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BRITISH STANDARD Structural use of aluminium RT SN MASTER COPY BS 8118 : Part ¥ : 1991 § 8118: Part 171991 —————— ‘Standards Board effect on 31 March 1992 ©nst i991 ‘The following BSI references relate to the work on this standard: Gommitte reference C596 Draft for comment 85/1254 DC ‘ni'0. 500192001 Committees responsiblé for this British Standard ‘The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by the Civil Snginecrng and Bilding Suructures Standards Policy Committe (OSB) to Committee CSB/36, upon which the following bedi Amendments issued since publication Amd. No. [Date ‘Text affected BS 8148 : Part 1: 1991 Contents . 7 7 Page Committees responsible “Thside front cover * Foreword 9 Code of practice Section 1. General 1.1 Scope 10 1.2 Definitions : eee 10 13 Major symbols bey Section 2. Properties and Selection of materials 7 2.1 Designation of materials 15 2.2 Permitted materials - 6 = 2.2.1 Extrusions, sheet, plate, drawn tube, forgings and castings 1b 2.22 Bolts and rivets 16 223 Filler metals 22 23 Strength, mechanical and physical properties 22 2.8.1 _ Strength and mechanical properties 22 "2.8.2 “Physical properties 22 2.4 . Durability and corrosion protection 22 2.41 General 22 2.4.2 Durcbility of alloys 23 2.4.3 Corrosion protection 23 2.5 — Pabrication and construction 26 ‘2.5.1 General 26 2.5.2 Bending and forming 26 2.5.3 Welding 26 2.6 — Selection of materials 26 2.7 Availability 26 2.7.1. General bad 2.7.2 Structural sections 26 - 21.3 Tube 29 2.7.4 Sheet, strip and plate 29 2.7.5 Forgings 29 2.7.6 Castings 29 Section 3. Design principles 3.1 Limit state design 3.2 Loading 3.2.1 General 3.2.2 Nominal loading “3.2.8 Pactored loading 3.2.4 Dynamic effects 33 3.81 3.3.2 3.3.3 34 SAL 342 45.2 453 45.4 455 4.5.6 46 4.6.1 4.6.2 46.3 Statie strength General Action-effect under factored loading resistance Deformation Recoverable elastic deformation Permanent inelastic deformation Severity of softening Extent of HAZ Beams Introduction s Uniaxial moment resistance of the section ‘Shear force resistance Combined moment and shear force Web bearing Lateral torsional buckling ‘Tension members General ‘Tension resistance Eccentrically connected ties 31 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 eee Compression members General Section classification for axial compression Resistance to overall buckling Column buckling ‘Torsional buckling Strut curve selection Local squashing Hybrid sections Certain cases of eccentrically connected struts Battened struts Bending with axial force and biaxial bending General : Section classification and local buckling under combined actions Section check ‘Overall buckling check Deformation (serviceability limit state) General Recoverable elastic deflection : Section 5. Plates and plate girders oh 52 B21 522 523 BLA 525 52.6 53 5B 582 583 53.4 535 Ba SAL 5.4.2. 54.3 544 BAS 5.46 7 General Unstitfened plates General Unstiffened plates under direct stress Unstiffened plates under in-plane moment # Longitudinal stress gradient on unstiffened plates Unstiffened plates in shear Combined actions Multi-stiffened plating General ct ‘Multi-stiffened plating under uniform compression ‘Multi-stiffened plating under in-plane moment Longitudinal stress gradient on multi-stiffened plates Multi:stiffened plating in shear Plate girders General Moment resistance of transversely stiffened plate girders Shear resistance of transversely stiffened plate girders Longitudinally and transversely stiffened girders} Web stiffeners and tongue-plates Use of corrugated or closely stiffened webs Bessey B ™ 14 8 8 80 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 54 56 56 5.7 58 5.9 61 62 63 64 6.5 66 67 68 Td 12 13 TA 15 18 1.4 18 79 7.10 Ba El EL rz Ga G2 as Ga Gs aa Sz J3 JA Ka" La Elastic critical shear buckling factor vy Basic tension fieid shear buckling factor Flange assisted tension field shear buckling factor-99 Shear buckting factor my Effective stiffener section ‘Schematic interaction diagracns for plate girders Effective butt weld throats Effective fillet vield throats Failure planes for static welded joint checks Butt weld design Fillet weld design Effective length: of longitudinal fillet welds Thick adherend shear test Thin sheet test specimens Fatigue assessment procedure ‘Stress parameter for parent material ‘Stresses in weld throats Stress in lapped joints Stresses in root of fillet Reservoir cycle counting method ‘Simplified stress spectrum ‘Typical f,—N relationship Design f,—N curves (for variable amplitude stress histories) Method of identification of required fatigue class of drawings Assumed elasto-plastic stress patterns (non-hybrid) Extent of HAZ, factor ” ‘Typical hardness plot along a heat path from a weld ‘Torsion constant coefficients for certain fillets and bulbs Shear tion (8) and warpis for erated aation (8) and warping factor (H) for certain Monosymmetric section notation ‘Skew-symmétrie section notation Asymmetric section notation Sections which exhibit no interaction between the pure torsional and flexural buckling modes. Monosymmetric section Asymmetric section Nomogram for solving cubic equation 23 ~ 82+ Ae - Bao Buckling strength at +high slenderness ‘Zone of greatest vatiation in effective f,—N curves 110 qn uz 123 127 132 134 135 139 M1 M7 48 9 150 151 155 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Foreword ‘This Part of BS 8118 has been prepared under the direction ofsthe Civit Engineering and Building Structures Standards Policy Committee. BS 8118 is a document combining a code of practice to cover the design and testing of alurninium structures (Part 1) and a specification for materials, fabrication and protection (Part 2). . ‘This Part of BS 8118 gives recommendations for the design of the elements of framed, lattice and stiffened plate structures, using wrought alumjaiure alloy. Although BS 8118 is a revision of CP 118, itis written with a different design philosophy. Because of this CP 118 will not be withdrawn immediately so that a period of overlap in design procedures can be allowed. It has been assumed in the drafting of this British Standard that the execution of its provisions is entrusted to appropriately qualified and experienced people and that construction and supervision is carried out by capable and experienced organizations. ‘The full list of organizations that have taken part in the work of the Technical ‘Committee is given on the inside front cover. The Chairman of the Technical Committee is Dr P'S Bulson CBE and the following people have made a particular contribution in the drafting of the code. Mr RJ Bartlett MrM.J Bayley Mr PG Buxton DrMSG Cullimore Mr 5B Dwight Prof. HR Evans Mr K Ewing Mr W Ferguson MrRA Foulkes MrJH Howlett - Mr DI Knight MrWiLiddel =, Prof. DA Nethercot DrMH Ogle Mr JA Thornton Mr PBTindalt Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations. BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 6. Static design of joints 61 6.2 621 . 6.2.2 . 6.2.3 6.2.4 63 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.4.4 General Riveted and bolted joints: design considerations General Groups of fasteners Effect of cross-sectional areas of plies Long joints Riveted and bolted joints: geometrical and other general considerations Minimum spacing Maximum spacing Edge distance Hole clearance Packing Countersinking Long grip rivets Washers and locking devices Intersections Factored resistance of individual rivets and bolts other than Limiting stresses Shear Axial tension Bearing ‘Combined shear and tension HSFG bolts General Uttimate limit state (static strength) Serviceabitity limit state (deformation) Friction capacity Prestress Slip factor Pinned joints, General Solid pins Members connected by pins Welded joints General Effect of welding on static strength ” Effect of welding on fatigue strength Corrosion Edge preparations Distortion Information given to fabricator Butt welds Fillet welds : 8 RRGGFRAGRKLRLLRLBR BSSSSSBRRS SSSBBB 2eee BSsasg R8ase Page 6.8 Design strength of welded joints 87 6.8.1 General 87 6.8.2 Groups of welds 88 6.8.3 Limiting stress of weld metal 88 6.8.4 Limiting stress in the HAZ 88 6.9 — Factored resistance of welds 88 6.9.1 Butt weld metal : 88 6.9.2 Fillet weld metal 89 6.9.3 Heat-affected zones (HAZs) "92 6.10 Bonded joints 98 6.10.1 Generat 93 6.10.2 Factored resistance 93 6.10.3 Tests 93 Section 7. Fatigue 7.1 Introduetion 96 TAA General 95 7.1.2 Influence of fatigue on design 95 7.1.3 Mechanism of failure 95 7.1.4. Potential sites for fatigue cracking 95 7.1.5 Conditions for fatigue susceptibility 95 12 Fatigue design criteria. 95 12.1 Design philosophy 95 7.2.2 Fatigue faiture criterion 96 73 Fatigue assessment procedure 96 7A Fatigue loading 96 7.5 Stresses 98 7.5.1 Derivation of stresses 98 15.2 Stress parameters 98 7.8 Derivation of stress spectra 98 7.6.1 Cycle counting 98 7.6.2 Derivation of Stress spectrum 106 117 Classification of details 106 7.8 Fatigue strength data 108 7.8.1 Classified details 108 7.8.2 Unclassified details 109 7.8.3. Low endurance range 109 71.8.4. Improvement techniques 109 7.8.5 Workmanship 109 Section 8. Testing 8.1 8.2 83. 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.3.4 8.3.5 8.4 B41 84.2 8.4.3 Bad B45 General Preparation for test Static tests General Application of loads Acceptance criteria Retests ‘Ultimate resistance Measurement Acceptance testing for fatigue Objectives of test Derivation of loading data Derivation of stress data Derivation of endurance data Acceptance 8.5 Reporting u7 /‘Bppendices Page 13 3 us 113 us 14 4 4 4 14 ua 5 116 6 118 123 324 124 125 128 A Nomenclature of aluminium products - % Formal statement of safety factor format adopted in the for © . Typical values of design life D Derivation of material limiting stresses for use in design % _Blasto-plastic moment calculation F _ HAZs adjacent to welds 6 SEpgR! formulae for the torsional properties of thin-walled open sections, UM Latere! torsional buckling of beams 7 Torsional bucking of struts: determination of slendemess Parameter ) K Equations to design curves L___ Fatigue strength data 154 ‘Tables : SEH eee eee 2.1 Heat treatable alloys 2.2 — Non-heat-treatable alloys 2.3 Bolt and rivet material 2.4 Welding filler metals 2.5 Physical properties 2.6 General corrosion protection of aluminium structures 2.7 Additional protection at metal-to-metal contacts to combat crevice and galvanie effects 3.8, Selection offer wires and rods for inert gas welding 2.9” Product form availability : 2:10 Range of sizes for extruded sections complying with BS 116, 3-1 Load factors (based on building structures) 3.2 Load factors for combined loads 3.3 Material factors 3.4 Limiting deflections 4h 35 4.2 Limiting stresses, non-heat-treatable alloys 36 43° Limiting values of 8 40 44 Curve selection for figure 4.5 (local buckling) - 4a 4.5 HAZ softening factor kez 4 4.6 Extent of HAZ, factor a 45 4.7 Lateral torsional buckling of beams, coefficients Xand ¥ 52 4.8 Bifective length factor K for struts 54 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts 59 4.10 Choice of strut curve diagram - 62 6.1 Limiting stress py for aluminium fasteners 83 6.2 Limiting stresses of weld metal Pw 89 6.3 Limiting stresses pa, and py, in the HAZ 89 7.1 Type’ classifications: non-welded details 99 7.2. Type 2 classifications: welded details on surface of member 101 7.3 Type 3 dassifications: welded details at end connections of member 103 TA” Values of Ke and m in figure 7.9 108 8.1 Fatigue test factor F 7 A.L Nearest foreign equivalent to designated wrought and cast alloys complying with British Standards 121 C1 Typical values of design life 324 D.L Limiting stress py for weld metal 125 Fl Modified HAZ softening factor K’, 129 F2 — General determination of k, and Kk’, 130 G1 Specimen calculation: monosymmetric shape 138 G.2 Specimen calculation: skew-symmetric shape. Maz G3. Specimen calewlation: asymmetric shape M43 HL Bffective length for beams of length L 46 H.2 Effective length l for cantilever of length L 146 K.1_ Equations to design curves 152 Figures 4.1 Types of fat element 37 4.2 — Flat elements under stress gradient, value of 9 88 4.3 Buckling modes for flat reinforced elements 38 4.4 — Reinforced elements, value of 39 4.5 Local buckling factor ky, 42 4.6 ° Extent of HAZ, definition of z 45 47 Typical heat-path measurement Limiting stresses, heat-treatable alloys. Lateral torsional buckling, equivalent uniform moment 4 Lateral torsional buckling of beams, buckling stress p, Column buckling stress p, for struts ‘Torsional buckling of struts, interaction factor k ‘Torsional buckling stress p, for struts Unstiffened plate ‘Multi-stiffened plate Plate girder Page 46 SSsEsaes 10 > BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Section 1 See et 1 St Reduction factor applied to ky ” Mase Factored uniaxial moment resistance about, Soc Constant amplitude cut-off. ‘stress, major axis Orit allowance for shear) | Sov Variable amplitude cut-off stress Mrsy mina as (comets esac about Se Design stress range - noe aiowance sheat) \ Fs tate ten tres (designated fy in T fononal bucking Tesstance to lateral 7 e Mz Semi-compact value of Mag -2 Milimum 0.2 % tensile proof stress poe Son (esignated Myo in BS EN 10008 1) Mx Uniaxial moment about major axis | G Shear modutus + Ms Bauivalent uniform moment about major 9 ams ime eager My Uniaxial moment about minor axis m 7 : | poll tastanenes Hats My Equivalent uniform moment about minor AH ‘Warping factor 4M, Maximum factored moment h Demet ements coefficient My Minimum factored moment * 4 or Distance to a free edge 7 _ Inverse slope of f--N eurve (fatigie) ‘Second moment of, of full section of 1 . effective wiffener (plate girder) 7 Tae eine factors (late girder) Ts moment of ; of b-unit of Number of webs i. iy ang (ag ate one sub-unit of or Predicted cycles to faiture (endurance) ih ‘Second moment of area about centroid axis” {(eagialent number of cycles of stress range J ‘rsion constant or Time in days between welding and K _- Effective length factor for struts P Axial tensile or compressive force due to 1 Gbeffcient in caleulation of resistance of factored loading or Protection Constant in fatigne failure criterion Pee Elastic eritical oad for torsional buckling, Local buckling coefficient Po Proof load fora bolt Reduetion factor on longitudinal resistance Py Piestress load to take account of high shear Pa Factored axial resistance based on overall ‘Strength factor for HAZ material column or torsional buckling Vodified strength factor for HAZ material Pa Factored resistance of butt weld Length between supports, Pep Ractored resistance of fillet weld ‘Effective length between lateral supports Prrp Factored resistance of HAZ, adjacent to butt Effective length of butt weld Ponca)” boundary (direct normal tensile eae force) Effective length of fillet weld : : Pree Factored resistance of HAZ. jacent to Moment under factored loading fillet weld fusion boundary (dices ne mal Equivalent uniform moment tensile force) Elastic critical uniform moment for lateral Pag Factored resistance of bonded joint torsional buckling Pas Sica asa resistance (tensile or Fully compact value of Mps compressive) Reduced value of Mps for flan; Pare Factored resistance of HAZ adjacent to butt Factored mohtentretenee ofc act on in ‘weld toe (direct normal tensile force) the absence of Pierre Fear stance Of TLAZ adjacent to Mnso Reduced factored Reesor a let weld toe (direct normal tensile force) ree ation wo aered moment resistance o ‘tx Factores axial resistance to overall column buckling about major axis Section 1 pepe pe Pot Pow Ps re Py Pye Pw Pw Pwo A R ” s Sx So Factored axial resistance to overall column buckling about minor axis Factored resistance of HAZ under direct, loading ae Limiting stress for local capacity (tension and compression) Limiting direct stress in HAZ Limiting stress for solid rivets anid bolts ‘Limiting stress for bending and overall na Limiting stress for flange material Limiting stress for web material Lishiting stress for overall buckling stability o Lateral torsional buckling stress or Buckling stress for web treated as a thin column between flanges Limiting stress in shear Limiting shear stress in HAZ ‘Limiting stress,of weld metal Stress arising at extreme edge of web due to localized force ‘Stress arising at mid-point of web due to localized force 7 Stress axis value of 7, in strut curve ‘diagrams or Value of pp for unwelded fully compact section Radius of curvature of curved intemal element, to mid-metal ‘Minor axis radius of gyration Plastic section modulus of gross section, with no reduction for HAZ, local buckling, or holes External loading actions under factored Yoading Plastic modulus of effective flange section (plate girder) Plastic modulus of net section Plastic modulus of net effective section Factor on p; to allow for strut not meeting tolerances of'straightness or twist ‘Toe of HAZ ‘Thickness Lesser of 0.5(tg + tc) and L.5tg ‘Thickness of thinnest element connected by welding ‘e te & & wv n n Ze Pq Zne = % as ef See FSFE SF x ae yr 7 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 ‘Thickness of thickest element connected by welding Effective throat thickness Flange thickness Flange thickness Shear force under factored loading Pactored shear resistance of HAZ adjacent to butt weld fusion boundary Pactored shear resistance of HAZ,adjazent to fillet weld fusion boundary Pactored shear force resistance Factored shear resistance of HAZ adjacent to butt weld toe Factored shear resistance of HAZ adjacent to fillet weld toe Reduced value of Vis, Factored resistance of HAZ in shear ‘Tension field factor (plate girders) Elastic critical shear buckling factor Basic tension field shear buckling factor Flange assisted tension field shear buckling factor Weld metal 7 Pitch of stiffeners in multi-stiffened plate Distance from centre of multi-stiffened plate to centre of outermost stiffener Distance from neutral axis to more heavily compressed edge Distance from neutral axis to less heavily ‘compressed edge, or edge in tension Distance from neutral axis to, most severely stressed fibres in a beam Distance from neutral axis to the compression flange element in a beam Elastic modulus of effective section Elastic modulus of net section Elastic modulus of net effective section Distance the HAZ extends from a weld Basie value of Ratio of minimum to maximum shear stress in web (clastic stress distribution) or Modifying factor for extent of HAZ to allow for elevated temperature Coefficient in calculation of bolt or rivet in. single shear BS 6105 BS 6399 BS 8100 BS 8118 cps cP 143, PD 6484 180 209 180 2107 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 ——— ee Specification for corrosion-resistant stainless steel fasteners _ Loading for buildings Part 1 Code of practice for dead and imposed loads Lattice towers and masts” Structural use of aluminium Part 2 Specification for materials, workmanship and protection Code of basie data for the design of buildings Chapter V Part 2 Wind loads Code of practice for sheet roof and wall coverings Part 15 Aluminium. Metric units Commentary on corrosion at bimetallic contacts and its alleviation ‘Wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys — Chemical composition and forms.of products Part 1 Chemical composition Aluminium, magnesium and their alloys — Temper designations R. Kappus. “Twisting failure of centrally loaded open section columns in the elastic range’. NACA ‘Technical Memorandum No. $51, 1938. BS EN 10002 Tensile testing of metallic materials Part 1 Method of test at ambient temperature 8 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Publication(s) referred to Bs 499 BS 729 BS 61 BS 1470 BS 1471 BS 1472 BS 1473 BS 1474 BS 1490 BS 1974 * BS 2451 BS 2573 BS 2901 BS 3019 BS 3518 BS 3571 BS 4300 ~ Welding terms and symbols Part 1 Glossary for welding, Brazing and thermal cutting Part 2 Specification for symbols for welding ‘Specification for hot dip galvanized coatings on iron and steel articles Specification for aluminium alloy sections for structural purposes ” ° Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys for general engineering purposes: plate, sheet and strip, Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys for general engineering purposes — drawn tube ‘Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys for general engineering Purposes — forging stock and forgings EH ‘Specification for wrought aluminium and alurninium alloys for general engineering Purposes — rivet, bolt and screw stock ‘Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys for general engineering Purposes: bars, extruded round tubes and sections Specification for aluminium and aluminium alloy ingots and castings for general ‘engineering purposes Specification for large aluminium alloy rivets (¥4 in. to J in, nominal dfameters) Specification for chilled iron shot and grit Rules for the design of cranes 7 Filler rods and wires for gas- shielded arc welding . oe Part 4 Specification for aluminium and aluminium alloys and reagnesium alloys ‘TIG welding ; Part I Specification for TIG welding of aluminium, magnesium and their alloys Z Methods of fatigue testing MIG welding E Part 1 Specification for MIG welding of aluminium and aluminium alloys Part 1 Aluminium alloy longitudinally welded tube Part 12 5454 Bars, extruded round tube and sections. sa Part 14 7020 Plate, sheet and strip te Part 15 7020 Bax, extruded round tube and sections . i; Specification for high strength friction grip bolts andassociated nuts and washers for = structural engineering Part 1 General guide Bg Specification for the use of high strength friction grip ‘bolts in structural steelwork. Metric series Part 1 General grade ‘Specification for approval testing of welding procedures Part 2 TIG or MIG welding of aluminium and its alloys Methods of test for adhesives Part C5 Determination of bond ‘Strength in longitudinal shear Steel, concrete and composite bridges Part 10 Code of practice for fatigue Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels Lighting columns J J ia] BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Section 1 Section 1. General 1.1 Scope ‘This Part of BS 8118 gives recommendations for the design of the elements of framed, lattice and stiffened plate structures, using wrought aliminium alloy. Where castings or forgings are used they should be manufactured and designed in accordance with the appropriate British Standard and in close consultation with the specific manufacturer ‘The design recommendations are for a variety of aluminium alloys suitable for structural use, and apply to a range of structures subjected to normal atmospherie conditions such as bridges, buildings, towers, road and rail vehicles, marine craft, cranes and offshore topside structures. used for the design of corttainment vessels, pipework, airborne structures or naval vessels, or for any application for which specific alternative codes exist, e.g. BS 5500 for pressure vessels and BS 5649 for lighting columns. NOTE, The titles of the publications referred to in this standard are listed on page 186. 1.2 Definitions For the purposes of this Part of BS 8118 the following definitions apply. 1.2.1 compact cross section A cross section that can develop the full plastie capacity, in either compression or bending, with no reduction due to local buckling of thin-walled elements, 1.2.2 design life The period in which the structure or component is required to perform safely, with.an acceptable +» Probability that it will not require repair or ice. 12.3 design spectram A tabulation of the numbers of occurrences of all the stress ranges caused by loading events. 1.2.4 detail class A tating given-to a detail which indicates its level of fatigue resistance. , 1.2.5 edge distance Distance from the centre of a fastener hole to the nearest edge of an element. 1.2.6 effective length Length between points of effective restraint of a member, multiplied by a factor to take account of end conditions and loading. q 1.2.7 factored load A nominal load multiplied by the relevant partial load factor. 7 1.2.8 factored life ‘The design tife multiplied by the relevant partial life factor. 1.2.9 factored resistance ‘The resistance of a member divided by the relevant Partial material factor. 1.2.10 fail safe ‘The ability of a structure to continue to be serviceable after the discovery and monitoring of L2.11 fatigue ‘The damage, by gradual cracking, to a structural ‘member caused by applications of a stress that is insufficient to cause failure by a single application. 1.2.12 fasion boundary ‘The material in a heat-affected zone immediately adjacent to the leg of a weld, 1.2.18 heat-affected zone A zone in which there is a reduction in strength of material in the vicinity of welds in certain classes 1.2.14 imposed load All loading on a structure other than dead or wind loading. 1.2.15 instability A loss of stiffness of a structure (usually sudden) that limits its load-carrying capability and in Certain instances can cause catastrophic failure. 1.2.16 lateral torsional buckling ‘The buckling of a beam accompanied by a, combination of lateral displacement and twisting. 1.2.17 lateral restraint Restraint that limits lateral movement of the compression flange of a beam, 1.2.18 limit state Condition beyond which a structure is unfit for its intended use. 1.2.19 loading event A defined loading cycle which for design purposes is assumed to repeat a given number of times. 