Apuntes de Recuperacin Mejorada

de Petrleo (EOR)
Fuerzas Capilares
Fuerzas viscosas
Desplazamiento macroscpico
Jos Cndor, Ph.D., P.Eng.
19 mayo 2015

Desplazamiento Microscpico Presin Capilar

Modelo de tubo capilar Sistema aire/agua
La altura del agua en un tubo capilar es funcin de:
Tensin de adhesin entre el aire y el agua
Radio del tubo
Diferencia de densidades entre los fluidos

2 aw cos
h
r g aw

Esta relacin puede derivarse del balance entre las fuerzas verticales
hacia arriba debido a la tensin de adhesin y a fuerzas verticales
hacia abajo debido al peso del fluido. La fase mojante ser mayor en
capilares pequeos
h: altura del agua en un tubo capilar
aw: TIF entre aire y agua
: angulo de contacto aire/agua. Se mide en la fase mas densa
r: radio del capilar
g: aceleracion de la gravedad
aw: diferencia de densidades entre agua y aire

Desplazamiento Microscpico Presin Capilar

Altura vs radio del capilar
1

Petrleo

Agua

AT = wo cos() Tension de adhesion

Pc = Po Pw
= h
= (w o) g h

Desplazamiento Microscpico Presin Capilar

Presin capilar Sistema petrleo/agua

2 ow cos
Pc
r
Donde
Pc: presin capilar entre el petrleo y el agua
ow: TIF entre petrleo y agua
: ngulo de contacto petrleo/agua
r: radio del capilar

Desplazamiento Microscpico Presin Capilar

Presin capilar Medicin en laboratorios

Capillary pressure, psia

Se puede determinar Pc con los mtodos:

Diafragma poroso
Inyeccin de mercurio
Centrifuga
Dinmica

Measured
data points

Irreducible
Wetting Phase
Saturation
Displacement
pressure
0

Wetting phase saturation, %

100

Desplazamiento Microscpico Presin Capilar

Leverett Funcin J
La funcin J se usa para promediar los datos de presiones capilares
de una roca dada de un reservorio dado
La funcin J a veces puede extenderse a diferentes reservorios que
tengan similares litologas
La funcin J generalmente no correlaciona con precisin para
diferentes litologas
Si las funciones J no son exitosas en reducir la dispersin en una
serie de datos, entonces probablemente estemos en un caso de
variacin de tipos de roca

Desplazamiento Microscpico Permeabilidad relativa

Permeabilidad absoluta
La permeabilidad absoluta es la permeabilidad de un medio
poroso saturado con un solo fluido (ejemplo Sw=1)
La permeabilidad absoluta puede calcularse desde la ecuacin de
Darcy

k A p
q
L

Desplazamiento Microscpico Permeabilidad relativa

Flujo multifasico en reservorios
Los reservorios comnmente tienen 2 o 3 fluidos
Sistemas agua-petrleo
Sistemas petrleo-gas
Sistemas agua-gas
Sistemas de tres fases (agua, petrleo, y gas)
Para evaluar sistemas multifasicos se debe considerar las
permeabilidades efectiva y relativa

Desplazamiento Microscpico Permeabilidad relativa

Permeabilidad efectiva
La permeabilidad efectiva es una medida de la conductancia de un
medio poroso para un fluido cuando el medio esta saturado con
mas de un fluido. El medio poroso puede tener una conductancia
distinta y medible para cada fase presente en el medio

Oil

Water

Gas

ko A o
qo
o L

k w A w
qw
w L

qg

k g A g

g L

Usando Steady state y para 1D:

qn = volumetric flow rate for a specific
phase, n

A = flow area

n = flow potential drop for phase, n

(including pressure, gravity and
capillary pressure terms)

n = fluid viscosity for phase n

L = flow length

Desplazamiento Microscpico Permeabilidad relativa

Permeabilidad relativa
La permeabilidad relativa es la relacin de la permeabilidad
efectiva de un fluido a una saturacin dada a una permeabilidad
base dada
La permeabilidad base es tpicamente definida como:
Permeabilidad absoluta, k
Permeabilidad del aire, kaire
Permeabilidad efectiva de la fase no-mojante a saturacin
irreductible
Porque la definicin de permeabilidad base varia, la definicin
de permeabilidad relativa siempre debera incluir sus
porcentajes de saturacion

