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Different methods:
Direct Measurements distance are actually measured with tape, chain
or any other instrument.
Measurements by optical means observations are taken through a
telescope and calculations are done for the distances.
Electronic methods distances are measured with instruments that relay
on propagation, reflection & subsequent reception of radio or light
waves.
Direct Measurements:
Pacing: - a rough and quick method for measuring distances
- consists of counting the number of paces between two points on a
line
- the length of the line can then be computed by knowing the avg.
length of the pace.
Passometer: - an instrument, shaped like a watch is attached to one leg
- the instrument records no. of paces automatically, operated by
body motion
Odometer: - an instrument for registering no. of revolution of a wheel.
- odometer, fixed to a wheel, records no. of revolutions
- no. of revolutions multiplied by the circumference gives the
distance.
Chaining: - distance is measured with a tape or a chain
- it is the most precise method.
Instruments for chaining:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Chain or tape
Arrows
Pegs
Ranging rods
Offset rods
Plumb bob
Chain: formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire bent into rings at
the ends and joined each other by three circular or oval rings.
Types of chains:
Metric chain: - available in length of 5, 10, 20 & 30 meters
Gunters chain: - called a surveyors chain
- consists of 100 links
- each link being 0.6 ft or 7.92 inch long (1 chain = 66 ft)
- a length of 66 ft was originally adopted for convenience in land
measurements since,
10 square chains = 1 acre (10 x 662 = 43,560 ft2)
80 chains = 1 mile (80 x 66 = 5,280 ft = 1760 yrds)
10 chains = 1 furlong (10 x 66 = 660 ft)
Engineers chain: - consist of 100 links
- each link being 1 ft long (1 chain = 100 ft)
- at every 10 ft (i.e. 10 links), brass tags are fastened
Adjusting of chain:
- Chain length may get altered due to bending of links
- It may get shortened due to bending and elongated due to stretching
of links
- Length of chain should be tested from time to time
Tapes:
Cloth tape: - usually are woven linen
- 12 to 15 mm wide and varnished to resist moisture
- used to take comparatively rough measurement such as offsets
- commonly available in 10, 20, 25, 30 m and 33, 50, 66, 100 ft.
- accuracy are affected by (i) moistures and dampness, (ii) length
can be stretched, (iii) can be twisted and tangled.
Metallic tape: - made of varnished strip of waterproof linen interwoven with
brass wires and does not stretch as cloth tape.
- commonly available in 10, 20, 30, 50 meter.
- these are light, flexible and not easily broken.
- useful in cross-sectioning where small errors can be neglected.
Steel tape: - consists of light strip of width 6 to 10 mm and is more accurate
- are available in length of 1, 2, 10, 20 30 & 50 m
- cannot withstand rough usage
- tape should be wiped clean & dried after use
- should be oiled with a little mineral oil
50 mm
40 cm
4 mm dia
Pegs: - wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the station.
- made of stout timber
- driven in the ground with a wooden hammer
2.5 cm x 2.5 cm
15 cm
White bands
Ranging Rod
Offset Rod
Chaining: Two chainmen are required for measuring the length of a line
greater than a chain length.
Follower more experienced
Leader holding the forward handle
N
B
M
M3
M2
N
N3
N2
N1
Correction to Area:
A' = measured area
A = true area
L
A A
Correction to Volume:
V' = measured volume
V = true volume
L
V V
L2 h 2
Cs is always ve
P P0 L
AE