1.2.20 load spectrum A tabulation showing the relative frequencies of loading events of different intensities on a structure, Section i BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 1.2.21 local buckling Buckling of the thin walls of a component in compression, characterized by the formation of waves or ripples along the member. - 1.2.22 Miner’s summation A cumulative fatigue damage summation based on a rule devised by Palmagren and Miner. 1.2.23 nominal load The load to which a structure may be expected to be subjected during normal service. 1.2.24 outstand element ‘The element of a section, composed of flat or curved elements, which is supported along one longitudinal edge, free along the other. 1.2.25 reinforced element ‘The element of a section which is stiffened by the introduction of longitudinal reinforcement, either along the edge of the element or within its width. 1.2.26 resistance ‘The strength of a member based on calculations, using acceptable maximum values for material strength. 1.2.27 safe life A design against fatigue’ in which the calculated life is many times longer than the life required in service. 1.2.28 semi-compact cross section A cross section of a beam in which the stress in the extreme fibres is limited to the 0.2 % proof stress, because local buckling of the compression elements would prevent development of the full plastic moment capacity. 1.2.29 serviceability limit states ‘Those limit states which when exceeded can lead to the structure being unfit for its intended use, even though the structure has not collapsed. 1.2.30 stenderness ‘The effective length of a strut divided by the radius of gyration. 1.2.31 stiffened elements ‘The element of a section, composed of flat or curved elements, which is supported along both longitudinal edges. 1.2.32 stress cycle A pattern of variation of stress at a point, which is normally in the form of two opposing half-waves. 1.2.33 stress history A record showing how the stress at a point varies during loading. 1.2.94 stress range (2) The greatest algebraic difference between the principal stresses occurring on principal planes not more than 45° apart in any stres® ¢ycle on a plate or element. (2) The algebraic or vector difference between the greatest and least vector sum of stresses in any one stress cycle on a weld. 1.2.36 stress spectrum A tabulation of the numbers of occurrences of all the stress ranges of different magnitudes during a loading event. 1.2.36 torsional buekling Buclding of a strut accompanied by twisting. 1.2.87 torsional/flexural buekling Buckling of a strut accompanied by overall flexure as well as twisting. 1.2.38 ultimate Limit states ‘Those limit states which when exceeded can cause collapse of part or whole of a structure. NOTE. Specific terms relating to lit state principles are ‘defined in append B. : 1.3 Major symbols: A Area or Durability rating Ae Effective section area A, Effective shear area @ Spacing of transverse stiffeners or Width of unstiffened plates B Overall width of raulti-stiffened plate or Durability rating Bap Factored resistance in bearing of a fastener 6 Width of flat element be Effective width of web plate (plate girder) C Durability rating D Diameter of round tube to mid-metal or Overall depth of web to outside of flanges Depth of web between flanges or Depth of unstiffened plates Nominal diameter of fastener or pin Modulus of elasticity Fatigue test factor Fusion boundary of heat-affected zone (Haz) Friction capacity of high strength friction sxip bolt*{HSFG bolt) mame 8 a BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 B ~ Slenderness parameter Bo Semi-compact limiting value of 8 8, Fully compact limiting value of 8... re Consequences of failure factor ‘Overall load factor ‘Yn» Yee Partial load factors ‘Fatigue life factor tm ‘Material factor ‘ymt Fatigue material factor Ys Coefficient in caleulation of friction capacity ‘ Constant 2)" nr Slendemness parameter for column buckling, torsional buckling, and lateral torsional buelding Slendemess ritio of strut about minor axis Modifying factor for extent of HAZ to allow for increased heat build-up Elastic critical stress of element with teinforcement Elastic critical stress of element without reinforcement ‘Normal stress on weld under factored Shear stress perpendicular to weld axis Shear stress parallel to weld axis, Slip factor 7 Section 2 Section 2. Properties and selection of materials 2.1 Designation of materials ‘The designation of wrought aluminium and aluminium alloys for general engineering purposes used in this standard is in accordance with the international 4-digit classification system. Details of this system are given in appendix A. Table A.1 in appendix A shows by cross reference the current and old British Standard designations together with the nearest equivalent [SO and other foreign designations. “The designation for castings is in accordance with the system used in BS 1490 for aluminium alloy castings. “The alloy temper designation used in this standard is generally in accordance with the ISO 2107 ‘alternative’ temper designation system. Details of this systern together with the former system still used for some alloys and forms of material are given in appendix A. 7 NOTE. To simplify the text and to avold confusion, in sections 4, Sand 6 the temper designations M, TB, Te and if are ot used. ‘The equivalent temper designations F, T4, T6 and TS respectivelyare used. 2.2 Permitted materials 2.2.1 Extrusions, sheet, plate, drawn tube, forgings and castings 2.2.1.1 Standard materials 2.2.1.1.1 General ‘This Part of BS 8118 covers the design of structures fabricated from a range of aluminium alloys used in conditions and tempers listed in tables 2.1 and 2.2 and coramonly supplied to the specifications given in BS 8118 : Part 2. ‘The alloys are in two categories, the first of heat-treatable alloys given in table 2.1 and described in 2.2.1.1.2 and the second of non-heat-treatable alloys in table 2.2 and described in 2.2.1.1.3. * Castings should only be used in load bearing structures after both adequate testing and the setting up of quality control procedures for production of the castings has been performed to the approval of the engineer. The design rules of this standard should not be applied to castings wrthout lose consultation with the manufacturers ereof. 7 2.2,1.1,2 Heat-treatable alloys ‘The following alloys derive strength from heat, treatment. (@) Alloy 6082, The commonest of these alloys is, the medium strength alloy, 6082 (A! SiIMgMn) of durability rating B (see 2.4.2), used usually in the fully heat-treated condition, i.e. 6082-16, and used in welded and non-welded structures. BS $118 : Part 1: 1991 ‘The choice of this alloy is based on a combination of good physical properties and a good degree of resistance to corrosion. It is available in most forms; solid and hollow extrusions, plates, sheets, tubes and forgings. Care should be taken in design to account for Joss of strength in welded joints in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) (b) Alloy 6061. An alternative alloy to 6082 is 6061 (Al MgiSiCu) of durability rating B which has very similar properties with slight improvement in formability and surface finish. It is available in extruded tubular form and mainly used for structures. (c) Alloy 6063. In applications where strength is not of paramount importance and has to be ‘compromised with appearance, the alloy 6063 (AI Mg0,7Si) of durability rating B is preferred, Because it combines moderate strength with good durability and surface finish. It is particularly responsive to anodizing and similar patented finishing processes. Alloy 6063 has a lower strength than 6082, and like the latter there is a loss of strength in welded joints in the HAZ. It is available in extrusions, tubes and forgings and is particularly suitable for thin-walled and intricate extruded sections. It is used mainly for architectural applications such as curtain walling and window frames. (@) Alloy 7020. A further alloy which is readily ‘weldable (although not restricted to welded structures) is the medium strength 7+ * * series alloy 7020 (Al Zn4,5Mg)) of durability rating C. Tt has better post-weld strength than the 6% + + series due to its natural ageing property. This material and others in the 7* ¥ + series of alloys are however sensitive to environmental conditions and its satisfactory performance is as dependent on correct methods of manufacture and fabrication as on control of composition and tensile properties. If material in the T6 condition is subjected to any operations which induce cold work, such as bending, shearing, punching, etc., the alloy may be made susceptible to stress corrosion cracking; it is essential therefore that there be direct collaboration between the engineer and the manufacturer on the intended use and the likely service conditions. This alloy is available normally only in rolled forms and simple extruded solid and hollow sections, though forgings can sometimes be made to special order. {@) Alloy LM25. Alloy LM25 (Al Si7Mg) of durability ratirig B is a casting alloy with good foundry characteristics, corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. It is available in four conditions‘of heat treatment in both sand and chill castings, and is mainly used for architectur and food marfacturing installatiéns. 42 & “BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 2.2,1.1.8 Non-heat- treatable alloys ‘The following alloys derive enhanced strength only by strain hardening. They are normally produced in sheet and plate forms and occasionally in some simple extruded forms. (a) Alloy 1200. The alloy 1200 (A199,0) of durability rating A is ‘commercially pure’ aluminium with high ductility and a very good corrosion resistance. It is used for architectural work where components are not highly stressed and is available in sheet only. (b) Alloy 3108. The alloy 3103 (Al Mal) of durability rating A is stronger and harder than ‘commercially pure’ aluminium but with the same high ductility and very good corrosion resistanee, and is used extensively for building sheet and vehicle panelling. It is available in sheet form. () Alloy $105. The alloy 3105 (Al btn0,5Mg0,5) of durability rating A is becoming more prevalent in the profiled building sheet market due to its, superior properties over 3103 in hardness and strength. It also has an economic advantage. Available forms are limited to shect. ‘(d) Alloy 5088. The alloy 5083 (Al Mg4,5Mn0,7) of durability rating A is used for welded ‘structures, and plating and tank work, because it welds readily without significant loss of, long temperatures above 65 °C can result in grain-boundary precipitation of magnesiunvaluminium intermetallic compounds which corrode preferentially in some adverse environments. This effect is aggravated if the alloy is subjected to subsequent cold working: operations. It is available in plate, sheet, single extruded sections, drawn tube and forgings. ‘Abart from its easy welding and-good formability ~ Otfiér allofs'are ‘vallable whi Properties, it also exhibits very good durability, especially in marine environments. (©) Alloys 521, 51544 and 5454. Alloys 6251 CAI Mg2), 51542 (Al Mg3,5(A)) and 5454 (Al Mg3Mn) all of durability rating A are available in sheet, plate and simple extrusions. 51544 and 6261 axe also available as forgings. fesium is the main addition and as a result the alloys ate ductile in the soft condition, but work harden rapidly. They have good weldability and very guod resistance to corrosive attack, especially in a marine atmosphere. For this reason they are used in panelling and structures Exposed to marine atmospheres. 5154A and 5454 are stronger than 5251. ‘The strongest 5+. * series alloy which offers immunity to stress corrosioh when exposed to clevated temperatute is 8454. The-5+ # * series alloys with greater than 3 % Mg may be rendered ‘susceptible to stress corrosion when exposed to % elevated temperatures, (0 Alloy 5251: in seam welded tube. Seam welded tubes are produced from. 5251 strip (Al Mg2) giving a durability rating B to the tube, a which has been further strengthened by work hardening through forming and finishing rolls. Its -main uses are in general engineering such 23 arden furniture, handrails and ladders. (g) Alloy LMS. Alloy LM5 (Al Mg6Sil) of Gurability rating A is a medium strength casting’ alloy possessing excellent finishing properties where it maintains a surface of high polish, but is only suitable for simple shapes. It is mainly used for sand castings for architectural and decorative purposes and where anodizing is required. (h) Alloy LM6. Alloy LM6 (Al Sil2) of durability rating B is a further medium strength casting alloy which has excellent foundry characteristics, high ductility and impact strength, together with a {800d corrosion resistance. It is suitable for both sand and chill castings and for a wide range of ‘uses in general, marine and electrical applications and in castings of above average 2.2.1.2 Materials in other thicknesses and alloys with other standard and non-standard Properties ‘The alloys listed in tables 2.1 and 2.2 are ‘sometimes used in other thicknesses and in other standard and non-standard tempers and conditions: ‘uaranteed minimum properties for such materials may be used if agreed between designer and client. 2.2.1.3 Other alloys ich offer higher strengths, €.g. 2014A, and/or better post-weld strengths, e.g. 7019, but these strengths may be achieved to the detriment of other properties. The ‘engineer is, therefore, advised against using any of these alloys without careful consideration, and in full consultation with a reputable manufacturer. Properties to be considered include durability, Weldability, resistance to crack propagation, and behaviour in service. Alloys in the 7# * * series having higher proof strengths, such as 7019, will require particular control on manufacturing Processes, for example control of micro structure, residual stress and cold working, see 2.2.1.1.1(4). 2.2.2 Bolts and rivets Bolt and rivet materials together with their durability ratings are given in table 2.3. Guidance fon the selection of bolt and rivet materials is given, in 2.4.3.2, 3S 8118: Part 1: 1991 These materials may also be used for special proprietary rivet and bolt products, including thread inserts. ‘Special head shapes may be necessary forthe larger diameter rivets, see BS 19741), 2.2.8 Filler metals Filler metals for tungsten inert-gas welding (TIG) and metal inert-gas welding (MIG) are given in table 2.4 together with their durability ratings. Guldance on the selection of filler metals fs given in 2.5.3.2. 2.3 Strength, mechanical and physical “properties : 2.8.1 Strength and mechanical properties ‘The range of the standard alloys together with their available forms, temper conditions and mechanical properties are shown in tables 2.1 and 2.2. : ‘The mechanical properties for wrought materials for the tempers and conditions of the alloys given fn tables 2.1 and 2.2 have been used to determine “the limiting stresses given in table 4.1. Where alloys are Welded the approximate percentage reduction in strength of the alloy is given for each temper. These strengths in the HAZ may not be achieved until after a period of natural or artificial ageing, see notes to table 2.1 for details. "The strength of bolt and rivet material is given in stable 2.3, 7 ‘Table 2.4 Welding filler metals Fras [ESiztint) [Suicen® [Pouce * {group ‘Type 1 | 1080A A199,8 A q 1050 A109,5 ‘Type 3 [3103 Al Mal A ‘Typed | 40434 AL SI5(A) B 4047.09) ALSIL2(A) Type 5 | 50564 AL Mgs A 5356 ALMgSCr(A) | A 55564 Al Mg5,2MnCr_ 5183 Al Mg4,5Mn_ TSee BS 2901 : Part 4 for chemical composition. Or nearest equivalent. «|i ceeS eaten edict noe cee omens “opsolescent standard ‘The mechanical properties of the alloys vary with temperature and those given in tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2,3 should be applied to the design of structures over a temperature range —50 °C to 70 °C except for 5083 (see 2.2.1.1.9(4)). The 0.2 % proof stress and tensile strength improve at lower temperatures, but at higher temperatures are reduced. For properties outside the temperature range given, the manufacturer should be consulted. ‘The alloys will melt within the range 650 °C to 660 °C, with the precise range dependent on the alloy. 2.8.2 Physical properties The physical properties for the standard alloys although ‘slightly may be taken as constant and are listed in table 2.6. In critical structures the engineer may wish to use the exact value which should be obtained from a reputable manufacturer. OR ete Oe to ‘Table 2.5 Physical properties [ [Property Vice fi Density 20 kgm Modulus of elasticity 70 000 Nérare® Modulus of rigidity’ * * — |26 600 Nimm? ‘ Coefficient of thermal 23x 10-8 per °C | “Fy expansion 2.4 Durability and corrosion protection 2.4.1 General ‘In many instances the standard materials listed in It tables 2.1 to 2.4 can be used in the mill-finish, as extruded or as welded condition without the need ‘ for surface protection. ‘The good corrosion resistance of aluminium and ite alloys is attributable to the protective oxide film” : which forms on the surface of the metal immediately on exposure to alt. This film is normally invistble, relatively inert and as {t forms naturally on exposure to alr or oxygen, and in ‘ many complex environments containing oxygen, it : Is self-sealing. In mild envisonments an alu surface will retain its original appearance for years, and no protection is needed for most alloys. In moderate industrial environments there will be a darkening and roughentng of the surface. As the atmosphere : becomes more aggressive, such as in certain strongly acidic ot strongly allaline environments, the surface discoloration and roughening will ‘worsen with visible white powdery surface oxides. ‘The oxide film may itself be soluble. The metal ceases to be fully protected and added protection is necessary, These conditions may also occur in ; crevices due to high local acid or alkaline conditions, but agents having this extreme effect are relatively few in number. ml fs coastal and marine environments the surface Baill toughen and acquire a grey, stone-like = abpearance, and protection of some alloys is socetny., Where aluminium is immersed in water ‘cautions may be necessary, ur folloce £2f aluminium and alurainium alloys usually follow an exponential form, and thers i? fairly ter slight rapid tnttial loss of reftectivity aft weathering. After this theese tie further mm” atmospheric ambient temperatures, parti When in a marine environment, |” « Mm 2.4.2 Durability of alloys Bee allovs listed tn tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.9 and 2.4 are fetgeeeat into tree ratings A, Band ¢ lescending order y. These ratings are hl sed to determine the need and degres of Protection required. In constructions employing reetfah one alloy, including filler metals mm Welded construction, the n should be in rotectio i accordance with the lowest of their ‘durability ratings. - 2.4.3 Corrosion protection 2.4.3.1 Overall corrosion protection a Fhe need to provide overall corrosion protection ts ‘structures constructed from the alloysor soe aiuttion of alloys listed in tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 Gnd 24 when exposed to different environivenis (see PD 6484) is given in table 2.6. The methon: of is Nn protection in these ‘avironments are detailed in BS 8112 : Part 2. In selecting the appropriate column of table 2.6 an atc it Tay have local environments more closely resembling an industrial at sites close to and down wind of factories. ja site 7 ity the same fora structure inside a building 2s for one outside, Because of these factors, localized conditions of {increased severity may result. Itis advisatie to Say the Precise conditions prevalling at the sctual site before deciding on the appropriate environment coluran of table 2.6. Where hollow sections are employed consideration Table 2.6 General corrosion protection oF ‘aluminium structures areitey | Matettet [Protection needed accordin {6 environment Staab | ehetnese eter <. P Protection needed (see BS 8118: Part 2) Pil Reauies only leat corrsion protection to welt and wari #1 Protection not recomniended of welded construction, NF tan fon in soa water is not recommended, Sea water is Hot recommenda Trumersed | peed ome Indesteialarban [Marine Fresh water [Sea watee Moderate [Severe | Non. [Madras] Severe : tedustetat A All [None [None P None None |B None None mm B <3 None P Pp P Pp Pp P P zs None None Pp None None P P P Mac All None [PU Pe [TP P P Pa) NR Rey Ll BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 2.4.3.3.6 Contact with chemicals used in the building industry Fungicides and mould repellents may contain metal ‘compounds based on copper, mercury, tin and lead which, under wet or damp conditions could cause corrosion of the aluminium. The harmful effects may be countered by protecting the contacting surfaces which may be subject to washing or seepage from the chemicals. Some cleaning materials can affect the surface of the aluminium. Where such chemicals are used to clean aluminium or other materials in the structure, care should be taken to ensure that the effects will not be detrimental to the aluminium. Often quick and adequate water rinsing will suffice, while in other situations temporary measures may be necessary to protect the aluminium from contact with the cleaners. 2.4.8.8.7 Contact with insulating materials used in the building industry ] Products such as glass fibre, polyurethane and various insulation products may contain corrosive agents which can be extracted under moist. , conditions to the detriment of the aluminium. | Insulating materials should be tested for » Compatibility with aluminium under damp and saline conditions. Where there is doubt a sealant as | described in BS 8118 : Part 2 should be applied to the associated aluminium surfaces. 2.5 Fabrication and construction 2.5.1 General ‘The fabrication and construction requirements to }, be detailed are included in the relevant design } clauses. BS 8118 : Part 2 specifies the methods of, fabrication to be followed. In addition 2.5.2 and 2.5.3 should be considered by the engineer | 2.5.2 Bending and forming © Aluminium alloys are available in a wide range of ) tempers which affect their formability. Where | bending or forming is required the engineer should | consult the manufacturer for guidance on the choice of alloy, temper and any subsequent heat ) treatment that may be required. J 2.5.3 Welding 2.5.3.1 General | Te toss of strength that can oecur in the vicinity 5 of the weld with some alloys and tempers should be considered by the engineer in the choice of the | alloy or alloys to be used in welded construction. The engineer should satisfy himself that the combination of parent and filler materials is suitable in regard to strength and durability for the Service conditions of the structure. Particular attention is drawn to the susceptibility of 6082, 6063, 6081 and 5251 alloys to cracking during solidification when welds are made under constraint. This may be avoided by the use of the filler materials and welding techiniques recommended (see BS 8118 : Part 2). This will ensure a suitable combination of filler material in the actual weld. 2.5.3.2 Filler metals ‘The filler wire for use in welded construction should be chosen in accordance with table 2.8. 2.6 Selection of materials ‘The choice of an alloy or alloys for any structure is determined by a combination of a number of factors: strength, see 2.3; durability, see 2.4; Physical properties, see 2.3; weldability, see 2.5; formability, see 2.5; and availability, see 2.7, in both the particular form and alloy required. The standard materials given in tables 2.1 and 2.2 are described in terms of the above factors in 2.2.1.1.2 and 2.2,1.1.3. 2.7 Availability 2.7.1 General ‘The range of alloys given in tables 2.1 and 2.2 are not available in all product forms. Table 2.9 indicates the alloys available in particular product. forms and where materials may be stocked in Yimited quantities. Product and alloy combinations not normally manufactured but which may be manufactured by special arrangement are indicated; design in these materials should only be attempted after confirmation of their availability with the materials supplier 2.7.2 Structural sections fi A number of structural extruded sections complying with BS 1161 and some other structural sections are available in 6082-T6 or 6063-T6 from stock, but in most instances they will need to be produced to order, see table 2.9. Table 2.10 gives the range of sizes of sections given in BS 1161. Other sizes may be obtained from existing or new dies by arrangement with the manufacturer. Where sections are produced to order, minimum order quantities may be applied. Special new extruded sections are normally made to order and the low cost of simple dies gives great Mexibility in their design. The engineer should consult the manufacturer at an early stage to verify the shape, thickness, size and feasibility of the design of a new section and the delivery time of both the new die and the extruded section. Some sections or products are made by drawing, forming or roll forming; these operations may require special tooling. a ' Section 2 __BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 BS 8B Pare 1: 1991 ‘Table 2.8 Selection of filler wires and rods for inert-gas welding + Poreat metal combination” : 7 Istpart | aa Pare = 16 ame 3103 1200 wooo Toost susan | coos castings | ats 106 606 | asi censtings cose | ase ‘Types ‘Type 5 [type 5 | 556A | types ype 5) SESSA 5083 Type5 | NR® TyeS Type 5 |type5. |type5 |aypes | type 5 ‘Type 6 Tye |Type5 {85564 [type5 [types | types SIDA ‘Type 5 Typed [Type 5 | Type 5 | ype | type S251 Type 5 NR?) ‘Type 5 ‘Type 5 ‘Type 5 |Type5 | type 5% 6454 Type 5 ‘Te [Types | type5 |types |aypes cost Typed [Typed ype 4 fiyped ype ‘Type 475; 606s Tye5 | Typed typed —aypes | aypes ‘Type 4 ) 6082 ‘Type 5 ‘Type 4 ‘Type 4 Type 4 Type5 | Typea 4 ‘Type 5 Fe ‘Type 5 ‘Type 5 B556A } ‘7020 ‘Type 5 NR?) ‘Type 5 ‘Type 5 ‘Type 5 ay Type 5 ‘Type 5 ‘Type 5 ‘Type 5 Tred [Typed [Typed | Type 1 1200 Tye5 | typed faype ara | aype 1 Hee Typed | Typet [typed — | type 10 L | 3108; Type5 [Typed [Type 30 : ‘Type 5 ‘Type 4 ‘Type 3 3105 TypeS [typed | type 30 J M6 ‘Type 4 - Les NR?) ‘Type 4 4 i fat } 4 aeetentanitedamm ; TT ie . 