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Roy E. Aycock
The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 58, No. 4. (Oct., 1972), pp. 588-604.
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1 All quotations from Verdi's letters, unless otherwise indicated, are from Franz
Werfel and Paul Stefan, eds., Verdi, The M a n in His Letters, trans. Edward Downes
(New York, 1942).
589
590
T h e Mi~sicalQuarterly
M a ~ b e t h the
, ~ earliest of Verdi's three completed Shakespearean
operas, has never received the acclaim given Otello and Falstafj.
After the Paris production of 1865, for which he made extensive
revisions, Verdi himself said: "Taking everything into consideration,
Macbeth is a fiasco. Amen. But I confess that I did not expect it. I
thought I had done pretty well, but it seems 1 was wrong." Such a
confession is especially poignant, for in dedicating the opera to his
patron and father-in-law, Antonio Barezzi, Verdi had written: "Now
I send you Macbeth, which I prize above all my other operas."
Francis Toye's assessment is an accurate one:
Little need to be said about this libretto, for which, as has already been stated,
Verdi was himself mainly responsible, the industrious Piave only supplying the
verses, in two instances touched u p or supplemented by Maffei. I t is not Shakespeare. Indeed, if the conventional view be adopted, that the principal charm of
Shakespeare is to be sought in the beauty of his language, it is about as far removed from Shakespeare as possible, because Piave's imagination was decidedly
pedestrian.4
592
T h e Musical Quarterly
593
They may wonder, too, why he did not turn the encounter between
Macbeth and Macduff into one of those magnificent tenorlbaritone
duets that became a special delight in the later operas.
Even before his collaboration with Verdi, Arrigo Boito had
achieved a measure of fame as a composer, poet, musician, freethinker, intellectual, and librettist. He and his lifelong friend and
fellow student, the composer-conductor Franco Faccio (whose career
was climaxed by his conducting the first performance of Otello)
acquired a fashionable reputation as enfants terribles in the artistic
milieu in which they moved. Of course, Boito, even without Verdi,
has a secure place in the history of opera on the basis of his Mefistofele, for which he wrote both the libretto (loosely based on Goethe)
and the music. Though Faust is the hero of this work, it is evident
that Boito's interest is in Mephistopheles. The Iago he created some
years later for Verdi's Otello owes much to the villain in his own
opera. Thus we have a full circle of influence: Goethe's Mephistopheles owes something to Shakespeare's Iago as well as to Marlowe's Dr. Faustus; and Boito's titular character is derived from
Goethe.
Boito's only other opera, Nerone, which he worked on for many
years, was never completed. It was produced, in its incomplete form,
at La Scala on May 1, 1924. It appears that Boito's exposure to the
genius of Shakespeare and to a musical talent vastly superior to his
own in Verdi inhibited his own creative instingts. It is a compliment
to his self-knowledge that he devoted his considerable talents to the
subservient role of librettist. Before he submitted his services to
Verdi, he had furnished Ponchielli the libretto for La Gioconda.
Boito's love for Shakespeare was as profound as Verdi's, and in 1865
he provided his composer-friend Faccio with a libretto based on
Hamlet. T h e opera, called Amleto, was produced at Genoa in 1865.
Since then, perhaps mercifully, it has not been heard again. Winton
594
T h e Musical Quarterly
Though Boito and Verdi had first met in 1862, the meeting
which was to have as its result the famous collaboration occurred in
1879. In a letter to his publisher, Giulio Ricordi, Verdi recalls the
meeting:
You dined with me, together with a few friends. We spoke about Othello, about
Shakespeare and about Boito. The next day Faccio brought me the sketch of
Otello, which I read and found good. "Write the libretto," I told him. "It will
come in handy for yourself, for me, or for someone else."
Thus was established a relationship between two devotees of Shakespeare, a friendship destined to give the world two of the greatest
masterpieces of the Italian repertory. Six years later, February 5,
1887, was to be a glorious event for Verdi, for Boito, and for Italian
opera.8 Whether it was a glorious event for Shakespeare, however,
is a matter on which opinions vary.g
Hartnoll, ed., Shnkespen~e in Music (Neli York, 1966), pp. 165-66.
opera in four acts; music b y Giuseppe Verdi: libretto by Arrigo Boito;
first performance, Milan, February 5, 1885.
9For an argument that the play is a far greater work of art than the opera and
that Verdi's Otello is not the flawless masterpiece that many consider it to be, see
7 Phyllis
8 Otello,
595
Drastic condensing is one of the inevitable exigencies of transforming a play into an opera. T h e fourteen characters or more of
the play are reduced to eight principals in the opera. Eliminated
entirely are Bianca and Desdemona's father, Brabantio. T h e structure of the play is altered, the first act jettisoned all together. T h e
opening of the opera in Cyprus corresponds to the opening of the
second act of the play, the necessary exposition coming intermittently. I n his decision to begin his libretto with Shakespeare's second
act, Boito shared Dr. Johnson's view: "Had the scene opened in
Cypress, and the preceding incidents been occasionally related, there
had been little wanting to a drama of the most exact and scrupulous
entrance, "Esultate," surely one of the most
r e g ~ i l a r i t y . "Otello's
~~
dramatic entrances in opera, establishes him as a powerful commander. T h e first act ends with the exquisite love duet, an exchange
drawn in part from the "wooing" scene of the first act of the play.
