BUILDING UTILITIES 1

Fundamentals of Water Supply Systems

WATER BASICS
Water and its appropriate use

important part of design, especially the design of

green buildings
every building designed today is supplied with potable
water
most of this clean water is used to carry away organic
waste
impact on a wide range of design affecting bathroom
fixtures arrangement, and the overall plans of large
and complex water and sewage treatment facilities
THE NEXT GREAT WORLD CRISIS WILL BE WATER
SUPPLY

USES OF WATER

Nourishment
Cleansing and Hygiene
Ceremonial uses
Transportation
Cooling
Ornamental uses
Reflectivity
Liquidity
Life-sustaining potential

Protective uses

Water source

Water volume, in
cubic miles

Water volume, in
cubic kilometers

Percent of
freshwater

Percent of
total water

Oceans, Seas, &

Bays

321,000,000

1,338,000,000

--

96.54

Ice caps,
Glaciers, &
Permanent Snow

5,773,000

24,064,000

68.6

1.74

Ground water

5,614,000

23,400,000

--

1.69

Fresh

2,526,000

10,530,000

30.1

0.76

Saline

3,088,000

12,870,000

--

0.93

Soil Moisture

3,959

16,500

0.05

0.001

Ground Ice &

Permafrost

71,970

300,000

0.86

0.022

Lakes

42,320

176,400

--

0.013

Fresh

21,830

91,000

0.26

0.007

Saline

20,490

85,400

--

0.007

Atmosphere

3,095

12,900

0.04

0.001

Swamp Water

2,752

11,470

0.03

0.0008

Rivers

509

2,120

0.006

0.0002

Biological Water

269

1,120

0.003

0.0001

Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter "World fresh water resources" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to
the World's Fresh Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New York).

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Earth's water is always in movement and is
always changing states, from liquid to vapor to
ice and back again.
The process whereby water constantly circulates
is called the natural water cycle, also known as
the hydrologic cycle, and
It describes the existence and the continuous
movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of the Earth.
It is powered by about of the earths solar
energy, and the water cycle has no starting
point.

EVAPORATION
Heat energy from the sun causes water in
puddles, streams, rivers, seas or lakes to
change from a liquid to a water vapor.
This is called evaporation.
The vapor rises into the air and collects in
clouds.

CONDENSATION
Water vapor collects in clouds. As the
clouds cool the water vapor condenses
into water drops.
This is called condensation.
These drops fall to the earth as rain,
snow or hail.

PRECIPITATION
Water falls to the earth from clouds
mainly as rain, but sometimes as snow
and hail.
This is called precipitation.

TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the process by which
plants lose water out of their leaves.
Transpiration gives evaporation a bit of a
hand in getting the water vapor back up
into the air.

Water for human consumption comes from one

of two basic systems:
Water from a well to supply an individual residence, well
water for farmstead properties, and well water for small
public sector properties that include schools, public buildings,
and small commercial enterprises.
Municipal water systems that provide potable water to a wide
array of commercial property and domestic use buildings
including apartments, condominiums, duplex housing, and
single family dwellings.

ANATOMY OF A WATER SYSTEM

A water system has two primary requirements:

it needs to deliver adequate amounts of water to meet
consumer consumption requirements plus needed fire flow
requirements.
the water system needs to be reliable; the required amount of
water needs to be available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.

BASIC WATER SOURCES FOR WATER SYSTEMS

GROUND WATER SOURCES (WELLS)
water is below ground level or below the earths surface.
necessary to dig or bore a well in order to tap into the water
source; also generally referred to as a well-water source.
it occupies the spaces between soil and rock particles.
at a certain depth below the land surface, the spaces between the soil and
rock particles can be totally filled with water, resulting in an aquifer from
which ground water can be pumped and used by people.

some of the precipitation that falls onto the land infiltrates into
the ground to become ground water.
Once in the ground, some of this water travels close to the land surface and
emerges very quickly as discharge into streambeds
because of gravity, much of it continues to sink deeper into the ground.
water moving downward can also meet more dense and water-resistant
non-porous rock and soil, which causes it to flow in a more horizontal
fashion, generally towards streams, the ocean, or deeper into the ground.

Whats the difference between a flowing

artesian well and an artesian well?

An artesian well is a well that taps into a confined aquifer.