7 8 sd [01a BS “iSO designation | f] & Bs [BEaauon | em § st. | designation | equivalent) (sce eee TS 208) » D 74 | 20 AL MglSiGa A a 474 [HS ‘Al MgO, 781 : a74 | 4 | 2 a 2 | fa [30 Al SilMgMin 470 - - - 7 Seeger Sapte oe gr : 4 | B £ . bolesnae tz, iz i HiT Al Zn4,5Mal : » "4 4007 = ? g 3 : i z $ 90 [im25 | AV SizMig I 1472, BS 1474 and BS 4000714 and $0 foe 64 4 seis ais and Alloy 7020 (see 4.4.2 PPC; for aloy 2000 (00 4.4°2.1. pumeecn EEE Ny Table 2.1 Heat-treatable alloys ‘Alley | Condition | Product Thidness Minimam Elongation (see | Approximate | Durability | tensile [pote I) loos of [rating |B) Over [Uptoand | oot’ |foce | 655U5, [0 mm | strengis ane a Incining | Foo (ee | ove 1) tecenate’y |” a) note 1) A mum | mm Némm? | N/mm? | % % % 6061 |'T6 Extrusions!) -|- {150 f2ao_ 280g 7 {so B |B ‘76 Drawn -_ [60 [240 295 7 PP) |50 = B. ‘Tube 6.9 [10 [255 295, ®) [50 7 6063 [Ts Extrusions = [150 t70 130 16 ufo B B TA _ | Drawn tube = fio 300 [iss [15 fs [o [B Porgings = [150 85 140 16 = Io [Be TS Extrusions. ~ |- 25 110 150. 8 7 25 B 76 Extrusions = [160 160 185 8 7 [50 [B 76 Drawn tube = fio 180 200) E) [50 [Br ) Forgings - 150 160 185 10, = 50 Bl) 6082 | T4 Extrusions = 160 120 190 16 14 oO B Be Sheet 02 [3.0 20 [200 _|- is fo B | Plate 3.0 [25 15, 200 wi [0 7 ‘14 ‘Drawn tube = 6.0 15 215 122) 12) 10 B, 6.0 |10 pC) 12) Lj Forgings = {150 220 185 16 =o Be? 76 ‘Extrusions: = 20 255, 295 8 7 50 By 20 [160 270 310 8 = 50 Sheet 02 [3.0 255 205 | 3 [50 a Plate 3.0 | 25 240 (295 8 8 50 1 Drawn tube = [6.0 * |255 310 «| 7 [60 Be) 7 10 240 310, 2) 99) [50 Porgings 120 [255 205 «(8 = [60 [Be | 7020 74 ‘Extrusions ~ [86 190 300 10 2 fo c ‘Sheet and plate 25 170 «(280 ——*/10 wz 0 & | Té Extrusions - 25 280 340 10 40 Re ) 5 ‘Sheet and plate 25 270 320 8 {10 {40 [BY 4 M25 /TB7 [Sand cast =F 80 to 110] 1609 [2.6 NA B a] ‘Chill cast. ‘ie - 90 to 110] 2305) & 4 TF Sand cast, > 200t0 [2309 [= : = d Chill east > 220% [2809 2 be = 260 : 5 ~ [NOTE Minimon vase spect inBS 140, wir | ret to hs extrude sections BS 4500/15, ga OE rate wh val es 03 mn and tM and om 9 wn for | NOTE 2. 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((9TS9TE) PY } pais sso[UTAg aa] OTe Fe ae a (2¥9905 org sve as aL 1909 ag} ote one a-9 srouo1sey papeann ad) 962 soz 95 ob 2809] Armaudosd pue soa, any UN uma Fane | wuene Angeang|exeunin | wmsuans sood x go] _sorowera | osn vt soduray, soo0ug uo oaks Tepreauur aaayz pur 310g 82 aTqUL, _ Section 2 ‘BS 8118: Part '1:'1991 eddoo jo sant pu so ayn pue ‘a 20 V Super AamIgemp so 9q proys uy ‘Popumummones vou sf eusuiucNjAus Seaiy Wj soddoo pure WUT WoT O BON PuE Flaady MNjajUNjEyO oem 9UL EN yuramne aun ‘pasn Jf “ajgjstod J} papjone ag plnoys sXoye 4addoo 20 sodoo 01 wajuuanye yo UO pe saDEpI DEUOD ¢ | > 1 “hoyre saddos 10 $ 3 3] 9 @ 9 9 e 0 ore teddoo seddoo SN BN aN EN _aN aN UN | aN 0 sanpuparnry: ggreddog ; Toons ssoTuTS ‘Toois peenreare® peat 9 9 % 4 u % s| ot 1] zo peenmunre ‘12828 ] sua ase0 “0998 2 gz é & & & ef 0 0 unpuuny | sseruyers ‘1203S 9 9 5 & y ¥ e| ot 1 reas g z z z ze] 2B z[ 0 0 TwaRETUTy | parzoo ou 40 OUIZ 5 eas solu : qoaqs paziueaye? > s 9 id £ % ¥ e] ot 1} 39 paenmumye “j9a%s x z 0 z @ z z of 0 0 rnp umnuumiy 7 ponaneda |__exeang| _eoezopon sxaeg | eerepon| pon asa sera veg | coven won ToraraPeT | rersnpwr-uow| warmer] em posteumt] m0 saueotiay npeinys wists 39015 20 108, ou powtel moHE TRE Te Sa woe) seoeaTAtD wy BuypaRsbN popwoM woRRROT ‘SD9TIO OTNUATES DUG ODTAETD TEAUIOD 02 SIDVINOD TeIOUI-o7-THOUT aw WOTIDOIOAd TNOTTDDY 7-7 O14NT, 2 "DUN 1g Sa wy UaaT ane SORIDTOTT ROTO UA GION zl pur ou 5] ronposd yn saeonpa ‘wousSuest (wpods 9 ogepeneéapsod Inq paumoejnueusAeuuou 04 woeawen Yonpodd ferns ‘opto 0% paumoejaueusronposd prepueig O “7oeu moKyorgeTER Sons Jo aues porn w yn sops0 01 pautiaesMuEULToNpoLd punpuTNg tay ° S2WT ° SW ° SH s 8 Ss 0 ° ozo, oO. ° ° 1 0 @ 1 1 2809 ° ° ° 1 1 @l #909 ° ° 0 ° 0 5 s 1909 s 8 1 1 134 ° 1 s s 1 1 1929 ° s s o © vests eg ° s s 1 7 £808 a ° sore a 1 ° core s s 1 oat eam 7 synsue suopiooe suonoaé | “Pir punos Irpads| sodeys ord | usu 9 = g aes eran sonex | pepanx| pe xrduioa | paw wy prey “ige | apna uu 9 < 3B seen] __stussea| amwerpoistey | gas waza f suoRDeepepATG| pew ssoug emg sony g Anmqurteav wrx03 sonporg 6g OT4eL, g , Hee See @ f BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 ‘821 Sa Go paainARIONS 0 parINBATH oq AquIajaNd Pino AOA BOS SHION ‘remot s| Aamiqaanp stous sr pauof sore 30 AumiaEaNp au, (@ a10u 998) WARP Plog BIg (1 a10u aes) \(pererd ouyz) weayp ploy fore r2ddoo-jaxoIN, (7 2100 208) pepereur (osvoersv } 7 {i a10u aes) | ay Joy uopeoyioads prepumig YspIg WeAdTar ay 29g ueaup yoy zo pjog| (9TS9TS) FV ) [28s ssaqureag 08z a= eee WOAH p10 us] 99% ss s100 WeAHP 404 20 PION (ev9sos soduray sez ses QL] ALU ¢ptaaLp PION 7 soduray 003 uy wasup pro; (8 002 T sa aar sop ah oe ses wh LUE WoALIp PIOD 2809 962] “ty paronb tou S| ses oH WeAHP PIO sieay pug Areraysdosd GV] 91a] sens sooud 95 7-9 sas 200 WOAHP 204 10 Plog vretg ue sieaut prog (@ a10u 208) rp0ig (1 e10u 29s) Teyeqeur (e(oTsroe) 2v (1 sou 9a5)| 249 40g uoeoyToAds prepuRIg YsHLIG qNEADTa: at aag (e(91S9T) PY } Teas ssaTUREAg aa) OTe one as ¥en (29909 ors sve as aL 1909 ad} ote ove a-9 siousrsey papeany ad} see see 95 aL 2909] Armaudord pue syog anu uray unt wiuans sweunt | insuanssood x Go| zorownig | osm uy sodway, iseoong Hoa aaa Teper ATT pue IO E's ATARL, _ Section 2 "PopUBUIGDe! YOM sy UBLaUOWIAUD sayy Wl soddos pure WnjuTuIn WIOlo9 jog pue Sioa VUNHUTAGS Jo on SILL EN ooo am pr og og JOY BE NED Jo 94 ROU RTE a een "AN op 24 ROU So Jde> 1 Jadoo oy wnpuEEJ0 uP sone 3 2 9 2 “9 2 9 € 0] fone seddoo seddop aN aN ‘aN, aN aN aN UN| aN 0 emnpTUNTY (taddog i [999s ssaTUpEys: ‘raas pozueares a 9 g ¥ ¥ ¥ v ’ I t 20 pazqupunte 18S! suo aseo ‘Joos g 9 £ & £. gz & oO 0 anu ssopupeys ‘Te21S yoags ssopuTeas “e895 pazjueayes: 2 g ¥ & y ¥ & T 1| 20 pazpuumnye ‘Tears pas: 9 z z z zi~ 2 z 0 oO wajuumnpy | paves ouyz Jo 2u1z Pears ssanuTEAS : ‘yoons pazqueaque = g 3 ¥ @ ¥ ¥ s| ot 1{__20 peznqumye ‘ya013 ¥ z 0 z 0 z z a) 0 ena wequrwery ‘paanpodun | i areaag SreTOPOH arenas eyesopow | PIE aq somavag | sorea yeong Teesenpay| emmenpuy-voy weg (OPT Tem Posseuruy au Spaydsouny unprunye E Tar arte GA Son) swouTUasat & Buypiovon popoou woRDNION aus seats 20 9108 ox pemref IHN SI9TTO OTUATSS DUY BDTAOTO TUAUIOD 02 SIDWIUOD TROWI-o3-THIOW Iw MoTIDOI0Id TwUOINIDDY /."7 TAT ee - A BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Section 2 2.4.3.2 Metal-to-metal contacts including joints 2.4.8.3.3 Contact with timber Consideration should also be given to contacting nan industrial, damp or marine enviroriment the ‘Surfaces in crevices and contact with certain timber should be primed and painted in accordance ray aor washings from certain metals, which with good mace PD 6484) Sach echattical attack of aluminium (See Some veood Preservatives may be harmful to PD 6484). Such conditions can occur within 2 aluminium. As a general guide the following Structure at joints. Contact surfaces and joints of Dreservatives have been agreed betwoon the aluminium ¢o aluminium or to other metals and Aluminium Federation, the British Wood Preserving fontact surfaces in bolted, riveted, welded and Association and Damp-proofing Association to be high strength friction grip'(HSFG) bolted joints safe for use with aluminium without special should be given additional protection te Goat Becca: oa required by table 2.6 as defined in table 2.7. (@) coal tar ereasote; Details of the corrosion protection procedure ae required are given in BS 8118 : Part 2. (©) coal tar oil; 2.4.3.3 Contact with other non-metallic (© chlorinated napithalenes; materials @) zine naphthanates; 2.4.3.8.1 Contact with co or (6) pentachloroptenol; crete, masonry © 7 ; | Aluminium in contact with dense compact (&) orthophenyiphenol, 1 ~ congrete, masonry or plaster in a dry unpolluted or Where timber, treated with the following ; malld environment should be coated on the Dreservatives, is used in damp situations the } SOntacting surface with a coat of bituminous Paint, aluminium surface in contact with the treated « see BS 8118 : Part 2. In an industrial or rharine amber should have a substantial application of ‘environment the contacting surface of the sealant: ie “aluminium should be coated with at least two coats (1) copper naphthanate; p of heavy duty bituminous paint; the surface of the 2 contacting material should preferably be similarly (2) Copper-chrome-arsenate; painted. Submerged contact between aluminium (8) borax-boric acid. and such materials is not recommended but, if it is ue Other preservatives should not‘be used in unavoidable, separation of the materials is association with aluminium. } fecommended by the use of a suitable mastic or a : | heavy duty damp course layer Reference may be made to CP 143 : Part 15. J ri i: a Oak, chestnut and western red cedar, unless well Lightweight concrete and similar products require 7 3 eee ; additional consid ton al D mere ate Hkely to be harmful to ‘aluminium, pe extract a steady supply of ‘aggressive alkali 2.4,3.8.4 Contact with soils . 3 from the cement. The alkali water can then attack surface of the metal in contact with soil should aluminium surfaces other than the direct contact, T€ ae wo c be protected with at least two coats of bituminous ‘surfaces, i paint, hot bitumen, or plasticized coal tar pitch, | 2.4.3.3.2 Bmbedment in conctete See BS 8118 : Part 2. Additional wrapping-tapes ‘The aluminium surfaces before embedment in costing, Set Prevent mechanical damage t the concrete should be protected with at least two cee : ] gs fo iaminons paint or hot bitumen, see 2.4.3.3.5 Immersion in water i 18 : Part 2, and the coats should extend at Where aluminium parts are immersed in fresh {east 76 ram above the concrete surface after Water or sea water including contaminated water, i embedment, the aluminium should preferably be of durability Where the concrete contains chlorides, e.g. as rating A, with fastenings of aluminium or ‘additives or due to the use of sea-dredged corrosion-resisting steel or fastened by welding. aggregate, at least two coats of plasticized coal-tar Tables 2.6 and pitch should be applied in accordance with fresh water and sea water immersion. BS 8118 : Part 2 and the finished assembly should In addition the engineer should ob competent be overpainted locally with the same material, advice on the oxygen content, pH number, ZEer the concrete has fully set, to seal the surface chemical or metallic, particularly copper, content * Sotwengild be taken where metalic contact occurs Se the amount of movement of the water These between the embedded aluminium parts and any factors may affect the degree of protection steel reinforcement. required. 2.7 give the protection needed for J sere BS 8118 ; Part 1: 1991. ‘aowoBuease jeoods Aa ofqeqreae Agissod ang paamoejnueus Aeuz0% 20U ue "Ee PUN TG soyqes W WOAB oie sopTTONT Ty icettea® tou 5 sonposd oy sayeopuL URI. joneulquioo sonpoxd éaqty § +9p20 69 paumoejnuew zonpoad prepreg O "99938 woe oTgereae soz 30 afues por 8 yum zopz0 oy pasnionynsonpeudprepueng 4 MOU UIQ “GION do foxy sew lo OWT ° OWT ozoe 3 (a 2803 ° a e909 lo JO |a}3 foo lo 1909 ed Is¢9. vegs jlololo ala lalalololo 2] 0 fololo[S[Rlo eg0g sore Alalofalo}alsla core s oot ssepse, sauBiog 2am paprom Areupaaysuoy qa wang suopaaé orion suopro09 Tepode ux x2jdw09 sodays oyduns ue 709 pres ‘eiopods popnaara song wus 9 = dys} on wu 9 < pu 3995, ama sony Armqereaw wos onporg 6 AaaL] | op 1 8 a my pera ‘Table 2.10 Range of sizes for extruded sections complying with BS 1161 ‘Section type Range of size mam Equal angles 80x30 to 120% 120 Unequal angles 50x38 to 140% 105 Channels 60x30 to 240% 100 ‘Tee-sections 50x38 to 120%90 T-sections 60x30 to 160% 80 Equal bulb angles 50x50 to 120% 120 Unequal bulb angles | 5037.5 to 140x105 Lipped channels 80x40 to 14070 Bulb tee-sections 90% 75 to 180% 150 2.7.3 Tube ‘Tube may be produced by seam welding. some of these forms in a by extrusion, by drawing or ‘Tube is available from stock in limited range of sizes but generally it will be made to order, see table 2.9. 2.7.4 Sheet, strip and plate mally ‘stocked in the standard alloys (see table 2.9). Some available as patterned sheet and as treadplate. There is a wide range of standard rolled roofing and cladding produ available in moderate quantities from stock in both icts, Some of which are mill finish and painted, but most are generally 2.7.5 Forgings 7 Forgings are supplied to order as hand fotgings or i die forgings, the former normally requiring all over machining to achieve the finished dimensions whilst the latter are produced to the finished dimensions. Dies for forgings are relatively ‘expensive and costs should include at least one forging made and cut up to check grain flow to Prove the die for forgings used in structural applications. 2.7.6 Castings Castings are supplied to order as sand castings or chill castings. Sand castings are produced from Patterns made at moderate cost and are used normally for small quantity production. Chill are generally used for larger quantity Production and where greater production rates are required; also where greater dimensional accuracy and a good surface finish is required. The cost of tooling may be high, especially for pressure die castings. BS 8118; Part 1: 1991 Section 3. Design principles 3.1 Limit state design ‘Structures should be designed by considering the limit states at which they become unfit for their intended use. Consideration should always be given to the following limit states: (a) static strength (ultimate limit state) (see 3.3); {b) deformation (serviceability limit state) (see 3.4); (©) durability (see 3.5). In certain structures it will be necessary to consider one or both of the following: (2) fatigue (see 3.6); (2) vibration (see 3.7). ‘Yesign will normally be carried out by calculation using the guidance given in sections 4 to 7 and appendices B to L. It is permissible, however, to verify proposed design by testing (see section 8). 3.2 Loading 3.2.1 General A structure or structural component should be designed to resist all loads and actions to which, ‘within reason, it can be subjected. These are classified as follows. (@) Dead toad. Self-weight of the structure and of any permanently attached item it supports. () Imposed load. Any statically or dynamically applied load other than dead or wirid loading. (©) Wind load. Dynamic loading due to wind gusts. (G) Temperature effect. Temperature flugtuations _; leading to forces in a structural component. ‘All relevant loads should be considered separately or in such realistic combinations as to comprise the ‘most critical effects on the elements and the ‘structure as a whole. The magnitude and frequency of fluctuating loads should also be considered. )Particular attention should be given to loading conditions during assembly, and the settlement of ‘supporting structures may need to be taken into ‘account. The possibility of loads due to seismic forces, fire, explosion and vehicular impact should [be considered. 3.2.2 Nominal loading Nominal loads are defined as those to which the ~Jstruecture may be reasonably expected to be carrying during normal service. ‘They are used for checking the limit states of deformation, fatigue Jana vibration. Where possible they should be determined from the relevant British Standard. For dead and imposed loading refer'to BS 6399 : Part 1. For wind loading on buildings refer to CP 3 : Chapter V : Part 2. British Standards also exist for nominal loads on cranes and lifts (including dynamic effects). Where no relevant British Standard exists nominal loads should be decided by the designer and the client. A method of assessing loads using a statistical and probability basis is given in appendix B. When the imposed load consists of soil or other filling, consideration should be given to the ‘material becoming saturated. In assessing temperature effects it may be assumed that in the UK, in the absence of local information, the average internal temperature of the structure, varies between ~5 °C and +35 °C. The effect of the colour of external sheeting on internal temperature should also be considered. 3.2.8 Faetored loading Factored loads are used for checking the limit state of static strength. They are the nominal loads multiplied by the overall load factor, yr, which Provides an allowance for variability in loading, accidental overload, etc. -¢ is defined as follows: n= me where +m and yp are the partial load factors. ‘1m is governed by the type of load, and +p allows some relaxation when a combination of imposed and/or wind loads is applie¢ to the structure. ‘As a guide, tables 3.1 and 3.2 give values of yn1 and yo based on building structures, but different values may be used by agreement between the designer and the client. If different values are chosen by reference to other British Standards, care should be taken to ensure that 71 does not include a factor to allow for variability of material strength. For the initial design of simple structures yr may be conservatively taken as 1.0 for all imposed or * wind loads. ‘Table 3.1 Load factors (based on building structures) ‘Type of load m Dead load, Diréct effect Le Countering overturning or uplift os Imposed load (not including wind loads) | 1.33 Wind load 12 Forces due to temperature effects 10 F 4 { | i Section 3 “Table 3.2 Load factors for combined Toads ‘Load combination ve Dead load 10 Imposed or wind load giving most severe) loading action on the component Imposed or wind load giving second most ]0.8 Severe loading action on the component Imposed or wind load giving third most] 0.6 Severe loading action of the component Imposed or wind load giving fourth most }O4 Severe loading action on the component OTE. in some structures the wind load could be the moat TEx applied load; in others the wind load could pode Taito less severe than those due to the major inesed loads. moment or shear force), based on reco, structural analysis and assuming satisfactory manufacture, 5 in the structure as manufactured, and reflects Possible doubt as to the Soundness of the component as built. ym should normally be taken from table 3.5, but dif agreement between the designer and the client. ferent values may be used by 3.2.4 Dynamic effects In order to determine the nominal loading on ‘structure under conditions, reference Should be made if possible to an appropriate British Standard. Forces from dynamic effects are trentot ‘as imposed loads in table 3,1, Jn other eases, should the designer use a ‘dynamic rag teation factor” he should ae that this tight be a dangerous Procedure if the response of the structure is not taken into account. This ‘Spblies particularly to aluminium structures of high flexibility that have a ‘natural period of vibration ilar in magnitude to that of the imposed load. 3.8.1 General ‘component is acceptable in terms of static strength if the following is satisfied, Action-effect under «< factored resistance factored loading (see appendix B) 13.2 Action-effect under factored loading is is the axial force, bending moment or shear ‘Table 3.3 Material factors Tope of contraction To Members Joints | Riveted and bolted 12 12 Welded 12 1.30 Bonded 12 3.0 c 7 eg Sapa ANd col win TST? Tare, dt ettain structures itis necessary to check that fallare ‘ill not occur by overiurning or sway fallire, 3.4 Deformation 3.4.1 Recoverable elastic deformation 4 structure is acceptable in terms of deformation if the following is satisfied: elastic deflection under < limiting ; nominal loading deflection tis permissible, when different combinations of pubesed loading are possible, to assume a reduced ‘pading equal to nz x nominal loads, where vie i siven in table 3.2. The calculation of elastic deflection should Senerally be based on the properties of the gross ag BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ‘The limiting deflection should be based on the relevant British Standard, or agreed between the designer and the client. In the absence of such information table 3.4 gives suggested values for certain types of structure. In setting limiting, deflections it ic important to realise that aluminium is three times as flexible as steel, so unduly small limiting deflections should be avoided ‘Table 3.4 Limiting deflections Element Recommended deflection limit (Gee note) Gantilevers carrying floors _ [1/180 ‘Beams carrying plaster or | 1/360 other brittle finish Purlins and sheeting rails: (@) under dead load only | 1/200 (b) under worst {£1100 combination of dead, imposed, wind and snow loads ‘Curtain wall mullions and transoms: (@) single glazed (b) double glazed LN 1/250 ‘Tops of columnns: horizontal deftection 1/300 NOTE. Lis the length between supports 3.4.2 Permanent inelastic deformation It may be generally assumed that components, whose static strength has been calculated in accordance with section 4, will not suffer significant permanent deformation under the action of nominal loading. This applies to all alloy groups. 3.4.3 Distortion due to frequent assembly In certain structures which have to be assembied and disassembled frequently, it is necessary to consider the possibility of changes in major dimensions of the coupling system, leading to the gradual build-up of unacceptable errors in the assembled shape. 3.5 Durability ‘The durability rating of alloy groups is given in tables 2.1 to 2.4. Ifa structure is designed in a durable alloy and protected in accordance with BS 8118 : Part 2, it will be deemed satisfactory. ‘The degree of exposure and the design life should be taken into consideration. 3.6 Fatigue 3.6.1 General Any structure or structural component which is subject to significant variations in load should be checked for fatigue. In general two possible limit, states should be considered: (a).total collapse; (b) stable crack growth (damage tolerant). In both cases the design load spectrum (unfactored) is assumed to act. 3.6.2 Total collapse ‘The procedure for considering this limit state is to determine the predicted life in accordance with section 7, and check that this is not less than the design life. In certain circumstances the designer may wish to increase the nominal design life by multiplying by a factor (the fatigue life factor) ‘xn (> 1). The choice of ~y, could be influenced by the following: (2) the possibility of increasing crack growth during the later stages of the life of the de (b) the accuracy of the assumed loading spectrum; (©) whether records of loading will be kept during the life of the detail; (@) the possibility of a change of use of the structure in mid-life. The designer may also wish to apply a fatigue material factor, yf, to the design stress range given in figure 7.9. The design stress range would be divided by ymp (> 1), and the choice of Ymt could be influenced by the following: (1) the need for the detail to exist in a very hostile environment; (2) whether failure of the detail will result in failure of the entire structure, or whether alternative load paths exist. 