fact,

apart from matenals compnsmg compressible
or crushable particles, e.g. wheat, rape and

113
EcJa3
800

ENSE

KARLSRUHE

700

SAND

600

46

DENSE

10

d3 1100kPa 1

KARLSRUHE

SAND

ARLSRUHE

SAND

10

a3 [lOOkPol
Fig 18 Dependence of E0/u3 on a3

Fig 16 Dependence of p on u3

angle 1sconstant irrespective of the stress level

and mitral density.
The dependence of the axial stram eu at
the hmit state on the confmmg pressure is
given m Fig. 20 for dense Karlsruhe medium
sand. elf is proportional to the confmmg
pressure Tlus fact has also been observed by
Colhat-Dangus et al [ 301. In other words, the
material becomes more ductile with mcreasmg
confmmg pressure.
Pyknotropy

46

lb

a3 [ lOOkhI
Fig 17 Dependence of $ on u3

The dependence of the mechamcal behaviour on the mitral density is called pyknotropy. In the present study, pyknotropy is
investigated by conducting tests with the
same confmmg pressure while varying the
m&al density from test to test. The test
results for Karlsruhe medium sand are shown
m Fig. 21.
The dependence of the friction angle cp,
dilatancy angle $, E,/a3, tie and Eif on the
relative density 0, defined by
D, =

sugar, the mitral dllatancy angle has roughly

the same value for a given material. Therefore,
we can conclude that the mitial dilatancy

%mx(r

- YInin1

(14)
~(YlllOX- %li*)
can be derived from Fig. 21 and IS given m
Figs. 22 to 26, respectively.

C3 = 100 kPa

AXIAL
0

LOOSE

SUGAR

n
a

WHEAT
RAPE

KARLSRUHER

SAND

4'6

u3 I lOOkPa

STRAIN [Xl

Fig 21 Tests on Karlsruhe medmm sand with (13 =

100 kPa and varymg mltlal densltles

1'0

Fig 19 Dependence of tie on u3

20

40

60

I 0

80

D, I%1
DENSE

KARLSRUHE

SAND

Fig 22 Dependence of cpon Q for Karlsruhe sand

B
10
a, I100 kPa 1

Fig 20. Dependence of Elf on u3 for dense Karlsruhe

medmm sand

It can be seen from Figs. 22 and 23 that

both cpand $ mcrease with mcreasmg relative
density 0,. This can be also explamed by the
stress dllatancy theory.
An almost hnear relation between E&J,
and D, can be seen from Fig. 24. A simple
explanation I that dense sand is stiffer
than loose sand.
The relation between tiO and D,, see
Wg. 24, conforms agam the observation that

20

40

60

lb0

80
D,

I% 1

Fig 23 Dependence of 9 on D, for Karlsruhe sand

115

I
20

40

II
I
' 60

I I
I
60
160
D, LohI

Fig 24 Dependence of Eolas on Dr for Karlsruhe

sand

the mltlal dllatancy angle 1s approxnnately

independent of the n&al density
The relation between elf and D, given m
Figure 26 shows that with mcreasmg mltlal
density the sand becomes more bnttle.
Taking barotropy mto account, the functional dependence of the fnctlon angle cpon
the confmmg pressure u3 and the relative
density D, 1s shown m a three-dnnenslonal
space of 9, o3 and D, m Fig. 27, which provides an overall picture of barotropy and
pyknotropy.
As to the unportance of barotropy and
pyknotropy m silo problems, we refer to a
recent paper by Ravenet [31], where the
slgnlficance of the vanatlon of the stress level
and of the density along the silo height 1s
appreciated

Q. I1
__
L2 -

40 -

LO -

_.
30 -

36 _

36 _
3L 32

20 -

30 t ,

10 6

:;;1/11/1/

20

40

' 60

80
lb0
Dr [%I

Fig 25 Dependence of $0 on D, for Karlsruhe sand

a,[ lOOkPa

Fig 27 Dependence of q on ~3 and D, for Karlsruhe

sand

COMPARISON WITH OTHER STUDIES

Systematic mvestlgatlons of barotropy and

pyknotropy are rather rare Only recently
have some types of soils been mvestlgated m
this sense. The results (see also Tables 6 and
7) may be summarized as follows-