Under artesian pressure, water in the well rises above the top of the
aquifer, but does not necessarily reach the land surface.
A flowing artesian well is one that has been drilled into an aquifer
where the pressure within the aquifer forces the groundwater to rise
above the land surface naturally without using a pump.
Flowing artesian wells can flow on an intermittent or continuous
basis and originate from aquifers occurring in either unconsolidated
materials such as sand and gravels or bedrock, at depths ranging
from a few meters to several thousand meters.
All flowing wells are artesian, but not all artesian wells are flowing
wells.

WELL CONSTRUCTION
Well construction typically consists of three steps:
well will be drilled to meet all well construction
standards in the area
a trench is dug to connect the well to the system
a well pump is selected that will raise water from the
well and deliver it to a storage tank, where it is held
under pressure until needed

WELLS AS SOURCES OF WATER

Bored wells

Are dug with earth augers

usually less than 30m deep
Located in boulder-free sites that will not cave in
Diameter range is 50 to 760mm
Cased with metal, vitrified tile, or concrete

Driven wells

Simplest and usually the least expensive

A steel drive-well point (32-50mm dia.) is fitted on the end
of the pipe sections and driven into the earth
Materials and drive-well points design vary according to
expected characteristics of the well site
A pilot hole is dug first, and the drive-well point and pipe
sections are lowered into it
Well is driven well below the water table

 Jetted wells
Require a source of water and a pressure pump
A washing well point is supplied with water under pressure
; this loosens the earth and allows the point and pipe to
penetrate.

Drilled wells
Require elaborate equipment of several types
Dug by either percussion method or rotary drilling method
Percussion method involves raising and dropping of a
heavy drill bit and stem
After being pulverized, water is added to the hole to form
a slurry, which is periodically removed
As drilling proceeds, a casing is also lowered

 Drilled wells
Rotary method uses a cutting bit at the lower end of a drill
pipe
A drilling fluid or pressurized air is constantly pumped to
the cutting bit to aid in the removal of earth particles
After the drill pipe is withdrawn, a casing is lowered into
position
Another method is the pneumatic hammer method which
combines the percussion and effect with a rotary drill bit

METHOD
AUGERED OR
BORED

HOW
PENETRATION IS
ACCOMPLISHED
CUTTING LIPS OF
A ROTATING
AUGER SHAVE OR
CUT MATERIAL
LOOSE FROM THE
BOTTOM OF THE
HOLE.

MINIMUM
EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED
AUGER,
DETACHABLE
TUBULAR
EXTENSIONS, AND
A HANDLE FOR
ROTATING.

REMOVAL OF
MATERIAL FROM
HOLE
AUGER MUST BE
REMOVED FROM
THE HOLE
WHENEVER IT IS
FULL OF
CUTTINGS. THIS
NECESSITATES
UNCOUPLING
EXTENSIONS.

ADVANTAGES &
LIMITATIONS
EQUIPMENT IS
SIMPLE AND CAN
USUALLY BE
FABRICATED OR
ADAPTED
LOCALLY. CANNOT
PENETRATE HARD
FORMATIONS.
UNCOUPLING
EXTENSIONS
SLOWS WORK AT
GREATER DEPTHS.
USUALLY CANNOT
BE USED BELOW
THE WATER
TABLE.

METHOD
DRIVEN

HOW
PENETRATION IS
ACCOMPLISHED
A POINT ON THE
LOWER END OF A
STRING OF PIPE
ALLOWS THE PIPE
TO PENETRATE AS
IT IS DRIVEN ON
THE UPPER END.
NORMALLY
ACCOMPLISHED
BY ALTERNATELY
RAISING AND
DROPPING A
WEIGHT USED AS
A DRIVER.

MINIMUM
EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED
DRIVE POINT
WHICH USUALLY
ALSO INCLUDES A
WELL SCREEN
ABOVE IT, SPECIAL
DRIVE PIPE WITH
COUPLINGS,
DRIVE CAP, AND
DRIVER.

REMOVAL OF
MATERIAL FROM
HOLE
MATERIAL IS NOT
REMOVED FROM
THE HOLE, BUT IS
FORCED OUT
LATERALLY AS THE
DRIVE POINT IS
FORCED
THROUGH IT.

