Separation of Church and State - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

4/19/2015
SeparationofchurchandstateWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Separationofchurchandstate
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Theseparationofchurchandstateisadescriptionforthedistanceintherelationshipbetweenorganizedreligion
andthenationstate.Itmayrefertocreatingasecularstate,withorwithoutexplicitreferencetosuchseparation,or
tochanginganexistingrelationshipofchurchinvolvementinastate(disestablishment).Somesourcesusethe
phrase"separationofmosqueandstate"torefertoseparationbetweenIslamandpolitics.[1]
Althoughtheconceptofseparationhasbeenadoptedinanumberofcountries,therearevaryingdegreesof
separationdependingontheapplicablelegalstructuresandprevalentviewstowardtheproperrelationshipbetween
religionandpolitics.Whileacountry'spolicymaybetohaveadefinitedistinctioninchurchandstate,theremaybe
an"arm'slengthdistance"relationshipinwhichthetwoentitiesinteractasindependentorganizations.Asimilarbut
typicallystricterprincipleoflacithasbeenappliedinFranceandTurkey,whilesomesociallysecularized
countriessuchasDenmarkandtheUnitedKingdomhavemaintainedconstitutionalrecognitionofanofficialstate
religion.[2]Theconceptparallelsvariousotherinternationalsocialandpoliticalideas,includingsecularism,
disestablishmentarianism,religiousliberty,andreligiouspluralism.Whitman(2009)observesthatinmany
Europeancountries,thestatehas,overthecenturies,takenoverthesocialrolesofthechurch,leadingtoagenerally
secularizedpublicsphere.[3]
Thedegreeofseparationvariesfromtotalseparationmandatedbyaconstitution,asinIndiaandSingaporetoan
officialreligionwithtotalprohibitionofthepracticeofanyotherreligion,asintheMaldives.
Contents
1Historyoftheconceptandterm
1.1Ancienthistory
1.2Lateantiquity
1.3MedievalEurope
1.4Reformation
1.5Enlightenment
1.6JeffersonandtheBillofRights
2Invariouscountries
2.1Australia
2.2Brazil
2.3China
2.4France
2.5Germany
2.6India
2.7Italy
2.8Japan
2.9SouthKorea
2.10Mexico
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state
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2.11Norway
2.12Philippines
2.13SaudiArabia
2.14Singapore
2.15Spain
2.16Sweden
2.17Turkey
2.18UnitedKingdom
2.19UnitedStates
2.19.1TheTreatyofTripoli
2.19.2Useofthephrase
3Religiousviews
3.1Ahmadiyya
3.2RomanCatholicism
4Friendlyandhostileseparation
5Seealso
6References
7Furtherreading
8Externallinks
Historyoftheconceptandterm
Ancienthistory
Manysocietiesinantiquityhadimperialcultswhereheadsofstatewereworshippedasmessiahs,demigodsor
deities.Ancienthistoryisrepletewithexamplesofpoliticalleaderswhoderivedlegitimacythroughreligioustitles.
SargonofAkkadwasreferredtoasthe"deputyofIshtar"[4]andmanyancientKingsofJudahclaimedtorulewitha
mandatefromHeaven.JuliusCaesarwaselectedasPontifexMaximus,thechiefpriestoftheRomanstatereligion
beforehebecametheconsulofRome.[5]Caligulareferredtohimselfasagodwhenmeetingwithpoliticiansandhe
wasreferredtoasJupiteronoccasioninpublicdocuments.[6][7]
Themixingofreligionandstatecanbeseenthroughoutantiquity,includingintheEdictofThessalonica,whereby
NiceneChristianitywasmadethestatereligionoftheRomanEmpire,andintheexecutionofSocrates,sentencedto
deathbytheAthenianstateforamongotherthings,"notbelievinginthegodsofthestate"[8]
Amongancientphilosophies,Epicureanismisinfavorofanearlyversionoftheseparationofreligionandstateas
canbeseeninthewritingsofLucretiusandEpicurus.
Lateantiquity
AnimportantcontributortothediscussionconcerningtheproperrelationshipbetweenChurchandstatewasSt.
Augustine,whoinTheCityofGod,BookXIX,Chapter17,begananexaminationoftheidealrelationshipbetween
the"earthlycity"andthe"cityofGod".Inthiswork,Augustinepositedthatmajorpointsofoverlapweretobe
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foundbetweenthe"earthlycity"andthe"cityofGod",especiallyaspeopleneedtolivetogetherandgetalongon
earth.ThusAugustineheldthatitwastheworkofthe"temporalcity"tomakeitpossiblefora"heavenlycity"tobe
establishedonearth.[9]
MedievalEurope
Forcenturies,monarchsruledbytheideaofdivineright.Sometimesthisbegantobeusedbyamonarchtosupport
thenotionthatthekingruledbothhisownkingdomandChurchwithinitsboundaries,atheoryknownas
caesaropapism.OntheothersidewastheCatholicdoctrinethatthePope,astheVicarofChristonearth,should
havetheultimateauthorityovertheChurch,andindirectlyoverthestate.Moreover,throughouttheMiddleAges
thePopeclaimedtherighttodeposetheCatholickingsofWesternEuropeandtriedtoexerciseit,sometimes
successfully(seetheinvestiturecontroversy,below),sometimesnot,suchaswasthecasewithHenryVIIIof
EnglandandHenryIIIofNavarre.[10]
IntheWesttheissueoftheseparationofchurchandstateduringthemedievalperiodcenteredonmonarchswho
ruledinthesecularspherebutencroachedontheChurch'sruleofthespiritualsphere.Thisunresolvedcontradiction
inultimatecontroloftheChurchledtopowerstrugglesandcrisesofleadership,notablyintheInvestiture
Controversy,whichwasresolvedintheConcordatofWormsin1122.Bythisconcordat,theEmperorrenounced
therighttoinvestecclesiasticswithringandcrosier,thesymbolsoftheirspiritualpower,andguaranteedelection
bythecanonsofcathedralorabbeyandfreeconsecration.[11]
Reformation
AtthebeginningoftheProtestantReformation,MartinLutherarticulatedadoctrineofthetwokingdoms.
AccordingtoJamesMadison,perhapsoneofthemostimportantmodernproponentsoftheseparationofchurchand
state,Luther'sdoctrineofthetwokingdomsmarkedthebeginningofthemodernconceptionofseparationofchurch
andstate.[12]
Inthe1530s,HenryVIII,angeredbytheCatholicChurch'srefusal(PopeClementVII)toannulhismarriagewith
hiswifeCatherineofAragon,decidedtobreakwiththeChurchandsethimselfasrulerofthenewChurchof
England,theAnglicanChurch,endingtheseparationthathadexistedbetweenChurchandStateinEngland.[13]The
monarchsofGreatBritainhaveretainedecclesiasticalauthorityintheChurchofEnglandsinceHenryVIII,having
thecurrenttitle,SupremeGovernoroftheChurchofEngland.England'secclesiasticalintermixingdidnotspread
widely,however,duetotheextensivepersecutionofCatholicsthatresultedfromHenry'spowergrab.This
eventuallyledtoNonconformism,EnglishDissenters,andtheantiCatholicismofOliverCromwell,the
CommonwealthofEngland,andthePenalLawsagainstCatholicsandotherswhodidnotadheretotheChurchof
England.
