Rain Water Harvesting

General

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 ainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from
rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and
pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams. The techniques
usually found in Asia and Africa arise from practices employed by ancient civilizations
within these regions and still serve as a major source of drinking water supply in rural areas.
Commonly used systems are constructed of three principal components; namely, the
catchment area, the collection device, and the conveyance system.

A) Catchment Areas

Rooftop catchments: In the most basic form of this technology, rainwater is collected in
simple vessels at the edge of the roof. Variations on this basic approach include collection
of rainwater in gutters which drain to the collection vessel through down-pipes constructed
for this purpose, and/or the diversion of rainwater from the gutters to containers for settling
particulates before being conveyed to the storage container for the domestic use. As the
rooftop is the main catchment area, the amount and quality of rainwater collected depends
on the area and type of roofing material. Reasonably pure rainwater can be collected from
roofs constructed with galvanized corrugated iron, aluminium or asbestos cement sheets,
tiles and slates, although thatched roofs tied with bamboo gutters and laid in proper slopes
can produce almost the same amount of runoff less expensively (Gould, 1992). However,
the bamboo roofs are least suitable because of possible health hazards. Similarly, roofs with
metallic paint or other coatings are not recommended as they may impart tastes or colour to
the collected water. Roof catchments should also be cleaned regularly to remove dust,
leaves and bird droppings so as to maintain the quality of the product water

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Land surface catchments: Rainwater harvesting using ground or land surface catchment areas is
less complex way of collecting rainwater. It involves improving runoff capacity of the land surface
through various techniques including collection of runoff with drain pipes and storage of collected
water. Compared to rooftop catchment techniques, ground catchment techniques provide more
opportunity for collecting water from a larger surface area. By retaining the flows (including flood
flows) of small creeks and streams in small storage reservoirs (on surface or underground) created
by low cost (e.g., earthen) dams, this technology can meet water demands during dry periods. There
is a possibility of high rates of water loss due to infiltration into the ground, and, because of the
often marginal quality of the water collected, this technique is mainly suitable for storing water for
agricultural purposes. Various techniques available for increasing the runoff within ground
catchment areas involve: i) clearing or altering vegetation cover, ii) increasing the land slope with
artificial ground cover, and iii) reducing soil permeability by the soil compaction and application of
chemicals (see figure 2).

Clearing or altering vegetation cover: Clearing vegetation from the ground can increase
surface runoff but also can induce more soil erosion. Use of dense vegetation cover such
as grass is usually suggested as it helps to both maintain an high rate of runoff and
minimize soil erosion.

Increasing slope: Steeper slopes can allow rapid runoff of rainfall to the collector.
However, the rate of runoff has to be controlled to minimise soil erosion from the
catchment field. Use of plastic sheets, asphalt or tiles along with slope can further
increase efficiency by reducing both evaporative losses and soil erosion. The use of flat
sheets of galvanized iron with timber frames to prevent corrosion was recommended
and constructed in the State of Victoria, Australia, about 65 years ago (Kenyon, 1929;
cited in UNEP, 1982).

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 Soil compaction by physical means: This involves smoothing and compacting of soil
surface using equipment such as graders and rollers. To increase the surface runoff and
minimize soil erosion rates, conservation bench terraces are constructed along a slope
perpendicular to runoff flow. The bench terraces are separated by the sloping collectors
and provision is made for distributing the runoff evenly across the field strips as sheet
flow. Excess flows are routed to a lower collector and stored (UNEP, 1982).

Soil compaction by chemical treatments: In addition to clearing, shaping and

compacting a catchment area, chemical applications with such soil treatments as sodium
can significantly reduce the soil permeability. Use of aqueous solutions of a silicone-
water repellent is another technique for enhancing soil compaction technologies.
Though soil permeability can be reduced through chemical treatments, soil compaction
can induce greater rates of soil erosion and may be expensive. Use of sodium-based
chemicals may increase the salt content in the collected water, which may not be
suitable both for drinking and irrigation purposes.

B) Collection Devices

Storage tanks: Storage tanks for collecting rainwater harvested using guttering may be
either above or below the ground. Precautions required in the use of storage tanks
include provision of an adequate enclosure to minimise contamination from human,
animal or other environmental contaminants, and a tight cover to prevent algal growth
and the breeding of mosquitos. Open containers are not recommended for collecting
water for drinking purposes. Various types of rainwater storage facilities can be found in
practice. Among them are cylindrical ferrocement tanks and mortar jars. The
ferrocement tank consists of a lightly reinforced concrete base on which is erected a
circular vertical cylinder with a 10 mm steel base. This cylinder is further wrapped in
two layers of light wire mesh to form the frame of the tank. Mortar jars are large jar
shaped vessels constructed from wire reinforced mortar. The storage capacity needed
should be calculated to take into consideration the length of any dry spells, the amount
of rainfall, and the per capita water consumption rate. In most of the Asian countries, the
winter months are dry, sometimes for weeks on end, and the annual average rainfall can
occur within just a few days. In such circumstances, the storage capacity should be large
enough to cover the demands of two to three weeks. Rainfall water containers: As an
alternative to storage tanks, battery tanks (i.e., interconnected tanks) made of pottery,