ADVANTAGES &
LIMITATIONS
FAST AND SIMPLE.
SPECIAL WELL
POINTS AND
HEAVY DRIVE PIPE
MAY NOT BE
AVAILABLE
LOCALLY. HARD
FORMATIONS
CANNOT BE
PENETRATED.
LIMITED TO
SMALL
DIAMETERS, BUT
MULTIPLE WELL
POINTS MAY BE
CONNECTED TO A
COMMON PUMP.

METHOD
JETTED

HOW
PENETRATION IS
ACCOMPLISHED
A HIGH VELOCITY
STREAM OF
WATER COMING
OUT OF THE
BOTTOM OF A
VERTICAL PIPE
WASHES AWAY
MATERIAL AHEAD
OF IT AS IT IS
LOWERED.

MINIMUM
EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED
PIPE EQUIPPED
WITH JETTING
ORIFICE (S) AT
LOWER END,
COUPLINGS,
SUITABLE PUMP
(HAND. OR
MOTOR
POWERED),
FLEXIBLE
CONNECTION
BETWEEN PUMP
AND PIPE, AND
SUPPLY OF
WATER.

REMOVAL OF
MATERIAL FROM
HOLE
THE WATER USED
FOR DRILLING
RETURNS TO THE
GROUND
SURFACE BY HAY
OF THE ANNULAR
SPACE AROUND
THE JETTING PIPE
CARRYING THE
MATERIAL
REMOVED WITH
IT.

ADVANTAGES &
LIMITATIONS
FAST.
CANNOT
PENETRATE HARD
FORMATIONS.
DIFFICULTY IN
BRINGING LARGE
GRAVEL OR
STONE TO THE
SURFACE.
DRILLING
EQUIPMENT CAN
BE FABRICATED
LOCALLY, BUT A
PUMP AND A
SOURCE OF
WATER ARE
REQUIRED.

METHOD
HYDRAULIC
PERCUSSION

HOW
MINIMUM
REMOVAL OF
PENETRATION IS
EQUIPMENT
MATERIAL FROM
ACCOMPLISHED
REQUIRED
HOLE
THE HOLE IS KEPT HOLLOW DRILL
THE RAISING AND
FULL OF WATER. BIT WITH WATER DROPPING
THE ALTERNATE INLETS AND A
ACTION IN
RAISING AND
CHECK VALVE,
CONJUNCTION
DROPPING OF A STRING OF PIPE, WITH THE CHECK
STRING OF PIPE DEVICES TO AID VALVE CAUSES
WATER TO BE
EQUIPPED WITH A RAISING AND
PUMPED UP THE
CUTTING BIT AT DROPPING. A
THE BOTTOM
MAN'S HAND
INSIDE OF THE
OVER THE TOP OF DRILL PIPE
ALLOWS
CARRYING THE
PENETRATION BY THE DRILL PIPE
CUTTINGS WITH
A COMBINATION MAY BE
OF MECHANICAL SUBSTITUTED FOR IT.
AND HYDRAULIC THE CHECK
VALVE.
ACTION.

ADVANTAGES &
LIMITATIONS
EQUIPMENT CAN
BE FABRICATED
LOCALLY OR
PURCHASED.
WATER
REQUIRED.
TRADITIONALLY
USED IN SOME
AREAS, THUS
UNDERSTOOD BY
LOCAL WELL
DRILLERS. HARD
FORMATIONS
CANNOT BE
PENETRATED.
DIFFICULTY IN
BRINGING LARGE
GRAVEL OR
STONES TO THE
SURFACE.

METHOD
CABLE TOOL
PERCUSSION

HOW
MINIMUM
PENETRATION IS
EQUIPMENT
ACCOMPLISHED
REQUIRED
A HEAVY
HEAVY DRILL BIT,
CYLINDRICAL
ROPE OR GABLE,
WEIGHT
DEVICES TO AID
EQUIPPED WITH A RAISING AND
CUTTING EDGE AT DROPPING.
THE BOTTOM
AND WITH A
ROPE OR CABLE
ATTACHED TO THE
UPPER END IS
ALTERNATELY
RAISED AND
DROPPED.
IMPACT
PULVERIZED
MATERIAL AT THE
BOTTOM OF THE
HOLE.