OneoftheresultsofthepersecutioninEnglandwasthatsomepeoplefledGreatBritaininthehopesofreligious
freedom.SomeofthesepeoplevoluntarilysailedtotheAmericanColoniesspecificallyforthispurpose.Afterthe
AmericanColoniesfamouslyrevoltedagainstKingGeorgeIIIoftheUnitedKingdom,theConstitutionofUnited
StateswasspecificallyamendedtobantheestablishmentofreligionbyCongress.
Enlightenment
TheconceptofseparatingchurchandstateisoftencreditedtothewritingsofEnglishphilosopherJohnLocke
(16321704).[14]Accordingtohisprincipleofthesocialcontract,Lockearguedthatthegovernmentlacked
authorityintherealmofindividualconscience,asthiswassomethingrationalpeoplecouldnotcedetothe
governmentforitorotherstocontrol.ForLocke,thiscreatedanaturalrightinthelibertyofconscience,whichhe
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arguedmustthereforeremainprotectedfromanygovernmentauthority.Theseviewsonreligioustoleranceandthe
importanceofindividualconscience,alongwithhissocialcontract,becameparticularlyinfluentialintheAmerican
coloniesandthedraftingoftheUnitedStatesConstitution.[15]
Atthesameperiodofthe17thcentury,PierreBayleandsomefideistswereforerunnersoftheseparationofChurch
andState,maintainingthatfaithwasindependentofreason.[16][17]During
the18thcentury,theideasofLockeandBayle,inparticulartheseparation
ofChurchandState,becamemorecommon,promotedbythephilosophers
oftheAgeofEnlightenment.Montesquieualreadywrotein1721about
religioustoleranceandadegreeofseparationbetweenreligionand
government.[18]Voltairedefendedsomelevelofseparationbutultimately
subordinatedtheChurchtotheneedsoftheState[19]whileDenisDiderot,
forinstance,wasapartisanofastrictseparationofChurchandState,
saying"thedistancebetweenthethroneandthealtarcanneverbetoo
great".[20]
JeffersonandtheBillofRights
InEnglish,theexacttermisanoffshootofthephrase,"wallofseparation
betweenchurchandstate",aswritteninThomasJefferson'slettertothe
DanburyBaptistAssociationin1802.Inthatletter,referencingtheFirst
AmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,Jeffersonwrites:
JohnLocke,Englishpolitical
philosopherarguedforindividual
conscience,freefromstatecontrol
Believingwithyouthatreligionisamatterwhichliessolelybetween
Man&hisGod,thatheowesaccounttononeotherforhisfaithor
hisworship,thatthelegitimatepowersofgovernmentreachactions
only,&notopinions,Icontemplatewithsovereignreverencethatact
ofthewholeAmericanpeoplewhichdeclaredthattheirlegislature
should'makenolawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion,or
prohibitingthefreeexercisethereof,'thusbuildingawallof
separationbetweenChurchandState.[21]
JeffersonwasdescribingtotheBaptiststhattheUnitedStatesBillofRights
preventstheestablishmentofanationalchurch,andinsodoingtheydidnot
havetofeargovernmentinterferenceintheirmannerofworship.TheBill
ofRightswasoneoftheearliestexamplesintheworldofcomplete
religiousfreedom(adoptedin1791,onlyprecededbytheDeclarationofthe
RightsofManandoftheCitizenin1789).
Invariouscountries
ThomasJefferson,thethirdPresident
oftheUnitedStates,whoseletterto
theDanburyBaptistsAssociationis
oftenquotedindebatesregardingthe
separationofchurchandstate.
Countrieshavevaryingdegreesofseparationbetweengovernmentand
religiousinstitutions.Sincethe1780sanumberofcountrieshavesetup
explicitbarriersbetweenchurchandstate.Thedegreeofactualseparationbetweengovernmentandreligionor
religiousinstitutionsvarieswidely.Insomecountriesthetwoinstitutionsremainheavilyinterconnected.Thereare
newconflictsinthepostCommunistworld.[22]
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Themanyvariationsonseparationcanbeseeninsomecountrieswithhighdegreesofreligiousfreedomand
tolerancecombinedwithstronglysecularpoliticalcultureswhichhavestillmaintainedstatechurchesorfinancial
tieswithcertainreligiousorganizationsintothe21stcentury.InEngland,thereisaconstitutionallyestablishedstate
religionbutotherfaithsaretolerated.[23]TheBritishmonarchistheSupremeGovernoroftheChurchofEngland,
and26bishops(LordsSpiritual)sitintheupperhouseofgovernment,theHouseofLords.
Inotherkingdomstheheadofgovernmentorheadofstateorotherhighrankingofficialfiguresmaybelegally
requiredtobeamemberofagivenfaith.Powerstoappointhighrankingmembersofthestatechurchesarealso
oftenstillvestedintheworldlygovernments.Thesepowersmaybeslightlyanachronisticorsuperficial,however,
anddisguisethetruelevelofreligiousfreedomthenationpossesses.InthecaseofAndorratherearetwoheadsof
state,neitherofthemnativeAndorrans.OneistheRomanCatholicBishopofSeudeUrgell,atownlocatedin
northernSpain.HehasthetitleofEpiscopalianCoprince(theotherCoprincebeingtheFrenchHeadofState).
Coprincesenjoypoliticalpowerintermsoflawratificationandconstitutionalcourtdesignation,amongothers.
Australia
TheConstitutionofAustraliapreventstheCommonwealthfromestablishinganyreligionorrequiringareligious
testforanyoffice:
Ch5116TheCommonwealthshallnotmakeanylawforestablishinganyreligion,orforimposingany
religiousobservance,orforprohibitingthefreeexerciseofanyreligion,andnoreligioustestshallbe
requiredasaqualificationforanyofficeorpublictrustundertheCommonwealth.
ThelanguageisderivedfromtheUnitedStates'constitution,buthasbeenaltered.Followingtheusualpracticeof
theHighCourt,ithasbeeninterpretedfarmorenarrowlythantheequivalentUSsectionsandnolawhaseverbeen
struckdownforcontraveningthesection.Today,theCommonwealthGovernmentprovidesbroadbasedfundingto
religiousschoolsandalsofundsschoolchaplainsforpublicandprivateschools.AllAustralianparliamentsare
openedwithaChristianprayer,andthepreambletotheAustralianConstitutionreferstoa"humbl[e]rel[iance]on
theblessingofAlmightyGod."[24]
AlthoughtheAustralianmonarchisQueenElizabethII,alsoBritishmonarchandGovernoroftheChurchof
England,herAustraliantitleisunrelatedtoherreligiousofficeandshehasnoroleintheAnglicanChurchof
Australia.TheprohibitionagainstreligioustestshasallowedformerAnglicanArchbishopofBrisbanePeter
HollingworthtobeappointedGovernorGeneralofAustralia,thehighestdomesticconstitutionalofficerhowever,
thiswascriticized.[25]
Despiteinclusioninthe"States"chapter,Section116doesnotapplytostatesbecauseofchangesduringdrafting,
andtheyarefreetoestablishtheirownreligions.Althoughnostatehaseverintroducedastatechurch(NSW
restrictedreligiousgroupsduringtheearlycolonialperiod),thelegalbodycorrespondingtomanyreligious
organisationsisestablishedbystatelegislation.[26][27]TherehavebeentworeferendatoextendSection116to
states,butbothfailed.Ineachcasethechangesweregroupedwithotherchangesandvotersdidnothavethe
opportunitytoexpresslyacceptonlyonechange.Moststatespermitbroadexemptionstoreligiousgroupsfrom
antidiscriminationlegislationforexample,theNSWactallowingsamesexcouplestoadoptpermitsreligious
adoptionagenciestorefusethem.[28][29]
Thecurrentsituation,describedasa"principleofstateneutrality"ratherthan"separationofchurchandstate",[25]
hasbeencriticisedbybothsecularistsandreligiousgroups.Ontheonehand,secularistshavearguedthat
governmentneutralitytoreligionsleadstoa"flaweddemocrac[y]"[30]orevena"pluralistictheocracy"[31]asthe
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governmentcannotbeneutraltowardsthereligionofpeoplewhodonothaveone.Ontheotherhand,religious
groupsandothershavebeenconcernedthatstategovernmentsarerestrictingthemfromexercisingtheirreligionby
preventingthemfromcriticisingothergroupsandforcingthemtodounconscionableacts.[32]
Brazil
BrazilwasacolonyofthePortugueseEmpirefrom1500untilthenation'sindependencefromPortugal,in1822,
duringwhichtimeRomanCatholicismwastheofficialstatereligion.WiththeriseoftheEmpireofBrazil,although
Catholicismretaineditsstatusastheofficialcreed,subsidizedbythestate,otherreligionswereallowedtoflourish,
asthe1824Constitutionsecuredreligiousfreedom.ThefalloftheEmpire,in1889,gavewaytoaRepublican
regime,andaConstitutionwasenactedin1891,whichseveredthetiesbetweenchurchandstateRepublican
ideologuessuchasBenjaminConstantandRuyBarbosawereinfluencedbylacitinFranceandtheUnitedStates.