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 ferrocement, or polyethylene may be suitable. The polyethylene tanks are compact but
have a large storage capacity (ca. 1 000 to 2 000 l), are easy to clean and have many
openings which can be fitted with fittings for connecting pipes. In Asia, jars made of
earthen materials or ferrocement tanks are commonly used. During the 1980s, the use of
rainwater catchment technologies, especially roof catchment systems, expanded rapidly
in a number of regions, including Thailand where more than ten million 2 m3
ferrocement rainwater jars were built and many tens of thousands of larger ferrocement
tanks were constructed between 1991 and 1993. Early problems with the jar design were
quickly addressed by including a metal cover using readily available, standard brass
fixtures. The immense success of the jar programme springs from the fact that the
technology met a real need, was affordable, and invited community participation. The
programme also captured the imagination and support of not only the citizens, but also
of government at both local and national levels as well as community based
organizations, small-scale enterprises and donor agencies. The introduction and rapid
promotion of Bamboo reinforced tanks, however, was less successful because the
bamboo was attacked by termites, bacteria and fungus. More than 50 000 tanks were
built between 1986 and 1993 (mainly in Thailand and Indonesia) before a number
started to fail, and, by the late 1980s, the bamboo reinforced tank design, which had
promised to provide an excellent low-cost alternative to ferrocement tanks, had to be
abandoned.

ConveyanceSystems
Conveyance systems are required to transfer the rainwater collected on the rooftops to the
storage tanks. This is usually accomplished by making connections to one or more down-
pipes connected to the rooftop gutters. When selecting a conveyance system, consideration
should be given to the fact that, when it first starts to rain, dirt and debris from the rooftop
and gutters will be washed into the down-pipe. Thus, the relatively clean water will only be
available some time later in the storm. There are several possible choices to selectively
collect clean water for the storage tanks. The most common is the down-pipe flap. With this
flap it is possible to direct the first flush of water flow through the down-pipe, while later
rainfall is diverted into a storage tank. When it starts to rain, the flap is left in the closed
position, directing water to the down-pipe, and, later, opened when relatively clean water
can be collected. A great disadvantage of using this type of conveyance control system is

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the necessity to observe the runoff quality and manually operate the flap. An alternative
approach would be to automate the opening of the flap as described below.

A funnel-shaped insert is integrated into the down-pipe system. Because the upper edge of
the funnel is not in direct contact with the sides of the down-pipe, and a small gap exists
between the down-pipe walls and the funnel, water is free to flow both around the funnel
and through the funnel. When it first starts to rain, the volume of water passing down the
pipe is small, and the *dirty* water runs down the walls of the pipe, around the funnel and
is discharged to the ground as is normally the case with rainwater guttering. However, as
the rainfall continues, the volume of water increases and *clean* water fills the down-pipe.
At this higher volume, the funnel collects the clean water and redirects it to a storage tank.
The pipes used for the collection of rainwater, wherever possible, should be made of plastic,
PVC or other inert substance, as the pH of rainwater can be low (acidic) and could cause
corrosion, and mobilization of metals, in metal pipes.

In order to safely fill a rainwater storage tank, it is necessary to make sure that excess water
can overflow, and that blockages in the pipes or dirt in the water do not cause damage or
contamination of the water supply. The design of the funnel system, with the drain-pipe
being larger than the rainwater tank feed-pipe, helps to ensure that the water supply is
protected by allowing excess water to bypass the storage tank. A modification of this design
is shown in Figure 5, which illustrates a simple overflow/bypass system. In this system, it
also is possible to fill the tank from a municipal drinking water source, so that even during a
prolonged drought the tank can be kept full. Care should be taken, however, to ensure that
rainwater does not enter the drinking water distribution system.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING AND ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE TO

GROUND WATER

Rain Water Harvesting as a method of utilizing rain water for domestic and
agricultural use is already widely used throughout the world. It is a method which has
been used since ancient times and is increasingly being accepted as a practical method
of providing potable water in development projects throughout the world. It has wide
application also in urban and peri-urban areas where the reliability and quality of
piped water is increasingly being questioned. Despite these facts the percentage of
households using rain water harvesting

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WHAT IS RAIN WATER HARVESTING :

The principle of collecting and using precipitation from a catchments surface.

An old technology is gaining popularity in a new way. Rain water harvesting is

enjoying a renaissance of sorts in the world, but it traces its history to biblical times.
Extensive rain water harvesting apparatus existed 4000 years ago in the Palestine and
Greece. In ancient Rome, residences were built with individual cisterns and paved
courtyards to capture rain water to augment water from city's aqueducts. As early as
the third millennium BC, farming communities in Baluchistan and Kutch impounded
rain water and used it for irrigation dams.

ARTIFICAL RECHARGE TO GROUND WATER :

Artificial recharge to ground water is a process by which the ground water reservoir is
augmented at a rate exceeding that obtaining under natural conditions or
replenishment. Any man-made scheme or facility that adds water to an aquifer may be
considered to be an artificial recharge system.

WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING :

Rain water harvesting is essential because :-

Surface water is inadequate to meet our demand and we have to depend on ground
water.

Due to rapid urbanization, infiltration of rain water into the sub-soil has decreased
drastically and recharging of ground water has diminished.

As you read this guide, seriously consider conserving water by harvesting and
managing this natural resource by artificially recharging the system. The examples
covering several dozen installations successfully operating in India constructed and
maintained by CGWB, provide an excellent snapshot of current systems.

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RAIN WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES :

There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings.

Storage of rainwater on surface for future use.

Recharge to ground water.

The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional techniques and structures used
were underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. Recharge to ground water is a
new concept of rain water harvesting and the structures generally used are :-

Pits :- Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifer. These are
constructed 1 to 2 m, wide and to 3 m. deep which are back filled with boulders,
gravels, coarse sand.

Trenches:- These are constructed when the permeable stram is available at shallow
depth. Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5m. deep and 10 to 20 m. long
depending up availability of water. These are back filled with filter. materials.

Dug wells:- Existing dug wells may be utilised as recharge structure and water should
pass through filter media before putting into dug well.

Hand pumps :- The existing hand pumps may be used for recharging the
shallow/deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited. Water should pass
through filter media before diverting it into hand pumps.

Recharge wells :- Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter are generally
constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed through filter
media to avoid choking of recharge wells.

Recharge Shafts :- For recharging the shallow aquifer which are located below
clayey surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep are
constructed and back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.

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Lateral shafts with bore wells :- For recharging the upper as well as deeper aquifers
lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m. wide & 10 to 30 m. long depending upon availability of
water with one or two bore wells are constructed. The lateral shafts is back filled with
boulders, gravels & coarse sand.

Spreading techniques :- When permeable strata starts from top then this technique is
used. Spread the water in streams/Nalas by making check dams, nala bunds, cement
plugs, gabion structures or a percolation pond may be constructed.

DIVERSION OF RUN OFF INTO EXISTING SURFACE WATER BODIES

Construction activity in and around the city is resulting in the drying up of

water bodies and reclamation of these tanks for conversion into plots for houses.

Free flow of storm run off into these tanks and water bodies must be ensured.
The storm run off may be diverted into the nearest tanks or depression, which
will create additional recharge.

Urbanisation effects on Groundwater Hydrology :

Increase in water demand

More dependence on ground water use

Over exploitation of ground water

Increase in run-off, decline in well yields and fall in water levels

Reduction in open soil surface area

Reduction in infiltration and deterioration in water quality

Methods of artificial recharge in urban areas :

Water spreading

Recharge through pits, trenches, wells, shafts

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Rooftop collection of rainwater

Roadtop collection of rainwater

Induced recharge from surface water bodies.

Computation of artificial recharge from Roof top rainwater collection :

Factors taken for computation :

Roof top area 100 sq.m. for individual house and 500 sq.m. for multi-storied building.

Average annual monsoon rainfall - 780 mm.

Effective annual rainfall contributing to recharge 70% - 550 mm.

Benefits of Artificial Recharge in Urban Areas :

Improvement in infiltration and reduction in run-off.

Improvement in groundwater levels and yields.
Reduces strain on Special Village Panchayats/ Municipal / Municipal
Corporation water supply
Improvement in groundwater quality
Estimated quantity of additional recharge from 100 sq. m. roof top area is
55.000 liters.
HARVESTING RAINWATER HARNESSING LIFE :

A NOBLE GOAL - A COMMON RESPONSIBILITY

Ground water exploitation is inevitable is Urban areas. But the groundwater

potential is getting reduced due to urbanisation resulting in over exploitation.
Hence, a strategy to implement the groundwater recharge, in a major way need
to be launched with concerted efforts by various Governmental and Non-
Governmental Agencies and Public at large to build up the water table and
make the groundwater resource, a reliable and sustainable source for
supplementing water supply needs of the urban dwellers.

Recharge of groundwater through storm run off and roof top water collection,
diversion and collection of run off into dry tanks, play grounds, parks and other

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 vacant places are to be implemented by Special Village Panchayats/
Municipalities /Municipal Corporations and other Government Establishments
with special efforts.

The Special Village Panchayats /Municipalities/Municipal Corporations will

help the citizens and builders to adopt suitable recharge method in one's own
house or building through demonstration and offering subsidies for materials
and incentives, if possible.

ATTRIBUTES OF GROUNDWATER :

There is more ground water than surface water

Ground water is less expensive and economic resource.
Ground water is sustainable and reliable source of water supply.
Ground water is relatively less vulnerable to pollution
Ground water is usually of high bacteriological purity.
Ground water is free of pathogenic organisms.
Ground water needs little treatment before use.
Ground water has no turbidity and colour.
Ground water has distinct health advantage as art alternative for lower
sanitary quality surface water.
Ground water is usually universally available.
Ground water resource can be instantly developed and used.
There is no conveyance losses in ground water based supplies.
Ground water has low vulnerability to drought.
Ground water is key to life in arid and semi-arid regions.
Ground water is source of dry weather flow in rivers and streams.