3.6.3 Stable crack growth Damage to a structure under fatigue conditions is assessed by monitoring the rate of growth of fatigue cracks by inspection at regular intervals. Methods of inspection, allowable limiting crack lengths, allowable rates of crack growth, and the time between inspections should be agreed between the client and the designer. Crack growth is stable when the allowable rate of crack growth does not suddenly increase between inspections. NOTE. Methods for calculating crack growth and limiting crack length are outside the scope of this code, but the ease with which a detail can be inspected for cracks ean influence the choice of rae (8e€ 9.6.2), Section 3 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 3.7 Vibration 3.8 Testing For certain structures the possibility of undesirable Structural components designed in accordance with vibration under normal service conditions should _sections 4 to 7 and the appropriate appendices can be considered. In checking for the incompatibility» be accepted without testing. Compgnents designed of vibration amplitudes nominal loads should be _using other calculation methods, and components used. If vibration is thought to be a potential not amenable to calculation, should be accepted problem, the possibility of fatigue failure should only if their resistance has been verified by testing. also be checked (see 3.6). Such testing should be carried out in‘accordance with section 8. BS BLLB: Part L: 1901 LU Section 4 Section 4. Static design of members 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Generat All members should satisfy the limit states of static strength and of deformation. Deformation is covered in 4.9, : Where reference is made to design curves, it is permissible instead for the designer to use formulae from which the curves are derived (see appendix K). Members are usually formed of extrusions, plate, BRGee Gude or a combination of these. The rules below do not apply to castings, and designers wishing to employ castings should do 50 in close consultation with the manufacturers thereof, 4.1.2 Limit state of static strength ‘The factored resistance of a member to a specific action effect should not be less than the magnitude of that action-effect arising under factored leading Rules for obtaining resistance to different actions are given as follows: (2) for beams (resistance to moment and shear force) (see 4.5); (b) for ties (resistance to axial tension) (see 4.6); (©) for struts (resistance to axial compression) Gee 4.7). ‘The procedure for calculating the interaction between moment and axial load in members subject to combined actions is given in 4.8, The formulae given contain limiting stresses (py, Pu» Py) related to material properties, which sfould be taken in accordance with 4.2. They also contait the material factor Ym Which should be read frow table 3.3. ‘The resistance of a member may be reduced as a result of tocal buckling, depending on the egidermess of its cross section. A proposed design 's checked (except for a member under axial tension) by classifying the section in terms of its Susceptibility to this type of failure. A method for checking the local buckling, including section classification, is given in 4.2, 4.13 Heat-affected zones (HAZs) O-condition properties. Rules for estimating the severity and extent of HAZ softening are given in 4.4. Subsequent clauses thor Show how to allow for the effect of this softening ‘on member resistance, 5 important to realize that a small weld, as used Peams it is often beneficial to locate welds in re areas, ie. near the neutral axis or away \¢ region of peal moment. 4.1.4 Advanced design Members can be safely designed using the Fecommendations of this section and certain Snpropriate appendices. Other appendices provide 2 faller treatment of certain specifie aspects of rember behaviour, and their use may lead to lighter designs. 4.2 Limiting stresses Resistance calculations for members are made using assumed limiting stresses as follows: Po is the limiting stress for bending and overall yielding; Pa is the limiting stress for local capacity of the section in tension or compression; Py is the Limiting stress in shear; 2s. is the limiting stress for overall buckding stability, Values of Po, ya and py depend on the material Properties and should be taken as in table 4.1 or 4.2. For materials not covered in these tables refer to appendix D. Values of p, should be determined in accordance with 4.5.6.5 or 4.7.6. 4.3 Section classification and local buckling 4.3.1 General 4.3.1.1 Section classification Resistance of members under moment or axial Ke. the susceptibility to local buckling. do this, and also to allow for the effect of local duckling (when necessary), the designer should Consider the slenderness of the individual elements ‘comprising the section, 4.3.1.2 Types of element The following basic types of thin-walled element are identified in these rules: (2) flat outstand element; (b) flat internal element; (©) curved internal element. ‘These are often unreinforced, - Rot. longitudinally stiffened (see figure 4.(a)). The Stability of flat elements can be i Lips, see figure 4.1(b), in which case the elements are referred to as reinforced. Section 4 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 G—uae ‘Table 4.1 Limiting stresses, heat-treatable alloys “Alloy Condition Product ~ [iiieness Tinting stress ‘Over [Uptoand |p, mdm including mm > frm [N/mm® [N/mm 6061 16 Extrusion — —*}150 Sf2g0' | 260 ee 16 Drawn tube - 6 240 | 265 6 10 225 | 260 6063. 14 Extrusion = 150 [65 85 ™ Drawn tube - 10 95 120 TA | Forgings - 1 tS "| Hixtrasion - [io | Extrusion — 16 Drawn tube - 76 | Forgings - 6082 oy ‘Extrusion = 150 [us [aa —«*70 mM | Sheet 02 3 us |45 | 70 4 Plate 3 25 wos fo 65 1 Drawn tube - 10 wos = {uso | 65 1 Forgings - a0 [us fs] z0 ! 16 Extrusion = 20 255 [278 155 20 150 [270 290 | 160 76 Sheet 02 3 255 278 155 76 Plate 3 25 240 [265 M5 | 16 Drawn tube - 6 255 {280 155 6 10 20 [275 145 . : 76 Forgings - 120 |255_ fas | ass. 7020 14 Extrusion 5 185-230 10 » 4 Sheet, plate On 25 cn 16 Extrusion - 25 280 [310 170 76 Sheet, plate 02 |25- jaw fess~ | rs0- Section 4 v Bs 8118 : Part ? 1991 eee @ (b) Reinforced Figure 4.1 Types of flat element 4.3.1.3 Shear webs ‘The buckling of shear webs is treated separately (See 4.6.3.3 and also section 6). 4.3.2 Slenderness parameter 6 4.3.2.1 General The susceptibility to local buekding of an element in a beam (moment resistance) or in a strut (axial force resistance) depends on the parameter B as defined in 4.3.2.2 to 4.3.2.5. 2.2 Unreinforced flat elements should be taken as the flat element width, measured where. relevant to the springing of fillet or to'the toe of a weld. 8 is defined as follows: (@) elerient under uniform compression: (b) element under stress gradient: (2) internal élement with a stress 9 = 0,35d/1 gradient that results in aneutral or axis at the centre O.a5tvt (2) for any other stress gradients = gb/t or oat where g is the stress gradient coefficient and is read from figure 4.2. In figure 4.2 ye and vp are the distances from the neutral axis of the gross section to the more heavily compressed edge and the other edge resycctively of the element, taken Positive towards the compression side. ‘They should B= bh; generally be measured from the elastic neutral axis, although in checking whether section is fully compact it is permissible to use the plastic neutral axis. 4.3.2.8 Reinforced flat elements ‘Two possible buckling modes should be considered as follows (see figure 4.3), and separate 8 values found for each: (@) mode 1; the reinforced element buckles as a unit taking the reinforcement with it; (b) mode 2: the sub-elements comprising the reinforced element themselves buckle as individual elements the junctions between them staying straight. For mode 2 buckling 8 is found separately for each sub-element irraccordance with+4.3.2.2r For...» » mode 1 it is generally determined as follows (but see 4.5.2.1, conceming outstand elements in beams). (a) Mode 1, uniform compression. (2) Standard reinforcement, defined as reinforcement consisting of single-sided rib or lip of thickness equal to the element thickness ¢, located as in figure 4.4: B= hot where bandt are defined as in 4.3.2.2; bh is read from figure 4.4 (a), (b) or {¢) as appropriate. For figure 4.4, ¢ should be taken as the clear depth of the'rib or lip measured to the surface ofthe plate. BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Table 4.2 Limiting stresses, non-heat-treatable alloys L ‘Alloy Condition | Product ‘Thickness Limiting stress Over [Uptoand |p, > Be : ma [ mm ror Nimm? N/mm? | N/mm? 1200 m4 Sheet ‘jo2 izs oo 95 55 t 3103 Hid Sheet 02 125/110 120 65 L Hs Sheet o2 3 150 | 150 | 90, 3105 cry ‘Sheet 02 [a 5/150 "as f HIG Sheet 02 |3 170 J175 {100 ‘ Hs ‘Sheet 02 |s 190 |200 [115 br 5083 OF Extrusion = 150/105 150 65 i ° Sheet, plate 02 — |80 105 j150 Jes oO Drawn tube - 10 105 150 65 f F .'] Sheet, plate 3 25 130 favo | z5 uy 22 * |Sheet, plate oz 6 235 270 | s40 y Hea Drawn tube = 10 235 |270 | 140 B154A OF ‘Extrusion 7 160/65 100 ‘40 : ° Sheet, plate oz |6 65 too =| 40 h ‘s ° Drawn tube —" 10 65 100 40 j * | Sheet, plate oz |6 360 [200 J 95 Ha Sheet, plate 0.2 6 225, 250 185 7 7 H24 Drawn tube - 10 200 220 180 5251 F Welded tube os 2.0 [220/230 |130 = 22 Sheet, plate 02 |6 5 lass | 75 : fai 24 Sheet, plate 02 6 5, 200 105 | 5454 0,F Extrusion = 150 [65 100/40 a ° ‘Sheet, plate 0.2 6 60 95 35 7 Jee Sheet oz |3 10 fais | uo #24 Sheet 02 [3 200 |e35 | 120 33 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 (2) Non-standard reinforcement. With any other shape of reinforcement g should be found by replacing it with an equivalent rib or lip of the standard form and proceeding as in (1). The value of ¢ for the equivalent rib or lip is chosen so that its second moment of area about the mid-plane of the plate is the same as that for the true reinforcement, (3) General :nethod. For cases not covered by (1) or (2) 6 may be taken as follows: 1 B= (1 texoleex)* where er are the elastic critical stresses, and _assuming simple edge support, ‘with and without the reinforcement, (b) Mode 1, stress-gradient. 6 should be found using the expression in (a) (3) where cer and dero NOW relate to the stress at the more heavily compressed edge of the element. 4.3.2.4 Curved internal elements For a shallow curved element under uniform compression, 8 should be determined as follo\ 8. bit TF WER where 2 is the radius of curvature to mid-metal; » is the developed width of element at mid-metal; 2 is the thickness, For shallow curved elements under a stress gradient, a more favourable value of 8 may be taken, obtained by factoring the above value by g as found from figure 4.2. ‘The above treatment is valid, provided 2/b is not less than 0.1b/t. Sections containing more deeply curved elements require special study. NOTE. For intemal elements or outstands Figure 4.2 Flat elements under Ye (peak compression at root) use curve A, For outstands (peak compression at toe) use line B. stress gradient, value of g ==-=7 o i Mode 1 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Section 4 pazods Ay}onb3 (xen) (cir) paaods Ayonb3 (fear errr srr “hr A ae BS 8118: Part 1; 1991 4.3.2.5 Round tubes 8 should be found as follows, with no distinction between axial compression and bending: B= Di) where D is the diameter to mid-metal; 4 is the thickness, 4.3.3 Section classification ‘ 43.3.1 General ‘The procedure is to classify the individual elements comprising the section, except for any element stressed wholly in tension. The classification of the section is then taken as that for the least favourable element. Individual elements are classified in accordance with 4.3.3.4 or 4.3.3.5. 4.3.3.2 Sections: beams and struts For the section of a beam (moment resistance) a strut (axial force resistance) the following Classifications apply. (@) Moment resistance: (2) fully compact: local buckling can be ignored; (2) semi-compact: the section can develop a moment equal to pa times the elastic section modulus; (8) slender: the moment resistance is reduced by premature local buekding at an extreme fibre stress below po. (b) Axial compression resistance: (1D) compact: local buckling can be ignored; (2) slender: local buckling lowers the resistance. 4.3.3.8 Sections subject to combined actions For the classification of section’ required to biaxial bending, or simultaneous bending with axial force, see 4.8.2.1. 4.3.3.4 Element classification ‘The classification of an individual element depends on the value of 8 (see 4.3.2) as follows: (@) elements in beams (moment resistance): 86, “fully compact 8, By slender (b) elements in struts (axial resistance): 858, compact B>By slender where @y and B; are as given in table 4.3. wd Red ‘Table 4.3 Limiting values of B Blements 3 BL ‘Unwelded | Welded | Unwelded | Welded Outstand [Te 6 «|e ‘(6 elements Se Internal 226 48 (] 18) | 15€ elements fit NOTE 1. The quantity « should generally be taken as follows (except for certain lange elements in beams, see 4.3.9.5): “= (250/pq)"* where Pos the Limiting stress (in Nima?) (see tables 4.1 and 4.2), NOTE 2. An element is considered as welded if it contains welding at an edge or at any point in its width. When the ‘stability of «particular cross section of a member is evaluated, however, tis permissible to consider an element as unwelded tt contains. no welding at that section, even though itis welded elsewhere along its length. NOTE.3. in a welded element the classification is independent ‘of the extent of the HAZ. or of 4.3.3.5 Understressed flange elements fe ' A more favourable classification majiit desired be taken for flange elements in members under bending, or bending with axial force, that are both: (a) parallel to the axis of bending; and (b) less highly stressed than the most severely stressed fibres in the section. For these it is permissible, in using table 4. take 2 modified value of ¢ as follows: € = (250i /poue)* where 9 and yp are the distances from the neutral axis of the gross section to the most severely stressed fibres and to the element respectively. They should generally be measured from the elastic neutral axis, although in checking whether a section is fully compact it is permissible to use the plastic one. 4.3.4 Local buckling 4.3.4.1 General The possibility of local bucking in members classified as slender is generally allowed for by replacing the true section by an effective one. The effective section is obtained by employing a local buckling coefficient hy, to factor down the thickness, this being applied to any uniform thickness slender element that is wholly or partly in compression. Elements that are not uniform in thickness require special study. 4.3.4.2 Determination of ky ‘The coefficient ky, which is found separately for different elements of the section, is read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.5 selected in accordance with table 4.4. In order to select the correct curve the value of f/e should be determined as follows: to 8 is found asin 4.3.2; © » = (250/p,)% generally (but see note 3.” of 4.5.2.3 for beam compression flanges); Oy ‘ | ti Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 SSS eee where Po _is the limiting stress for material (in Nimmm?), regardless of HAZ effects. * ‘Table 4.4 Carve selection for figure 4.5 Gocal buckling) Blements Unwelded Welded Flat outstand curve A curve B elements Internal elements | curve C curve D (Mat or curved) Round tubes Lower of | Lower of curves C and | curves D and E E NOTE. See noteD to table 43 In order to decide whether an element should count as unwelded or welded in table 4.4, refer to note 2 to table 4.3. In the case of reinforced flat elements it is important to consider both possible modes of buckling (see figure 4.3) and take the more critical. In the case of mode 1 buckling the factor ky, should be applied to the area of the reinforcement as well as to the basic plate thickness. 4.3.4.3 Sections subject to combined actions For the determination of ky, in sections required to carry biaxial bending, or simultanecus bending with axial force, see 4.8.2. 4.4 HAZ softening adjacent to welds 4.4.1 General It is necessary to design to allow for the softening that usually occurs in the vicinity of welds. The = region worst affected extends immediately around the weld, beyond which the material properties rapidly improve to their full parent values. The .. softening affects the 0.2 % proof stress more severely than the tensile strength. For design purposes it is acceptable to approximate to the true condition by assuming that around each weld there is a zone, the FIAZ, in which strength properties are reduced by a constant factor k,. Outside this zone it is assumed that the full parent Properties apply. The severity of the softening in the HAZ, as defined by k,, is covered in 4.4.2. The extent of the HAZ, defined by a distance z from the weld, is considered in 4.4.3. It is sometimes possible to mitigate the effects of HAZ softening by means of artificial ageing applied after welding (see appendix F). 4.4.2 Severity of softening 4.4.2.1 HAZ softening factor ‘The factor i, should normally be taken from, table 4.5. For certain calculations it is permissible instead to use a more favourable value as explained in appendix F. This applies when the resistance of 3 member is governed by pa or py, rather than py. ‘To find k, for materials not covered.in table 4.5, see appendix F. 4.4.2.2 7020 material vemnative k, values given in table 4.5 for 7020 material should normally be applied as follows, according to the nature of the stress acting on the HAZ material: aH (@) value (A): tensile stress acting transversely to the axis of a butt or fillet weld; (b) value (B): any other stress condition, i.e. longitudinal stress, transverse compression, shear, tis sometimes permissible to increase value (A) to a figure above that in the table, depending on the degree of thermal control exercised during fabrication (see appendix F). 4.4.2.3 Recovery time for heat-treated alloys ‘The k, values given in table 4.5 are valid from the following times after welding, provided the material has been held at a temperature not less than 15 °C: (a) 64 # + series alloys 3 days; (0) 74 4 seties alloys 30 days. In determining the resistance of components that are to be loaded sooner than this, but not less than, 24 h after welding, the value of k, should be reduced by a factor f found as folio (1) 6¥# = 0.9 + O.1(n — 1/24 series alloys (2) 7##* S=08 + 0.2(n — 1y29}%. series alloys where is the time (in days) between welding and If the material is held at 2 temperature below 15 °C after welding, the recovery time will be prolonged and advice should be sought. 4.4.3 Extent of HAZ 4.4.8.1 Definition of z ‘The HAZ is assumed to extend a distance z in any direction from a weld, measured as follows: (1) transversely from the centre-line of an butt weld (see figure 4.6(a)); (2) at fillet welds, transversely from the point of intersection of the welded surfaces (see figures 4.6(e), (A), (g) and (h)); (8) at butt welds used in comer, tee or cruciform Joints, transversely from the point of intersection of the welded surfaces (see figures 4.6(b), (¢) and (d)); (4) in any radial direction from the end of a weld (see figures 4.6(i) and ())..! line 2 . Se PEE EAR eee BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 as Section 4 ———————— (2) For flat outstand elements Figure 4.5 Local buckling factor ky, ‘The HAZ boundaries should generally be taken as straight lines normal to the metal surface, as, shown in figure 4.6. However, it is permissible instead to assume a curved boundary of radius z, “Sas shown at B (in place of A) in figure 4.6(i). This will tend to be advantageous when surface welding is applied to thick material. 4.4.3.2 Basic formula for 2 ‘The following expression should generally be used © for estimating 2: ; in 7 5 where : % is the basic value (see 4.4.9.3); andy are modifying factors, which may be found from 4.4.3.4 and 4.4.3.5, or alternatively using appendix F. 4.4.3.3 Determination of 2 ‘The basic value zo, which would relate to an isolated weld laid on unheated material with ‘complete interpass cooling, should be taken as the lower of the two values given by (i) and (ii) (in mm) (depending on the parent material) as follows: (@) intine butt welds: (1) 7# 4 * series alloys: (25 = 30 + ty/2 i) 25 = 4.5tq (2) other alloys: (Dz = 20 + ty/3 Gi) zm = ty (b) All other types of butt weld and all types of fillet weld: (1) 7+ ¥ series alloys: © 2% = 30 + ty/2 (i) 2 = 4.5tp°%ty, (2) other alloys: (25 = 20 + 14/3 GD z = Stp7ltq Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ———— 20 Curve C: internal elements, unvelded Gurve D: internal elements, welded Gurve E: round tubes NOTE, See note 3 to table 4.3. (©) Por internal elements and round tubes Figure 4.6 Local buckling factor ky, (concluded) where ty is the lesser of 0.5(ty + t) and 1.5¢g; tg, te are the thicknesses of the thinnest and thickest elements connected by welding, respectively. 4.4.3.4 Determination of a ‘The factor a in 4.4.3.3 provides for the possibility Of the material at the start of deposition of a weld ass being at an elevated temperature, due either to preheat or to the laying of a previous pass or weld in the same joint, Its value may be taken from table 4.6, which is valid provided fabrication complies with BS 8118 : Part 2 (alternatively see appendix F). 4.4.3.5 Determination of » ‘The factor 1 in 4.4.3.2 covers the possibility of increased heat build-up due to the following: (a) proximity of a free edge or edges; or (b). other welding in the same vicinity: ° :! ‘The value of may be found as in (1) or (2) as follows, provided fabrication satisfies BS 8118 = Part 2. Alternatively refer to appendix F. (1) For a joint away from which there are at least ‘two valid heat-paths: al a valid heat-path being one for which h > fy; where ‘his the distance to a free edge, or half the distance to a nearby weld (see note); hy = 4.80% for 7 # + series alloys, or = Baz for other alloys. NOTE, The distance h should be measured from the point of reference in the weld considered (see figure 4.6) and along the relevant heat path through the metal at mid-thiekeess, ‘The heat path follows the profile ofthe section and need not necessarily be straight (see figure 4.7). (2) For a joint from which there is only one valid heat-path: te $25 mm tg > 25 ram a= 150 a= 133 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 ” we Section 4 : ‘Table 4.5 HAZ softening factor ky ‘Alloy Condition Produce % {cee rote 1) Non heat-ereatable a » {2200 m4 s 0.13 3103 . HI s 018 7 ‘HIS Ss 0.13 3105 H4 Ss . O17 HIG ‘3! 0.15 HIS. Ss 0.13 5083 OF E, S, P, DT 1.00 #22 SP 0.45 5154 OF E,S,P 1.00 oot 22, S,P 0.40 a | Hea SP 0.29 ‘5251 TF WT 0.20 z PF ¥ 1.00 H22 8,P 0.35 £ Beg s,P 0.24 hy ‘5454 O,F E,S,P "11.00 t 22 s 0.35 ” H24 s 0.30 ia Heat-treatable. 6061 TS E, DT 0.50 6063 Te E 1.00 PEE ‘Th Dr 0.65 Tm F 1 0.80 7 E | 0.75 - 76 E,F 0.50 16 or 0.45 6082 14 £,8,P, DLP 1.00 x 76 E, 8, P, DI, F 0.50 7020 14 B,8,P (0:80(A) 1.0008) 6 E,S,P 0.60(A) 0.80(B) {see note 2) foegngs SR? Product column: B 8, FD WTand Fer ceapectvely Yo extraon, Haat PENG, dew topos peded Tube and NOPE 2. For 7020 materia refer to 44.2.2 forthe applicability of the A and B values, Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 © o o Figure 4.6 Extent of HAZ, definition of z Table 4.6 Extent of HAZ,-factor « Case [Joint configuration Value of i gstmm [o> ium ‘Substantially straight continuous weld (See figures 4.6(2), (©), (e) and (g)) P total deposit area < 60 mm? 10 16 Q total deposit area > 50 mm? 1s 2.0 R Substantially straight continuous joint containing two or more | 1.5 2.0 adjacent welds (see figures 4.6 (b), (4), (f) and (h)) s Localized irregular joint 15 2.0 (a) member-to-member joints in trusses; (b) welds connecting transverse stiffeners in beams and plate-girders; (c) welds used to connect lugs and other attachments. iF pAeee Ls AOL Figure 4.7 Typical heat-path measurement 4.4.3.6 Overlapping HAZs When two joints are located so that their respnetive HAZs (determined as in 4.4.3) overlap, it may be assumed that the extent of the HAZ on the outer side of each joint is unaltered by the proximity, 4.4.3.7 Experimental determination of z ~»_ Asan alternative to estimating the extent of the V4.5 Beams 4.5.1 Introduction EXoved the factored moment resistance Mas of that section, as found from 4.5.2 (or alternatively appendix E). Mas should be suitably reduced to allow for coincident shear when necessary (see 4.5.4). (®) Shear check. At any cross section the shear force Vunder loading should not exceed is V5 For some cases itis also necessary to make one or both of the following checks: : (1) web bearing cheek (see 4.5.5); (2) lateral torsional buckling check (see 4.5.6). 4.5.1.2 Plate girders Plate girders having slender stiffened webs should preferably be designed using 5.4. It is permissible - 4.5.1.3 Bending with axial load | For the design of beams required to carry load, in addition to moment, reference should be made to 4.8. 4.5.1.4 Biaxial bending / Beams subjected to simultaneous bending about th principal axes should using 4.8, also be checked 45.2 Uniaxial moment resistance of the section 4 4.5.2.1 Section classification for moment resistance U's frst necessary to clasify the section as Fully compact, semi-compact, or slender the {lassification being based on that of the least favourable ofits component elements. This should be carried out in accordance with 4.3.3. fi the case of a reinforced outstand element, fonining part or all of the compression flange, the Presence of reinforcement in the form of an outwardly facing lip should be ignored in classifying the section. 