The1891ConstitutionalseparationofChurchandStatehasbeenmaintainedeversince.ThecurrentConstitutionof
Brazil,inforcesince1988,ensurestherighttoreligiousfreedom,banstheestablishmentofstatechurchesandany
relationshipof"dependenceoralliance"ofofficialswithreligiousleaders,exceptfor"collaborationinthepublic
interest,definedbylaw".
China
China,duringtheeraoftheHanDynasty,hadestablishedConfucianismastheofficialstateideologyoverthatof
LegalismoftheprecedingQinDynastyovertwomillenniumago.[33]Inpost1949moderndayChina,owingto
suchhistoricexperiencesastheTaipingRebellion,theChineseCommunistPartyhadnodiplomaticrelationswith
theVaticanforoverhalfacentury,andmaintainedseparationofthechurchfromstateaffairs,[34]andalthoughthe
Chinesegovernment'smethodsaredisputedbytheVatican,[35]PopeBenedicthadacceptedtheordinationofa
bishopwhowaspreselectedbythegovernmentfortheChinesePatrioticCatholicAssociationin2007.However,a
newordinationofaCatholicbishopinNovember2010,accordingtoBBCNews,hasthreatenedto"damageties"
betweenChinaandtheVatican.[36]
France
Lacit,aproductofFrenchhistoryandphilosophy,wasformalizedina1905lawprovidingfortheseparationof
churchandstate,thatis,theseparationofreligionfrompoliticalpower.
TheFrenchversionofseparationiscalledlacit.Thismodelofaseculariststateprotectsthereligiousinstitutions
fromstateinterference,butwithpublicreligiousexpressionalsotosomeextentlimited.Thisaimstoprotectthe
publicpowerfromtheinfluencesofreligiousinstitutions,especiallyinpublicoffice.Religiousviewswhichcontain
noideaofpublicresponsibility,orwhichconsiderreligiousopinionirrelevanttopolitics,arelessimpingeduponby
thistypeofsecularizationofpublicdiscourse.
FormerPresidentNicolasSarkozycriticised"negativelaicite"andtalkedabouta"positivelaicite"thatrecognizes
thecontributionoffaithtoFrenchculture,historyandsociety,allowsforfaithinthepublicdiscourseandfor
governmentsubsidiesforfaithbasedgroups.[37]HevisitedthePopeinDecember2007andpubliclyemphasized
France'sChristianroots,whilehighlightingtheimportanceoffreedomofthought,[38]advocatingthatfaithshould
comebackintothepublicsphere.FranoisHollandetookaverydifferentpositionduringthe2012presidential
election,promisingtoinserttheconceptoflacitintotheconstitution(theFrenchconstitutionalreadysaysthatthe
FrenchRepublicis"laque"butthereisnoarticleoftheconstitutionaboutlacit).[39]
Nevertheless,therearecertainentanglementsinFrancewhichinclude:
Themostsignificantexampleconsistsintwoareas,AlsaceandMoselle(seehereforfurtherdetail),where
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theConcordatbetweenFranceandtheHolySeestillprevailsbecausetheareawasunderGermancontrol
whenthe1905FrenchlawontheSeparationoftheChurchesandtheStatewaspassed.Catholicpriestsas
wellastheclergyofthreeotherreligions(Lutheran,Calvinist,andJewish)arepaidbythestate,andschools
havereligioncourses.Moreover,theCatholicbishopsofMetzandStrasburgarenamed(orrather,formally
appointed)bytheFrenchHeadofStateonpropositionofthePope,whichinterestinglymakestheFrench
PresidenttheonlytemporalpowerintheworldtoformallyhaveretainedtherighttoappointCatholic
bishops,allothercatholicbishopsbeingappointedbythePope.
TheFrenchPresidentisexofficioacoprinceofAndorra,whereRomanCatholicismhasastatusofstate
religion(theothercoprincebeingtheCatholicRomanBishopofSeudeUrgell,Spain).Moreover,French
headsofstatesaretraditionallyofferedanhonorarytitleofCanonofthePapalArchbasilicaofSt.John
Lateran,CathedralofRome.Oncethishonourhasbeenawardedtoanewlyelectedpresident,Francepaysfor
achoirvicar,apriestwhooccupiestheseatinthecanonialchapteroftheCathedralinlieuofthepresident
(allFrenchpresidentshavebeenmaleandatleastformallyRomanCatholic,butifonewerenot,thishonour
couldmostprobablynotbeawardedtohimorher.)TheFrenchPresidentalsoholdsaseatinafewother
canonialchaptersinFrance.
AnotherexampleofthecomplextiesbetweenFranceandtheCatholicChurchconsistsinthePieux
tablissementsdelaFranceRomeetLorette:fivechurchesinRome(TrinitdeiMonti,St.Louisofthe
French,St.IvooftheBretons,St.ClaudeoftheFreeCountyofBurgundy,andSt.NicholasoftheLorrains)
aswellasachapelinLoretobelongtoFrance,andareadministeredandpaidforbyaspecialfoundation
linkedtotheFrenchembassytotheHolySee.
InWallisandFutuna,aFrenchoverseasterritory,nationaleducationisconcededtothediocese,whichgets
paidforitbytheState.
Germany
TheGermanconstitutionguaranteesfreedomofreligion,[40]butthereisnotacompleteseparationofchurchand
stateinGermany.OfficiallyrecognizedchurchesoperateasKrperschaftdesffentlichenRechts(corporationsof
public,asopposedtoprivatelaw).Forrecognizedreligiouscommunities,sometaxesarecollectedbythestate[41]
thisisattherequestofthereligiouscommunityandafeeischargedfortheservice.[42]Religiousinstructionisa
normalschoolsubjectinGermany.[40]TheGermanStateunderstandsitselfasneutralinmattersofreligious
beliefs,[43]sonoteachercanbeforcedtoteachreligion.Butontheotherhand,allwhodoteachreligiousinstruction
needanofficialpermissionbytheirreligiouscommunity.[44]ThetreatieswiththeHolySeearereferredtoas
concordats.TheyarethelegalframeworkforcooperationbetweentheRomanCatholicChurchandtheGerman
State.[45]
India
Indiaisnominallyasecularcountryandtherearenospecialprovisionsfavouringspecificreligionsinits
constitution.However,numerouslaws(familylaw,forexample)differentiateordiscriminateonthebasisof
religion.Inaddition,manystategovernments,forexampletheTamilNaduStategovernment
(http://www.tnhrce.org/),exerciseextensivecontroloverreligiousorganizations.