REMOVAL OF
MATERIAL FROM
HOLE
THE PULVERIZED
CUTTINGS ARE
MIXED INTO A
SLURRY WITH
WATER DURING
DRILLING. THESE
ARE REMOVED
USING A BAILER.

ADVANTAGES &
LIMITATIONS
ALL FORMATIONS
CAN BE
PENETRATED AT
VARYING RATES.
SOME WATER
REQUIRED.
COMMERCIALLY
BUILT RIG IS
EXPENSIVE AND
REQUIRES
CONSIDERABLE
SKILL TO
OPERATE, BUT A
SIMPLE SET OF
TOOLS CAN BE
FABRICATED
LOCALLY AND
ADAPTED TO
MAN OR MOTOR
POWER.

METHOD
BAIL DOWN

HOW
PENETRATION IS
ACCOMPLISHED
A LONG,
CYLINDRICAL
BUCKET WITH A
CHECK VALVE AT
THE BOTTOM
AND A ROPE OR
CABLE ATTACHED
TO THE TOP IS
ALTERNATELY
RAISED AND
DROPPED IN A
HOLE PARTIALLY
FILLED WITH
WATER.
PENETRATION IS
ACCOMPLISHED
BY HYDRAULIC
AND
MECHANICAL
ACTION.

MINIMUM
EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED
BAILER, ROPE,
DEVICES TO AID
RAISING AND
DROPPING.

REMOVAL OF
MATERIAL FROM
HOLE
SLURRY OF
CUTTINGS AND
WATER ENTER
THE BAILER AS IT
IS REPEATEDLY
DROPPED. THESE
ARE PREVENTED
FROM LEAVING
THE BUCKET BY
THE CHECK
VALVE. THE
BUCKET IS RAISED
TO THE SURFACE
FOR EMPTYING.

ADVANTAGES &
LIMITATIONS
EQUIPMENT CAN
BE FABRICATED
LOCALLY.
FREQUENTLY
USED IN
CONJUNCTION
WITH OTHER
METHODS, SUCH
AS PERCUSSION.
HARD
FORMATIONS
CANNOT BE
PENETRATED BY
THE BAILER
ALONE.

METHOD
HYDRAULIC
ROTARY

HOW
PENETRATION IS
ACCOMPLISHED
A HOLLOW DRILL
BIT WITH EITHER
A FIXED CUTTING
EDGE OR
TOOTHED
ROLLERS IS
ROTATED AT THE
BOTTOM END OF
A STRING OF PIPE.
MATERIAL IS
SCRAPED,
ABRADED OR
CHIPPED AWAY BY
MECHANICAL
ACTION.

MINIMUM
EQUIPMENT
REQUIRED
DRILL BIT, DRILL
PIPE,
CIRCULATING
PUMP, DEVICE
FOR ROTATING
DRILL PIPE.

REMOVAL OF
ADVANTAGES &
MATERIAL FROM
LIMITATIONS
HOLE
WATER OR "MUD" COMMERCIALLY
IS PUMPED
BUILT RIG IS
EXPENSIVE AND
DOWN THE
HOLLOW DRILL
REQUIRES
CONSIDERABLE
STEM TO
LUBRICATE THE
SKILL TO
BIT AND TO
OPERATE.
HOWEVER, SMALL
CARRY THE
CUTTINGS UP TO ADAPTATIONS
THE SURFACE
USING EITHER
MAN POWER OR
THROUGH THE
ANNULAR SPACE SMALL ENGINES
HAVE BEEN
AROUND THE
DRILL PIPE.
DEVISED. A
CIRCULATION
WATER SUPPLY IS
MAY ALSO BE IN NECESSARY. IT IS
DIFFICULT TO
THE REVERSE
DIRECTION.
DRILL IN LOOSE
FORMATIONS.

BASIC WATER SOURCES FOR WATER SYSTEMS

SURFACE WATER SOURCES
represent the second general classification of water supplies.
water is taken from aboveground water sources that include both
large and small natural lakes, and high and low reservoir lakes
formed by manmade dams to retain the water, rivers, and
streams prior to use.
main uses of surface water include drinking-water and other public uses,
irrigation uses, and for use by the thermoelectric-power industry to cool
electricity-generating equipment.
majority of water used for hydroelectric power, public supply, irrigation,
mining, and industrial purposes came from surface-water sources.

factors such as chemical and bacterial quality greatly influence

the economics of water treatment and the physical quality of
the water.