Rainwater harvesting is the gathering, or accumulating and storing, of rainwater. [1]

Rainwater harvesting has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for
irrigation or to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge. Rainwater collected
from the roofs of houses, tents and local institutions, or from specially prepared areas of
ground, can make an important contribution to drinking water. In some cases, rainwater
may be the only available, or economical, water source. Rainwater systems are simple to
construct from inexpensive local materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable
locations. Roof rainwater is usually of good quality and does not require treatment before
consumption. Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an
average rainfall greater than 200mm per year, and no other accessible water sources
(Skinner and Cotton, 1992).

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There are a number of types of systems to harvest rainwater ranging from very simple to the
complex industrial systems. Generally, rainwater is either harvested from the ground or
from a roof. The rate at which water can be collected from either system is dependent on the
plan area of the system, its efficiency, and the intensity of rainfall.

Ground catchment systems

Ground catchments systems channel water from a prepared catchment area into storage.
Generally they are only considered in areas where rainwater is very scarce and other sources
of water are not available. They are more suited to small communities than individual
families. If properly designed, ground catchments can collect large quantities of rainwater.

Roof catchment systems

A domestic rooftop rainwater harvesting system

The regular set-up of a pressurized rooftop rainwater harvester

Roof catchment systems channel rainwater that falls onto a roof into storage via a system of
gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be allowed to run to
waste as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof gutters should have
sufficient incline to avoid standing water. They must be strong enough, and large enough to

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carry peak flows. Storage tanks should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and to
reduce evaporation losses, contamination and algal growth. Rainwater harvesting systems
require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep the system hygienic and in good working
order.

Subsurface dyke

A subsurface dyke is built in an aquifer to obstruct the natural flow of groundwater, thereby
raising the groundwater level and increasing the amount of water stored in the aquifer.

The subsurface dyke at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University
with the support of ICAR, has become an effective method for ground water conservation
by means of rain water harvesting technologies. The sub-surface dyke has demonstrated that
it is a feasible method for conserving and exploiting the groundwater resources of the
Kerala state of India. The dyke is now the largest rainwater harvesting system in that region.

Groundwater recharge

Rainwater may also be used for groundwater recharge, where the runoff on the ground is
collected and allowed to be absorbed, adding to the groundwater. In the US, rooftop
rainwater is collected and stored in sump.[2] In India this includes Bawdis and johads, or
ponds which collect the run-off from small streams in wide area.[3][4]

In India, reservoirs called tankas were used to store water; typically they were shallow with
mud walls. Ancient tankas still exist in some places.[4]

Advantages in urban areas

Rainwater harvesting in urban areas can have manifold reasons. Some of the reasons
rainwater harvesting can be adopted in cities are to provide supplemental water for the city's
requirements, to increase soil moisture levels for urban greenery, to increase the ground
water table through artificial recharge, to mitigate urban flooding and to improve the quality
of groundwater. In urban areas of the developed world, at a household level, harvested
rainwater can be used for flushing toilets and washing laundry. Indeed in hard water areas it
is superior to mains water for this. It can also be used for showering or bathing. It may
require treatment prior to use for drinking

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In New Zealand, many houses away from the larger towns and cities routinely rely on
rainwater collected from roofs as the only source of water for all household activities. This
is almost inevitably the case for many holiday homes.

Quality

As rainwater may be contaminated, it is often not considered suitable for drinking without
treatment. However, there are many examples of rainwater being used for all purposes —
including drinking — following suitable treatment.

Rainwater harvested from roofs can contain animal and bird faeces, mosses and lichens,
windblown dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the
sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx). High levels of pesticide
have been found in rainwater in Europe with the highest concentrations occurring in the first
rain immediately after a dry spell;[5] the concentration of these and other contaminants are
reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of water to waste as described above. The
water may need to be analysed properly, and used in a way appropriate to its safety. In the
Gansu province for example, harvested rainwater is boiled in parabolic solar cookers before
being used for drinking.[6] In Brazil alum and chlorine is added to disinfect water before
consumption.[citation needed]
So-called "appropriate technology" methods, such as solar water
disinfection, provide low-cost[citation needed]
disinfection options for treatment of stored
rainwater for drinking.

System sizing

It is important that the system is sized to meet the water demand throughout the dry season.
Generally speaking, the size of the storage tank should be big enough to meet the daily
water requirement throughout the dry season. In addition, the size of the catchment area or
roof should be large enough to fill the tank.