This duet, at the opposite end of the love scale from the impetuosity
of Romeo and Juliet, is a serene expression of mature love, a devotion so far advanced in mutual confidence that the lovers can
reminisce about their courtship, a reciprocal faith that serves as a
most poignant foreshadowing of the destruction which is to befall
them.
I n the second act of the opera Iago continues with his manipulation of the others. He declaims his famous and controversial Credo
(a showpiece for the baritone); he plants his seeds of jealousy; he
acquires the ominous handkerchief; Otello (in a magnificent number
for the tenor) bids farewell to his peace of mind. Iago makes Otello
frantic with an account given by Cassio, in his sleep, of intimacies
with Desdemona. T h e act ends with a celebrated duet for baritone
and tenor in which Iago joins Otello in a pledge of vengeance.
T h e third act corresponds to the last scene of Act I11 and scenes
1 and 2 of '4ct IV. T h e two scenes between Desdemona and Othello
(in Acts I11 and IV of the play) become one scene. This third act,
Joseph Kerman, "Verdi's Otello, o r Shakcspearc Explained," H t ~ d s o ~ R
z eview, VI
(1953-54), 266.77 (reprinted in chap. 5 of Kerman's Opelo ns D I ~ I I I[New
I ~ L York, 19561).
Shaw, in an article o n Vercti in T h e Ar~glo-Snuo?~
Rei'rer11 (XIal-ch, 1901), wrote: "'The
truth in that instead of Otello being a n Italian opera xvritte~iit1 t!le st\le of Shakespear,
Othello is a play written by Shakespear in the st\le of Italian opera. . . . IVith such
a libretto, Verdi was quite at home: his success with it proies, not that he could
occupy Shakespear's plane, but that Shakespear could on occasion occupy his, rvhich
is a very different matter."
10 Arthur Sherbo, ed., Johnson on Shakespeare, \'ol. VIII of T h e Yale Edition
of the IVorks of Samuel Johnson (8 \ols.; Piew H a l e n , Conn., 1968), p . 1048.
596
This passage is accompanied by the music from the love duet which
ends the first act. The ending of the opera, in its return to the love
motif of the first act, emphasizes Otello as a tragic love story. Boito
omits Othello's eloquent self-defense:
I have done the state some service, and they know't.
Richer than all this tribe -of one whose subdued eyes
and
It is the cause, it is the cause, my soul.
Let me not name it to you, you chaste stars!
It is the cause.
(V, ii, 1-3)
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T h e Musical Quarterly
While Boito's Desdemona is certainly no prude, she is not Shakespeare's heroine, who is capable of exchanging lightly risque badinage with Iago, the clown, and Emilia without seeming to be less
the lady. Desdemona's handling of herself in the handkerchief scene
-even in the play - puts a burden on one's willingness to disbelieve. In the libretto, her denseness is fairly incredulous. Even so,
Verdi provides for the handkerchief scene one of the most dramatic
duets in all opera. Only the operatic Desdemona could inspire such
criticism as the following:
I n Shakespeare she is a bervildered innocent who understands almost anything
of what goes on around her or in Othello. I n the opera she is n full-grown Italian
599
Boito's skill reveals itself not so much in the comparison with the
source, but in comparison with any of Verdi's earlier librettos, or
with Boito's libretto for Ponchielli's Ln Gioconda or with the
libretto of his own Mefistofele. A creative ability superior to his
own was necessary to ~jrodRoito's considerable talents.
Martin, Verdi, His Music, Life and T i ~ n e s(New York, 1963), pp. 525-28.
and forever farewell, sacred memories; farewell, sublin~e enchantments
of the mind; farewell, shining troops; farewell, victories, swift-Hjing shafts, ant1 racing
steeds; farewell, triumphant and sacred flag and the ringing releilles in the morning;
the clamor and song of battle, farewell. All of Otello's glory is gone."
12 George
13 "Kow
600
T h e Musical Quarterly
But the most fascinating character to both Boito and Verdi was
Iago. For a long time in their correspondence about the opera (which
they referred to by the code name of "the chocolate scheme") they
called the work Iago. Shakespeare's Iago has indeed undergone a
sea change in the hands of Boito and Verdi. That irresistible b&te
noire of Shakespearean commentary, Iago's motivation, is peremptorily circumvented by a transparently convenient stratagem. T h e
Boito-Verdi Iago has no need to call upon thwarted ambition,
cuckoldry, or other untenable reasons to support his villainy. H e is a
devoted offspring of an evil god.
T h e most controversial episode in the opera, and the most
blatantly un-Shakespearean, is Iago's famous Credo, a most impressive baritone aria. It must be quoted in full.
Credo in un Dio crudel che m'ha creato
Simile a se e che nell'ira io nomo.
Dalla vilti d' un germe o d'un atomo
Vile son nato.