BASIC WATER SOURCES FOR WATER SYSTEMS

SURFACE WATER SOURCES
divided into two distinct classifications, filtered and unfiltered.
based on 1) type of treatment necessary to produce potable water, and
2) quality of such water prior to any required treatment process.
unfiltered surface waters are delivered from a watershed area that is
entirely owned or completely controlled by the water company or water
authority.
treatment of water derived from such a controlled watershed usually
consists of coarse screening and continuous chlorination. Preferred
treatment would consist of fine screening, pressure sand filtration, pH
adjustment, corrosion control, and continuous chlorination.

filtered surface water sources require complete treatment and include

those that are not entirely owned, supervised, or controlled by the water
company or authority.
water will contain normal bacteria content commonly associated to the
community life; proper treatment will render the water potable.

WATER SYSTEMS TYPES THAT

SUPPLY WATER UNDER PRESSURE
Gravity feed systems.
Pumping pressure systems
Each of these systems must:
take water from a supply source,
pass the water through a treatment plant, and then
transport the water into the distribution system.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMMUNITY WATER

SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO THE WATER
SOURCE:
High or low reservoirs that hold non-potable water for
gravity feed.
Pumping station systems that

use ground water from streams, rivers, canals, man-made or

natural lakes, and other special provisions for impounding
water.
raw water is pumped from the source point to the treatment
plant and then either pumped directly into the distribution
system or into storage to be used on demand by the
community.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMMUNITY WATER

SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO THE WATER
SOURCE:
Pumps at well sites that pump water to the treatment
facility.

Based on the difference in elevation between the treatment

facility and the community to be served, the water may flow
by gravity through the distribution systems, or there may be
the need for another pumping station.

A combination of gravity flow and one or more pumping

stations
transport the water from the source point to all of the water
demand points on the distribution system.
potable water flows by gravity from the storage tank to the
distribution system.

ROLE OF THE WELL PUMP

Water well pumps uses pressure or suctions to help raise the water from
a low level to a high level. Selecting or sizing the well pump is a critical
step in the construction of water wells. It is determined by the yield of
the well and the needs of the system.
The general rule is to never install a pump that has a greater capacity than
the well.
The pump usually refers to both the pump itself and an electric motor, which
together make up the pumping unit.
When the pump turns on, it fills the pressure tank used for water storage.

In the best and most economical water system, the needs of the system are
less than the rate at which water can be drawn from the well.
If the peak demand exceeds the maximum rate of water available, the pump
must be sized within the well capacity and the peak demand reached through
added storage capacity.
Usually a large-size pressure tank can perform this function. In fact, a larger
water storage tank can prolong the life of your pump, as it reduces the need for
the pump to cycle as often.

Type of Pumps
Pump Classification
Classified by operating principle
Pumps

Dynamic

Centrifugal

Others (e.g.
Impulse, Buoyancy)

Special effect

Internal
gear

Positive
Displacement

Rotary

External
gear

Reciprocating

Lobe

Slide
vane

WATER PUMPS
Positive displacement pumps
There are 2 principal types: reciprocating pumps
and rotary pumps
In reciprocating pumps, a plunger moves back and forth
within a cylinder equipped with check valves
The cylinder is located near or below the groundwater
level
Water enters the cylinder through an initial check valve
As the plunger moves toward this check valve, water is
forced through a 2nd check valve located within the
plunger itself
As the piston returns to its original position, water is
forced upward toward the surface

WATER PUMPS
A rotary pump has a helical or spiral rotor a turning
vertical shaft within a rubber sleeve
As the rotor turns, it traps water between it and the
sleeve, thus, forcing the water to the upper end of the
rotor

WATER PUMPS
Centrifugal pumps

This type contains an impeller mounted on a rotating

shaft.
The rotating impeller increases the waters velocity while
forcing the water into the casing, converting the waters
velocity into higher pressure
Each impeller is called a stage; many stages can be
combined in a multistage pump; there are two basic types
of impellers: volute and turbine.

o Turbine impellers are surrounded by diffuser vanes which provide

gradually enlarging passages in which the velocity of the water is
slowly reduced thus transforming the velocity head into pressure
head.
o Volute impellers are characterized by having no diffusion vanes.
Instead, its impeller is housed in a case which is spiral shaped and
in which the velocity of the water is reduced upon leaving the
impeller, with resultant increase in pressure.