Around the world

• Currently in China and Brazil, rooftop rainwater harvesting is being practiced for
providing drinking water, domestic water, water for livestock, water for small

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 irrigation and a way to replenish ground water levels. Gansu province inh China and
semi-arid north east Brazil have the largest rooftop rainwater harvesting projects
ongoing.
• In Rajasthan, India rainwater harvesting has traditionally been practiced by the
people of the Thar Desert.
• In Bermuda, the law requires all new construction to include rainwater harvesting
adequate for the residents.
• The U.S. Virgin Islands have a similar law.
• In the Indus Valley Civilization, Elephanta Caves and Kanheri Caves in Mumbai
rainwater harvesting alone has been used to supply in their water requirements.
• In Senegal/Guinea-Bissau, the houses of the Diola-people are frequently equipped
with homebrew rainwater harvesters made from local, organic material.
• In the United Kingdom water butts are oft-found in domestic gardens to collect
rainwater which is then used to water the garden.
• In the Ayerwaddy Delta of Myanmar, the groundwater is saline and communities
rely on mud lined rainwater ponds to meet their drinking water needs throughout the
dry season. Some of these ponds are centuries old and are treated with great
reverence and respect.
• Until 2009 in Colorado, water rights laws restricted rainwater harvesting; a property
owner who captured rainwater was deemed to be stealing it from those who have
rights to take water from the watershed. The main factor in persuading the Colorado
Legislature to change the law was a 2007 study that found that in an average year,
97% of the precipitation that fell in Douglas County, in the southern suburbs of
Denver, never reached a stream—it was used by plants or evaporated on the ground.
In Utah and Washington State, collecting rainwater from the roof is illegal unless the
roof owner also owns water rights on the ground. In New Mexico, rainwater
catchment is mandatory for new dwellings in Santa Fe.[7]

Step 1. Construction of the Rain Barrels Base

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Because we had some summer storms coming, I constructed a temporary base for the
barrels made of concrete blocks and 2×4 studs. Everything was leveled and the barrels were
put in their final position so that connecting tube lengths could be estimated.

Step 2. Positioning the Diverter

A proper height of the diverter was selected so that the mounting flanges of the diverter
could be screwed just above the lower edge of the metal siding of the house. At this point
the rain downspout was marked to be cut.

Step 3. Cutting the Downspout

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The rain downspout was removed and cut on a chop saw for a clean, straight cut. I cut out a
section of the downspout that was equivalent to the length needed by the diverter so that all
existing mounting straps at the bottom of the downspout would still be usable. This resulted
in a clean installation.

Step 4. Mounting the Downspout and Diverter

The upper section of the downspout was reconnected to the rain gutter. I used an awl to
align one of the existing holes while I re-inserted the other screws. I then positioned the
diverter in place and screwed it to the metal siding of the house. Finally, I positioned the
bottom section of the downspout and re-attached it to the house.

Step 5. Connecting the Barrels to Each Other

I measured and cut lengths of the tubing to connect the barrels in their proper position. To
make it easier to slide the tubing over the connectors, I placed the tubes in hot tap water for
30 seconds. This softened the tube and it easily slid onto the connectors. Because there
would be no high water pressure, I did not use hose clamps here.

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Step 6. Connecting the Diverter to the Barrels

The last step was to connect the tubes between the diverter and the rain barrels. I originally
used the two white tubes provided, but then decided to use one clear tube so any observers
could see the water running through the tube. Before attaching the end of the tube to the
connectors, I again placed the tube end in hot tap water to soften the tube. Then the tubes
were attached. I used hose-clamps to secure the upper end of the tube at the diverter, so that
the tube did not come off. Finally, I used one zip-tie to hold the tubes to the downspout so
they didn’t move in the wind. The installation was complete and took about 2 hours, not
counting time to the hardware store to buy extra tubing and hose clamps.

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Fish farming

A fish farm does not necessarily have to be built, and a body of water such as a small pond
or lake can be used as a fish farm. Conversely, many fish farms are highly technological and
man made facilities are designed to control every aspect possible for raising aquatic life.
The purpose of these kinds of fish farming structures is to decrease the possibility of many
outside factors, such as contaminants and predators, while creating an environment within
which the fish will thrive. Fish farms can also be important for maintaining endangered wild
fish populations, such as salmon and trout, by growing them and then returning them to the
wild.

Fish farming also gives the farmers the unique ability to create a habitat for raising one
specific type of fish. This not only allows them to be able to focus on the fish that is
intended to be raised, but also removes the difficult process of separating out unwanted
types of fish and sea life when harvesting a catch. Different types of sea creatures also need
specific varieties of food to survive, and a fish farmer can cater to the needs of a specific
species.

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Intensive koi aquaculture facility in Israel

Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under
mariculture. Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually
for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to
supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. The most
important fish species raised by fish farms are, in order, salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish and
cod.

Increasing demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing has caused widespread

overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for
fish and fish protein.

Major categories of fish farms

There are two kinds of aquaculture: extensive aquaculture based on local photosynthetical
production and intensive aquaculture, in which the fish are fed with external food supply.
The management of these two kinds of aquaculture systems are completely different.

Extensive aquaculture

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Limiting for growth here is the available food supply by natural sources, commonly
zooplankton feeding on pelagic algae or benthic animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks.
Tilapia species filter feed directly on phytoplankton, which makes higher production
possible. The photosynthetical production can be increased by fertilizing the pond water
with artificial fertilizer mixtures, such as potash, phosphorus, nitrogen and micro-elements.
Because most fish are carnivorous, they occupy a higher place in the trophic chain and
therefore only a tiny fraction of primary photosynthetic production (typically 1%) will be
converted into harvest-able fish. As a result, without additional feeding the fish harvest will
not exceed 200 kilograms of fish per hectare per year, equivalent to 1% of the gross
photosynthetic production.

