Linear Measurements

Different methods:
Direct Measurements distance are actually measured with tape, chain
or any other instrument.
Measurements by optical means observations are taken through a
telescope and calculations are done for the distances.
Electronic methods distances are measured with instruments that relay
on propagation, reflection & subsequent reception of radio or light
waves.
Direct Measurements:
Pacing: - a rough and quick method for measuring distances
- consists of counting the number of paces between two points on a
line
- the length of the line can then be computed by knowing the avg.
length of the pace.
Passometer: - an instrument, shaped like a watch is attached to one leg
- the instrument records no. of paces automatically, operated by
body motion
Odometer: - an instrument for registering no. of revolution of a wheel.
- odometer, fixed to a wheel, records no. of revolutions
- no. of revolutions multiplied by the circumference gives the
distance.
Chaining: - distance is measured with a tape or a chain
- it is the most precise method.
Instruments for chaining:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Chain or tape
Arrows
Pegs
Ranging rods
Offset rods
Plumb bob

Chain: formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire bent into rings at
the ends and joined each other by three circular or oval rings.

Types of chains:
Metric chain: - available in length of 5, 10, 20 & 30 meters
Gunters chain: - called a surveyors chain
- consists of 100 links
- each link being 0.6 ft or 7.92 inch long (1 chain = 66 ft)
- a length of 66 ft was originally adopted for convenience in land
measurements since,
10 square chains = 1 acre (10 x 662 = 43,560 ft2)
80 chains = 1 mile (80 x 66 = 5,280 ft = 1760 yrds)
10 chains = 1 furlong (10 x 66 = 660 ft)
Engineers chain: - consist of 100 links
- each link being 1 ft long (1 chain = 100 ft)
- at every 10 ft (i.e. 10 links), brass tags are fastened
Adjusting of chain:
- Chain length may get altered due to bending of links
- It may get shortened due to bending and elongated due to stretching
of links
- Length of chain should be tested from time to time
Tapes:
Cloth tape: - usually are woven linen
- 12 to 15 mm wide and varnished to resist moisture
- used to take comparatively rough measurement such as offsets
- commonly available in 10, 20, 25, 30 m and 33, 50, 66, 100 ft.
- accuracy are affected by (i) moistures and dampness, (ii) length
can be stretched, (iii) can be twisted and tangled.
Metallic tape: - made of varnished strip of waterproof linen interwoven with
brass wires and does not stretch as cloth tape.
- commonly available in 10, 20, 30, 50 meter.
- these are light, flexible and not easily broken.
- useful in cross-sectioning where small errors can be neglected.
Steel tape: - consists of light strip of width 6 to 10 mm and is more accurate
- are available in length of 1, 2, 10, 20 30 & 50 m
- cannot withstand rough usage
- tape should be wiped clean & dried after use
- should be oiled with a little mineral oil

Arrows: - these are marking pins

- made of stout steel wire, (4 mm dia) that are black enameled
- arrows are inserted in the ground after every chain length is
measured on the ground.
- length of arrow may vary from 25 50 cm (40 cm)

50 mm

40 cm

4 mm dia

Pegs: - wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the station.
- made of stout timber
- driven in the ground with a wooden hammer

2.5 cm x 2.5 cm
15 cm

Ranging rods: - have a length of 2 3 m

- shod at the bottom with a heavy iron point
- painted in alternative bands of either black and white or red and
white or black, red and white in succession, each band being 20 cm deep

Black or Red bands

White bands

Ranging Rod

Offset Rod

Offset rods: - similar to ranging rod and have a notch on top

- notch used for pulling and pushing chain
- used for measuring rough offsets
Plumb bob: - while chaining along sloping grounds, these are required to
mark the points on ground
- used as centering aid in theodolites, compass, plane table etc.

Chaining: Two chainmen are required for measuring the length of a line
greater than a chain length.
Follower more experienced
Leader holding the forward handle

Ranging out survey lines:

1. Direct ranging when the two ends of the survey line are intervisible.
a. Ranging by eye
b. Ranging by line ranger
2. Indirect ranging - when the two ends of the survey line are not
intervisible.

N
B

M
M3
M2

Errors due to incorrect chain:

+ve correction: chain is too long
-ve correction: chain is too short
Correction to length:
L = correct length of chain
L' = incorrect length of chain
l' = measured length of line
l = actual or true length of line
L
l l

N
N3
N2
N1

Correction to Area:
A' = measured area
A = true area
L
A A

Correction to Volume:
V' = measured volume
V = true volume
L
V V

Correction for slope:

CL

L2 h 2

- correction is always negative

- corrected length = L C
Correction for temperature:
c t Tm To * L

= coeff. Of thermal expansion

Tm = avg. temp in field
To = std. temp for tape
L = measured length
+ve correction if field temp > std. temp
-ve correction if field temp< std. temp
Correction for sag:
l1 = length of the tape, supported in between (suspended)
P = pull applied in Kg or N
W = weight of tape (Kg or N) per unit length
Cs = sag correction
l Wl
C s 1 12
24P

Cs is always ve

Correction for pull:

P = pull applied
P0 = standard pull
L = measured length
A = X-section area
E = Youngs modulus of elasticity
Cp

P P0 L
AE

+ve correction applied pull > std. pull

-ve correction applied pull < std. pull