4.5.2.2 Basic calculation ‘The factored moment resistance Mps at a given foram: in the absence of shear, should generally be found as follows: (2) unwelded, fully compact Mas = PeSy/tns A) unwelded, Semi-compact Mps = poZa/ym;" (6) welded, fully compact Aas = PeSre/ny, (A) welded, semi-compact Mes = reaelin: ()unwelded, slender Mas = pZatry, or Pode! Ym Whichever is the smaller; (© welded, slender Mas = poZebrig or Ponelrm whichever is the smaller; where Sn and 2, . are the plastic and elastic moduli respectively of the net section; are the plastic and elastic moduli respectively for the net effective section; Sne and Ze is the elastic modulus of effective section; is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); {the material factor (see table 9.3). Found eer 2ihompact and slender sections it i permisble, it found favourable, to take a moment resistance based a Gxt plastic stress pattern as set aut in appendix Ey ined of : {sing the expressions in 4.9.2.2, When thisis done, nore to 4.5.2.3i6invalid 4.5.2.3 Assumed section re ‘The tefminology used in 4.5.2.2 is as follows: (2) net section includes the deduction for holes only; (0) net effective section includes the reduced thickness taken in the vicinity of welds, to allow for HAZ softening, together with deduction for holes; (©) effective section includes the reduced thicknesses taken to allow for HAZ softening and local buckling, but with no deduction for hele. tm Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 In items (b) and (c) the reduced thicknesses should generally be taken as follows for different elements in a section (but see notes 1 to 6). (1) Slender element free of HAZ effects. A thickness itis taken for the whole elenient, * where ky is found as in 4.3.4, (2) Non-slender elements subject to HAZ effects. A thickness of kat is taken in the softened parts of the element, where k, and the extent of the softening are as given in 4.4.2 and 4.4.3. (3) Slender.element with FLAZ effects. The reduced thickness is taken as the lesser of Ket and yt in the softened part, and as kt in the rest of the element. NOTE 1. When a hoe is located in a reduced thickness region, the deduction for that hole may be based on the reduced thickness. NOTE 2, Inthe case of reintorced elements, should be applied to the azea ofthe reinforcement as well a to the basic pate thileness. ; NOTE 9. In considering slender Mange element that les nearer to the neutral axis than does the extreme fibre tensile materia, 11s permisable to take a more favourable value for My, This done by using a modified value of «in figure 4.5 (instead of the ‘normal value, see 4.3.42) a5 follows: € = (2804 /Pot)" where 94 and y are the distances from the elastic neutral axis (of the goss section tothe extreme fibres and tothe element ‘considered, respectively. This relaxation only apples if the ‘lernent is Substantially parallel to the axis of bending. NOTE 4, Fora reinforced element forming part or all of the compression flange of a slender section, in which the reinforcement takes the form of ar-outirardly facing ip, the presence ofthe lip shouldbe ignored in determining the moment Fesistance. NOTE 5. Fora welded element in a semi-compact or slender geetion amore favourable aumel thickness may be taken 2s (a) HAZ softening i ignored in any material less than by, from the elastic neutral axis ofthe gross section, wher is ‘the distance therefrom to the furthest extreme fibres of the section. (b) For HAZ material at a dstance y (> key) from the ‘eutral ai, i may be replaced by a value he, determined ss follows: fey Bet Ly 4.5.24 Hybrid sections ‘The moment capacity of a hybrid section, containing parent materials of different strengths, may be safely based on the lowest value of py within the section. Alternatively, the following more advantageous procedure may be used. (a) Each element is classified according to its particular value of 7. (b) Fora Tally compact section Mps is found using conventional plastic bending theory, allowing for the value of pa in each element, and again using the net effective section in the case of welded members. (€) Por other sections Mgs is found from ‘expression (b), (4) or (e) in 4.5.2.2. as appropriate, basing p, and Z on the point in the section giving the lowest values of Mgs. 4.5.2.5 Semi-compact sections For these it is permitted, if desired, to take an improved value of Mgs which may be obtained by interpolation as follows: Bo ~ B. Mas = Me + 5° —F(M; ~ Me) where Mrand M, are the fully compact and ' semi-compact values of Mgs found from 4.5.2.2; 8 is the value of @ for the most critical element in the section; are the fully and semi-compact limiting values of 8 for that same element (see table 4.3). By and Bo 4.5.3 Shear force resistance 4.5.3.1 Section classification It is first necessary to classify the section as ‘compact or slender in terms of its resistance to shear force as follows: (2) a compact section is unaffected by buckling; (b) a slender section should be checked for buclding. ‘The sections are classified as follows: (J) sections containing shear webs orientated in the plane of loading, without tongue-plates: dt < 49e compact dt > 49 stender where a is the clear depth of web between flanges (measured on the slope in the case of inclined webs); t is the web thickness; e = (250/p.)% = (150/py)%; ‘Po and Py are the limiting stresses (in N/mm2) (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); (2) sections as in (1), but with tongue-plates: see 4.5.3.5; (8) solid bar: compact; (4) round tube: same classification as for axial compression (see 4.3.2.5 and 4.3..4(b)). V4.5.3.2 Compact sections ‘The factored shear force resistance Vas at a section, in the absence of moment, may be found using the following equation: Vas = Pu! Ym where y is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); Ay is the effective shear area; ! ‘Ym is the material factor (seu table 3/3). \ BS 8118: Partl: 1991, + ‘The effective section area is as follows. {a) For sections containing shear webs without tongue-plates, that are free from HAZ softening, A, is determined from the following equation: ¢ Ay = 0.8NDt : where Dis the overall depth of web measured to outer surface of flanges, £ is the web thickness; NV is the number of webs. ‘The presence of small holes may be ignored, provided that in total they do not. occupy more than 20 % of the clear web depth, between flanges. 7 »} For sections as in (a), but with webs affected HAZ softening, Ay is determined from the following equation: Ay = MO.BD1 ~ (1 ~si,)as} where @,, is the total depth of HAZ material ‘occurring within the clear depth of the web between flanges (see 4.4.3); keq_ is the softening factor (see 4.4.2). For a web welded over its full depth, or continuously welded longitudinally at any point in its\depth, Vas should be taken as k times the unwelded value. (©) Fora solid bar, Ay = 0.84 or 0.84¢. (@) For a corapact round tube, Ay - 0.64 or where A is the section area (in the absence of HAZ Ag is the effective section'area' (when HAZ softening is present), found by ‘taking an effective thickness of k, times the true thickness for HAZ material. In the case of sections containing shear webs, the methods provided for the calculation of Vag for plate girders may be used (see 5.4.3.2 and 5.4.3.5). 4.5.3.3 Slender sections ‘The factored shear force resistance Vps in the absence of moment for sections containing slender shear webs without tongue-plates, orientated in the plane of loading, should be taken as the lesser of the two values obtained from (a) and (b) as follows. (a) Fielding check. The resistance is calculated as for a compact section, using 4.5.3.2(a) or (b) as appropriate. | (b) Buckting check. Vas, in newtons, is obtained from the following expression: Vins = S40NE% ym where @ isthe clear depth of web between flanges; is the web thickness; AN is the number of webs; ‘Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3). 4.5.3.4 Fncliited shear webs ‘The expressions covering compact sections in 4.5.3.2{(a) and (b) remain valid for inclined webs, provided D is still measured normal to the neutral axis. But in checking slender inclined webs (See 4.5.3.3) the expression in (b) should be factored by cos 0, where @ is the angle between the web and the plane of the applied loading. 7 4.5.3.5 Use of tongue-plates ‘The shear force resistance of sections containing shear webs with tongue-plates may safely be found generally using the treatment given in 5.4.3.1 to 5.4.3.5, but with the v-factors taken as follows: is the elastic critical shear buckling factor and is determined as given in 5.4.3. ‘Ur is the tension field factor and is equal to zero. This treatment is valid only if the tongue-plates comply with 5.4.5. 4.5.4 Combined moment and shear force 4.5.4.1 Moment with low shear At any section it may be assumed that the factored moment resistance Mas is unaffected by a coincident shear force V (under factored loading) less than half the factored shear force resistance Vps found in 4.5.3.3. 4.5.4.2 Moment with high shear If Vexceeds 0.5Vgs, a reduced value for the factored moment resistance Mpso should be found as follows: (a) For sections with shear webs, connected to flanges at both longitudinal edges: Mrso = Mps{l + (1 ~ a\(0.6 — 1.2V/Vps)} () For other sections: Mgso = Mps{1.6 ~ 1.2V/Vps) where ws aan ‘Mps__ is the factored moment resistance of the section in the absence of shear (see 4.5.2); @ is the ratio of minimum to maximum shear stress in web, assuming an elastic stress distribution. For sections classified as slender for bending, or affected by HAZ softening, « should be based on the assumed section used in the demonstration of Mps (see 4.5.2.3), section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ———— 4.5.5 Web bearing 4.5.6 Lateral torsional buckling 4.5.5.1 General 4.5.6.1 General . hi i than those allowed exemption ‘This clause concerns the design of webs subjected _ A beam, other : to localized forces caused by'concentrated loads or” 1. 4.5.6.2, should Later Large reactions applied to a beam. failure by lateral torsional buckling in accordance with 4.5.6.3 to 4.5.6. 4.5.5.2 Unstiffened web 7 Fl 4.8.6.2 Exemptions 7 When the web itself is required to carry the ‘The possibility of premature failure by lateral localized force, without the provision of a bearing torsional buckling may be ignored in ay ‘of the stiffener, as for example under a rolling load, both following cases: the following should be met: i -- Y(@) bending about the minor axis; (2) Pw S Palm OF HeParini (b) beam supported against lateral movement. (©) Powe $ Perm throughout its length; where ~-(¢) lateral supports to compression flange provided at spacing not greater than 40cr, Py and Pa ae sreses arising at its extreme where : ze and mid-point respectively, Sscoming a 45° dspersion angle try is the minor axis of gyration of the section; either side of a localized force; € = (250/p.)%5 Pa is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 Po is the limiting stress (in N/mm?) of and 4.2); 7 compression flange material (see tables 4.1 Ps is the buekding stress for the web and 4.2). treated asa thin column between 4 5 gy p eae va ‘The beam should be checked for possible lateral Ie 's the softening factor for HAZ torsional buckling in every unsupported bay material (see 4.4.2); between points of lateral support. In each of these oa is the material factor (see table 3.3). the following condition should be satisfied: M = Mg In (a) the second expressicn should be used when Where the web is welded to the flange and HAZ softening. 7 occurs. Otherwise the first expression is valid. M is the moment arising under factored Ps should be determined as given in 4.7.4.1. Joading in the length considered; selecting the curve in figure 4.10(a) that intercepts Mfg, is the factored moment of resistance to the stress-axis at a value po (see tables 4.1 lateral torsional buckling, and is equal to and 4.2). The slenderness parameter \ to be used ‘ PSMrmi to select the curve should allow for possible ha ‘e relative lateral movement of the flanges as the web, SS the Dlaste sation maidains of ross buckles, and never be taken less than 3.6d/t, softening, local buckling or holes; 4.5.5.3 Web with tongue-plate ‘vm _ is the material factor (see table 3.3); 7 When a tongue-plate is provided, 4.5.5.2(a) should ling stress: ). be satisfied both at the top edge of the Pett eee eee eee tongue plate, and at the upper edge of the thin 4.5.6.4 Alfowoance for moment variation Sanu The value of Mf in 4.5.6.3 may be safely taken as, 4.5.5.4 Stiffened web the maximum value arising in the bay considered. A bearing stiffener, if fitted, should be of compact bihedineinn aotnaebining f For the case of section. It may be conservatively designed on the SNAmenY Unit ‘gradient in the length considered assumption that it resists the.entire bearing force, wD’ Moment gra¢ eee d unaided by the web, the stiffener being checked as _ ‘linear variation) M may be taken as follows: a strut (see 4.7) for out-of-plane column buckling _—(@) for 1.0 > Ma/Mfy = -0.5 and local squashing, with bending effects allowed M = 0.6M, + 0.4Mo; for if necessary (see 4.8). Alternatively, a more (0) for Maly < 0.5 economical stiffener may be designed by referring HM = 0.4 My : to the plate girder stiffener clause (see 6.4.6). where Bf and Mg are respectively the maximum * and minimum inoments arising (see figure 4.8). For + other cases of moment variation refer to pendix H. BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Ror the following cases, appendix 1 should be = ‘sed to find the effective length of the beam (0): () cantilever beams; (2) beams subject to destabilizing loads, {if loading between points of lateral support, that effectively acts at a point in the section on the compression side of the neutral axis, ©) beams subject to normal loads when the fompression flange is laterally unrestrained, + [+ both flanges are free to rotate in plan, and torsional restraint is provided only by the bearing of the bottom flange on the supports, Ror all other types of support 1 may be safely taken as the distance between points of lateral ‘support. Alternatively a more favourable value for certain restraint conditions may be found 4.5.6.5 Buckling stress using HLL, ‘The lateral torsional buckling stvess-p, should be (©) General expression: § = x(ES/Me,)% ad from figure 4.9 using the curve which Figure 4.8 Lateral torsional buckling, equivalent uniform moment ff intercepts the stress axis at a stress py found as a follows: Es the modulus of elasticity; (@) for unwelded fully compact section 5. fs the paste ection modulus of gross PL = Poi section; () For other sections, including hybrid Mec ‘is the elastic critical uniform moment. Pi = tallps/S Gee H.2). where 7 (6) Channel and Esection members covered by ae table 4.7: parameter i may be taken as follows, Po iste limiting stress (sce tables 4.1 Dut should not exceed the value given by (a), Mps_is the factored moment resistance of the section; Ae is the plastic section modulus of gross hey eS) * : section; Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3). where 7 ‘Mrs should be found generally in acéordance > is the overall section depth; With 4.6.2, allowing for local buctding and HAZ b is the flange thickness; Softening, but with no deduction for holes. Xand ¥ are the coeffivients to be found using NOTE. For beams of high slenderness(X > 190) it wil be table 4.7, or they may be Appendir Ktoiind po'® PRPPHaIE non-dimensional curve in ‘conservatively taken as X = 1.0, Pete ig ¥ = 0.05. 4.5.6.6 Slenderness parameter ‘The lateral torsional buekding slendemess Nomen an th Mange reiercement to an Lheam or channel eter), needed for Lgite 9 men be [ember Is not of the precise form shown in able 4 rade dbianed using ay of the Rllsw i ong (a) hE Sst permissible to obtain X using the expression in) to (c). (@) Conservative value: \ = where ur, ‘calculated for the section with its actual rinforsemene 7 ya Ury . 4.5.6.7 Effective lateral restraints 4 is the effective length for lateral torsional Bracing systems providing lateral restraint should bucl 4 be designed on the assumption that the total lateral 7y 1s the minor axis radius of gyration for force exerted by a compression flange, under ‘Bross section. factored loading, shared between the points of restraint in any one span, is 8 % of the ‘compression in that flange. , 7 Section 4 300 200 Nim? * 100 0 50 a [NOTE Tb find p, at \ > 190 refer to figure Ki. Figure 4.9 Lateral torsional buckling of beams, buc Where a series of two or more parallel beams require lateral restraint, its not adequate merely: to tie the compression flanges together so that they become mutually dependent. Adequate restraint will be provided only by anchoring the ties to an independent robust support, or by providing a triangulated bracing system. If the number of parallel beams exceeds three, it is sufficient for the restraint system to be designed to resist the sum of the lateral forces derived from the three largest ‘compressive forces only. 4.5.6.8 Beams containing localized welds ‘The value of Mps in 4.5.6.5 for a beam, subject to HAZ softening, should generally refer to the most unfavourable section in the bay considered, even when such softening occurs only locally along the length. However, when HAZ softening occurs at the ends ofthe bay only; its:presencemay:be ignored in -- ‘considering lateral torsional buckling, provided that such softening does not extend a distance along the member, at each end of the bay, greater than the width of the section. 4.6 Tension members 4.6.1 General The tension P arising under factored loading of axially loaded tension members (ties) should not exceed the factored tension resistance Pps of the section (see 4.6.2). For tension members having eccentric end connections it is generally necessary tp refer to 4.8 to allow for interaction between axial load and the moments introduced. However, in certain cases (See 4.6.8) it is permissible to.use a simplified procedure. Se ciewee a s aoe { ‘Table 4.7 Lateral torsional buckling of ‘beams, coefficients Xand ¥ I Beam section Coeiicteats . 8 X= 0.90 ~ 0.032 + 0.04% i Ys ¢ a an i “a ¥ = 0.05 - oof & - yy i ri sy 7] , 7 D c I het 8 L ¥~ 054-3 (0.05 - 0.07 2) ~o3€ ¥ = 0.05 ~ 0.06 € _ 7 D a : re ; 4 ih, Yt Vi D i] 8 4 > 095 - 0.005 + 0.052 eae ¥= 0.07 - oof @ -1))" 1 fs} fiat i i D c X= 101-2 (0.03 - 0.06.5) — oa e ¥ = 0.07 - 0.105 "| NOTE. The expresiontoc ea NOTE 2. For the specitie shape: ind Yate valid for 16 3 DB 54.5, 1 zig, 22,0 2OB SOS ot ipped channel tandanized in BS 1161: X= 0.95, ¥ - 0.071, Q a section 4 SS V/ 4.6.2 Tension resistance 4.6.2.1 General ‘The factored tension resistance Pag should be taken as the lesser of two values corresponding respectively to: {a) general yielding along the member (see 4.6.2.2); (b) local failure at a critical section (see 4.6.2.3). 4.6.2.2 General yielding ‘The value Pps is based on the general cross section of the member along its length, ignoring the effect. of end connections, occasional holes or localized HAZ regions as follows. (a) For a member free from HAZ softening, or “only thus affected at localized positions along its length: Pas = PoAlim : /(t) Bor a member in which the section contains HAZ material generally along the length, as with longitudinal welds: Pes ~ PoAeim * where Po is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); A is the gross section area; Ae is the effective section area; ‘1m is the material factor (see table 3.3). Ag is found by taking a reducgd area equal to ky times the true area for a softened zone, i, being taken as in 4.4.2, and the extent of the zone as. in 4.4.3. 4.6.2.8 Local failure ‘The value of Pgs is based on the most eritical section as follows. (a) For a section free from HAZ softenitig: Pes = PaAnlrm, (b) For a section containing HAZ material: Pes = PaAnel tm where Pa is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); An is the net section atea, with deduction for holes; Anels the net effective section area; Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3). ‘The value of Ape is found in the same way as A (see 4.6.2.2), but with suitable deduction for holes if necessary. The deduction for holes in HAZ regions may be based on the reduced thickness kat. BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 4.6.2.4 Staggered holes Where staggered holes occur, alternative values for ‘An OF Ane Should be calculated as in (a) and (b) as follows, and the lower value thM used in 4.6.2.3. (@) An OF Ape is taken at the least favourable cross section. (b) A diagonal or zig-zag section is considered, with Ap OF Ane found as follows. An = A-H of Ane = Ae - Ht where Hom EAy ~ DePulay wand y are the longitudinal and transverse pitches of holes respectively; t is the plate thickness or effective plate thickness; EAy is the sum of hole areas on the diagonal or zig-zag section considered. 4.6.2.5 Hybrid sections ‘The tension capacity of a hybrid section, containing material of different strengths should be found by adding together the resistances of the various Parts, obtained in 4.6.2.3. 4.6.3 Eccentrically connected ties Eccentrically connected ties include the following: (a) angles connected through one leg: (b) web-connected channels; (©) flange connected tees. Single-bay tension members of these three types may be designed as axially loaded and the variation in stress in the outstanding leg or legs ignored, provided that, in determining the area A, or Ane needed for the local check (see 4.6.2.3), part of the outstanding leg area is deducted from the gross area, as well as any deduction for holes or HAZ effects. The amount of outstanding leg to. be deducted is as follows: (2) single component connected one side 0.64y of a gusset (2) double component symmetrically 0.24, connected either side of gusset where Ay is the effective area of the outstanding leg or legs lying clear of the connected element, but ignoring any fillet. When such members are continuous over several * bays, it is only necessary to apply the above treatment at the outer ends of the end bays. Elsewhere the local tension resistance may be found as in 4.6.2.3, without any outstanding leg deduction. The general yielding check should be performed as given in 4.6.2.2, 4.7 Compression members 4.7.1 General 47-11 Three checks are generally needed for axially loaded compression members (struts) as follows: . (@) column, i.e. flexural, buckling check (see 4.7.8 and 4.7.4) (refers to overall buckling of the member as a whole); (©) torsional buckling check (see 4.7.3 and 4.7.5) (refers to overall buckling of the member as a whole); (© local squashing check (see 4.7.7) (relates to the weakest cross section down its length). Check (a) should always, be made. Check (b) is generally required, but may be waived in some £2828, Cheek (c) is only needed for struts having Before making any of the three checks given in 4.7.1 it is first necessary to classify the Cross-section as compact or slender. The classification is based on that of the least favourable of its component elements, in accordance with 4.3.3, 4.7.8 Resistance to overall buckling With both checks (a) and (b) the axial thrust P under factored loading should not exceed the factored axial resistance Pp based on overall buckling, given by the following: - Pe = PAL tin where A is the gross area, without reduction for HAZ softening, local buciding or holes; Ps_is the buckling stress in flexural or torsional buckling; : Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3). In finding p, for column buclding, failure about Doth principal axes should be considered and the lower value taken. NOTE. For a strut of high slenderness ( > 120) it will be Imecessary to refer to appendix K to fin po- 4.7.4 Column buckling 4.7.4.1 Buckling stress Tne Value of p, for column buckling should be read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.10, selected, in accordance with 4.7.6, 4.7.4.2 Slenderness parameter ‘The column buckling slendemess parameter d needed for figure 4.10 is defined as follows: d= Ur : where is the effective length; 7 is the radius of gyration; both appropriate to the direction of buckling considered. zi ‘The effective length J should be taken as KL, where Z is the length between points of lateval Support; cr for a cantilever strut, its length, The Value of X the effective length factor for struts Should be assessed from a knowledge of the end: conditions; table 4.8 gives guidance, Brrr hen the eros section is wholly or substantially affected ‘Testrained end of a mem 1 Effectively held in position and | 0.7 restrained in direction at both ends 2 Effectively held in position at both | 0.85 ends and restrained in direction at one end 3 Effectively held in position at both | LO ends, but not restrained in direction 4 Effectively held in position at one | 1.25 end, and restrained in direction at & Effectively held in position and] 1.5 restrained in direction at one end, and partially restrained in direction Dut not held in position at the other end 6 Effectively held in position and 2.0 restrained in direction at one end, but not held in position or restrained at the other end BS 8118 ; Part 1: 1991 | 300 PNimm? i ° 50 100 a 4 4 @ 7 NOTE. find pg ath > 190 refer to figure K.A. itl Figure 4.10 Column buckling stress p, for struts q | il BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 4.7.5 Torsional buckling 4.7.5.1 Exemptions ‘The possibility of torsional buckling may be ignored for the following: (@) closed hollow sections; (b) doubly symmetrical sections; (©) sections composed entirely of radiating outstands, e.g. angles, tees, cruciforms, that are classified as compact in accordance with 4.8.3. 4.7.5.2 Slenderness parameter ‘The torsional buckling slenderness parameter \ may be obtained using either (a) or (b) below, or else by referring to appendix J. It should always be based on the gross area of the section as follows. (a) General formula \ = x{BA/Pq) where : A _ is the gross section area, without reduction for local buckling, HAZ softening or holes; E_ is the modulus of elasticity; Por is the elastic critical load for torsional duckling, allowing for interaction with column buckling when necessary. (b) Sections as given in table 4.9 d= By where ‘is read from figure 4.11 Az is found as follows: (1) for angles, tees, cruciforms \; = Xo (2) for channels, top-hats de "TEA ‘Table 4.9 contains expressions for hy and ¥; and also for s and X (needed for figure 4.11). In (2) the quantity ), should be taken’as the. effective slenderness for column buckling about axis xx (as defined in table 4.9). 