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Asaresultofsuchgovernmentpoweroverreligion,politiciansaresometimesaccusedofplayingvotebank
politics,i.e.ofgivingpoliticalsupporttoissuesforthesolepurposeofgainingthevotesofmembersofaparticular
community,includingreligiouscommunities.BoththeIndianNationalCongresspartyandtheBharitiyaJanata
Party(BJP)havebeenaccusedofexploitingthepeoplebyindulginginvotebankpolitics.TheShahBanocase,a
divorcelawsuit,generatedmuchcontroversywhentheCongresswasaccusedofappeasingtheMuslimorthodoxy
bybringinginaparliamentaryamendmenttonegatetheSupremeCourt'sdecision.Afterthe2002Gujaratviolence,
therewereallegationsofpoliticalpartiesindulginginvotebankpolitics.[46]
Italy
InItalytheprincipleofseparationofchurchandstateisenshrinedinArticle7oftheConstitution,whichstates:[47]
"TheStateandtheCatholicChurchareindependentandsovereign,eachwithinitsownsphere.Theirrelationsare
regulatedbytheLateranpacts.AmendmentstosuchPactswhichareacceptedbybothpartiesshallnotrequirethe
procedureofconstitutionalamendments."
Japan
Japanseparatedallofitsreligionsfromstateinfluencein1868.[48]UndertheAmericanmilitaryoccupation(1945
52)thiswasdeemedimproperanda"StateShinto"narrativewasconstructedinordertoimposeAmericanideasof
churchandstateontoJapan.Articles20and89oftheJapaneseconstitutionprotectfreedomofreligion,andprevent
thegovernmentfromcompellingreligiousobservancesorusingpublicmoneytobenefitreligiousinstitutions.[48]
SouthKorea
FreedomofreligioninSouthKoreaisprovidedforintheSouthKoreanconstitution,whichmandatestheseparation
ofreligionandstate,andprohibitsdiscriminationonthebasisofreligiousbeliefs[49]
Mexico
TheissueoftheroleoftheCatholicChurchinMexicohasbeenhighlydivisivesincethe1820s.Itslargeland
holdingswereespeciallyapointofcontention.Mexicowasguidedtowardwhatwasproclaimedaseparationof
churchandstatebyBenitoJurezwho,in1859,attemptedtoeliminatetheroleoftheRomanCatholicChurchin
thenationbyappropriatingitslandandprerogatives.[50][51]In1859theLeyLerdowasissuedpurportedly
separatingchurchandstate,butactuallyinvolvingstateinterventioninChurchmattersbyabolishingmonastic
orders,andnationalizingchurchproperty.In1926,afterseveralyearsoftherevolutionarywarandinsecurity,
PresidentPlutarcoElasCalles,anatheist,enactedtheCallesLaw,whicheradicatedallthepersonalpropertyofthe
churches,closedchurchesthatwerenotregisteredwiththeState,andprohibitedclericsfromholdingapublic
office.Thelawwasunpopularandseveralprotestersfromruralareas,foughtagainstfederaltroopsinwhatbecame
knownastheCristeroWar.Afterthewar'sendin1929,PresidentEmilioPortesGilupheldaprevioustrucewhere
thelawwouldremainenacted,butnotenforced,inexchangeforthehostilitiestoend.Eversince,theCatholic
ChurchhasremainedactivethroughtheNationalActionParty(Mexico).Thepartygainedamajorfootholdin2000
whenPresidentVicenteFoxwaselected,ending70yearsofunbrokenrulefromtheInstitutionalRevolutionary
Party.
Norway
On21May2012,theNorwegianParliamentpassedaconstitutionalamendmentthatgrantedtheChurchofNorway
increasedautonomy,andstatesthat"theChurchofNorway,anEvangelicalLutheranchurch,remainsNorway's
people'schurch,andissupportedbytheStateassuch"("people'schurch"orfolkekirkeisalsothenameofthe
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Danishstatechurch,Folkekirken),replacingtheearlierexpressionwhichstatedthat"theEvangelicalLutheran
religionremainsthepublicreligionoftheState."Thefinalamendmentpassedbyavoteof1623.Thethree
dissentingvoteswereallfromtheCentreParty.
Toformagovernment,theNorwegianPMmusthavemorethanhalfthemembersofCabinetbemembersofthe
ChurchofNorway.Currently,thismeansatleasttenoutofthe19ministries.Theissueofseparationofchurchand
stateinNorwayhasbeenincreasinglycontroversial,asmanypeoplebelieveitistimetochangethis,toreflectthe
growingdiversityinthepopulation.
TheconstitutionalsosaysthatNorway'svaluesarebasedonitsChristianandhumanistheritage,andaccordingto
theConstitution,theKingisrequiredtobeLutheran.Thegovernmentwillstillprovidefundingforthechurchasit
doeswithotherfaithbasedinstitutions,buttheresponsibilityforappointingbishopsandprovostswillnowrestwith
thechurchinsteadofthegovernment.Priorto1997,theappointmentsofparishpriestsandresidingchaplainswas
alsotheresponsibilityofthegovernment,butthechurchwasgrantedtherighttohiresuchclergydirectlywiththe
newChurchLawof1997.Nevertheless,evenafterthechangesin1997and2012,allclergyremaincivilservants
(stateemployees),thecentralandregionalchurchadministrationsremainapartofthestateadministration,the
ChurchofNorwayisregulatedbyitsownlaw(kirkeloven)andallmunicipalitiesarerequiredbylawtosupportthe
activitiesoftheChurchofNorwayandmunicipalauthoritiesarerepresentedinitslocalbodies.[52]
Philippines
InArticleII"DeclarationofPrinciplesandStatePolicies",Section6,the1987ConstitutionofthePhilippines
declares,"TheseparationofChurchandStateshallbeinviolable."Thisreasserts,withminordifferencesinwording
andcapitalization,adeclarationmadeinArticleXV,Section15ofthe1973Constitution.[53][54]Similarly,Article
III,Section5declares,"Nolawshallbemaderespectinganestablishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefree
exercisethereof.Thefreeexerciseandenjoymentofreligiousprofessionandworship,withoutdiscriminationor
preference,shallforeverbeallowed.Noreligioustestshallberequiredfortheexerciseofcivilorpoliticalrights."
echoingArticleIV,Section8ofthe1973constitutionverbatim.[54][55]
SaudiArabia
ThelegalsystemofSaudiArabiaisbasedonSharia,IslamiclawderivedfromtheQu'ranandtheSunnah(the
traditions)oftheIslamicprophetMuhammad.
Singapore
Singaporeishometopeopleofmanyreligionsand,assuch,theSingaporeangovernmenthasarguably,aspera
numberofperspectives,madeanefforttoavoidgivinganyspecificreligionsprioritiesovertherest.