A second point of concern is the risk of algal blooms. When temperatures, nutrient supply
and available sunlight are optimal for algal growth, algae multiply their biomass at an
exponential rate, eventually leading to an exhaustion of available nutrients and a subsequent
die-off. The decaying algal biomass will deplete the oxygen in the pond water because it
blocks out the sun and pollutes it with organic and inorganic solutes (such as ammonium
ions), which can (and frequently do) lead to massive loss of fish.

In order to tap all available food sources in the pond, the aquaculturist will choose fish
species which occupy different places in the pond ecosystem, e.g., a filter algae feeder such
as tilapia, a benthic feeder such as carp or catfish and a zooplankton feeder (various carps)
or submerged weeds feeder such as grass carp.

Despite these limitations significant fish farming industries use these methods. In the Czech
Republic thousands of natural and semi-natural ponds are harvested each year for trout and
carp. The large ponds around Trebon were built from around 1650 and are still in use.

Intensive aquaculture

In these kinds of systems fish production per unit of surface can be increased at will, as long
as sufficient oxygen, fresh water and food are provided. Because of the requirement of
sufficient fresh water, a massive water purification system must be integrated in the fish
farm. A clever way to achieve this is the combination of hydroponic horticulture and water
treatment, see below. The exception to this rule are cages which are placed in a river or sea,

21
which supplements the fish crop with sufficient oxygenated water. Some environmentalists
object to this practice.

Expressing eggs from a female rainbow trout

Essential here is aeration of the water, as fish need a sufficient oxygen level for growth.
This is achieved by bubbling, cascade flow or aqueous oxygen. Catfish, Clarias ssp. can
breathe atmospheric air and can tolerate much higher levels of pollutants than trout or
salmon, which makes aeration and water purification less necessary and makes Clarias
species especially suited for intensive fish production. In some Clarias farms about 10% of
the water volume can consist of fish biomass.

The risk of infections by parasites like fish lice, fungi (Saprolegnia ssp.), intestinal worms
(such as nematodes or trematodes), bacteria (e.g., Yersinia ssp, Pseudomonas ssp.), and
protozoa (such as Dinoflagellates) is similar to animal husbandry, especially at high
population densities. However, animal husbandry is a larger and more technologically
mature area of human agriculture and better solutions to pathogen problem exist. Intensive
aquaculture does have to provide adequate water quality (oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, etc.)
levels to minimize stress, which makes the pathogen problem more difficult. This means,
intensive aquaculture requires tight monitoring and a high level of expertise of the fish
farmer.

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Controlling roes manually

Very high intensity recycle aquaculture systems (RAS), where there is control over all the
production parameters, are being used for high value species. By recycling the water, very
little water is used per unit of production. However, the process does have high capital and
operating costs. The higher cost structures mean that RAS is only economical for high value
products like broodstock for egg production, fingerlings for net pen aquaculture operations,
sturgeon production, research animals and some special niche markets like live fish.[1] [2]

Raising ornamental cold water fish (goldfish or koi), although theoretically much more
profitable due to the higher income per weight of fish produced, has never been successfully
carried out until very recently. The increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi
Carp, together with the high value of the fish has led to initiatives in closed system koi
breeding and growing in a number of countries. Today there are a few commercially
successful intensive koi growing facilities in the UK, Germany and Israel.

Some producers have adapted their intensive systems in an effort to provide consumers with
fish that do not carry dormant forms of viruses and diseases.

Specific types of fish farms

Within intensive and extensive aquaculture methods there are numerous specific types of
fish farms, each has benefits and applications unique to its design.

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Integrated recycling systems

One of the largest problems with freshwater aquaculture is that it can use a million gallons
of water per acre (about 1 m³ of water per m²) each year. Extended water purification
systems allow for the reuse (recycling) of local water.

The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived (admittedly much refined) from the
New Alchemists in the 1970s. Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse.
A hydroponic bed is placed near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the
tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally grows in the tanks when the tanks are
properly fertilized.

The tank water is slowly circulated to the hydroponic beds where the tilapia waste feeds a
commercial plant crops. Carefully cultured microorganisms in the hydroponic bed convert
ammonia to nitrates, and the plants are fertilized by the nitrates and phosphates. Other
wastes are strained out by the hydroponic media, which doubles as an aerated pebble-bed
filter.

This system, properly tuned, produces more edible protein per unit area than any other. A
wide variety of plants can grow well in the hydroponic beds. Most growers concentrate on
herbs (e.g. parsley and basil), which command premium prices in small quantities all year
long. The most common customers are restaurant wholesalers.

Since the system lives in a greenhouse, it adapts to almost all temperate climates, and may
also adapt to tropical climates. The main environmental impact is discharge of water that
must be salted to maintain the fishes' electrolyte balance. Current growers use a variety of
proprietary tricks to keep fish healthy, reducing their expenses for salt and waste water
discharge permits. Some veterinary authorities speculate that ultraviolet ozone disinfectant
systems (widely used for ornamental fish) may play a prominent part in keeping the Tilapia
healthy with recirculated water.