WATER PUMPS
Centrifugal pumps
The number of stages depends upon the pressure
needed to operate the water supply system, as
well as the height to which the water must be
raised
Most common centrifugal pumps are those used
in deep wells

WATER PUMPS
Centrifugal pumps
There are 2 principal types of centrifugal pumps:
turbine and submersible pumps

Turbine pump has a vertical turbine located below

groundwater level and a driving motor located higher
up, usually over the well casing at grade; a long shaft is
thus required between the motor and the turbine

These pumps are usually used for high capacity from deep
wells, up to 450m deep. The capacity and pressure depends
on design, diameter, and number of impellers.
The advantages are that it produces smooth, even flow and is
easy to frost proof. The long drive shaft requires a straight
and vertical well casing.
The disadvantage is that the pump must be pulled from the
well in order to repair it.

WATER PUMPS
Centrifugal pumps

Submersible pumps are designed so that the motor can

be submerged along with the turbine

This type operates like a centrifugal pump except that several

impellers are mounted together on a vertical shaft.
The impellers and motor are in a housing which is positioned
below the water level.
Submersible pumps can lift from up to 300m deep. The pump
capacity and pressure depends on diameter, speed, and
number of impellers.
The advantages to a submersible multistage pump is that they
produce a smooth and even flow. They also have a short
pump shaft to the motor.
The disadvantage to this type of pump is that they are easily
damaged by sand in the water, and repair requires pulling the
pump out of the well.

WATER PUMPS
Jet pumps
A venturi tube is added to the centrifugal pump
A portion of the water that is discharged from a
centrifugal pump at the wellhead is forced down
to a nozzle and the venturi tube
The lower pressure within the venturi tube
induces well water to flow in and the velocity of
the water from the nozzle pushes it up toward the
centrifugal pump, which can then lift it more
easily by suction

WATER SUPPLY

DESIGNERS CONCERNS
Fundamental considerations for both designing
and evaluating water supply systems.
Most important is to match the quality of
water to the task it will perform
The quantity of water required and provision
for the recycling of water
Specify plumbing fixtures that use less water

COMMON WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS and TREATMENT

PHYSICAL QUALITY OF WATER

Most noticeable aspects of water
Turbidity

easy to see and a likely source of dissatisfaction for consumers

caused by presence of suspended materials such as clay, silt,
other inorganic material, plankton, or finely divided organic
material
even those materials that do not adversely affect health are
usually aesthetically objectionable

Color

another visible alteration

caused by dissolved organic matter, as from decaying vegetation
some inorganic materials also color water, as do microorganisms
usually do not threaten health, but they are often
psychologically objectionable

PHYSICAL QUALITY OF WATER

Taste and Odor

can be caused by organic compounds, inorganic salts, or

dissolved gases
can be treated only after a chemical analysis has identified the
source

Temperature

people expect drinking water to be cool

water supplied between 10O and 16OC is preferred

Foamability

Caused by concentrations of detergents

Foam presence may not pose threat, but may indicate that
other more dangerous pollutants associated with domestic
waste are also present
Detergents must use linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS) which
biodegrades rapidly except in the absence of oxygen (lack of
oxygen is a characteristic of septic tank drainage fields)

CHEMICAL QUALITY OF WATER

Water is an excellent solvent; groundwater is particularly
subject to chemical alteration.
Alkalinity

caused by bicarbonate, carbonate, or hydroxide

components
testing for these components is a key to determining which
treatment to use

Hardness

caused by calcium and magnesium salts

Can be classified as temporary (carbonate) or permanent
(non-carbonate)
Temporary hardness can be removed by heating the water;
permanent hardness cannot be removed by simple heating
inhibits the cleaning action of soaps and detergents
It deposits scale on the inside of hot water pipes and
cooking utensils

CHEMICAL QUALITY OF WATER

pH

a measure of waters hydrogen ion concentration,

as well as its relative acidity and alkalinity
a pH of 7 is neutral

Toxic substances

occasionally present in water supplies

knowledge of acceptable concentrations of such
substances are a must

TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN WATER

Chlorides

enter water as it passes through geologic deposits formed b

marine sediment, or because of pollution from seawater, brine,
or industrial or domestic wastes. A noticeable taste results from
chloride in excess of 250mg/L.