In1972theSingaporegovernmentderegisteredandbannedtheactivitiesofJehovah'sWitnessesinSingapore.It
mayseemlikeareligiousbiastosome,howeverothers(includingtheSingaporeangovernment)claimthatthiswas
justifiedonthegroundsthatmembersofJehovah'sWitnessesrefusetoperformmilitaryservice(whichisobligatory
forallmalecitizens),salutetheflag,orswearoathsofallegiancetothestate.[56][57]Singaporehasbannedall
writtenmaterialspublishedbytheInternationalBibleStudentsAssociationandtheWatchtowerBibleandTract
Society,bothpublishingarmsoftheJehovah'sWitnesses.Apersonwhopossessesaprohibitedpublicationcanbe
finedupto$1,500(SingaporeDollars$2,000)andjailedupto12monthsforafirstconviction.[58]
Spain
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InSpain,CommentatorshavepositedthattheformofchurchstateseparationenactedinFrancein1905andfound
intheSpanishConstitutionof1931areofa"hostile"variety,notingthatthehostilityofthestatetowardthechurch
wasacauseofthebreakdownofdemocracyandtheonsetoftheSpanishCivilWar.[59][60]Followingtheendofthe
war,theCatholicChurchregainedanofficiallysanctioned,predominantpositionwithGeneralFranco.Religious
freedomwasguaranteedonlyin1966,nineyearsbeforetheendoftheregime.Since1978,accordingtotheSpanish
Constitution(section16.3)"Noreligionshallhaveastatecharacter.Thepublicauthoritiesshalltakeintoaccount
thereligiousbeliefsofSpanishsocietyandshallconsequentlymaintainappropriatecooperationrelationswiththe
CatholicChurchandotherconfessions."
Sweden
TheChurchofSwedenwasestablishedbyGustavIofSwedenandwithinthehalfcenturyfollowinghisdeathwas
establishedasaLutheranstatechurchwithexcessivepowerinSwedishsociety,itselfunderthecontrolofthestate
apparatus.FreedomofreligionwasseriouslyachievedunderGustavIII'srule.Followingyearsofdiscussionsbegun
in1995,theChurchofSwedenwasfinallyseparatedfromthestateasfrom1January2000.[61]
Turkey
Turkey,whosepopulationisoverwhelminglyMuslim,isalsoconsideredtohavepracticedthelacitschoolof
secularismsince1928.LikelacitinFrance,therearesomenotableentanglementsinTurkey:
DespiteTurkeybeinganofficiallysecularcountry,thePreambleoftheConstitutionstatesthat"thereshallbe
nointerferencewhatsoeverofthesacredreligiousfeelingsinStateaffairsandpolitics."[62]
Inordertocontrolthewayreligionisperceivedbyadherents,theStatepaysimams'wages(onlyforSunni
Muslims),andprovidesreligiouseducation(oftheSunniMuslimvariety)inpublicschools.TheStatehasa
DepartmentofReligiousAffairs,directlyunderthePrimeMinisterbureaucratically,responsiblefor
organizingtheSunniMuslimreligionincludingwhatwillandwillnotbementionedinsermonsgivenat
mosques,especiallyonFridays.Suchaninterpretationofsecularism,wherereligionisunderstrictcontrolof
theStateisverydifferentfromthatoftheFirstAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,andisagood
exampleofhowsecularismcanbeappliedinavarietyofwaysindifferentregionsoftheworld.
UnitedKingdom
TheChurchofEngland,apartoftheworldwideAnglicanCommunion,isanestablishedchurch,andtheBritish
SovereignisthetitularSupremeGovernor,andcannotbeaRomanCatholic.UntiltheSuccessiontotheCrownAct
2013,themonarchcouldnotbemarriedtoaCatholic.InEngland,seniorChurchappointmentsareCrown
appointments,theChurchcarriesoutimportantstatefunctionssuchascoronations,and26diocesanbishopshave
seatsintheHouseofLords,wheretheyareknownastheLordsSpiritualasopposedtothelayLordsTemporal.The
linksbetweenchurchandstateintheUKare,nowadays,mostlyaformalityandthegovernanceoftheUKis
relativelysecular,althoughtheLordsSpiritualhaveasignificantinfluencewhentheyvoteasabloconcertain
issues,notablyabortionandeuthanasia.
TheChurchofScotlandisthelargestreligiousdenominationinScotland,however,unliketheChurchofEnglandit
isPresbyterianand(since1921)separatefromthestate,withtheSovereignholdingnoformalroleotherthanbeing
anordinarymember.
TheChurchofIrelandwasdisestablishedasearlyas1871theChurchinWaleswasdisestablishedin1920.[63]
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AstheUKhasnosinglewrittenconstitution,thereisnoexplicitconstitutionalprincipleoffreedomofreligious
exerciseasthereisinothercountries,suchasGermanyandtheUnitedStates.However,theunwrittenconstitution
securessuchrights,andvariouslawssuchastheHumanRightsAct1998andtheEqualityAct2010allowreligious
groupstoassociate,worship,promoteandpublishtheirviewsalongsidetheestablishedchurches.
UnitedStates
ThephraseofJefferson(seeabove)wasquotedbytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtfirstin1878,andthenina
seriesofcasesstartingin1947.[64]Thephrase"separationofchurchandstate"itselfdoesnotappearintheUnited
StatesConstitution.TheFirstAmendmentstatesthat"Congressshallmakenolawrespectinganestablishmentof
religion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof."TheSupremeCourtdidnotconsiderthequestionofhowthis
appliedtothestatesuntil1947whentheydid,inEversonv.BoardofEducation,thecourtincorporatedthe
establishmentclause,determiningthatitappliedtothestatesandthatalawenablingreimbursementforbusingto
allschools(includingparochialschools)wasconstitutional.[65]
Priortoitsincorporation,unsuccessfulattemptsweremadetoamendtheconstitutiontoexplicitlyapplythe
establishmentclausetostatesinthe1870sand1890s.[66][67]
TheconceptwasimplicitintheflightofRogerWilliamsfromreligiousoppressionintheMassachusettsBay
ColonytofoundtheColonyofRhodeIslandandProvidencePlantationsontheprincipleofstateneutralityin
mattersoffaith.[68][69]
Williamswasmotivatedbyhistoricalabuseofgovernmentalpower,andbelievedthatgovernmentmustremove
itselffromanythingthattoucheduponhumanbeingsrelationshipwithGod,advocatinga"hedgeorwallof
SeparationbetweentheGardenoftheChurchandtheWildernessoftheworld"inordertokeepthechurchpure.
ThroughhisworkRhodeIslandscharterwasconfirmedbyKingCharlesIIofEngland,whichexplicitlystatedthat
noonewastobemolested,punished,disquieted,orcalledinquestion,foranydifferencesinopinion,inmattersof
religion.