A number of large, well-capitalized ventures in this area have failed. Managing both the
biology and markets is complicated.

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Irrigation ditch or pond systems

These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a
ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system (many
irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers.) Using this method, one can store one's
water allotment in ponds or ditches, usually lined with bentonite clay. In small systems the
fish are often fed commercial fish food, and their waste products can help fertilize the
fields. In larger ponds, the pond grows water plants and algae as fish food. Some of the
most successful ponds grow introduced strains of plants, as well as introduced strains of
fish.

Control of water quality is crucial. Fertilizing, clarifying and pH control of the water can
increase yields substantially, as long as eutrophication is prevented and oxygen levels stay
high.Yields can be low if the fish grow ill from electrolyte stress.

Cage system

Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers or oceans to contain and protect fish
until they can be harvested. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish
are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few
advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used (rivers,
lakes, filled quarries, etc.), many types of fish can be raised, and fish farming can co-exist
with sport fishing and other water uses. Cage farming of fishes in open seas is also gaining
popularity. Concerns of disease, poaching, poor water quality, etc., lead some to believe that
in general, pond systems are easier to manage and simpler to start. Also, past occurrences of
cage-failures leading to escapes, have raised concern regarding the culture of non-native
fish species in open-water cages. Even though the cage-industry has made numerous
technological advances in cage construction in recent years, the concern for escapes remains
valid.

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Classic fry farming

Trout and other sport fish are often raised from eggs to fry or fingerlings and then trucked to
streams and released. Normally, the fry are raised in long, shallow concrete tanks, fed with
fresh stream water. The fry receive commercial fish food in pellets. While not as efficient as
the New Alchemists' method, it is also far simpler, and has been used for many years to
stock streams with sport fish. European eel (Anguilla anguilla) aquaculturalists procure a
limited supply of glass eels, juvenile stages of the European eel which swim north from the
Sargasso Sea breeding grounds, for their farms. The European eel is threatened with
extinction because of the excessive catch of glass eels by Spanish fishermen and overfishing
of adult eels in, e.g., the Dutch IJsselmeer, Netherlands. As per 2005, no one has managed
to breed the European eel in captivity.

Criticisms

The issue of feeds in fish farming has been a controversial one. Many cultured fishes
(tilapia, carp, catfish, many others) require no meat or fish products in their diets. Top-level
carnivores (most salmon species) depend on fish feed of which a portion is usually derived
from wild caught fish (anchovies, menhaden, etc.). Vegetable-derived proteins have
successfully replaced fish meal in feeds for carnivorous fishes, but vegetable-derived oils
have not successfully been incorporated into the diets of carnivores.

Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild (e.g. 50,000 fish in a
2-acre (8,100 m2) area. with each fish occupying less room than the average bathtub. This
can cause several forms of pollution. Packed tightly, fish rub against each other and the
sides of their cages, damaging their fins and tails and becoming sickened with various
diseases and infections

However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density. Most
successful aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social problems at
high density. Aquaculturists tend to feel that operating a rearing system above its design
capacity or above the social density limit of the fish will result in decreased growth rate and
increased FCR (food conversion ratio - kg dry feed/kg of fish produced), which will result
in increased cost and risk of health problems along with a decrease in profits. Stressing the
animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must be viewed from

26
the perspective of the animal using the scientific method. Some species of sea lice have
been noted to target farmed coho and Atlantic salmon. Such parasites have been shown to
have an effect on nearby wild fish. One place that has garnered international media attention
is British Columbia's Broughton Archipelago. There, juvenile wild salmon must "run a
gauntlet" of large fish farms located off-shore near river outlets before making their way to
sea. It is alleged that the farms cause such severe sea lice infestations that one study
predicted a 99% collapse in the wild salmon population in another four yearsThis claim,
however, has been criticized by numerous scientists who question the correlation between
increased fish farming and increases in sea lice infestation among wild salmon.

Because of parasite problems, some aquaculture operators frequently use strong antibiotic
drugs to keep the fish alive (but many fish still die prematurely at rates of up to 30 percentIn
some cases, these drugs have entered the environment. Additionally, the residual presence
of these drugs in human food products has become controversial. Use of antibiotics in food
production is thought to increase the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in human diseasesAt
some facilities, the use of antibiotic drugs in aquaculture has decreased considerably due to
vaccinations and other techniques. However, most fish farming operations still use
antibiotics, many of which escape into the surrounding environment.

The lice and pathogen problems of the 1990s facilitated the development of current
treatment methods for sea lice and pathogens. These developments reduced the stress from
parasite/pathogen problems. However, being in an ocean environment, the transfer of
disease organisms from the wild fish to the aquaculture fish is an ever-present risk.

The very large number of fish kept long-term in a single location contributes to habitat
destruction of the nearby areas. The high concentrations of fish produce a significant
amount of condensed faeces, often contaminated with drugs, which again affect local
waterways. However, these effects are very local to the actual fish farm site and are
minimal to non-measurable in high current sites.

Other potential problems faced by aquaculturists are the obtaining of various permits and
water-use rights, profitability, concerns about invasive species and genetic engineering
depending on what species are involved, and interaction with the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea.