Desplazamiento Microscpico Permeabilidad relativa

Permeabilidad relativa

Oil

kro( 0.5,0.3)

ko ( 0.5,0.3)
k

Water k rw( 0.5, 0.3)

k w( 0.5,0.3)

krg ( 0.5,0.3)

k g ( 0.5,0.3)

Gas

So =0.5
Sw =0.3
Sg = 0.2

Desplazamiento Microscpico Permeabilidad relativa

Funciones de la permeabilidad relativa
Imbibition Relative Permeability
(Water Wet Case)

Relative Permeability (fraction)

1.00

kro @ Swi

Wettability and direction of

saturation change must be
considered
drainage
imbibition

0.80
Two-Phase Flow
Region

0.60

Base used to normalize this

relative permeability curve is
kro @ Swi

Oil

0.40
0.20

krw @ Sor
Water

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

Water Saturation (fraction)

1.00

As Sw increases, kro decreases

and krw increases until
reaching residual oil
saturation

Desplazamiento Microscpico Permeabilidad relativa

Efecto de la mojabilidad cuando Sw aumenta
1.0
Relative Permeability, Fraction

Relative Permeability, Fraction

1.0
0.8
0.6
Oil

0.4
0.2
Water

20

40

60

80

100

0.8
0.6
Oil

0.4

Water

0.2
0

20

40

60

80

Water Saturation (% PV)

Water Saturation (% PV)

Strongly Water-Wet Rock

Strongly Oil-Wet Rock

100

Water flows more freely

Higher residual oil saturation

Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities

Fluid saturations

Geometry of the pore spaces and pore size

distribution
Wettability
Fluid saturation history (i.e., imbibition or
drainage)

Characteristics of Relative Permeability

Functions
Relative permeability is unique for
different rocks and fluids
Relative permeability affects the flow
characteristics of reservoir fluids.
Relative permeability affects the
recovery efficiency of oil and/or gas.

Applications of
Relative Permeability Functions

Reservoir simulation

Flow calculations that involve multiphase flow in reservoirs

Estimation of residual oil (and/or
gas) saturation

Desplazamiento Microscpico Fuerzas Capilares

c) Permeabilidad Relativa 3 phases

Ternary Diagrams
Because So+Sw+Sg=1, we can use a ternary diagram to
represent three phase saturations, and plot values of
relative permeability as the independent variable.
Two of the three saturations are independent
We can plot in 2-D space using two
independent (not same direction) coordinates

Ternary Diagrams
Plot Point for:
Sw=0.30
So=0.25
Sg=0.45

0.00

So

Viscous Force
Viscose forces in a porous medium are reflected in the
magnetude of the pressure drop that occurs as a result of fluid
flow through porous medium.
One of the simplest approximations used to calculate the
viscous force is to consider a porous medium as a bundle of
parallel capillary tubes.
With this assumption, the pressure drop for laminar flow
through a single tube is given by Poiseuilles law.

Viscous Force
Capillary Number

w
N ca
ow
Water floods typically operates at conditions
where Nca < 10-6, and Nca values on the order
of 10-7 are probably most common.

Displacement Sweep Efficiency

All sweep efficiencies can be increased by decreasing the

mobility ratio by either:
Lowering

Oil or k rw

i.e. steam flooding

Increasing

water or k ro

i.e. polymer flooding

Oil recovery would still be limited by the residual or trapped

oil saturation. Methods that target to reduce this saturation
include solvent flooding.