WilliamsiscreditedwithhelpingtoshapethechurchandstatedebateinEngland,andinfluencingsuchmenasJohn
MiltonandparticularlyJohnLocke,whoseworkwasstudiedcloselybyThomasJefferson,JamesMadison,and
otherarchitectsoftheU.S.Constitution.WilliamstheologicallyderivedhisviewsmainlyfromScriptureandhis
motiveisseenasreligious,butJefferson'sadvocationofreligiouslibertyisseenaspoliticalandsocial.[70]
TheTreatyofTripoli
In1797,theUnitedStatesSenateratifiedatreatywithTripolithatstatedinArticle11:
AstheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaisnot,inanysense,foundedontheChristian
religionasithasinitselfnocharacterofenmityagainstthelaws,religion,ortranquility,of
Mussulmenand,asthesaidStatesneverenteredintoanywar,oractofhostilityagainstany
Mahometannation,itisdeclaredbytheparties,thatnopretextarisingfromreligiousopinions,
shalleverproduceaninterruptionoftheharmonyexistingbetweenthetwocountries.[71]
AccordingtoFrankLambert,ProfessorofHistoryatPurdueUniversity,theassurancesinArticle11were"intended
toallaythefearsoftheMuslimstatebyinsistingthatreligionwouldnotgovernhowthetreatywasinterpretedand
enforced.PresidentJohnAdamsandtheSenatemadeclearthatthepactwasbetweentwosovereignstates,not
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betweentworeligiouspowers."[72]
Supportersoftheseparationofchurchandstatearguethatthistreaty,whichwasratifiedbytheSenate,confirms
thatthegovernmentoftheUnitedStateswasspecificallyintendedtobereligiouslyneutral.[73]Thetreatywas
submittedbyPresidentAdamsandunanimouslyratifiedbytheSenate.
Useofthephrase
Thephrase"separationofchurchandstate"isderivedfromaletterwrittenbyPresidentThomasJeffersonin1802
toBaptistsfromDanbury,Connecticut,andpublishedinaMassachusettsnewspapersoonthereafter.Inthatletter,
referencingtheFirstAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,Jeffersonwrites:
BelievingwithyouthatreligionisamatterwhichliessolelybetweenMan&hisGod,thatheowes
accounttononeotherforhisfaithorhisworship,thatthelegitimatepowersofgovernmentreach
actionsonly,&notopinions,Icontemplatewithsovereignreverencethatactofthewhole
Americanpeoplewhichdeclaredthattheirlegislatureshould"makenolawrespectingan
establishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof",thusbuildingawallof
separationbetweenChurch&State.[21]
AnotherearlyuserofthetermwasJamesMadison,theprincipaldrafteroftheUnitedStatesBillofRights.Ina
1789debateintheHouseofRepresentativesregardingthedraftoftheFirstAmendment,thefollowingwassaid:
August15,1789.Mr.[Peter]Sylvester[ofNewYork]hadsomedoubts.Hefearedit[theFirst
Amendment]mightbethoughttohaveatendencytoabolishreligionaltogether.Mr.[Elbridge]
Gerry[ofMassachusetts]saiditwouldreadbetterifitwasthat"noreligiousdoctrineshallbe
establishedbylaw."Mr.[James]Madison[ofVirginia]saidheapprehendedthemeaningofthe
wordstobe,that"Congressshouldnotestablishareligion,andenforcethelegalobservationofit
bylaw."[T]heState[s]seemedtoentertainanopinionthatundertheclauseofthe
Constitution.itenabledthem[Congress]tomakelawsofsuchanatureasmightestablisha
nationalreligiontopreventtheseeffectshepresumedtheamendmentwasintended.Mr.
Madisonthoughtiftheword"National"wasinsertedbeforereligion,itwouldsatisfythemindsof
honorablegentlemen.Hethoughtiftheword"national"wasintroduced,itwouldpointthe
amendmentdirectlytotheobjectitwasintendedtoprevent.[74]
Madisoncontended"BecauseifReligionbeexemptfromtheauthorityoftheSocietyatlarge,stilllesscanitbe
subjecttothatoftheLegislativeBody."[75]Severalyearslaterhewroteof"totalseparationofthechurchfromthe
state."[76]"StronglyguardedasistheseparationbetweenReligion&GovtintheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates",
Madisonwrote,[77]andhedeclared,"practicaldistinctionbetweenReligionandCivilGovernmentisessentialtothe
purityofboth,andasguaranteedbytheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates."[78]InalettertoEdwardLivingston
Madisonfurtherexpanded,"WeareteachingtheworldthegreattruththatGovts.dobetterwithoutKings&Nobles
thanwiththem.ThemeritwillbedoubledbytheotherlessonthatReligionflourishesingreaterpurity,withoutthan
withtheaidofGovt."[79]ThisattitudeisfurtherreflectedintheVirginiaStatuteforReligiousFreedom,originally
authoredbyJeffersonandchampionedbyMadison,andguaranteeingthatnoonemaybecompelledtofinanceany
religionordenomination.
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nomanshallbecompelledtofrequentorsupportanyreligiousworship,place,orministry
whatsoever,norshallbeenforced,restrained,molested,orburthenedinhisbodyorgoods,nor
shallotherwisesufferonaccountofhisreligiousopinionsorbeliefbutthatallmenshallbefreeto
profess,andbyargumenttomaintain,theiropinioninmattersofreligion,andthatthesameshall
innowisediminishenlarge,oraffecttheircivilcapacities.[80]
UndertheUnitedStatesConstitution,thetreatmentofreligionbythegovernmentisbrokenintotwoclauses:the
establishmentclauseandthefreeexerciseclause.Botharediscussedinregardtowhethercertainstateactions
wouldamounttoanimpermissiblegovernmentestablishmentofreligion.
ThephrasewasalsomentionedinaneloquentletterwrittenbyPresidentJohnTyleronJuly10,1843.[81]Duringthe
1960presidentialcampaignthepotentialinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchonJohnF.Kennedy'spresidencywas
raised.Ifelected,itwouldbethefirsttimethataCatholicwouldoccupythehighestofficeintheUnitedStates.
JohnF.Kennedy,inhisAddresstotheGreaterHoustonMinisterialAssociationon12September1960,addressed
thequestiondirectly,saying,
IbelieveinanAmericawheretheseparationofchurchandstateisabsolutewherenoCatholic
prelatewouldtellthePresident(shouldhebeCatholic)howtoact,andnoProtestantminister
wouldtellhisparishionersforwhomtovotewherenochurchorchurchschoolisgrantedany
publicfundsorpoliticalpreferenceandwherenomanisdeniedpublicofficemerelybecausehis
religiondiffersfromthePresidentwhomightappointhimorthepeoplewhomightelecthim.I
believeinanAmericathatisofficiallyneitherCatholic,ProtestantnorJewishwherenopublic
officialeitherrequestsoracceptsinstructionsonpublicpolicyfromthePope,theNationalCouncil
ofChurchesoranyotherecclesiasticalsourcewherenoreligiousbodyseekstoimposeitswill
directlyorindirectlyuponthegeneralpopulaceorthepublicactsofitsofficialsandwhere
religiouslibertyissoindivisiblethatanactagainstonechurchistreatedasanactagainstall.[]I
donotspeakformychurchonpublicmattersandthechurchdoesnotspeakforme.Whatever
issuemaycomebeforemeasPresidentonbirthcontrol,divorce,censorship,gamblingorany
othersubjectIwillmakemydecisioninaccordancewiththeseviews,inaccordancewithwhat
myconsciencetellsmetobethenationalinterest,andwithoutregardtooutsidereligiouspressures
ordictates.Andnopowerorthreatofpunishmentcouldcausemetodecideotherwise.Butifthe
timeshouldevercomeandIdonotconcedeanyconflicttobeevenremotelypossiblewhen
myofficewouldrequiremetoeitherviolatemyconscienceorviolatethenationalinterest,thenI
wouldresigntheofficeandIhopeanyconscientiouspublicservantwoulddothesame.
