FLUID MECHANICS

It is the branch of science that deals with the behaviour of the fluids at rest as well
as motion. Fluid mechanics study is classified into the following types.
Fluid statics - Study of Static Fluid
Fluid Kinematics - Study of Moving fluid with no pressure acting on it
Fluid dynamics - Study of moving fluid with pressure acting on it
Viscosity :
It is the property of a fluid with offers resistance to the movement of one layer of
fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. Let there be two layers of fluid with a
distance dy and velocities u and u+du respectively. The viscosity along with relative
velocity causes a shear stress between the fluid layers.
du / dy
= du / dy
Where = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity. Mathematically viscosity is the
shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
For liquids decreases with increase in temperature due to cohesive forces
predominates than molecular momentum transfer. However for gases increase with
increases with increasing temperature, because molecular momentum predominates
cohesive forces.
Differences between solids and fluids:
The differences between the behaviors of solids and fluids under an applied force are as
follows:
i.
ii.

For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that the elastic
limit is not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied
stress.
The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied
and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the force
is removed. A fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied and will not
recover its original form when the force is removed.

Differences between liquids and gases:

Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of fluids, they
have many distinctive characteristics of their own. A liquid is difficult to compress and,
for many purposes, may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a

fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its container, and a free surface is
formed if the volume of the container is greater than that of the liquid.
A gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with pressure are
large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of temperature. A given
mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand continuously unless restrained by a
containing vessel. It will completely fill any vessel in which it is placed and, therefore,
does not form a free surface.
Fluid Classifications :
All fluids can be classified as either Newtonian or non-Newtonian. The difference
lies in the relationship between the fluid's tangential stress (friction force between the
layers per unit surface) and the shear rate or gradient (difference in speed between the
layers divided by the distance between them). If the relationship is linear and the fluid has
zero stress at zero velocity gradient then it is Newtonian. If not, it is non-Newtonian, and
is further classified into one of various subdivisions based on the curve of their stress vs.
their velocity gradient.

For non-Newtonian fluids, the velocity gradient is dependent on the viscosity; that
is, the fluid has a higher or lower stress depending on its velocity. Based on these
qualities, the fluid can be given its sub classification

NEWTONIAN
Water
Most salt solutions in water
Light suspensions of dye
Kaolin (clay slurry)
High-viscosity fuels
Gasoline
Kerosene
Most motor oils
(see below for motor oils with additives)
Most mineral oils

NON-NEWTONIAN
YIELD PSEUDOPLASTIC, BINGHAM PLASTIC, YIELD DILATANT
Clay
Mud
Tar
Sewage sludge
Digested sewage
High concentrations of asbestine in oil
Thermoplastic polymer solutions

PSEUDOPLASTIC

Sewage sludge
Paper pulp
Grease
Soap
Paint
Printer's ink
Starch
Latex solutions
Most emulsions

DILATANT
Feldspar
Mica
Clay
Beach sand
Quicksand
Starch in water

THIXOTROPIC - RHEOPECTIC
Inks
Most paints
Carboxymethyl cellulose
Silica gel
ter
Thixotropic - decreases viscosity over time
Rheopectic - increases viscosity over time

Various non-Newtonian Behaviors:

Time-Independent behaviors:
Properties are independent of time under shear.

Bingham-plastic: Resist a small shear stress but flow easily under larger shear stresses.
e.g. tooth-paste, jellies, and some slurries.
Pseudo-plastic: Most non-Newtonian fluids fall into this group. Viscosity decreases with
increasing velocity gradient. e.g. polymer solutions, blood. Pseudoplastic fluids are also
called as Shear thinning fluids. At low shear rates(du/dy) the shear thinning fluid is more
viscous than the Newtonian fluid, and at high shear rates it is less viscous.
Dilatant fluids: Viscosity increases with increasing velocity gradient. They are
uncommon, but suspensions of starch and sand behave in this way. Dilatant fluids are
also called as shear thickening fluids.
Time dependent behaviors:
Those which are dependent upon duration of shear.
Thixotropic fluids: for which the dynamic viscosity decreases with the time for which
shearing forces are applied. e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
Rheopectic fluids: Dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which shearing forces
are applied. e.g. gypsum suspension in water.

Visco-elastic fluids: Some fluids have elastic properties, which allow them to spring back
when a shear force is released. e.g. egg white.
Types of Fluid :
Ideal fluid : Incompressible and where = 0.
Real fluid : If > 0 then it is called as real fluid.
Ideal plastic fluid : Shear stress is more than yield value and proportional to velocity
gradient.
Isothermal Process :
Changes in density takes place at constant temperature. P / = constant.
Adiabatic process :
Changes in density occurs without any heat transfer to and from the gas in the
absence of friction.
Surface Tension :
It is the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on
the surface between two immiscible liquids, such that the contact surface behaves like a
membrane under tension. It is denoted by . It is the magnitude of force per unit
distance. SI unit = N / m.
Surface tension of liquid droplet = pd / 4
Surface tension of hollow bubble = pd / 8
Surface tension of a liquid jet = pd / 2
Capillarity :
It is the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid, when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. Rise in
liquid level is called as capillary rise and fall in liquid level is called as capillary
depression. ( First figure shows capillarity rise and second figure shows capillarity
depression ) Its value is expressed in Cm or mm. Its value is dependent upon

Surface tension,
Diameter of pipe and

Weight density of liquid.