Desplazamiento Macroscpico de fluidos

Efficiency of a Displacement Process

Production

Trapped Oil
EM

Injection

E = EM (Microscopic Efficiency) EV (Volumetric Efficiency)

Efficiency of a Displacement Process

Macroscopic Displacement

E EV ED
Where;

= Overall displacement efficiency

EV = Macroscopic displacement efficiency

ED = Microscopic displacement efficiency

Efficiency of a Displacement Process

However,

EV E A EL
EA

= Areal Sweep efficiency

EL

= Lateral Sweep efficiency

Oil Recovery Equation

Therefore, using all these definitions, the oil recovery equation is

NP

S oiVP
ED * E A * EL * (
)
BO

To use this equation we must have methods to evaluate the different

efficiencies.
Estimates are available from:
Correlations
Scaled laboratory experiments
Numerical simulation

Oil Recovery Equation

and

ER

is the volumetric sweep efficiency defined as

ER

Volume of hydrocarbon displaced

Volume of hydrocarbon in place

typical values of the overall recovery efficiency

Steam injection
Polymer injection
CO2 injection
Solvent injection

ER
ER
ER
ER

30%-50%
30%-55%
30%-65%
35%-63%

are:

Action on Sweep & Displacement Efficiency

By increasing water
viscosity
Action on Sweep
Efficiency at the
Macroscopic Scale

Steam drive
By decreasing the oil
viscosity
By using a miscible
displacing fluid

Action on Displacement
Efficiency at the Pore
Scale

Polymer
flooding

By reducing the
interfacial tension
By action on the
rock wettability

In-situ combustion
Carbon dioxide drive
Miscible hydrocarbon
gas flooding
Surfactant flooding

Alkaline flooding

This figure illustrates the concept of the vertical and

areal sweep efficiency

The following figure illustrate the definition

of areal sweep efficiency

Areal contracted by displacing agent

EA
Total area

Oil Recovery Equation

EA Areal Sweep Efficiency
The most common source of areal sweep efficiency data is from
displacements in scaled physical models. Several correlations exist
in the literature. Craig (1980) in his SPE monograph the reservoir
engineering aspects of waterflooding discusses several of these
methods.
These correlations are for piston like displacements in
homogeneous, confined patterns. When the well patterns are
unconfined, the total area can be much lager and smaller .

AREAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY

When oil is produced from patterns of injectors and producers, the flow is
such that only part of the area is swept at breakthrough. the expansion of
the water bank is initially radial from the injector but eventually is focused
at the producer.

The pattern is illustrated for a direct line drive at a mobility ratio of unity.At
breakthrough a considerable area of the reservoir is unswept.

Parameters Affecting
EA

The following definitions are needed to describe the effects

of reservoir and fluid properties upon the efficiencies:
Mobility Ratio
Dimensionless Time
Viscous Fingering
Injection/Production well pattern
Reservoir permeability heterogeneity
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Gravity Effect
Gravity/ Viscous Force Ratio

Mobility Definition
The mechanics of displacement of one fluid with
another are controlled by differences in the ratio
of effective permeability and viscosity k

The specific discharge (flow per unit cross

sectional area) for each fluid phase depends on k

This is called the fluid mobility( ):

Mobility Control

kW

kO

Mobility controls the relative ease with which fluids can flow
through a porous medium.

M D / d

= mobility of the displacing fluid phase

d = mobility of the displaced fluid phase

Mobility ratio
The mobility ratio is an extremly important parameter in any
displacement process. It affects both areal and vertical sweep,
with sweep decreasing as M increases for a given volume of
fluid injected.

M <1 then favorable displacement

M >1 then unfavorable displacement

Viscous Fingering

The mechanics of displacing one fluid with another are

relatively simple if the displaced fluid (oil) has a tendency to
flow faster than the displacing fluid (water).
Under these circumstances, there is no tendency for the
displaced fluid to be overtaken by the displacing fluid and the
fluid fluid (oil-water) interface is stable.