TheUnitedStatesSupremeCourthasreferencedtheseparationofchurchandstatemetaphormorethan25times,
thoughnotalwaysfullyembracingtheprinciple,saying"themetaphoritselfisnotawhollyaccuratedescriptionof
thepracticalaspectsoftherelationshipthatinfactexistsbetweenchurchandstate".[82]InReynolds,theCourt
deniedthefreeexerciseclaimsofMormonsintheUtahterritorywhoclaimedpolygamywasanaspectoftheir
religiousfreedom.TheCourtusedthephraseagainbyJusticeHugoBlackin1947inEverson.Inaminority
opinioninWallacev.Jaffree,JusticeRehnquistpresentedtheviewthattheestablishmentclausewasintendedto
protectlocalestablishmentsofreligionfromfederalinterference.Rehnquistmadenumerouscitationsofcasesthat
rebuttedtheideaofatotalwallofseparationbetweenChurchandState.AresultofsuchreasoningwasSupreme
Courtsupportforgovernmentpaymentstofaithbasedcommunityprojects.JusticeScaliahascriticizedthe
metaphorasabulldozerremovingreligionfromAmericanpubliclife.[83]
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Religiousviews
Beyondlawandphilosophy,someChristiansrefusetovote,carryarms,orparticipateincivilgovernmentinany
way,oftenleadingtotheirpersecution,ashappenedtoAnabaptists,theirdescendantsincludingtheAmishand
Mennonites,Quakers,and,inthe20thCentury.Jehovah'sWitnessesinmanycountries,believingbynot
participatingtheyareclosertotheKingdomofGod,since"Jesusanswered(Pilate),'Mykingdomisnotofthis
world:ifmykingdomwereofthisworld,thenwouldmyservantsfight(todefendhim).'"John18:36.Forthem,
theterm"Christiannation"cannotbeavalidgovernmentalposition,leavingonlyChristianpeople,possiblyin
Christiancommunities,beyondwhicharethe"thingswhichareCaesar's"Matthew22:21.
Ahmadiyya
AccordingtotheAhmadiyyaMuslimCommunity'sunderstandingofIslam,Islamicprinciplesstatethatthepolitics
ofgovernmentshouldbeseparatefromthedoctrineofreligion.SpecialpreferenceshouldnotbegiventoaMuslim
overanonMuslim.[84][85]
RomanCatholicism
TheCatholicteachinginDignitatisHumanae,theSecondVaticanCouncil'sDeclarationonReligiousFreedom
(1986),statesthatallpeopleareentitledtoreligiousfreedomandthatconstitutionallawshouldrecognizesuch
freedom.[86]WhiletheChurchnowteachesthatchurchstateseparationispermissible,apositiononcecondemned
inPopePiusIX'sSyllabusofErrors(No.55),itdoesnotendorseaseparationofreligionandpolitics[87]the
Churchtakesthepositionthatreligion,andtheRomanCatholicChurchinparticular,hasaproperroleinguiding
andinformingconsciences,therebyservingascheckandbalancetothepowerofthestate.[88]TheChurchteaches
thattherightofreligiousfreedom(enshrinedintheU.S.'s"FreeExerciseClause")isdoctrinal,whilethequestionof
thedegreeofseparationofchurchfromthestatesuchasaprohibitiononanestablishedreligion(enshrinedinthe
U.S.'s"EstablishmentClause")isvariable,dependinguponthehistoryofanationhenceitisacceptableand
consistentwithreligiousfreedomforcountriessuchasEngland,Malta,CostaRica,andDenmarktohavean
establishedreligionaslongastheygrantreligiousfreedomtoall:
If,underconsiderationofhistoricalcircumstancesamongpeoples,specialcivilrecognitionisgivento
onereligiouscommunityintheconstitutionalorderofasociety,itisnecessaryatthesametimethatthe
rightofallcitizensandreligiouscommunitiestoreligiousfreedomshouldbeacknowledgedand
maintained.[89]
TheChurchtakesstancesoncurrentpoliticalissues,andtriestoinfluencelegislationonmattersitconsiders
relevant.Forexample,theCatholicbishopsintheUnitedStatesadoptedaplaninthe1970scallingforefforts
aimedataConstitutionalamendmentproviding"protectionfortheunbornchildtothemaximumdegree
possible".[90]
Friendlyandhostileseparation
Scholarshavedistinguishedbetweenwhatcanbecalled"friendly"and"hostile"separationsofchurchandstate.[91]
Thefriendlytypelimitstheinterferenceofthechurchinmattersofthestatebutalsolimitstheinterferenceofthe
stateinchurchmatters.[92]Thehostilevariety,bycontrast,seekstoconfinereligionpurelytothehomeorchurch
andlimitsreligiouseducation,religiousritesofpassageandpublicdisplaysoffaith.[93]
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ThehostilemodelofsecularismarosewiththeFrenchRevolutionandistypifiedintheMexicanRevolution,its
resultingConstitutionandtheSpanishConstitutionof1931.[94][95]Thehostilemodelexhibitedduringtheseevents
canbeseenasapproachingthetypeofpoliticalreligionseenintotalitarianstates.[93]
TheFrenchseparationof1905andtheSpanishseparationof1931havebeencharacterizedasthetwomosthostile
ofthetwentiethcentury,althoughthecurrentschemesinbothcountriesareconsideredgenerallyfriendly.[59]
France'sPresidentNicolasSarkozyatthebeginningofhisterm,however,consideredthecurrentschemea
"negativelaicite"andwantedtodevelopa"positivelaicite"moreopentoreligion.[37]Theconcernsofthestate
towardreligionhavebeenseenbysomeasonecauseofthecivilwarinSpain[96]andMexico.
TheFrenchphilosopherandUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsdrafterJacquesMaritainnotedthedistinction
betweenthemodelsfoundinFranceandinthemidtwentiethcenturyUnitedStates.[97]HeconsideredtheUS
modelofthattimetobemoreamicablebecauseithadboth"sharpdistinctionandactualcooperation"between
churchandstate,whathecalleda"historicaltreasure"andadmonishedtheUnitedStates,"PleasetoGodthatyou
keepitcarefully,anddonotletyourconceptofseparationveerroundtotheEuropeanone."[97]Alexisde
Tocqueville,anotherFrenchobservertendedtomakethesamedistinction,"IntheU.S.,fromthebeginning,politics
andreligionwereinaccord,andtheyhavenotceasedtobesosince."[98]
Seealso
1905FrenchlawontheSeparationoftheChurchesandtheState
HumanEtiskForbund
Statusofreligiousfreedombycountry
Antidisestablishmentarianism
Baptistsinthehistoryofseparationofchurchandstate
ChristianReconstructionism
IslamicRepublic
Theocracy
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20080621."Bytheiractions,theFoundingFathersmadeclearthattheirprimaryconcernwasreligiousfreedom,notthe
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States.ThustheFoundersensuredthatinnoofficialsensewouldAmericabeaChristianRepublic.Tenyearsafterthe
ConstitutionalConventionendeditswork,thecountryassuredtheworldthattheUnitedStateswasasecularstate,andthat
itsnegotiationswouldadheretotheruleoflaw,notthedictatesoftheChristianfaith.Theassuranceswerecontainedin
theTreatyofTripoliof1797andwereintendedtoallaythefearsoftheMuslimstatebyinsistingthatreligionwouldnot
governhowthetreatywasinterpretedandenforced.JohnAdamsandtheSenatemadeclearthatthepactwasbetweentwo
sovereignstates,notbetweentworeligiouspowers."Checkdatevaluesin:|year=/|date=mismatch(help)
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hazardedintheabsenceofallpreviousprecedentthatoftotalseparationofChurchandState.Noreligiousestablishment
bylawexistsamongus.TheconscienceisleftfreefromallrestraintandeachispermittedtoworshiphisMakerafterhis
ownjudgment.TheofficesoftheGovernmentareopenaliketoall.Notithesareleviedtosupportanestablished
Hierarchy,noristhefalliblejudgmentofmansetupasthesureandinfalliblecreedoffaith.TheMahommedan,ifhewill
tocomeamonguswouldhavetheprivilegeguaranteedtohimbytheconstitutiontoworshipaccordingtotheKoranand
theEastIndianmighterectashrinetoBrahmaifitsopleasedhim.Suchisthespiritoftolerationinculcatedbyour
politicalInstitutions.TheHebrewpersecutedanddowntroddeninotherregionstakesuphisabodeamonguswith
nonetomakehimafraid.andtheAegisoftheGovernmentisoverhimtodefendandprotecthim.Suchisthegreat
experimentwhichwehavecried,andsucharethehappyfruitswhichhaveresultedfromitoursystemoffreegovernment
wouldbeimperfectwithoutit.")quotedinNicoleGutin,ReligiousideologyinAmericanpolitics:ahistory(2009)p.85
82. *SeeLynchv.Donnelly,465U.S.668,673(http://supreme.justia.com/us/465/668/case.html)(1984):"Theconceptofa
wallofseparationisausefulfigureofspeechprobablyderivingfromviewsofThomasJefferson....[b]utthemetaphor
itselfisnotawhollyaccuratedescriptionofthepracticalaspectsoftherelationshipthatinfactexistsbetweenchurchand
state."