20

40

' 60

60
lb0
Dr [% 1

Fig 26 Dependence of Elf on Dr for Karlsruhe sand

Tests by Fukushlma and Tatsuoka

Fukushnna and Tatsuoka [18] have
focused then attention on very low lateral
stresses in the range from 0.02 to 4 bar. They
mvestigated Toyoura sand with void ratios
e, = 0.85 and e, = 0.70 (in order to mvestlgate the effect of lateral stress, samples with
identical mltlal void ratio e, should be

116
TABLE 6
Comprehensive representation of test series and results of other authors Frlctlon angles m parentheses mdxate
that no peak was obtamed
Authors

Material

Number
of tests

Fukushlma and
Tatsuoka [ 181

Toyoura sand

78

do
(cm)

ho
(cm)

e0

15

ca 085

05

35 5

40

34

05

41 6

40

38 6

0 565

05

43

30

43

0 582

05
40
40

41
41
41

0 546

05
60
10 0

44 2
39 1
37 4

Oostershelde sand

Medium

05
20
40

(38 7)
36 6
(34 4)

Darmstadt sand

Dense

05

43 9

50

39 2

07

42

09

34

38

100

(24)

38

100

(24)

12

48 1

20

37 2

36 8

25

314

ca 070

Hettler and
Vardoulakls [ 81

Hettler and
Gudehus [ 321

Goto and
Tatsuoka [ 91

Kltamura and
Haruyama [ 161

Colhat-Dangus
eta1 [30]

Karlsruhe sand

Toyoura sand

38

78

15

28

20

75

Toyoura sand

0 68

0 80

Shmasu tuff

134

164

Hostun sand

24

26

compared. However, e, can only be obtamed

with a scatter and, therefore, it varied wlthm
the ranges 0.660.. .0.687 and 0.824.. .0.898).
It was found that the barotropy of cp (I.e.,
a9/ao3)
(compressive stress is taken positive)
mcreases with decreasmg u3 and that the
barotropy of the deformation characteristics

20

20140

Dense

Loose

(z e , i311//i303) decreases with decreasing u3.

They attributed this apparently contradictory phenomenon (we cannot detect any
contradiction herem) to the lack of any
membrane correction, which they consider
necessary for lateral stresses below 0 1 bar
After membrane correction, they detected

117
TABLE 7
Comprehensive representation of test series and results of the present mvestlgatlon Frlctlon angles m parentheses
mdlcate that no peak was obtamed In this case, the frlctlon angle IS calculated with reference to the axial stram
of El = 10%
Authors

Material

Kolymbas and Wu

Karlsruhe sand

Number
of tests

do
(cm)

ho
(cm)

D,

51

10

10

co 980

ca 162

Sugar

Wheat

Rape

Luran

10

that barotropy becomes considerably smaller

for lateral stresses below 0.5 bar. It seems that
the experiments were carried out with the
utmost precision and accuracy. Nevertheless
Fukushlma and Tatsuoka remark the followmg pomts:
-At extremely low pressures, the stress
becomes very non-umform, smce the selfweight of the sample becomes mcreasmgly
important (the mevitable mhomogeneous
deformation of the sample has not been
mentioned).
- Bulgmg occurs as is clearly visible m their
Photo 1. This phenomenon has not been
taken mto account m evaluating the test
results.
- The lateral membrane buckles at large
stram and low pressure.
- No correction for beddmg error was provided for.
- In many loose samples, a peak of the stress
stram curve was not obtamed.