Viscous Fingering
If the displacing fluid has a tendency to move faster than
the displaced fluid, the fluid-fluid interface is unstable.
tongues of displacing fluid propagate at the interface.
This process is called viscous fingering.

EOR-Chapter 2

Viscous Fingering
E A - Decreases when the mobility ratio increases because the displacement front
becomes unstable. This phenomena, known as viscous fingering results in an
early breakthrough for the displacing fluid, or into a prolonged injection to
achieve sweep-out. The next figure illustrates this phenomena, which is
commonly observed in solvent flooding.

EOR-Chapter 2

Flooding Patterns

EOR-Chapter 2

Flooding Patterns

EOR-Chapter 2

Flooding Patterns

EOR-Chapter 2

Permeability Heterogeneity

It is often has a marked effect on areal sweep.

This effect may be quite different from
reservoir to reservoir, however, and thus it is
difficult to develop generalized correlations.
Anisotropy in permeability has great effect on
the efficiency.

Effect of Mobility Ratio

The following figures show fluid fronts at different
points in a flood for different mobility ratios. These
results are based on photographs taken during
displacements of one colored liquid by second,
miscible colored liquid in a scaled model.

Correlations Based on .
Correlations Based on Miscible Fluids, Five-Spot Pattern.
Figure 1 shows fluid fronts at different points in a flood for
different mobility Ratios. The Viscosity Ratio varied in different
floods and, because only one phase was present, M is given by
Equation.

d
M
D

Producing well

Injection well

Breakthrough

Pore Volumes Injected

Pore Volumes Injected

Breakthrough

M=0.151
Figure-1: Miscible displacement in a quarter of
a five-spot pattern at mobility ratios<=1.0

M=1.0

BT

BT
PV

PV

0.3
0.3
0.2

0.2

0.1
0.06

0.1

M=4.58

M=2.40

PRODUCING WELL

PV=PORE VOLUME INJECTED

X INJECTION WELL

BT=BREAKTHROUGH

Figure 2: Miscible displacement in a quarter of a five-spot pattern at mobility

ratios>1.0,viscous fingering (from Habermann)

BT
BT

0.15
0.05

M=17.3

M=71.5

PRODUCING WELL

PV=PORE VOLUME INJECTED

X INJECTION WELL

BT=BREAKTHROUGH

Figure-3: Miscible displacement in a quarter of a five-spot pattern at mobility

ratios>1.0,viscous fingering (from Habermann)

Vertical Displacement Efficiency

Vertical sweep ( displacement) efficiency, pore space invaded by the

injected fluid divided by the pore space enclosed in all layers behind the
location of the leading edge (leading areal location) of the front.
Areal sweep efficiency, must be combined in an appropriate manner with
vertical sweep to determine overall volumetric displacement efficiency. It is
useful, however, to examine the factors that affect vertical sweep in the
absence of areal displacement factors.

Vertical Displacement Efficiency

EOR-Chapter 2

Vertical Displacement Efficiency

Vertical Displacement Efficiency is controlled primarily by
four factors:
Heterogeneity
Gravity effect
Gravity segregation caused by differences in density

Mobility ratio
Vertical to horizontal permeability variation
Capillary forces

Heterogeneity
Observation of thre figure indicates a stratified reservoir with layers of different
permeability. The displacement of the fluid is an idealized piston-flow type. Due to
the permeability contrast the displacing fluid will break through earlier in the first
layer, while the entire cross-section will achieve sweep-out at a later time, when layer
#4 breaks through.

EOR-Chapter 2

53

Heterogeneity:Location of the water front at

different Location

Heterogeneity:Dykstra-Persons model

Gravity Segregation in Horizontal Bed

Water tongue
Water

Gas umbrella

Gas

Apuntes de Recuperacin Mejorada

de Petrleo (EOR)
Fuerzas Capilares
Fuerzas viscosas
Desplazamiento macroscpico
Jos Cndor, Ph.D., P.Eng.
19 mayo 2015