Capillary rise = h= 4 Cos / wd.

for glass and water = 0 and hence the above expression becomes h = 4 / wd.

Pascal's Law :
Pressure at a point in static fluid is equal in all directions.
Hydrostatic Law :
The rate of increase in pressure in vertically downward direction must be equal to
specific weight at that point.
w=P/z
Where,
z = Height of fluid element from the fluid surface ( Pressure head )
p = Pressure above the atmospheric pressure.
Pressure management systems :
If measurement is made above complete vacuum then it is called as absolute
pressure. If the pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure than it is called as
gauge pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15o is 101.3 KN / m2. There are
two types of pressure measuring devices. They are manometer and mechanical gauges.

Manometer : These are devices that are used for the measure of pressure at a point in
fluid by balancing a column of the fluid by same or another column of fluid. There are
two types of manometers. They are simple manometers and differential manometers.
Simple Manometer : It is a glass tube where one end is connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open in the atmosphere. There are
3 types of simple manometers. They are
1. Piezometer,
2. U - Tube manometer and
3. Single column manometer.
U - Tube manometer : It contains a u tube. One end of which is connected to a point
where pressure is to be measured and the other end open to atmosphere. The U - Tube
contains mercury. There are two types of manometer. They are
1. Single column manometer ( In this, there are further vertical single column
manometer and inclined single column manometer )
2. Differential manometer : These are devised used to measure the pressure
different between two points in a pipe or between two different pipes. It
contains a U tube with a heavier liquid. ( There are types. They are
differential U - tube manometer and inverted U - tube manometer. )
Mechanical gauges :
These are device that are useful for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid
column by spring or dead weight.
Buoyancy :
When a body is immersed in a fluid a upward force is exerted by the fluid on the
body. This upward force is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
Center of buoyancy :
It is the point through which the force of buoyancy acts on the body. Buoyant
force is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Hence center of
buoyancy = center of gravity of fluid displaced.
Meta centre : It is the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted
by a small angle.
Kinematics of flow :

There are two methods to describe the fluid motion. They are lagrangian method
and Euler method. In lagrangian method a fluid particle is followed during its motion
and its velocity, acceleration and density are described.
But in Eulerian method the velocity, acceleration and density are described at a
point in flow field. This is most commonly used.
Types of fluid flows :
Steady Flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure and density at any point does not change with time.
Unsteady flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure and density at any point changes with time.
Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity at any given time
does not change with respect to space.
Non-Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity changes with
respect to space.
Laminar flow : is the one in which the fluid particles move in well defined paths, with
one layer of fluid moving over another layer of fluid smoothly. Streamlines are straight
and parallel. This is also called as viscous flow.

Turbulent Flow : is the one in which the fluid move in Zigzag manner randomly. Eddy
formation takes place and thus there is a loss of energy.
Compressible Flow : Here the density of fluid changes from point to point.

Incompressible Flow :The density is constant. Thus gas is compressible fluid, but liquids
are incompressible fluids.
Rotational Flow : In this the fluid particles when traveling in a stream line, rotate about
their axis.
Discharge :
It is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing per second through a section of pipe
or channel.
For incompressible fluids discharge = Volume / second = Lit / sec.
For compressible fluid discharge = Weight / second = N / s.
Continuity Equation :
It is based on the principle of conservation of mass. For a fluid flowing through a
pipe, at any cross section, the quantity of fluid flowing per second is constant.
1A 1V1 = 2A2V2
Venturimeter : It is a device used to measure the rate of flow of fluid in a pipe
Orifice meter : It is a device used for the measurement of rate of flow of a fluid through a
pipe. Cheaper than the Venturimeter.
Pitot's Tube : is a device used to measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or
channel. When a velocity of a fluid is made zero by bringing it to rest, the kinetic energy
is converted to pressure energy and hence pressure is increased.
Dimensional Analysis :
It is a mathematical technique used in research works and for conducting model
test. It deals with the dimension of various physical quantities involved in the
phenomenon.
Boundary Layer Flow :
When a real fluid passes through the boundary, it adheres to it. Hence the velocity
of fluid near the boundary will be same as that of the boundary. If the boundary is
stationery then the velocity of fluid near the boundary is zero. But for away from the
boundary there is a high velocity and hence a velocity gradient exists.
The increase in velocity from zero to free stream velocity is normal to the
boundary. This variation takes place in a very small region near the boundary. This is