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

ca 254

ca 683

co 12.0

ca 741

TlZar)

cp
()

05

45 1

10 0

38 8

05

(33 3)

10 0

(29 0)

05

(36 0)

80

(28 4)

05

(310)

40

(25 4)

10

(28 0)

40

(215)

05

(21 3)

20

(15 8)

Tests by Hettler et al
Hettler et al [8, 321 investigated very large
and extremely squat samples (mitial diameter
d, = 78 cm, mitml height h, = 28 cm) of various types of sand. Owmg to the large dlmensions of the samples, the number of tests is
hnuted. In some of their tests, a correctron of
the beddmg error has been undertaken by the
use of a bouton mounted at the lateral membrane of the sample. However, it cannot be
assured that the motion of this bouton is
identical with the one of the adjacent sand
particle. It appears strange that with Karlsruhe
sand no barotropy was detected m the u3ranges 0.5.. .3 bar and 0.5.. .4 bar, whereas a
pronounced barotropy was detected m the
range 0.5.. .lO bar. Barotropy was clearly
observed with sands from Oostershelde and
Darmstadt. With loose samples from Degebosand, a peak was not obtained.
Another important and controversial
fmdmg of Hettler et al is that the mcipient

118

ralal strams (z e , the radial strams occunng

at the begmnmg of the tnaxial compression)
are null We could not confirm this statement
As shown m Fig. 28, the radial expansion
sets on as soon as the devlatonc loadmg
is applied This observation is not mfluenced
by bedding error.
-0

Dr : 96 5 %

-2 0
0

01

02

03

OL
E,

05
I%1

Fig 28 Imtlal radial stram us axlal stram

New (1988) ASTM state of the art

In a senes of papers presented m 1986 m
[ 331, barotropy and pyknotropy of soils were
systematically mvestigated [9,16, 301. The
fmdmgs are m close agreement with those
presented here (see also Tables 6 and 7). In
particular, the lack of peak of the stressstram curve at high stress levels is stated m
[301 to be the true elementary response of
the material

LIST OF SYMBOLS

mstantaneous area of sample

mitral diameter of sample
d
mean gram diameter
d,5 thickness of collar
relative density
D,
mitial slope of stress-&ram curve
EO
elastic modulus of rubber membrane
-%I
axial force
J-1
mitral height of sample
h0
PP atmospheric pressure
r
curvature radius
mitral thickness of rubber membrane
t0
At compression of rubber membrane
axial displacement
Ul
radial displacement
u3
V
volume of sample
W weight of sample
specific weight
Y
axial stram
El
axial stram at peak (failure)
Elf
radial stram
E3
(T
normal stress
dilatancy angle
u&al dilatancy angle
$0
friction angle
cp
A

REFERENCES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

(added m proof)

The authors are mdebted to Prof. F

Tatsuoka, Umversity of Tokyo, who read the
manuscript and pointed to discrepancies between the friction angles cpof dense Karlsruhe
sand at u3 = 100 kPa as they have been stated
(1) m our Figs. 9,15a, 16 and m Table 4, (u)
m Fig 22. The remark of Prof. Tatsuoka gave
nse to a retrospective mvestigation m the
course of which we found that the several
charges of our Karlsruhe sand are SUbJeCtto
a considerable scatter. Of course, this finding
refers also to previous pubhcations on Karlsruhe sand. However, we maintam that withm
each test series reported m this paper (see
Figs. 15(a) and 21) the same sand type has
been used. Thus, our partial results referrmg
to barotropy and pyknotropy retam their
vahdity .

M Budhu, J Geotech Eng , 111 (1985) 698

F Tatsuoka, m R T Donaghe, R C Chaney and
M L Silver (ed ) Advanced Trzaxlal Testzng of
Sod and Rock, ASTM, Baltimore, 1988, pp 7 67
J -M Dupas, A Pecker, P Bozetto and J -J Fry,
m R T Donaghe, R C Chaney and M L Sdver
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M L Silver (eds ), Advanced Trlaxzal Testing of
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D Kolymbas and W Wu, ASTM Geotechnrcal
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A S Saada and F C Townsend, ASTM STP 740,
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A Hettler and I Vardoulakls, Glotechnzque,
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S Goto and E Tatsuoka, m R T Donaghe,
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119
10 P F Lmton, M C McVay and D Bloomqulst,
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11 F Molenkamp and H J Luger, GCotechmque,
31
(1981) 471
12 P L Newland and B H Alley, Gdotechnzque,
9
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13 K H Roscoe, A N Schofield and A Thuralrajah,
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Gtotechntque,
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Trlaxlal Testing of Sod and
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19 A W Bishop and D J Henkel, The Measurement
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