Son scellerato
Perch6 son uomo;
E sento il fango originario in me.
Si! questa e la mia f&!
Credo con fermo cuor, siccome crede
La vedovella a1 tempio,
Che il ma1 ch'io penso e che da me procede,
Per il mio destino adempio.
Credo che il giusto 6 un istrion beffardo,
E nel viso e nel cour,
Che tutto & in lui bugiardo:
I.agrima, bacio, sguardo,
Sacrificio ed onor.
E credo I'uom gioco d'iniqua sorte
Dal germe della culla
A1 verme dell'avel.
Vien dopo tanta irrision la Morte.
E poi? La Morte 6 il Nulla,
k vecchia fola il Ciel.14
14 "I believe in a cruel God who has made me in his image and whom, in hate,
I worship. From some vile germ of nature or paltry atom I was born. I am evil because I am human. I feel the primeval slime in me. Yes, this is my creed. I believe
as firmly as ever did a little widow before the altar that whatever evil I think or do
is decreed by Fate. I believe that the honest man is but a mocking player in his
face and in his heart, that everything about him is false- tears, kiss, glance, sacrifice, and honor. And I believe that man is Fortune's fool from the germ of the
cradle to the worm of the tomb. After so much folly comes death. What then?
Death is nothingness, and heaven is a worn-out story."
601
Little wonder that the famous actor Salvini bluntly told Verdi that
his Iago was not Shakespeare's Iago. "You, Verdi," he wrote, "have
made him a melodramatic villain with his Credo and his outcry of
later admitted that the Credo and the end
'Ecco il leone.' '''"oito
15 Quoted
(1928), 164.
by John
TI?^
Musical Quarterly, X I V
602
T h e Musical Quarterly
of the third act shocked him more when he saw them on the stage
than he had intended in the libretto. Boito's part in the characterization of Iago is easier to understand. An ardent admirer of Byron
and Oscar Wilde, he was always drawn to the sensational. In creating
his Iago he went straight back to his own Mefistofele, indulged in a
little self-plagiarism, and gave his titular hero a brother in vallainy.
T h e phenomenal success of Otello merely whetted the poetic
ambitions of Boito (who now sensed immortality by the coupling
of his name, as partner and collaborator rather than as a servant,
with Verdi's) and the financial ambitions of the publisher Ricordi.
It was no secret that Verdi had long wanted to write a comic opera.
It was also known that all his life he had been fond of Falstaff. It
took very little urging to get Verdi to undertake Falstafl.16 Boito's
libretto, based on T h e Merry Wives of Windsor, is the only libretto
in his long career for which Verdi did not suggest a change. Before
he met Boito, he had had chronic frustration with his librettists.
About Falstaff, Verdi wrote, "Boito has provided me with a lyric
comedy unlike any other."
It is n o literary heresy to assert that the Boito-Verdi Falstafl is
superior to its source. T h e chief reason, of course, is that T h e Merry
Wives of Windsor is probably Shakespeare's least successful comedy.
It would be lower than it is in the hierachy of English drama if
Shakespeare's name were not indisputably attached to it.
Boito's libretto, as its title promises, concentrates on Falstaff to
a greater degree than does T h e Merry Wives of Windsor. T h e pruning of characters and episodes is more severe than in Otello. T h e
more than twenty characters in the play are reduced to ten in the
opera. Gone are Shallow, Slender, Evans, Nym, Rugby, Simple,
William Page, and Master Page. Page's daughter Anne becomes
Nannetta Ford. Also out is the whole episode of Falstaff's disguise
as Mother Prat. T h e most impressive feature of Boito's libretto is the
skill with which he assimilates passages from both parts of Henry I V .
Among the many borrowings, the most prominent are a version of
the "plague of all cowards" speech and the "Quand 'ero paggio Del
Duca di Norfolk ero sottile" ("When I was the Duke of Norfolk's
pageboy, I was slender"), which is a deft telescoping of Falstaff's
boast to Hal: "When I was about thy years, Hal, I was not an eagle's
talon in the waist, I could have crept into any alderman's thumb
603
N6 un capello? - No!
17"Honor! You thieves! You, sworn to your honor? You? You sewers of ignominy,
when not even we can always live by ours? Even I o n occasion must put aside the
fear of God, and must t u r n honor into byways and live with half-truths, stratagems,
deceit, o r falsehood. And you i n your rags with the crooked glance of the hyena and
604
T h e Musical Quarterly
T h e source in Shakespeare reads:
Honor pricks me on. Yea, but how if honor prick me off when I come on? How
then? Can honor set a leg? No. O r an arm? No. O r take away the grief of a
wound? No. Honor hath no skill in surgery, then? No. What is honor? A word.
What is in that word honor? What is that honor? Air. A trim reckoning. Who
hath it? H e that died o' Wednesday. Doth he feel it? No. Doth he hear it? No.
'Tis insensible, then? Yea, to the dead. But will it not live with the living? No.
Why? Detraction will not suffer it. Therefore 1'11 none of it. Honor is a mere
scutcheon. And so ends my catechism.
( I Henry IV, V, ii, 131-43)