Bending of Beams

7.1 Theory of Bending

When beams are subjected to loads, bending stresses are set. The computation of this
stress at a given section of the beam is facilitated by means of bending theory due to M.
H. Navier. He postulated that under a uniform bending moment, initially plane and
parallel cross-sections remain plane during bending and converge on a common center of
curvature. This can be visually demonstrated by drawing a square grid on a rubber beam
(Fig. 7.1 (a)) and then bending the beam (Fig. 7.1 (b)). Neviers assumption has since
been proved correct for all structural materials by strain measurements on test beams
under load (Fig. 7.2); strain gages are fixed at, say, each tenth of the depth of the beam,
and the variation of strain throughout the section is plotted as the beam is loaded.
Naviers theorem follows from the assumption that plane sections remain plane.
Consequently, under the action of a uniform bending moment M, two originally straight
and parallel lines AC and EG (Fig. 7.3) remain straight, but converge on the common
centre of curvature, O. Evidently the beam is strained in compression at the top and in
tension at the bottom, and somewhere between, there is a line at which the strain is
neither tensile nor compressive. This line of zero strain is called the natural axis, BF.
Let us now draw a line through F parallel to AC. Since the plans started parallel, and are
now converging on the point O, the distance DE represents the tensile change of length at
the bottom of the beam, and the distance GH represents the compressive change of length
at the top of the beam. There is no change in length at the neutral axis, F. Let us call the
tensile change of length at the bottom of the beam DE=dx, and the original length
AD=BF=x, then the tensile strain at the bottom of the beam
e=

dx
x

Fig. 7.1 Naviers assumption. Originally plane and parallel section (a) remain plane after
bending (b), but converge onto a common centre of curvature.
Proof of Naviers assumption with strain gauges. The strain is measured at several points
on the same cross section, and the results for each load are plotted. So long as the beam is
elastic, the neutral axis remains in the same position, and the strains vary proportionately
with the distance from the neutral axis.
Let us call the radius of curvature, measures to the neutral axis, FO=R, and the distance
of the bottom form the neutral axis EF=y. Since the triangles DEF and BFO have all their
sides parallel, they are similar, and consequently
DE
EF

; which gives the strain,

BF
FO

e=

dx
y

x
R

7.1

We now determine the corresponding stress by Hooks law:

f = Ee =

Ey
.
R

7.2

The theory of bending. The beam, under the action of a uniform bending moment M,
bends into a circular arc, whose radius of curvature is R = OF
Originally plane and parallel sections ABC and EFG thus converge onto a center of
curvature O. This causes compressive strains on top and tensile strains at the bottom. The
neutral axis BF is the line of zero strain. The maximum tensile strain, at a distance y
below the neutral axis, is DE/AD=dx/x. The corresponding stresses are shown on the lefthand side of the diagram.
The stress varies proportionately to the distance y from the neutral axis, and it is tensile
below and compressive above for a positive bending moment. The force acting on an
infinitesimally small area dA at a distance y from the neutral axis is and the moment of
the force about the neutral axis
DM = y.dP = y.f.dA =

Ey 2
dA 7.3
R

The total resistance moment M of the section is the sum, or integral, of all the
infinitesimally small elements dM.
M=

Ey 2
dA
R

7.4

Since the modulus of elasticity is a constant, and the radius of curvature does not vary
with the depth y, we can take them outside the integral (or summation) sign.
M=

E
R

dA

E
I .
R

7.5

Where I = y dA is called the second moment of area (also called as moment of

inertia), which is a purely geometric property of the section. Now from equation 7.2
2

E
f

R
y

Substituting this into Eq. 7.5, one obtains

M
f
E

..
I
y
R

7.6

which is Naviers Theorem. In this equation, M is the bending moment at that particular
section of the beam, R is the radius of curvature of which the beam is bent by the moment
M, f is the stress at a distance y from the neutral axis, I is the second moment of ares

(moment of inertia) of the section, and E is the modulus of elasticity of the material. In
general, we are interested only in the maximum stress (which must be kept within the
permissible range). This occurs at the greatest distance y form the neutral axis; in an
unsymmetrical section there are two different values-one for the bottom (y b ) and one for
the top (y t ), as shown in Fig. 7.4. It is therefore convenient to introduce a further
geometric section property, the section modulus
I

s = y .. 7.7
In the case of an unsymmetrical section there are different section moduli for bottom and
top (Fig. 7.4):
sb

I
I
and s t
yb
yt

Neviers theorem then becomes

M=f s .

7.8

Fig. 7.4 T-Section.

Cross-section area: A=bD+(B-b)t
Moment of inertia: I=bD 3 /3+(B-b)t 3 /3-Ay t2
In the case of unsymmetrical section, there are different section
moduli for the top: S t =I/y t , and for the bottom:
S b =I/y b
7.2 Two Point Loading
In two point loading a simply supported beam is loaded at points L/3 from either support,
where L is the span of the beam as shown in Fig. 7.5. the portion of the beam between the
loads is free from any shear and is subjected to purely flexural stress. The maximum
deflection (in the elastic range) at the centre of the beam for such a loading is given by:
max

23PL3
. 7.9
1296 EI

where P is the total applied load on the beam and EI is the flexural rigidity of the section.
Under a known value of load, P, the deflection at the centre span can be measured
experimentally and use of the above relationship can be made to compute the value of
E, the modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam. For the purpose of examining
the Neviers hypothesis a two point loading scheme is adopted in the laboratory ensuring
a region of pure bending between the point loads. Strain measurements are made various
distance from the neutral axis in the central portion of the beam.