called as boundary layer. In the boundary layer region, the fluid exerts a shear stress on
the wall equal to
= du / dy
But however outside the boundary layer velocity V = U and du / dy = 0 and hence
shear stress = 0.
Forces acting on a body:
A force exerted by the fluid on the body. The total force Fr ( resultant force ) acts
in a direction normal to the surface of the body.
Drag : This is the component of resultant force, in the direction of motion. This force is
exerted by the fluid in the direction of motion.
Lift : This is the component of resultant force which is exerted by the fluid on the body
normal to the direction of motion. Lift occurs only when the body is inclined at an angle
to the direction of fluid flow.
Hydraulic Machines :
Are those which convert fluid energy into mechanical energy or vice versa.
Turbines :
Turbines convert Hydraulic energy to mechanical energy. A turbine is a device
which converts the enthalpy and kinetic energy of a moving fluid into some form of
mechanical work. A basic turbine consists of a rotor or series of rotors. These rotors are
mainly composed of fins connected to a shaft. When a fluid flows through the fins, the
angle of the fins causes the rotor or rotors spin, which causes the shaft to rotate. The
torque in the shaft is then able to do some form of mechanical work, such as rotate a
compressor or turn a generator which produces current. An important application is the
steam power plant which utilizes steam pressure to rotate a generator and produce
electricity. As the fluid passes through the turbine, it loses some of its velocity, pressure,
and temperature.
There are three types of turbines. They are Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines.
Turbines are classified as

Impulse turbine : Here the water at the inlet of turbine contains only kinetic
energy.
Reaction turbine :If the water at the inlet posses both kinetic energy and
pressure energy then it is called as reaction turbine.
Tangential flow. The water

flows tangential to the runner.

Radial flow : If the water flows in the radial direction through runner then it is
called as radial flow. Further they are classified into Inward radial and outward
radial.

Axial flow : The water flows in a

runner.

Mixed flow : If the water enters racially, but leaves in a direction parallel to the
axis of rotation of runner, then it is called as mixed flow turbine.

direction parallel to the axis of rotation of

Draft Tube :
The pressure at exit in the reaction turbine is less than atmospheric pressure.
Hence a pipe of gradually increasing area is used to carry the discharge from turbine
outlet to tail race.
Unit Quantities in turbines:
In order to compare the performance of different turbines which operate with
different speeds, blade angles the results are obtained in terms of quantities which is
obtained when the head of the turbine is made unity. Unit speed and unit discharge are
two such quantities. Unit speed is the speed of the turbine at unit head. and Unit
discharge is the discharge is the discharge of turbine at unit head.
Pumps :
Convert mechanical energy to Hydraulic energy. A pump is a device used to raise,
transfer, or compress liquids and gases. Water is a typical fluid used by pumps in
applications such as irrigation and cooling, among others. Another very typical use of a
pump is to force gas into a combustion chamber such as in a jet engine, where it is termed
a compressor. Multitudes of uses have been discovered for pumps involving liquids
varying from blood to sludge. Although a pump can be used with almost any liquid,
certain attributes of the working fluid must be considered when designing a pump. For
example, if the pump must displace an acidic fluid, the pump must be composed of
materials which will not react with the acid.
In a pump system, there must be some form of work done on the pump to make it
operate. In most cases, this would be a motor which would drive either a piston or a type
of rotor. The pump then does work on the fluid passing through it, and this work is
translated into total energy within the fluid. Following are the different types of pumps.
Centrifugal Pumps :
The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is
converted to pressure energy by means of centrifugal force then that hydraulic machine is
called as centrifugal pump.

Principle :
The centrifugal pump works in the principle of forced vortex flow. According to
which when a liquid is rotated by a external tongue, there is arise in pressure head. This
rise in pressure head at any point in the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of
tangential velocity of the liquid at that point. At the outlet of the impeller, the pressure is
more and hence the rise in pressure head is also more. The liquid will be discharged at
the outlet at a high pressure. This high pressure will be sufficient to lift the liquid to a
very great heights.
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps :
If the centrifugal pump contains two or more impellers then it is multistage pump.
They may be mounted on same shafts or different shafts. This arrangement is done to
obtain

High head or

Discharge huge quantity of water.

To obtain huge quantity of water impellers are connect in series ( In same shaft).
If the discharge is required is high the impellers are connected in parallel ( different shafts
)
Reciprocating Pump :
If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy by sucking a liquid
into a cylinder in which a piston reciprocates and exerts a thrust on the liquid and
increase the hydraulic energy is called the reciprocating pump. Following are parts in
reciprocating pumps.

Suction Pipe,
Valve

Delivery pipe and valve,

piston, connecting rod and crank.

The piston moves back with the crank and connecting rod attachment. The crank
rotates by electric motor. Both the valves are one way valves or Non return valves,
allowing the water to flow only in one direction.
When the piston moves from left to right vacuum is created in cylinder. But the
liquid is at atmospheric pressure. Hence because of this pressure drop, the liquid is
forced through the suction valve into cylinder. When it moves from right to left the

pressure in cylinder is above atmospheric suction valve closes and delivery valve opens
and liquid is forced into delivery pipe.

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