4.1.5.3 Buckling stress ‘The value of 7, for torsional buekding should be read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.12, selected in accordance with 4.7.6. 4.7.6 Strut eurve selection 4.7.6.1 Basic procedure c ‘The overall buekling stress p, should be read from the appropriate strut curve diagram in figure 4.10 (for column bucking) or figure 4,12 (for torsional buckling). Choice of diagram should be in accordance with table 4.10. In any given diagram the appropriate curve is that meeting the stress axis at a stress 71, to be determined as in 4.7.6-2, ‘treated specially (see 4.7.6.4). 4.7.6.2 Determination of p; The value of p; should generally be found as A follows (but refer to 4.7.6.4 for sections composed * of radiating outstands): (a) compact section, with no HAZ effects (b) other sections, generally py = (4e/A)po where PL = Po A is the gross area of section; Ae is the area of. effective section (see 4.7.6.3); Po is the limiting stress for the material (see tables 4.1 and 4.2), Curve selection on this basis is valid, provided the :" member meets the tolerances of straightness and twist laid down for extruded material (see BS 8118 : Part 2). When there is a possibility that a: fabricated strut will fail to meet these tolerances, Py should be taken as s times the value given by 4.7.6.2(a) or (b) above, where: $ = 0.6 + 0.5exp(—0.02A) (but not exceeding 1.0). 4.7.6.3 Effective section Effective section applies to strut sections that are as follows: (@) classified as stender; (b) affected by HAZ softening; (e) both (2) and (0). ‘The effective section may bg obtained by taking reduced thicknesses, with no deduction for holes as follows, and may be based on the least favourable cross section (but see 4.7.6.5 for welded members). ) Stender section, free from HAZ, softening. ~The thickness of any element is taken as i, times its true thickness ¢, where fy, is found as. in 4.3.4. In the case of reinforced elements ki, should be applied to the area of the reinforcement as well as to the basic thickness of the plate. (2) Compact section, with HAZ softening. The thickness of any softened zone should be reduced 30 as to give it an assumed area equal to times its true area. The extent of such a zone should be found from 4.4.3, and the value of ky from 4.4.2, (8) Slender section, with HAZ softening, For slender elements free from HAZ effects the reduced thickness is found as in (1); and for HAZ regions not located fn slender elements it is taken. as in 2). If an element is both sfender and affected by HAZ softening, the reduced thickness is taken as the lesser of kt and gt in the softened part and as kt elsewhere in it, Sections composed of radicting outstands are; a7 a section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 pole 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts 7 pss Yo = M = SBIt ~ 0.6p15(B/)4 o ae 7 J 5 = dale - 7 4 X= 06 po wie | z : D oss Ro = Mr = w= NRQw — 1? — Lop} : a J . [isws2s 3 = whe j 5 j fe th X= 06 | 3 Ye = 66 s= wy X= 061 4 ps5 8 105s BD<10 Yo = (D/Nfa.2 + 0.5(B/DP} — 0.60! 5(D/)* 5 = f= [1+ 6(1 — BDI) 4 oe \ Ko X= 0.6 - 0.40 — BDP [a 5 5 ps5 Ro = a + LSew — 1) — lw — 18 “105 BD 51.0 |s= | | ea oe lsws25 X=% ~Lalt 6 Vee note) N= 87 ? He 5 = 140M) [~~ unequat X= 0.60 “ea ue : 7 ps35 Yo = 5.1BM = phBCE/N% ote X=1 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ‘Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for Struts (continued) 8 7 ps5 No = dg = (Baa z | 05 =DB<29 + LADBR ~ 0.791 SB 9 4 $= Mylo ——J X= X= 11-02n8 aly 9 y ps5 Dom dg + 1.60(w = I) = 200 HF 05 = DB.s2.0 |s= ny 4 q 3 lsws25 X~ Xy QwY Ler F 10 [erenaiey X= 70 q S = ye |] Equat X= 0.83 dh) UY eeencie % = 60 q Soe |} Unequat X= 0.76 a) ¥ 2 [med X= $= Myo, oor j if] Unequat X= 0.89 Y iB 2 05 = DB 520 |i Dias LBD y v > f= ~SJosas + LUD) ~ pl5(pay% || 5 yh : X= 13 ~ 0.8D/B + 0.20/52 ‘I y [rable 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts (continued) a [ered y Xo = 65 Sm hyo X= 0.78 1=DBs5 No = Balt + LED/BKG I) 1 soy <2 sal X ~ 0.35D/B — 0.04(D/BP. Y= 0.14 ~ 0.02D/B ~ 0.02ty/t) 1sDBs3 Ye = (BAYT + L.5D/B + 5C/B) CB 0.4 She X = 0.35D/B — 0.04(D/B) - 0.250/B ¥ = 0.12 — 0.02D/B + (0.6(C/BP.D/B - 0.5)} 1=DBs8 do = (BAT + LSD/B + 5C/B) CB 0.4 s= dh X ~ 0.35D/8 - 0.04(0/5) ¥ = 0.12 ~ 0.2D/B ~ {0.05(@/B)/(D/B - 0.5)} BS 8118 . Part 1: 1991 we NOTE. To find p, at > 130 refer to figure KA, Figure 4.10 Column buckling stress p, for struts (continued BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 section 4 2 8 a 100 0 5 oO a Figure 4.10 Column buckling stress p, for struts (concluded) © BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 a ‘Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts (concluded) NOTE 1. Shapes of elaforced section complying with BS 1161 : NOTE 2. The sections ace generally of uniform thicknest, except cases 14 and IS. NOTE 9. yy ory i the slenderness parameidr (Ur) fr focal bucking about the 2 ory anda NOTE 4. psa factor depending onthe amount of filet material atthe 2008 of the section fellows Radivsed ites — p= 45° iets p= 16m Ihe capers ened on aia Yar ony vad within he its shown, theca of ak oan angles (ses 8 19) the expressions cease to apply if the gap between the angles exceeds at, ‘Table 4.10 Choice of strut curve diagram + ‘Type of buckling Unwelded strat Welded strat N Column buckding: syrametric or mildly asymmetric section Figure 4.10(a) | Figure 4.10(b) severely asymmetric section Figure 4.10(>) | Figure 4.10(c) ‘Torsional buckling: generally Figure 4.12(a) section composed of radiating outstands (see 4.7.6.4) Figure 4.12(b) the ages Sectould severally be regarded as weed, forthe purpose ofthis table, cntaes welds ova bog eae) Gham he largest dimension of the section, This is regardless of whither or not there ave HAG clfecer OTE 2. A mildly asymmetie section is one for which yy/ia = 1.5 where mand yy are the ditances from ferther and nearer extreme fibres, respectively. Otherwise, the octon shold be tated ns severip an ‘the buckling axis to the metric. 4.7.6.4 Sections composed of radiating outstands For sections such as angles, tees and cruciforms, composed entirely of radiating outstands, local and torsional buckling are closely related. For such () Section containing outstands with tip reinforcement. If the reinforced outstands are such that mode 1 would be critical in terms of local buckling (see 4.8.2.3), the same procedure is followed as in (a). But if mode 2 is critical, ‘struts the procedure should be as follows: « * figure 4.12(a) should be employed and the (6) Section containing only unreinforced effective section found as in 4.7.6.3. 2 outstands. 4.7.6.5 Struts containing localized welds ) In considering torsional buckling figure 4.12() may be used for finding ps, instead of figure 4.12(a). (The relevant diagram for column buckling is unaltered.) (2) In determining pj, needed for selecting the appropriate curve in figures 4.10 and 4.12 (see 4.7.6.2), the area A, should be based on an effective section in which the normal eduction is made for zones affected by HAZ, Softening, but with no reduction for local buckling, i.e. take fy, = 1. Thus for such a section free of HAZ effects: p1 ~ py. ‘Strut curve selection for a member affected by j HAL softening should generally be based on a value of py obtained for the most unfavourable section, even when such softening occurs only locally along the length. This includes HAZ effects due to the! welding on of teraporary attachments, However, when such HAZ softening has a certain > ‘specified location along the length, its presence may be ignored in considering overall buckling, provided the softening does not extend longitudinally a distance greater than the least overall width of the member. The location of the HAZ softening, for this relaxation to be allowed, is the position of zero or near-zero curvature in the BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 section 4 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 100 50 ; @ 7 NOTE. find p, at d > 199 refer to figure K.1. Figure 4.12 Torsional buckling stress p,'for struts ‘s Pa sis the limiting stress Gee tables 4.1 and 4.2); An is the net sectio mn area, with deduction for at the ends. (In such a unfilled holes; case it will be important to make the local Arai me oectiaa gist suvsiing cece) Siieos tages, et 4.7.7 Local squashing it He ‘The axial thrust P under factored Toading should ‘The atea Ape should be taken unfananed the factored resistance Pys of the most for sunt holes, where Ag is the effective area unfavourable section along the length or astrut, used in the consideration of overall buckling determined as follows: (Coluran oF torsional), see 4.7.6.3 and 4.7.64, holes located in reduced thickness regions the (2) compact section, free from Pg = PaAnlym; — deduction may be based i HAZ effects instead of the full thickness. (b) other sections, generally s aS Ay less deduction PRS = PaAnelYm ee er BS 8118; Pirt 1: 1991 Y o ‘A struts containing ‘he resistance pg to ihe following types of eccentrically connected ising a simple method, ‘stead of the interaction procedure given in 4.8, 4.7.8 Hybrid sections ... Srut may be treated u arent materials of different trengths each element should be classified ‘ccording to its particular value of p,, 'e gross areas thereof), 7 whe resistance Pps to local squashing may be found Summing the resistance of the various parts, -2.9.1 Single-bay struts 50 A 100 Figure 4.12 Torsional buckling stress p, for struts (concluded) Provided phe attachment is sufficient to prevent.. rotation ee Plane of the connecres element, and if no deliberate bending is applied: () single angle connected through one leg only; (b) back-to-back angles connected one side of a gusset; (©) single charinel connected by its web only; (2) single tee connected by its table only. For these it is permissible, in making the check for column buckli eccentricity of loading, and instead take a reduced axial | = os ==. BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 4.7.9.2 Struts of two components back-to-back is the spacing of main components ~ Such struts of double angle, channel or tee measured to the centroids of the onstruction, connected elther side of end- gussets, connections to each batten, ay be designed as monolithie centroidally loadea members provided that the following occur: 1 She number of batters at each {@) the two components are securely connected together at their ends; and In designing the battens it is important to con (©) they are connected also at the third points, the possible wr effects reakening of local buckling using spacers equal to the gusset thickness. and HAZ softening (if welded). % 4.7.10 Battened struts 47-10.1 The general rules for struts given in 4.7.3 4 to 4.7.7 do not generally apply to battened members, which should be the subject of special study. However, if a battened ‘strut complies with 4.7.10.2, it is Permissible to regard it as monolithic and obtain its resistance in the normal ub way. . of combined action effect: 2 £7:10.2 To be treated asa monolithic membera (a) case A, major axis bending with axial force’ battened strut should satisfy the following. (Ms + P); ‘ B, minor ding with axial (a) It should be axially loaded. GA AogP, minor axe bending with axial fore (0) It should comprise two main components (©) case C, biaxial bending (&, + My); Joined by equally spaced battens, the cross D, biaxd ing wit ‘te sein Eine smcetiod sou ans omat__ {fc D, Hl bending wih eee to the battens. where (©) Battens should generally be in pairs. Tee ever ifthe main components are toe-to-toe P is the axial force arising under tees or angles, single battens are allowed. factored loading; @r» <0. ‘Mx and My are the uniaxial moments about major. Net and minor axes respectively arising under factored loading, rand dg are the slendemess parameters for column buckling of the 4.8. 1.2. Two checks are in general needed, as complete member about axes follows: Parallel to and normal to the (2) section check (see 4.8.3); battens, respectively. (b) overall buckling check (see 4.8.4). (e) ig = 0.72 ‘The section check is always neested. The overall where. buckling check may be waited ior the following Xa fs the slenderness parameter for buckling _“i"umstances: (1) in ease A, when Pis tensile and also the based oncstamoremmeenrem tes, (Ince when Pi nae ad ao Petting Whichever is the more critical, (see 4.5.6.2); 7 ist __(2) in case B, when Pis tensile, {0 The batten system should be designed to resist é taken saigat force V in the plane of the battens, !* Making the section check the values taken for ; Pes, Mese and Mpsy should take due account of the tal 5 % of the axial a8, Mase and Mes, oes reece eae eet eee cee holes and of HAZ softening where & (8) The connection of each batten to each main x component should be designed to transmit the Pras is the factored axial resistance of ‘ following simultaneous actions under factored the cross section, see 4.6.2 5 loading: - (tension) or 4.7.7 (compression); - (1) longitudinal shear of Va/Na; ‘Alusy atu ibipgy are the factored uniaxial 3 (2) moment of Va/2N acting in the plane of the moment resistances of the cross batten; . section (see 4.5.2), adjusted to 4 where allow for coincident shear if 7 necessary (see 4.5.4), about 43 a ata longitudinal Spacing between centres ™major and minor axes of batter recnantiy -_ section 4 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 ———————————————————0 0S tn making the overall buckling check the values of Mpge and Mpgy should generally refer to the most unfavourable Section in the bay considered, taking account of local buckling and HAZ softening, but, ignoring holes. HAZ softening may be ignored when it occurs at the extreme ends of a spanning, jie. non-cantilever, bay. For sections exempt from lateral torsional buckling (Gee 4.5.6.2), “ing should be taken equal to Mes. where ‘Mpg is the factored moment resistance to lateral torsional buckling (see 4.5.6.3). 4.8.2 Section classification and local buckling under combined actions 4.8.2.1 Section classification ‘The section should be given a single classification (fully compact, semi-compact or slender) generally In accordance with 4.3.3.2 and 4.3.3.4(a). In so doing, the value of 8 for any given element should be based on a value of g (see figure 4.2) corresponding to the stress pattern produced in that element when all the actions (P, My, My) are applied simultaneously. The quantities zo and Ye, needed for figure 4.2, should generally be found using the elastic neutral axis of the gross section under the combined actions, although in checking whether a section is fully compact it is permitted to use the plastic one. Note that it is possible for the elastic neutral axis to lie outside the section, in which case y and ye will be of the same sign. The method given in 4.3.3.6 for determining a more favourable classification for under-stressed flange ‘elements is still valid provided yo and ye again relate to the stress pattern under the combined actions. Any section found to be fully compact or semi-compact under the above procedure is + counted as compact when obtaining the axial resistance, no reduction being made for local buckling. 4.8.2.2 Effective section For a member classed as slender (see 4.8.2.1) each individual resistance should be found using an effective section that relates specifically to the action concerned (P, M, or M,), this being generally different for the different actions. Thus when obtaining axial resistance, the factor ky, (see figure 4.5) for each element is based on a f value for that element corresponding to uniform stress @ = 1). White for finding moment resistance, a 5 value is taken that rztatc> to the stress pattern itt the element when the section is under pure bending. \4:8.3.1 General formula (case D) 4.8.3 Section eneck Cabamwye veo!) ‘The cross section is adequate if the following is satisfied at every position along the length, all six quantities being taken as positive: Po My | My Pag * Masi * Masy <"° 4.8.3.2 Other cases For cases A, Bor C (see 4.8.1.1) the formula given in 4.8.3.1 should be used, with the appropriate ‘numerator quantity put equal to zero. 4.8.4 Overall buckling check 4.8.4.1 General : For members subject to axial tension combined with bending the presence of the axial force should be ignored in checking against overall buckling. For members subject to axial compression with bending, or to biaxial bending, the appropriate interaction formulae (see 4.8.4.2 to 4.8.4.5) should be satisfied on any unsupported length liable to buckle. Al quantities in the interaction formulae should be taken as positive. 7 : 4.8.4.2 Case A (major axis bending with axial compression) For case A’ both conditions (a) and (b) as follows should be satisfied: . 2) prevention of major axis Buckling: Po, Wy PMs ety eee = 1.0 Pex” Musx ” 2PixMuse (by prevention of minor axis buckling: Po My ety slo : Pry © Mix where My is the equivalent uniform moment. abit the major axis obtained es in 4.5.6.45 Par and Pay are the factored axial resistances to overall colurmn bueiding, about major and minor axes respectively, «see 4.7.3.and 4.7.4. 4.8.4.3 Case B (minor axis bending with axial compression) For case B the following single condition should be satisfied (prevention of minor‘axis buckling): Ph, Pi + fs Ph s10 Pry ” Mrsy ” 2Paylfasy where ; ‘My is the equivalent uniform moment about the minor axis obtained as in 4.5.6.4, BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 4.8.4.4 Case C (biaxial bending) For case C the following single condition should be satisfied (prevention of minor axis buckling): me at + pt 10 Max * Mosy 4.8.4.5 Case D (biaxial bending with axial Force) For case D the condition should be satisfied: where ‘Mpex. is the value of My that would be acceptable in combination with P, but in the absence of minor axis bending, as given in 4.8.4.3 (lesser value); Mppy is the similar value for My, in the absénce of major axis bending, as given in 4.8.4.4. - 4.9 Deformation (serviceability limit state) 4.9.1 General ‘The recoverable elastic deflection (see 4.9.2) under nominal loading (unfactored) should not exceed the limiting value (see 3.4). If the ultimate limit state (static strength) has been satisfied, using 4.2 to 4.8, it may be assumed that permanent inelastic deformation in service will be negligible. No separate check for this is generally needed. 30 Section 4 4.9.2 Recoverable elastic deflection 4.9.2.1 Compact sections The elastic deflection of these’ ats using gross section properties, ‘or HAZ effects. For beams this appli to fully compact sections and to = ‘pact sections. 4.9.2.2 Stender sections. Deflection calculations should generally be performed using section properties calculated for an effective section that allows for local buckling, but ignores any effects of HAZ softening or holes. ‘The assumed effective section may be conservatively based on reduced thicknesses as given in 4.5.2.3(1) for bending, or 4.7.6.3(1) for axial compression, or the following more favourable procedure may be adopted. (a) Rectassify a slender element using a modified value for c in 4.3.3.4, obtained by taking py ‘equal to two-thirds of the normal value given in tables 4.1 and 4.2. (b) If the section is then found to be no longer slender, the gross section properties are taken. (0) Mas reclassified it is still slender a new effective section is assumed, based on kj, values found by using the modified value of ¢ from (a) for figure 4.5. Section 5 —————— ee Section 5. Plates and plate girders 5.1 General ‘This section covers the static strength (ultimate limit state) of the following structural components: (a) unstiffened plates (see 5.2 and figure 5.1); (b) multi-stiffened plating (see 5.3 and figure 5.2); (©) plate girders (see 5.4 and figure 5.3). For (a) and (c) the resistance obtained will tend to be more favourable than that based on the simpler rules of section 4, especially when considering slender plates or webs of low aspect ratio (a/d). Multi-stiffened plating is not covered in section 4. ar v | Figure 5.2 Multi-stiffened plate 5.2 Unstiffened plates 7 i 5.2.1 General Figure 5.1 Unstiffened Unstiffened plates subject to direct stress may be plate designed in accordance with 6.2.2 to 5.2.4, and ———_] those toaded in shear in accordance with 8.2.5, Interaction effects are covered in 5.2.6, ‘The plate thickness is denoted by ¢ throughout. panel f Figure 5.3 Plate girder End post > > = o 1991 5.2.2 Unstiffened plates under direct stress 5.2.2.1 General The resistance of a plate to uniform in-plane compression, P, acting in the direction shown in figure 5.1 is described in 5.2.2.2 to 5.2.2.4 5.2.2.2 Classification ‘The plate should be classified as follows: @)6 5B, fully compact; (0) Bi Bo slender where B= wt; Bo,and By are as given in table 4.3. 2.2.8 Fully compact and semi-compact plates ‘The factored axial resistance Pas to uniform compression should be based on the least favourable cross section as follows: Pres = PaAne/Ym Pas = PoAne!Ym (a) fully compact, (b) serni-compact where Pa and Po are limiting stresses (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); is the net effective area allowing for holes, and taking a reduced thickness ft in any region affected by HAZ softening (see 4.4.2 and 4.4.3); 1 is the material factor (see table 3.3). 5.2.2.4 Slender plates A yielding check and a buckling check should be performed, taking values as follows for the factored axial resistance Pps, (a) Yielding check. Pas is obtained as in for a semi-compact plate, ignoring buckling. (b) Buckling check. Prs = PoAeltm + where Ane 3 Po is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); Ae is the effective area, obtained by taking reduced thickness to allow for buckling as well as HAZ softening, but with holes ignored. . fn (b) the effective area should generally be based on the least favourable cross section, taking a thickness equal to the lesser of fig and yt in HAZ regions, and ky elsewhere. However, HAZ softening due to welds at the loaded edges may be ignored in this check. . ‘The factor ky may be determined by the more favourable of the treatments (1) and (2) as follows. (1) Plate treatment. ,, is read from curve C or D in figure 4.5, taking @ = d/t and ¢ = (250/p)"*. % 37 section 5 (2) Colurmn treatment. Ky, is taken equal to the ratio pyPo, where p, is the column buckling. stress read from figure 4.10(a). The appropriate curve to tise is that intersecting the stress axis at a value po. The slenderness parameter \ should normally be taken as follows: d= 3.50/t corresponding to simple support, although a lower value may be taken if this ean be Justified. 5.2.3 Unstiffened plates under in-plane moment, 5.2.8.1 General ‘The resistance of a plate to pure in-plane moment. acting on the sides of width d (see figure 5.1) is described in 5.2.3.2 to 5.2.3.4. If the moment varies in the direction parallel to dimension a, see also 5.2.4. 5.2.3.2 Classification ‘The plate should be classified as follows: (a8 = By fully compact; (b) #1 < 8.5 Bo semi-compact; (OB > Bo slender; where B = 0.350; Bo and By are as given in table 4.3. 5.2.8.8 Fully compact and semi-compact plates ‘The factored moritent resistance Mgs should be based on the least. favourable cross section, using the relevant expression in 4.5.2.2(a) to (d), and taking an assumed section as defined in 4.5.2.3(a) or (b) 5.2.3.4 Stender plates ‘The factored moment resistance should be taken as the lesser of two values found as in (a) and (b) as follows. (2) Yielding check. Mpg is obtained as in 5.2.3.3 for a semi-compact plate ignoring buckling. (b) Buckling check. Mgs if found as follows: Mps = PoZeltm «where Zy is the elastic modulus of the effective section ‘Tue calculation in (b) should generally be based on the effective section at the least favourable position, with no deduction for holes, taking a, thickness equal.to the lesser of kyt and kyt in HAZ regions, and kif elsewhere. However, HAZ softening due to welds at the loaded edges may be ignored in this check. ‘The factor ky, should be read from curve C ot D in figure 4.5, taking 6 ~ 0.35¢/t and ¢ ~ (250/p.)” W Section 5 BS 8118; Part 1: 1991 ee 5.2.4 Longitudinal stress gradient on unstiffened plates 5.2.4.1 General Cases where the applied action P or Mon an unstiffened plate varies longitudinally in the direction shown in figure 5.1 are given in 5.2.4.2 and 6.2.4.3, 5.2.4.2 Fully compact and semi-compact plates ‘The factored resistance at any cross section should not be less than the action arising at that section under factored loading. 5.2.4.3 Slender plates ‘The yielding-check should again be satisfied at every cross section. But for the buckling check it is Sufficient to compare the factored resistance with the action arising at a distance zr from the more heavily loaded end of the panel, where a is 0.4 times the elastic plate buckling half-wavelength. 