Nozzle Overexpansion &

Underexpansion
Can you explain overexpansion and underexpansion of the flow exhausted from
a nozzle? What is the convention that dictates these definitions? To the
uninitiated like me, the two terms are more descriptive of the respective flows if
they are reversed.
Expansion is the process that converts the thermal energy of combustion into kinetic
energy to move an object forward. In other words, the hot gases created by burning fuel
inside a jet or rocket engine are exhausted through a nozzle to produce thrust. It is the
shape of this nozzle that is key to the expansion process. As that high temperature flow
is exhausted, it expands against the walls of the nozzle to create a force that pushes the
vehicle forward.

Flow passing though a rocket nozzle

The behavior of this expansion process is largely dictated by pressure--both the

pressure of the exhaust itself as well as the pressure of the external environment into
which it exhausts. Of greatest concern is to design the shape and length of the nozzle

so that it converts as much of that thermal energy into thrust as possible. In an ideal
nozzle that optimizes performance, the exit pressure (P exit) will be equal to the ambient
pressure of the external atmosphere (P). The flow in this case is perfectly expanded
inside the nozzle and maximizes thrust.
Unfortunately, this situation can only occur at one specific atmospheric pressure on a
fixed-geometry nozzle. As we have seen previously, pressure decreases as altitude
increases. Nozzle designers typically must select a shape that is optimum at only one
altitude but minimizes the losses that occur at lower or higher altitudes. These losses
result from the fact that the atmospheric pressure will either be higher than the exit
pressure of the exhaust gases, i.e. at low altitudes, or lower than the exit pressure, i.e.
at high altitudes.

Difference in flow behavior between (a) overexpansion, (b) ideal expansion, and (c)
underexpansion

This first case, where the external pressure is higher than the exit pressure, is referred
to as overexpanded. When an overexpanded flow passes through a nozzle, the higher
atmospheric pressure causes it to squeeze back inward and separate from the walls of
the nozzle. This "pinching" of the flow reduces efficiency because that extra nozzle wall
is wasted and does nothing to generate any additional thrust. Ideally, the nozzle should
have been shorter to eliminate this unnecessary wall.
The opposite situation, in which the atmospheric pressure is lower than the exit
pressure, is called underexpanded. In this case, the flow continues to expand outward
after it has exited the nozzle. This behavior also reduces efficiency because that
external expansion does not exert any force on the nozzle wall. This energy can
therefore not be converted into thrust and is lost. Ideally, the nozzle should have been
longer to capture this expansion and convert it into thrust.

Experimental photos of shock diamond patterns in an overexpanded flow

I can understand your point that flipping the names would seem more intuitive since I
too found definitions of overexpanded and underexpanded flows to be confusing when I
first learned them. For example, it seems logical to conclude that the flow in the high
altitude case "over expands" the diameter of the nozzle after it exits, hence its larger
size.
However, the proper definitions make more sense if you think about them from the
perspective of the nozzle exit. A flow is always being asked to expand outward to the
diameter of the nozzle exit in order to maximize thrust. At low altitude, however, this
expansion requires more energy than the flow possess because of the higher external
pressure. As it tries to do so, the flow "over expands" itself and is forced back inward by
that higher pressure. The opposite is true at high altitude where the flow has too much

energy. By the time it reaches the nozzle exit, the flow has "under expanded" itself in
comparison to what it is capable of.
Additional information about nozzles and the importance of flow expansion is available
in the Aerospaceweb.org site about the aerospike engine. This site presents a more indepth discussion about nozzle design as well as the advantages and disadvantages of
different types of nozzle shapes.