27
Indoor fish farming

An alternative to outdoor open ocean cage aquaculture, one in which the risk of
environmental damage is high, is through the use of a recirculation aquaculture system
(RAS). A RAS is a series of culture tanks and filters where water is continuously recycled
and monitored to keep optimal conditions year round. To prevent the deterioration of water
quality, the water is treated mechanically through the removal of particulate matter and
biologically through the conversion of harmful accumulated chemicals into nontoxic ones.

Other treatments such as UV sterilization, ozonation, and oxygen injection are also used to
maintain optimal water quality. Through this system, many of the environmental drawbacks
of aquaculture are minimized including escaped fish, water usage, and the introduction of
pollutants. The practices also increased feed-use efficiency growth by providing optimum
water quality (Timmons et al., 2002; Piedrahita, 2003).

One of the drawbacks to recirculation aquaculture systems is water exchange. However, the
rate of water exchange can be reduced through aquaponics, such as the incorporation of
hydroponically grown plants (Corpron and Armstrong, 1983) and denitrification (Klas et al.,
2006). Both methods reduce the amount of nitrate in the water, and can potentially eliminate
the need for water exchanges, closing the aquaculture system from the environment. The
amount of interaction between the aquaculture system and the environment can be measured
through the cumulative feed burden (CFB kg/M3), which measures the amount of feed that
goes into the RAS relative to the amount of water and waste discharged.

Because of its high capital and operating costs, RAS has generally been restricted to
practices such as broodstock maturation, larval rearing, fingerling production, research
animal production, SPF (specific pathogen free) animal production, and caviar and
ornamental fish production. Although the use of RAS for other species is considered by
many aquaculturalists to be impractical, there has been some limited successful
implementation of this with high value product such as barramundi, sturgeon and live tilapia
in the US

Fish culture is practiced in less than 30 percent of the total areas available. This has a
potential to create huge job opportunities, provided fish cultivation is done on a scientific
basis

28
India is a large producer of inland fish, ranking next only to Japan.

With an abundance of freshwater resources, India has still not been able to tap even 30% of
the potential area for inland fish production. Many entrepreneurs have, however, chosen to
take this occupation on commercial scale. This is best manifested in Andhra Pradesh, which
with 10,56,000 tons of inland fish production in 2007-08 ranked next only to West Bengal,
which is far more endowed with water resources. Andhra Pradesh has emerged among the
ranks encouraging farmers to form cooperatives to take up farming in ponds around Kolleru
lake.

Both the central and state governments have come up with schemes to help the cause of the
farmers.

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30
31
32
Fish is the cheapest and most easily digestible animal protein and was obtained from natural
sources from time immemorial for consumption by human beings. However, due to over
exploitation and pollution, the availability of fish in natural waters have declined
considerably forcing scientists to adopt various methods to increase its production. Fish
farming in controlled or under artificial conditions has become the easier way of increasing
the fish production and its availability for consumption. Farmers can easily take up fish
culture in village ponds, tanks or any new water body and can improve their financial
position substantially. It also creates gainful employment for skilled and unskilled youths.
The technology developed for fish culture in which more than one type of compatible fishes
are cultured simultaneous is the most advanced and popular in the country. This technology
is known as Composite Fish Culture. This technology enables to get maximum fish
production from a pond or a tank through utilization of available fish food organisms in all
the natural niches, supplemented by artificial feeding. Any perennial fresh water pond/tank
retaining water depth of 2 metres can be used for fish culture purpose. However, the
minimum level should not fall below one metre.Even seasonal ponds can also be utilised for
short duration fish culture.

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1.1. Fish species involved in composite fish culture

Depending on the compatibility and type of feeding habits of the fishes, the following types
of fishes of Indian as well as Exotic varieties have been identified and recommended for
culture in the composite fish culture technology :

2. Potential :The area under tanks and ponds available for warm fresh water aquaculture is
estimated to be 2.85 million ha. In additition 0.78 million ha of swamps, beels, etc. and low
lying water logged area not good for agriculture as also any agriculture land can be
converted for fish farming. Out of the total inland fish production around 60% is
contributed by the culture sector. The average productivity from ponds at present is to the
tune of 2160 kg/ha/year. This shows the tremendous scope for fish culture in the country.
The area of 4.56 lakh ha brought under scientific fish culture by 1997-98 is only 16% of the
potential area of tanks and ponds available for development showing immense possibilities
for horizontal expansion of composite fish culture.

3. Technical Parameters :Technical parameters of composite fish culture has been

enclosed as annexure - I which includes site selection, items of development, pre and post
stocking operations, stocking density, fertilisation, feeding etc.

4. Margin:

The margin money may be considered @ 5,10 & 15% for small, medium and large farmer
respectively and 25% for companies and partnership firms.

5. Subsidy

Subsidy is available for various items like Pond Development, construction of New Ponds,
first year inputs etc. under a centrally sponsored subsidy scheme implemented by majority
of the State Governments through FFDA's for different categories of farmers, details of
which may be obtained from concerned Fisheries Departments. U9u

34