5.2.5 Unstiffened plates in shear 5.2.5.1 General : Unstiffened plates under shear should be classified as compact or slender, as in 4.5.3.1. ‘The presence of small holes may be ignored when finding the shear resistance, provided they do not occupy more than 20 % of the cross section area on the width d. 5.2.5.2 Compact shear web ‘The factored shear force resistance Vs should be found as follows: Ves = Pudglym where Py is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); ‘im is the material factor (see table 3.3); ‘Ay is the effective shear area, taken.as follows. . (a) for unwelded plates Ay = dt; () for plates fully welded along one or more edges Ay = kad; : (¢) for partially welded plates, A, is the effective area on the width d, found by taking a reduced thickness Jet in softened ‘zones (see 4.4.2 and 4.4.3), 5.2.8.8 Slender shear web ‘The factored shear force resistance Vas should be taken as the lesser of the two values obtained from (a) and (b) as follows. (a) Yielding check. The resistance is found as for a compact plate, using 5.2.5.2. (b) Buckling check. ‘The resistance may be safely found as in 4.5.3.3{b). Alternatively the following expression may be used, which is more favourable when a is fess than 2.3¢: Vas = MPvdt/Ym, where ois the elastic shear buckling factor read from figure 5.4 taking ¢ = (150/p,)". ‘The expression in 4.5.3.9(b) still fails to take advantage of tension field action. If it is believed that the edge conditions are such that a tension field is sustainable, the designer may refer to the even more favourable treatment available for type 1 panels in plate girder webs (see 5.4.3.4). 5.2.6 Combined actions 5.2.6.1 Classification A plate, subjected to combined axial force Pand moment M under factored loading should be given a single classification (fully compact, semi-compact or stender) generally in accordance with 4.8.2.1. In so doing, the vatue taken for B should be based on the stress pattern produced in the plate when P and Mf act together, based on an appropriate value of g (see figure 4.2). Where the plate is classed as slender, each individual resistance (Pps and Mgs) should be based on the specific type of action considered, as in 4.8.2.2. 5.2.6.2 Axial force with moment ‘The following condition should be satisfied for a Plate subjected to axial force with moment: Pw Pas * Mas = 1° where PandM are the axial force and in-plane moment respectively arising under factored Wading; * Pag and Mps are the factored resistances to axial force and in-plane moment respectively, each reduced to allow for coincident high shear if necessary (see 5.2.6.4). 5.2.6.3 Direct stress with low shear It may be assumed that a coincident shear force V (under factored loading) has no effect on the longitudinal resistance of a plate, provided V does hot exceed half its factored shear force resistance Vas. 5.2.6.4 Direct stress with high shear If Vexceods 0.5¥ ps, the longitudinal resistance force, moment) should be reduced by a factor ky where: Ky ~ L6 — L2W/Vpg BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 5.3 Multi-stiffened plating 1 General ‘The following rules concern plating, all four edges (see figure 5.2), ith three or more equally spaced longitudinal stiffeners or corrugations. These may be unsupported on their whole length or else be Continuous over intermediate transverse stiffeners, The dimension L should be taken as the spacing of the supports when fitted. An essential feature of the design is that the longitudinal reinforcement, but not transverse stiffening, is “sub-critical", ie. it can deform with the plating in an overall buckling mode. ‘The resistance of such supported on that is reinforced plating to longitudinal direct stress in the direction of the reinforcement is given in 5.8.2 to 5.3.4, and to shear in 5.3.5. Interaction between different effects may he allowed for in the same way as for unstiffened plates (see 5.2.6). The treatments given become invalid if the cross section contains any outstand elements that are Classified as slender When the construction consists of flat plating with applied stiffeners, the resistance to transverse direct stress may be taken the same as for an unstiffened plate. With corrugated construction it is negligible. 5.8.2 Multi-stiffened plating under uniform compression 5.3.2.1 Generat AWwo checks stiould be performed, a yielding check (see 5.3.2.2) and a column check (see 5.3.2.3). The Gross section should be classified as compact or slender in accordance with 4.8.3, considering all the component elements before carrying out either check. Slender outstand elements are not permitted. 5.3.2.2 Yielding check ‘The entire section should be checked for local ‘squashing in the same way as for a strut Gee €.7.7). The resistance Pps should be based on the least favourable cross section, taking account of local buckling and HAZ softening if necessary, and also any unfilled holes. 5.3.2.3 Column check ‘The plating is regarded as an assemblage of identical column ‘sub-units, each containing one centrally located stiffener or corrugation and with @ width equal to the pitch w: The factored axial resistance Pps is then taken a Pas = PeAltm where Ps is the buckling stress for a column sub-unit; A is the gross area of the plating; ‘s the material factor (see table 3.3), Of the entire cross section rm 2 ‘The stress p, should be read from the appropriate Curve in figure 4.10 relevant to column buckling of the sub-unit as a simple strut out of the plane of the plating. . ‘The slenderness parameter may be based on an effective length ! equal to the (a) the distance between positions of effective lateral support, such as end supports or effective transverse stiffeners; (b) the elastic orthotropic buckling half-wavelength. ‘The part of figure 4.10 (a), (b) or (c) used depends on the section shape of the sub-unit and whether it contains longitudinal welding (see table 4.10), the actual curve being that which intercepts the stress axis at a value pj as defined in 4.7.6.2. The following should be noted when determining the effective area A, (needed for finding p,). () The value of fy for elements such as E in figure 5.2 should be based on their full dimensions, even though they are cut in two for the formation of sub-units. (2) HAZ softening due to welds at the loaded edges or at transverse stiffeners may be ignored in finding 4,. 5.3.3 Malti-stiffened plating under in-plane moment 5.8.3.1 General ‘Two checks should pe performed, a yielding check (See 6.3.3.3) and a column check (see 5.3.3.4) 5.3.8.2 Section classification and local buckling ‘The cross section should be classified as compact or slender (see 4.3.3) when carrying out either check. For the purpose of classifying individual elements, and also when determining , for slender elements, it may generally be assumed that each element is under uniform compression taking, g =) 1 in 4.3.2.2. However, in the case of the yielding check only, it is permissible to base g on the actual stress pattern in elements comprising the outermost region of the plating, and to repeat this value for the corresponding elements further in. This may be favourable when the number of stiffeners or corrugations is small. Slender outstand elements should not be allowed. 5.8.3.3 Yielding check ‘The entire cross section of the plating should be treated as a beam under in-plane bending (ee 4.5.2.2). The factored moment resistance Mas should be based on the least favourable cross section, taking account of local buckling and HA softening if necessary, and also any holes, v Section 5 5.3.3.4 Column check ‘The plating is regarded as an assemblage of column sub-units in the same general way as for axial compression (see 6.3.2.3), the factored moment resistance Mpg being taken as follows: Mus = DoZBI2yY¥— where Ps is the buckling stress for column sub-unit; Z is the elastic section modulus of the full cross section of the plating for in-plane bendii B__ is the overall width of plating; y is the distance from centre of plating to centre of outermost stiffener is the material factor (see table 3.3). Ym ‘The stress ps should be read from figure 4.10 in the ‘same way as for uniform compression (see 5.3.2.3). 5.3.4 Longitudinal stress gradient on multi-stiffened plates 5.3.4.1 General ‘ Cases where the applied action Por Mon a multi-stiffened plate varies in the direction of the stiffeners or corrugations are described in 5.3.4.2 and 5.3.4.3, 5.3.4.2 Yielding check ‘The factored resistance at any cross section should be not less than the action arising at that section under factored loading. 5.3.4.3 Column check For the column check it is sufficient to compare the factored resistance with the action arising under factored loading at a distance zc from the more heavily loaded end of a panel, where zis 0.4 times the effective buckling length 1. 5.3.5 Multi-stiffened plating in shear 5.3.5.1 General: - + . A yielding check (see 5.3.5.2) and a buckling check (see 5.3.5.3) should be performed. The methods Given in 5.3.5.2 to 6.3.5.3 are valid provided the following occur (a) The pitch w of the stiffeners or corrugations does not exceed 0.3L (see figure 6.2). (b) Any outstand element of the section i Classified as compact in terms of axial resistance (see 4.8.8.4), {©) Any internal element is classified as compact in terms of shear resistance (see 4.5.3.1). (@) Stiffeners or corrugations, as well as the actual plating, are as follows: (1 effectively connected to tne transverse framing at either end; (2) continuous at any transverse stiffener position, 5.3.5.2 Yielding check ‘The factored shear force resiftance Vp is taken as the same as that for a flat unstiffened plate of the same overall aspect (L x B) and the same general thickness 4, found in accordance"with 5.2.5.2. 5.8.5.3 Buckling check ‘The factored shear force resistance is found from the following: Vas = UPB, where Py is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); B is the width of plating (see figure 5.2); t is the general plate thickness; Ym _ is the material factor (see table 3.3); ‘uy is the elastic critical shear buckling factor (see figure 5.4). In order to calculate v; the following values should be used: a 8; d= 0.6K rwt5/igyy?-975; t w is the effective length of plating; is the pitch of stiffeners or corrugations; is the second moment of area of one sub-unit of the plating (as defined in 5.3.2.3) about a centroidal axis parallel 40 the plane of the plating; © = (150%), The effective length J may be safely taken as the unsupported length L (see figure 5.2). When L “greatly exceeds B, a more favourable result may be obtained by putting ! equal to the elastic orthotropic shear buckling half-wavelength, No allowance for HAZ softening need be made in performing the buelding check 5.4 Plate girders 5.4.1 General A plate girder isa fabricated beam comprising tension flange, compression flange and web plate. ‘The web is typically of slender proportions and reinforced transversely with bearing and intermediate stiffeners (see figure 5.3). It may have longitudinal stiffeners too. A basic feature is that the web stiffeners are designed to provide supported edges for the panels of the sveb, staying essentially straight as buckling proceeds ‘The moment and shear resistances of plate girders having transversely stiffened webs are covered in 5.4.2 and 5.4.3, while 5.4.4 gives the ®odifications needed when longitudinal stiffeners are added. In éonsidering moment resistance it is permissible to follow appendix E instead of 6.4.2, if desired, and economies may result. Igy BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 ~ i 5.4.4 Longitudinally and transversely stiffened (©) type B, bearing stiffener: transverse stiffener girders at point of concentrated load or reaction; 2 5.4.4.1 Moment resistance (©) type C, longitudinal stittencr: spanning ‘The procedure for determining the moment longitudinally between transverse stiffeners. resistance is basically as for girders having In order that predicted resistances may be Cpinsvetse stiffeners only, and involves a yielding achieved, it is generally necessary that web check and a buckling check. ‘The yielding check is ‘stiffeners comply with the following: as given in 5.4.2.2. In making the buckling check (see 5.4.2.8) it is (2) types A, B, C: compactness (see 5.4.5.2); assumed that each longitudinal stiffener provides a line of support to the web, thus dividing it into ©) types A, B, C:stifines (see 8.4.5.4); buckling. Tr eee from the point of view of local (3) types A, B only: stability (see 5.4.5.5). buckling. In determining the effective section of the Sitdes: improved values of &, may be used for A transverse stiffener should extend without break {he sub-panels. These are obtained by taking the from flange ts flange, even when tongue-plates are Serreck Width and stress pattern for each sub-panel fitted. Whece bearing stiftener is fitted, proper in determining its 8 value. provision should be made at the flange for 5.4.4:2 Shear resistance transferring the applied force into the stiffener It ‘The yielding checic (see 5.4.3.2) and the HAZ is not essential for the stiffener to be connected to 1 check (see 9.4.3.5) are unaffected by the presence the flanges, sg of longitudinal stiffeners. ‘Where possible longitudinal stiffeners should bef re buckling cheek should be carried out generally made continuous how ans ee bay tothenext. in accordance with 6.4.3.3, but with o and v4, Where this is not possible, the separate . found as follows: ‘should abut on to the transverse stiffener dividing 3 (a) the a 7 21s arvastiniaes from figure 5.4, them. u taki al to the depth of the : : sub-panel stead oe epi gt the depth); K4.6.2 Compaciness Heer : {B) the value of vis calculated using equation _All stiffeners should be of compact section in terms a © or Gi) in 5.4.9.4 a5 appropriate, with factors of resistance to axial compression (ase 48.3:45 ‘V2, 0g and m obtained as follows: 5.4.5.3 Effective stiffener section a GD, the value of m is taken as the lesser of m1 tyes effective stiffener section is used in checking at ee or estteeationteee the stiffness and stability requirements. It consists % using the formulae'in appesdis veer te 1 doublons Sttfenes ox pair of stiffeners it 3 Ps 7 double-sided, together with an effective width by ee ag ava king das TRS of web plate (see figire 5.8). The latlocotenden ined in 5.4.5.3, and Y 4 { ‘ value fund ee 8 distance by either side of the stiffener attachment vl or attachments as shown, and is given generally by NOTE, Pgaes 9.5 5.7 shout nt be used 16¢eb nent Panels wih ergata ata the following: in 54.24, taki Geanganapeuated aS im 5.4.3.4 taking as transverse by = lesser of 0.130 and 5.4.5 Web stiffeners and tongue-plates stiffener, LSet; ae 5.4.5.1 General NOTE. Fora transverse stiffener located at an end of the The following types of web stiffener are considered Ber the vale of yon the outbonah ade igh se pe ff falen as fllows, instead ofthe value given in (os (See figure 5.3). They may be single- or double ae by = lesser of ag and Zt (a) type'A, intermediate stiffener: transverse ere a isthe distance from the stiffener to the free edge of stiffener other than that covered by type B; the web plate, ee Figure 5.8 Effective stiffener section : Section 5 BS 8118 : Part 1 1991 ——— ————— (b) For a longitudinal by » lesser of 0.13dyy and. stiffener, 15et; where € = (150/py)%; Dy is the limiting stress for web material (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); day is the average depth of the two sub-panels lying either side of the longitudinal stiffener. 5.4.5.4 Stiffness For the panel proportions given, the second moment of area J, of the full section of the effective stiffener (see 5.4.5.3) about a centroidal axis parallel to the web should satisfy the following: (@) for a transverse stiffener (a/d = 2.5), (b) fora longitudinal 1, = at(2a/dyy — 0.7). stiffener (dyy/a = 2.3), + I, = d8(2d/a - 0.7); ‘The stiffness condition may be waived when the panel proportions lie outside the range indicated. 5.4.5.5 Stability (Transverse stiffeners only) ‘The effective stiffener section (see 5.4.5.3) is considered as a strut carrying a thrust P under factored loading given by the following: (a) for an intermediate P = v3; stiffener, (b) for a bearing Pa Pi + VB; stiffener, where Vis the average value of the shear force arising in the web panels either side of the stiffener considered; P1_is the concentrated load or reaction acting at stiffener, The value of P should not exceed the factored axial resistance of the strut, as determined from 4.7 taking account of column buckling (out of the Plane of the web) and local squashing, but ignoring torsional buckling. In considering column buckling an effective strut length 1 should be taken as follows: () forwa = 15, t= a; (2) for afd < 1.5, b= a1. ~ O.4a/ay% When the panel dimension a is different on opposite sides of the stiffener, an average value. should be taken for it in the expressions in (1) and (2). For any end stiffener 1 = d. IL is important to allow for the bending effects that will be introduced, if there is eccentricity between the line of action of P and the centroidal axis of the effective section. This may be undertaken using the interaction formulae giverrin 4.8.3 and 4.8.4.4 where My is the moment due to the action and My = 0. Such eccentricity occurs especially when single-sided stiffeners are used. 5.4.5.6 End posts required to resist tension field ‘When determing the shear force resistance of an end bay of a plate girder, itis only permitted to take advantage of tension field action if an adequate end-post is provided at the outer end of the web panel. This should be designed to perform two functions as follows, although interaction between the two effects may be ignored: (a) to act as a bearing stiffener, resisting the reaction at the girder support; (b) to act as a short beara spanning between the Sirder flanges, resisting the tension field in the plane of the web. An end-post may be either of the following forms, in either case securely connected to both of the girder flanges. (1) It may comprise two double-sided transverse stiffeners, forming the flanges of the short beam, together with a strip of web plate between them. One of the transverse stiffeners should be suitably located so as to fulfil the bearing role. (2) ft may be in the form of inserted material, connected to the end of the'web plate. In performing function (b), the end-post has to resist a shear force Vep together with a moment ‘Mey acting in the plane of the web plate (under factored loading), given by the following: Ven ~ O.6pydt]1 ~ vif(q/Py - vy)/va}]* Mey = 0.14Vep sated where q is the mean shear stress arising in end-panel of web under factored loading, based on unreduced thickness; Py is the limiting stress for web material (sce tables 4.1 and 4.2); V1 and v are factors relating to end-panels found from figures 5.4 and 5.5, or from 5.4.4.5 (if longitudinally stiffened). In catculating q it is permissible to assume that part of the shear force on the girder is carried by the tongue-plates, if fitted. es eee es ete ee BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ‘The methods given in 5.4.2, 5.4.8 and 5.4.4 are valid provided the following occur. (a) The stiffeners comply with 5.4.5. (b) The spacing a of transverse stiffeners is not less than half the clear depth of the web between flange plates (but see 5.4.6 for corrugated or closely stiffened webs). It may be beneficial to provide a tongue-plate, to one or both flanges. To be effective this should comply with 5.4.5.8. Interaction between moment and shear is dealt with in 5.4.7, If web bearing or lateral torsional buckling is thought to be a factor, the designershould refer to 4.5.5 or 4.5.6. For girders subject to axial load, as well as bending, 4.8 is relevant. ‘The treatment of plate girders given in 5.4.2 to 5.4.7 is also generally applicable to box section girders, provided the webs are similar in form. 5.4.2 Moment resistance of transversely stiffened plate girders 5.4.2.1 Generat In order to determine the factored moment resistance a yielding check (see 5.4.2.2) and a buckling check (see 5.4.2.3) should be performed. For hybrid girders, with differing lange and web material, the designer should refer also to 4.5.2.4. 5.4.2.2 Yielding check ‘The moment arising at any cross section under factored load should not exceed the factored moment resistance Mgs that would apply if the section were treated as serni-compact. The value of. Mpg is obtained from 4.5.2.2(b) or (d) as. appropriate, taking account of any holes or HAZ effects, but ignoring local buckling. 5.4.2.3 Buckling check ‘The following treatment applies to plate girders with transverse stiffeners, but no longitudinal stiffeners. For each bay of the girder between transverse stiffeners the moment arising under factored load, at a distance 0.4a from its more heavily stressed end, should not exceed the factored moment resistance Mpg for that bay based on ultimate failure by buckling. The value of Ms is obtained in accordance with 4.5.2.2(e), allowing for local buckling and HAZ softening, but ignoring holes. However, it is permissible for the purpose of this check to ignore HAZ effects caused by the welding on of transverse stiffeners. In considering web buckling, the effective thickness factor ke, showtd generally be found in accordance with 4:3.4, taking @ as in 4.3.2.2. However, if the compressed edge of the wel hearer to the neutral axis than is the edge in tension, it is permissible instead to proceed as in 5.4.2.4, which will tend to be more favourable. It may be assumed that any tongue-plate, if fitted, provides effective edge support to the slender web Plate to which it is joined, provided it complies with 5.4.8.8. Thus to find ky, for the web plate from figure 4.5(b), 6 may be based on a value of d measured to the tip of the tongue or tongues. 5.4.2.4 Alternative treatment of web buckling If the neutral axis is located so that it is nearer to the edge of the web in compression than it is to the one in tension, it is permissible to treat the web as. composed of two zones with differing values of hy, obtained as follows. {@) Zone 1, extending a distance y, either side of neutral axis: ky, is read from figure 4.5(b) taking 6 = 0.7y;/t where y; is the distance from the gross neutral axis to the compressed edge. (b) Zone 2, occupying the rest of the web: ky = 1.0. 5.4.3 Shear resistance of transversely stiffened plate girders 5.4.3.1 General A yielding check (see 5.4.3.2) and a buckling check (see 5.4.8.8) should be carried out. For webs with: continuous longitudinal welds it is also necessary to ‘carry out a HAZ check (see 5.4.3.5). The presence of smait holes in the web plate may be ignored for either check, provided they do not occupy more than 20 % of its section area. 6.4.3.2 Yielding check At any cross section the shear force Varising under factored load should not exceed a value Ves found 2 follows: (@) no tongue-plate Vas = PrwAwelYm (b) with Vas = @vwAwe + tongue-plate or plates + PadedIm where Pyw and Py, ate limiting stresses for the web and tongue-plate materials respectively (equivalent to py in : tables 4.1 and 4.2); Awe Is the effective section area of ‘web plate between flanges, oF to tongue-plate tips; Ate is the effective section area of tongue-plate, or total area for ‘two such; tm is the material factor (see table 3.3). ‘The effective areas are obtained taking reduced thicknesses equal to A, times the true thickness in any HAZ region (see 4.4.2 and 4.4.3). 5.4.3.3 Buckling check In any bay between transverse stiffeners the shear force Varising under factored loading should not exceed the limiting value Vs for that bay, based on ultimate failure by buckling. The value of Vas should be found using the appropriate expressions (a) or (b) as follows, which take due advantage of post-buekled behaviour: (@) no tongue-plate (b) with tongue-plate or plates Vator + reePrwill/Yms Vos = (Vi + repre + + Puce Yes where dis the depth of web measured between flanges, or to tongue-plate tips; is the unreduced thickness of web plate; is the initial shear buckling factor read from figure 5.4 taking ¢ = (150/py)4; is the tension field factor (see 5.4.3.4). ‘The other quantities are as defined in 5.4.3.2. BS 8116: Part 1: 1991 5.4.3.4 Tension field action ‘Two types of web panel are identifjed as follows. (a) Type 1: Panels able to sustain g tension field, namely: () am internal panel; (2) a panel in an end-bay provided with an adequate end-post complying with 5.4.5.6. (b) Type 2: a panel in an end-bay lacking an adequate end-post. ‘There is negligible tension field action in type 2 panels, and for these %¢ in 5.4.8.8 should be taken as zero. ‘Type 1 panels are generally able to develop further shear resistance after the initial onset of buckling, due to tension field action. For these vr Should be taken as follows: (@ unwelded panet Gi) panel with edge welds De = Vy + MDs: ig = ke(vg + mug); 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 NOTE. For longitudinally stiffened panels d should be taken as the depth of the largest sub-panel ‘igure 5.4 Elastic critical shear buckling factor > BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Section 5 5.4.5.7 End-posts required to resist torsion If an end-post is the sole means of providing resistance against twist at the end of a girder, the following should be met: Ign = Bt = 2500 where Tep is the second moment of area of the end-post section about the centre-line of the web; is the depth of web measured between flanges, or to tongue-plate tips; ff is the flange thickness (taken as the maximum value when the thickness varies along the girder); R is the reaction at the end of the girder considered, under factored loading; Wis the total factored loading on the adjacent ‘span. a 5.4.5.8 Tongue-plates A tongue-plate comprises material extending in from a flange to form a thickened outer part to the web. Th be effective its dimensions should be such that it is compact when considered as a plain Outstand in axial compression (see 4.3.3). When a tongue is of two- or three-ply construction, comprising the web-plate connected to an element or elements integral with the flange, the thickness £ required for checking its compactness may be taken as the total thickness. However, in rivetted ¢r bolted construction, it is also necessary to check that any outstand beyond the last line of rivets or bolts is in itself compact. wy 5.4.6 Use of corrugated or closely stiffened webs 5.4.6.1 General Girders having transverse web reinforcement in the form of corrugations or closely spaced stiffeners, at a pitch less than 0.3 times the depth between flanges, i.e. failing to satisfy 5.4.1(b), are described in $.4.6.2 and 5.4.6.3. . This transverse reinforcement is treated as Sub-eritical, in that it may deform with the web in an overall buelding mode and hence not necessarily satisfy 5.4.5.4 and 5.4.5.5. 