CommitteeforPublicEducation&ReligiousLibertyv.Nyquist,413U.S.756,760
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CommitteeforPublicEducation&ReligiousLibertyv.Nyquist,413U.S.756,760
(http://supreme.justia.com/us/413/756/case.html)(1973):"Yet,despiteMadison'sadmonitionandthesweepofthe
absoluteprohibitionsoftheClauses,thisNation'shistoryhasnotbeenoneofentirelysanitizedseparationbetween
ChurchandState.Ithasneverbeenthoughteitherpossibleordesirabletoenforcearegimeoftotalseparation."
PatrickM.Garry,TheMythofSeparation:America'sHistoricalExperiencewithChurchandState,33HofstraL.
Rev.475,486(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1139183)(2004)(notingthat"thestrict
separationistviewwaswhollyrejectedbyeveryjusticeontheMarshallandTaneycourts.")
Zorachv.Clauson,343U.S.306,312(http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgibin/getcase.pl?
court=us&vol=343&invol=306)(U.S.1952):"TheFirstAmendment,however,doesnotsaythatineveryandall
respectsthereshallbeaseparationofChurchandState.".
Lemonv.Kurtzman,403U.S.602(http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgibin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=403&invol=602)
(1971):"Ourpriorholdingsdonotcallfortotalseparationbetweenchurchandstatetotalseparationisnotpossible
inanabsolutesense."
83. Leev.Weisman,505U.S.577(https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/505/577/)(1992)
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(PDF).Alislam.Retrieved20100913.
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87. Calo,ZacharyA.,CatholicSocialThought,PoliticalLiberalism,andtheIdeaofHumanRights
(http://www4.samford.edu/lillyhumanrights/papers/Calo_Catholic.pdf),p.20,SamfordUniversity,November2004
88. Grasso,KennethL.andRobertP.Hunt,Catholicismandreligiousfreedom:contemporaryreflectionsonVaticanII's
declarationonreligiousliberty(http://books.google.com/books?id=gRNcvjNxXfYC&dq),p.6,Rowman&Littlefield,
2006
89. Murray,JohnCourtneyandJ.LeonHooper,Religiousliberty:Catholicstruggleswithpluralism
(http://books.google.com/books?id=T8FKWmD_pKMC&pg),pp.213214,WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,1993
90. Curran,Charles."NationalCatholicReporteronline,29November2010"(http://ncronline.org/news/politics/uscatholic
bishopsandabortionlegislation).Ncronline.org.Retrieved20120427.
91. Maier,Hans(2004).TotalitarianismandPoliticalReligions(http://books.google.com/?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&dq).trans.
JodiBruhn.Routledge.p.109(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&pg=PA109).ISBN0714685291.
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94. Maier2004,p.106(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&pg=PA106)
95. MartinezTorron,JavierFreedomofreligioninthecaselawoftheSpanishConstitutionalcourt
(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_200101/ai_n8950497/),p.2
(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_200101/ai_n8950497/pg_2),BrighamYoungUniversityLawReview2001
96. Payne,StanleyG.,AHistoryofSpainandPortugal,Vol.2(http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm),Ch.25:The
SecondSpanishRepublic(http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm),p.632,(PrintEdition:UniversityofWisconsin
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97. Carson,D.A.ChristAndCultureRevisited(http://books.google.com/books?id=pIwE74bxvpAC&dq),p.189,Wm.B.
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UniversityofChicagoPress,2000.
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Furtherreading
Feldman,Noah."ReligionandtheEarthlyCity",SocialResearch,Winter2009,Vol.76Issue4,pp9891000
Kuznincki,Jason(2008)."SeparationofChurchandState"(http://books.google.com/books?
id=yxNgXs3TkJYC).InHamowy,Ronald.TheEncyclopediaofLibertarianism.ThousandOaks,CA:SAGE
CatoInstitute.pp.45860.ISBN9781412965804.LCCN2008009151(http://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151).
OCLC750831024(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024).
Taylor,Charles."ThePolysemyoftheSecular",SocialResearch,Winter2009,Vol.76Issue4,pp1143
1166
Temple,William,Abp.ChristianityandtheState.London:MacmillanandCo.,1928.
Whitman,JamesQ."SeparatingChurchandState:TheAtlanticDivide",HistoricalReflections,Winter2008,
Vol.34Issue3,pp86104
McGowan,Barry,"HowtoSeparateChurch&State:AManualfromtheTrenches",HuftonMueller,LLC.
(June2012).ISBN9780615638027
Stone,GeoffreyR.,"TheWorldoftheFramers:AChristianNation?",UCLALawReview,56(Oct.2008),1
26.
Externallinks
About:HowtoSeparateChurch&StatebyBarryMcGowan
(https://www.facebook.com/#!/HowToSeparateChurchState)
ReligiousLiberty.TV(http://www.religiousliberty.tv)Currentandhistoricalinformationaboutchurchstate
separation
HistoryoftheSeparationofChurchandStateinAmerica
(http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/history_of_the_separation_of_chu.htm)
"TheIntellectualOriginsoftheEstablishmentClause"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080625032915/http://www.undergodprocon.org/pdf/feldman.pdf)PDF(251KB)
byNoahFeldman,Asst.ProfessorofLaw,NewYorkUniversity,2002(archivedfromtheoriginal
(http://www.undergodprocon.org/pdf/feldman.pdf)on20080625).
ChurchesAreNotExemptfromStateLicensesbyRichardR.Hammar
(http://www.christianitytoday.com/yc/churchlawtaxupdate/feature_080404.html)
CampaignActivitiesbyRichardR.Hammar
(http://www.christianitytoday.com/yc/churchlawtaxupdate/campaignactivities.html)
GeoffreyR.Stone,TheWorldoftheFramers:AChristianNation?,56UCLAL.Rev.1(2008).
(http://uclalawreview.org/?p=219)
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