Copper

enter water from natural copper deposits or from copper piping

that contains corrosive water. Concentrations of copper in
excess of 1.0mg/L can produce an undesirable taste

Iron

is frequently present in water. Corrosive water in iron pipes will

also add iron to water. At concentrations above 0.3mg/L, iron
can lend a brownish color to washed clothes and can affect the
taste of water.

Manganese

Can both pose a physiological threat and produce color and

taste effects similar to those produced by iron; recommended
limit is 0.05mg/L.

TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN WATER

Nitrates

In high concentration can pose a threat to infants (can cause

blue baby disease). In shallow wells, concentrations can
indicate seepage from deposits of livestock manure.

Pesticides

A growing threat to water supplies; particularly common in

wells near homes that have been treated for termite control.

Sodium

Primarily dangerous for people with heart, kidney, or circulatory

ailments. Sodium in drinking water should not exceed 20mg/L.
Some water softeners can raise sodium concentrations in water.

Sulfates

Have laxative effects; can enter water groundwater from natural

deposits of magnesium sulfate or sodium sulfate.
Concentrations should not exceed 250mg/L.

Zinc

Sometimes enter groundwater in areas where it is found in

abundance. Although not a health threat, it can cause an
undesirable taste at concentrations above 5mg/L.

BIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF WATER

Potable water should be free, as possible, of disease-producing
organisms bacteria, protozoa, and viruses

these are not easily identifiable and a thorough biological water test is
complex and time-consuming.

Should be tested for one kind of bacteria the coliform group ,

better known as E. coli.

always present in the fecal wastes of humans and which outnumbers

all other disease-producing organisms in water.
recommended maximum concentration is one organism/100mL of
water.

A water source should be chosen that does not normally support

much plant or animal life

Thus, groundwater is usually chosen over surface water as a source.

The supply should be protected from subsequent biological

contamination.

Human activities are frequently excluded from the watersheds.

Organic fertilizers and nutrient minerals should also be kept out of

the water supply to discourage biological activity.
Stored water should be kept dark and at low temperatures.
Organisms are commonly destroyed at treatment facilities.

RADIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF WATER

Mining of radioactive materials and the use of
such materials in industry and power plants
have produced radiological pollution in some
water supplies.
Because radiological effects are cumulative,
concentrations of radioactive materials should
be very low.
Safe minimum concentrations have
continually been revised downward for other
radiation exposures.

HOW DRINKING WATER IS TREATED

Step 1: Screening
Water passes through a series of screens designed to remove debris such
as twigs, leaves, paper, stones, and other foreign matter.
Screens are frequently removed for cleaning or are back-washed from
high-pressure pumps to prevent clogging.
Step 2: Presedimentation
While the water moves slowly through each reservoir, much of the sand
and silt settles to the bottom.
Treatment lines and basins are shut down periodically during times of
minimum domestic consumption for cleaning.
This applies to the portions of the physical plant described in Steps 2
through 8.
Step 3: Coagulation
A coagulant, aluminum sulfate, is added to the water as it flows to
sedimentation basins.
Coagulants aid in the removal of suspended particles in the water by
causing them to consolidate and settle.

HOW DRINKING WATER IS TREATED

Step 4: Flocculation
The water is gently stirred with large paddles to distribute the coagulant.
This takes approximately 25 minutes.
Step 5: Sedimentation
The water flows into sedimentation basins where particles settle to the
bottom.
After about 4 hours, roughly 85 percent of the suspended material settles
out.
Step 6: Filtration
Water at the top of the basins flow to large gravity filters, traveling
through layers of small pieces of hard coal, sand, and gravel.
The filters help remove smaller particles from the water.

HOW DRINKING WATER IS TREATED

Step 7: Disinfection
This may be accomplished by these methods:
Chlorine is added to kill bacteria and viruses.
Ammonia also is added.
The chlorine and ammonia combine to form chloramines compounds.
Step 8: Additives
Depending on the quality of the water at this point, the following additives
may be injected into the water stream to accomplish the stated benefits:
Fluoride is added to reduce tooth decay.
Calcium hydroxide is added to reduce corrosion in the pipes and
equipment of the distribution system.