5.4.6.2 Moment resistance When the web consists of a flat plate with applied stiffeners, the moment resistance should be found. as in 5.4.2. But with a corrugated web it should be assumed that the web contribution is zero, the moment resistance being provided solely by the Ranges. 5.4.6.3 Shear force resistance ‘The factored shear force resistance Vag should be determined as in 5.8.5 for multi-stiffened plating in shear, 7 5.4.7 Girders under combined moment and shear Figures 5.9(a) and (b) show schematically the form of the moment-shear interaction diagram for plate sirders, covering:.. (a) bays unable to sustain a tension field; () bays with tension field action. ‘Such a diagram may be constructed, for any given bay between transverse stiffeners, in order to determine the factored moment resistance Mago in the presence of a coincident shear force V (arising under factored loading). The notation is as follows: ‘Mps is the factored moment resistance in the absenge of shear (see 5.4.2 and 5.4.4.2); Mpg is the reduced value of gs for the flanges on their own, with web omitted: Vas is the factored shear force resistance (see 5.4.3 and 5.4.4.3); + Viow is the reduced value for Vas obtained by butting m = 0 (see 5.4.3.4 and 5.4.4.3), BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Meso eso e Mas as Mee Mae O5Mpe | ! y | “vy ° 0.5% Ves ° 0.5¥qy Vow Ves (@) No tension fed (0) With tension etd Figure 5.9 Schematic interaction diagrams for plate girders BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 where % is the shear buckling factor, determined from figure 5.5; vy is the shear buckling factor, determined from figure 5.6; ke is the HAZ. softening factor (see 4.4.2); my and ma are shear buckling factors where ‘my is determined from figure 5.7; ‘m2 = (4PotSt/Powdt)* where Por and Pow are limiting stresses py for : flange and web material (see table 4.1); Ss is the plastic modulus of effective flange section about its own equal area axis, in the plane of the web (the lower Value is taken if the flanges are different). In determining S; the section considered should include the flange plate together with tongue-plate if present, with suitable thickness reduction to allow for local buckling and HAZ softening 76 it Longitudinal sittenars Figure 5.5 Basic tension field shear buckling factor v (sce 4.5.2.3), but with no deduction for holes. If the girder has two of more webs, the plastic modulus of the whole flange should be suitably shared in obtaining 5; for each web. 5.4.3.5 HAZ check For webs with longitudinal welds the shear force V; arising under factored load, should not exceed the factored shear force resistance Vag at any such weld, where Vas is given as follows fe Vos = SPuult SAG where 1 is the second moment of area of the gross cross section; ‘Aes the first moment of gross excluded area outside the weld; where 4e is the section area Y _ is the distance of the centroid of the neutral axis to this area and ke, Pyw and ym are as defined in 5.4.3.2 and 5.4.3.4, od 0.50 0.75 ho B25 280 o/te BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 av 0.50 0.75 0.6 0.4 02 ° 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 d/te NOTE. This figure should not be used for panels with loniitudinat stifeners igure 5.6 Flange assisted tension field shear buckling factor 03 ™, od 07 225 0.6 2.0 is 0.8 i 0.4 0.75 0.3 0.50 0.2 oul 0 40 80 t20 160 200 240 280 a/te NOTE. This figure should not be used for panels with longtudinal stiffeners, * Figure 8.7 Shear buckling factor m, BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 19 Bs the throat length of weld 1 the te feng of weld 1% bs the penetration ) Figure 6.2 Effective fillet weld throats 6.8.2 Groups of welds A welded joint consisting of a group of welds Should be designed on the basis of a realistic distribution of forces amongst the welds having regard to their relative stiffnesses. It is essential that equilibrium with the external factored loads is maintained, 8.8.3 Limiting stress of weld metal ‘The filler wire for use in welded construction should be chosen in accordance with 2.5.3.2 and table 2.8, Values of the limiting stress of the weld metal py (in N/mm?) for the permitted combinations of filler and parent materials, shown in table 2.8, are shown in table 6.2. Higher values of limiting stress may be needed for Particular filler materials by reference to appendix D. 6.8.4 Limiting stress in the HAZ Limiting stresses py, and py, for the material in the are given in table 6.3, where pyz and py, are the limiting direct and shear stress respectively. 6.9 Factored resistance of welds 6.9.1 Butt welt metal A butt weld subjected to shear and axial loading should be proportional such that the following applies: (+ B27) = Delt where 7 is the normal stress perpendicular to the throat section under factored loadin; 72 is the shear stress acting on the throat section parallel to the axis of the weld under factored loading: Po is the limiting stress for the weld metal (sce 6.8.3); 7 Ym is the material factor for the weld metal (see table 3.3). For a butt weld with an oblique tensile lo figure 6.4) the factored resistance Pag is 1 the following: Puletell + 2 cos?a)~% Pra = a where fe is the effective length of the weld. NOTE L. The effective length of the weld ist wold length when end imperfections are avo tise of run-on and run-off plates. Otherwise | length minus twice the weld width (see figur. 9 is the angle between the line of the Weld and the line of action of the ex load (see figure 6.4). NOTE 2. The design stress for the weld metal in com) ‘may be taken equal to that in tenon, except where! NOTE 3. Where the parent meta! is different in thick ‘ach side of the weld, the'posiblity of a stress Cone efect should be investigated. NOTE 4. Where the weld i subjected to in-plane be factored resistance per unit lenuth can be found by in the expression for Pap, For a joint with no external shear forces a: line of the butt weld perpendicular to the # action of the external load, 9 = 90°, rz = « the factored resistance is as follows: Pe Pg = Bete For an external shear load, parallel to the the butt weld, the factored resistance is as Section 6 ‘Table 6.2 Limiting sur Parent metal Now-heat-treatable ait esses of weld met ae i ken. Wh ‘Table 6.3 Limiting stresses py, and py in the HAZ ‘Non-heat treatable alloys (see note 1) TWeat-treatabte al [Parent atioy Tg re Parc alley [Condition Tp supplied Naw r 1200 25 6061 TH 85 3103 35 6063, 4 50 : 3015 40 5 13 55. 5083 150 9% 16 55 # SIS4A 100 160. 6082, TT] 140 85 si 5251 ” 40 6 150 90 = 5454 95 35 7020 ™ 170A) 100 I i a ™ 210(0) ws * 16 180(4) 110 : 16 240(B) M45, : (see note 2) . NOTE 1. Ail conditions are supplied (sce tale A) NOTE 2. For 7020 material refer w 4.2 forthe applicability of the A and B values, 6.9.2 Fillet weld metal For a simple longitudinal fillet weld (load applied A fillet weld should be proportioned such that the Parallel to the length of the weld) 0) = 7, = ane following expression is satisticd: the factored resistance depends only on 7 a8 lor? * 361? + 122" < 0.85 ply follows: He where alike Pwr OL, 72 aNd yp are as defined in 6.9.1; Pep = ope De ‘1 is the shear stress acting on the throat section Perpendicular to the axis of the weld. ‘The relationship between 0), by the direction of the ext at the weld (see figure 6,5) 1 and 73 is governed , Where Iris the effective length of the fillet weld. Frat Wadig aes + The vale of {ri influenced by the total length of "the weld, as indicated ia figure 6.6, which provides A a guide to the variation of & with £, where Lis th penponimble transverse filet weld (oad appliea 9, Buide te length. Figure 6.6 ts basce on the resent oO an rege eneEh of the weld) oy = 1, tal weld length. piven 72 = and the factored resistance is as follows: When the stress distribution along the weld corresponds to that in the adjacent parent materia, Ppp = 285Dules 5, for example, in the case of a weld connecting» ars the flange and web of a plate girder, the effective , {Shgth i as for butt welds. If the weld is subjected (ot Plane bending the factored resistance per unk. where fe is the effective length of the weld (as for length can be found by omitting le or fy Inthe ute welds), expression for Pre BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 “tb Section . tion Section 6. Static design of joints 6.1 General ‘This section deals with the design of joints made by using fasteners, adhesives, or by welding. The following types of fastener are discussed: rivets, black bolts, close tglerance bolts, high strength friction grip bolts (HSFG bolts), special fasteners and pins. For joints made by welding the design resistance of butt and fillet welds is defined. The design of joints between cast or forged elements should be carried out in conjunction with the manufacturers, ‘The following types of connection are called joints: (a) connections between structural members, e.g. beam to column; (b) connections between the elements of a “built-up member, e.g. webs to flanges, splices; (c) connections between localized details and structural members, e.g. bracket to beam, lug and clevis in a tension member. All types of connection should be designed to meet the limit states of static strength and fatigue. No checks for serviceability limit states are required, except for pin joints in structures that are frequently assembled and disassembled, for joints where deflections are critical or, for friction grip bolted joints, where slip is to be prevented. The factored loading on a joint should be calculated using the load factors given in section 3. Fasteners subject to reversal of load should be either close tolerance or turned barrel bolts, solid rivets, HSFG Dolts, or special fasteners that prevent movement. Hollow rivets and other special fasteners which do Rot comply with British Standards may be used provided their performance has becn demonstrated to the satisfaction of the designer by testing or other means. They should be spaced and designed by liaison between the designer and the manufacturer. In demountable joints with steel fasteners thread inserts should be used in any threaded aluminium element of the joint. Their Performance should be demonstrated.to the satisfaction of the designer by testing or other means. 6.2 Riveted and bolted joints: design considerations 6.2.1 General Joints using rivets or bolts should be designed so that under the factored load the loading action at any fastener position does not exceed the factored resistance of the fastener there. 6.2.2 Groups of fasteners Groups of rivets, bolts or special fasteners, known collectively as ‘fasteners’, forming a connection, should be designed on.the basis of a realistic assumption of the distribution of internal forces, having regard to relative stiffness. It is essential that equilibrium with the external factored loads be maintained. 6.2.3 Effect of cross-sectional areas of plies ‘The design of the plies at sections containing holes for fasteners should be based on minimum net areas, except for rivets in compression, In certain friction grip bolted joints the limit state is met by the friction capacity of the joint, and in these circumstances the design should be based on minimum gross areas. 6.2.4 Long joints When the length of a joint, measured between centres of end fasteners in the direction of transmission of the load, is more than 15d, (where 4¢ is the nominal diameter of the fastener), or when the number of fasteners in this direction exceeds five, the designer should take account of the reduction in the average strength of individual fasteners due to uneven distribution of the load between them. 6.3 Riveted and bolted joints: geometrical and other general considerations 6.3.1 Minimum spacing ‘The spacing between centres of bolts and rivets should be not less 2.5 tiiyes the bolt or rivet diameter. Closer spacing is permitted for HSFG bolts, limited by the size of the washer, bolt heads or spanners, and the need to meet the limit states. 6.3.2 Maximum spacing {In tension members the spacing of adjacent bolts or rivets on a line in the direction of stress should not exceed 16 or 200 mm, where ¢ is the thickness of the thinnest outside ply. In, compression or shear members it should not exceed. 8, or 200 mm. In addition, the spacing of adjacent bolts or rivets on a line adjacent and parallel to an edge of an outside ply should not exceed 8¢ or 100 mm. Where rivets and bolts are staggered on adjacent lines, and the lines are not more than 75 mm apart, the above limits may be inereased by 50 %. In any event, the spacing of adjacent rivets and bolts, whether staggered or not, should not exceed 32¢ or 300 mm in tension members, and 202 or 800 mm in compression and shear members. 82, tt ‘These recommendations apply only to tap and cover plate joints between at plates. The spacing of bolts and rivets in spigot joints, joints between tubular members and between parts of very dissimilar thicknesses should be detenmnined from + consideration of the local geometry and the loading (on the joint. 6.3.3 Edge distance ‘The edge distance, measured from the centre of the rivet or bolt, for extruded, rolled or machined edges, should be not less than 1.5 times the rivet, or bolt diameter. If, on the bearing side, the edge distance is less than twice the diameter, the bearing capacity should be reduced (see 6.4.4). If the edges are sheared, the above limits should be increased by 3 mm. 6.3.4 Hole clearance ‘The hole clearance should be in accordance with table 3.1 of BS 8118 : Part 2 : 1991. Bolts that transmit fluctuating loads, other than wind loads, should be close-fitting, or HSFG. 6.3.5 Packing Where fasteners are carrying shear through a packing, a reduction of the factored design resistance should be taken into account if the thickness of packing excecds 25 % of the fastener diameter, or 50 % of the ply thickness. 6.3.6 Countersinking One-half of the depth of any countersinking of a rivet or bolt should be neglected when calculating its length in bearing. No reduction is necessary for rivets or bolts in shear. The factored design resistance in axial tension of a countersunk rivet or bolt should be taken as two-thirds of that of a plain rivet or bolt of the same diameter. The depth of countersinking should not exceed the thickness of the countersunk part less 4 mm, otherwise Performance should be demonstrated by testing. BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 6.3.7 Long grip rivets The grip length of rivets should not exceed five times the hole diameter. 6.3.8 Washers and locking dexices Washers should be used in accordance with 2.8 of BS 8118 : Part 2 : 1991. Locking devices approved by the engineer should be used on nuts liable to work loose because of vibration or stress. Aluctuation. 6.3.9 Intersections Members meeting at a joint should normally be, arranged with their centrodial axes meeting at a point. In the case of bolted framing of angles and tees, the setting out lines of the boits may be used instead of the centroidal axis. 6.4 Factored resistance of individual rivets and bolts other than HSFG bolts complying with British Standards 6.4.1 Limiting stresses ‘The limiting stress p¢ for solid rivets and bolts is defined as follows. (a) Steel fasteners: py is the guaranteed minimum Yield stress for the bolt or rivet stock. (b) Stainless steel bolts and stainless steel rivets: Pris the lesser of 0.5(f9.2 + fa) and 1.2f.9. (©) Aluminium botts and rivets: values of py for the aluminium alloys in table 2.3 are given in Where the shear strength value is available, derived from tests on the bolt oron the rivet in the as-driven condition (see BS 1974!) for large diameter rivets), this may be used. In this case, a, in the expression for Veg. in 6.4.2 should be reduced from 0.6 to 0.33. ‘Table 6.1 Limiting stress py for aluminium fasteners Fastiner ype | Alloy ition supplied | Method-of driving] Dameron “Tae a mm Nira? Bolts 6082 %e - 56 165 ‘ - 6 to 12 175 6061 18 - <12 175 5056A Hea =. =12 175 Rivets ‘BIS4A [OF Cold oF hot 325 120 554A 22 Cola 225 7 140 6082 1! Cold 525 10 6082 76 Cold = 25 165 50568 OF Cold or hot 525 145 = 556A Hea, {cota 525 155 ‘Obsolescent stand. a ee BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 ay Secti S—S———— ee (0) Filer wert (e) Tee bute (@) Tee ater ; So T T T T (0) Tee butt and tee filet My Key (see figures 6.1 and 6.2) W: weld.metaf(see 6.9.4 and 6.9.2) F: heataffected zone (fusion boundary) 1: eataffected zone (toe) 2 for fies the width of the zone is ¢ — == + the failure plane buts: plane is equal to the plate thickness fillets: plane width isthe width of the leg length of the weld ‘The shaded area is the heat-atfected zone 1, w (0 Potential allure tines shown on a plan view at the joint end Figure 6.3 Failure planes for static welded joint checks ad at section 6 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991. ole, External loading action in plane of plates Y External leading action Weld throat go Ellective cross-sectional Figure 6.5 Fillet weld design , I 6.4.2 Shear Ii factored resistance (Vs) of a single rivet or bolt in single shear is taken as: Veg = cPtAesKi/ Ym where Pr is as defined in 6.4.1; &3 = 0.6 for aluminiura bolts or rivets; % = 0.7 for steel bolts or rivets; Ym is the material factor, and is equal to 1.2 for all bolts and rivets, ie. aluminium, steel aoc Stainless steel (see table 3.3), For bolts: ‘Aes = Aus, the stress area of the threaded Part of the bolt, when the shear plane passes through th es = Ast, the area of the shank, when the shear plane passes through the shane Por rivets: Acs = An, the area of the hole; Ki = 1.0 for rivets; = 0.95 for close tolerance bolts; = 0.85 for normal clearance bolts. 8.4.3 Axial tension ‘The factored » Pier for a single fastener in axial tension is taken as Par = ape Auylm where Po Avy and Ym are as defined in 6.4.1 and 6.4.2; a = 1.0 for steel and stainless steel bolts and rivets; = 0.6 for aluminium bolts, he Use of aluminium rivets in tension is not recommended, a {bearing of the single fastener Byp and the bearing capacity of the connected ly Bee. Bi factored resistance in bearing, Bar, for a single fastener is taken ag Bar = de 2prtre, * where is the nominal diameter of fastener; £ is the thickness of connected ply; Pris defined for. in 6.4.1; Ym 15 the material factor (see table 3.9) ‘steel and aluminium fasteners 84 The bearing capacity of the connected ply is ¢ by either of the following, whichever is the les Bap = ete balm; oF Baw = etpalin where ae © is the distance from centre of hole to thy adjacent edge in the direction the fasten bears; © = 2wher dt < 10; = 20t/d; when 10 < dt < 13; = L5 when ag/t > 13; Pa for the material of the connected ply is t lesser of 0.5.2 + fy) and 1.23f, 2 (see tables 4.1 and 4.2). &, 6.4.5 Combined shear and tension When bolts or rivets (except aluminium rivets addition to 6.4.2 and 6.4.3): (PP eg)? + (V/Vas)? <1 where P 1s the axial tensile load arising under factored loading; 7 Vs the shear load arising under factored loading; Per is the factored resistance in axdal tensior. Ves. is the factored resistance in shear. 6.5 HSFG bolts 6.5.1 General Only pre-loaded general grade HSFG bolts in Joe ordance with BS 4395 : Part 1 should be used! for aluminium structures. Design may be beset. Calculations for joints where the proof strength « She materiat of the connected parts exceeds 230 N/mm®. For connected parts Manufactured Sim material with a proof strength less than Nimmé, the strength of joints using general grade HSFG bolts should be proved to the Satisfaction of the engineer by testing. In aluminium structures the relaxation of belt re-load due to tension in the joined material cannot be ignored. The thermal expansion of aluminium exceeds tha of steel and the variation in bolt tension due te Change of temperature cannot be ignored. Redue (emperature reduces friction capacity and increased temperature increases the tonalle strese in the bolt and the bearing stress under the Nashers. These effects are only significant for sAtromes of temperature change and long grip lengths, a Section 6 6.5.2 Ultimate limit state (static strength) For HSFG bolts in normal clearance holes, as specified in table 3.1 of BS 8118 : Part 2 : 1991, the ultimate capacity is the lesser of the shear capacity as determined in 6.4.2 or the bearing capacity as determined in 6.4.4. 6.5.3 Serviceability limit state (deformation) ‘The serviceability limit state for a connection made with HSFG bolts is reached when the shear load applied to any bolt equals its friction capacity, determined from 6.5 4. For the serviceability limit state check 5 = 1.2. 6.5.4 Friction capacity ‘The factored resistance in shear depends on the friction capacity of an HSFG bolt, where the friction capacity (F.) is given by the following: Fem PpitsNe lye where Pp is the prestress load (see 6.5.5); Hs. is the slip factor (see 6.5.8); Ye = 1.33 if the value of yg is taken as 0.93; Ye = 1.1 if the value of 4, is found from tests; Np is the number of frietion interfaces. 6.5.5 Prestress ‘The prestress load for a HSFG bolt should be taken as follows: Py = Py where 0.95, Po is the proof load of the bolt (see table 4 of BS 4395 : Part 1: 1969); ‘Sw is the applied external tensile load in the axial direction of the bolt (if any). 6.5.6 Slip factor Where all the connected parts are of aluminium alloy and the friction interfaces have been treated to ensure consistent frictiorr properties by blasting: ~“The following rules'should-not-be-used-wherrthe with aluminium oxide G38 grit complying with BS 2451, a value of uz = 0.33 may be assuried provided the total thickness of the connected parts exceeds the bolt diameter, and the gross area stress in the parts does not exceed 0.6/9.2, (where fo.z is the 2 % tensile proof strength of the plate material). {f one or more of the above conditions are not complied with 45 should be determined from tests in accordance with BS 4604 : Part 1. ‘The number of bolts needed to obtain the friction capacity to satisfy 6.5.3, when taking p, = 0.33, may be greater than the number needed to satisfy the ultimate limit state (se> .£.2). In such cases it may be advantageous to develop a surface treatment for the interfaces which will increase the slip factor, BS 8118: Part 6.6 Pinned joints . 6.6.1 General : In a pinned joint the parts are connected by a single pin, which allows rotation, There is no axial load in the pin, and therefGfe no clamping action on the parts to be connected. Pins may not be Toaded in single shear, so one of the members to be Joined should have a fork end; or clevis. The pin. retaining system, e.g. a spring clip, should be designed to withstand a lateral load equal to 10% of the total shear load on the pin. 6.6.2 Solid pins Consideration should be given to bending stresses in pins, and for this purpose the effective span is taken as the distance between centres of bearings. However, if the bearing plates have a thickness) greater than half the pin diameter, consideration may be given to the variation of bearing pressure across the plate thickness when determining the effective span. If the pin is to be removed to dismantle the structure, and re-inserted to reassemble the strueture, the cross section of the pin should be checked for a serviceability limit associated with the limit of elastic behaviour. The following stresses should not be exceeded under the factored load: (@) mean shear stress in pin: 0.6p4/ (b) bending stress in pi L2p ab where Pa is defined for steel and alumi in 64 ‘tim is the material factor (see table 3.3). If the pin is in a permanent installation, a fully Plastic distribution of bending stress may be assumed at the factored design load. 6,6.3 Members connected by pins | ine of action of the load is in a direction other than the direction of the grain flow in the connected parts. . ‘The net area across the pin hole, normal to the axis of a pin-connected tension member should be at least 1.33Py7q/Pq, and the thickness of the connected member should be at least Priy/1.6pade for permanent installations or Py_y/1-4pade for demountable ones, where P_ is the axial factored load; Pe is defined in 4.2 for the material of the connected member; i: d¢_ is the pin diameter; Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3).

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