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CompetitiveExams:IntroductiontoSociologyExamrace

Sociology(fromLatin:Socius,companionandthesuffixology,thestudyofknowledge)isthescientificstudyofsociety,including
patternsofsocialrelationships,socialinteraction,andculture.Areasstudiedinsociologycanrangefromtheanalysisofbriefcontacts
betweenanonymousindividualsonthestreettothestudyofglobalsocialinteraction.Numerousfieldswithinthedisciplineconcentrate
onhowandwhypeopleareorganizedinsociety,eitherasindividualsorasmembersofassociations,groups,andinstitutions.Asan
academicdiscipline,sociologyisusuallyconsideredabranchofsocialscience.
Sociologicalresearchprovideseducators,planners,lawmakers,administrators,developers,businessleaders,andpeopleinterestedin
resolvingsocialproblemsandformulatingpublicpolicywithrationalesfortheactionsthattheytake.

Society
Thetermsocietyismostfundamentaltosociology.ItisderivedfromtheLatinwordsociuswhichmeanscompanionshiporfriendship.
Companionshipmeanssociability.AccordingtoGeorgeSimmelitisthiselementofsociabilitywhichdefinesthetrueessenceofsociety.
Itindicatesthatmanalwayslivesinthecompanyofotherpeople.ManisasocialanimalsaidAristotlecenturiesago.Manneedssociety
forhisliving,workingandenjoyinglife.Societyhasbecomeanessentialconditionforhumanlifetocontinue.Wecandefinesocietyasa
groupofpeoplewhoshareacommonculture,occupyaparticularterritorialareaandfeelthemselvestoconstituteaunifiedanddistinct
entity.Itisthemutualinteractionsandinterrelationsofindividualsandgroups.

DefinitionsofSociety
AugustComtethefatherofsociologysawsocietyasasocialorganismpossessingaharmonyofstructureandfunction.EmileDurkheim
thefoundingfatherofthemodernsociologytreatedsocietyasarealityinitsownright.AccordingtoTalcottParsonsSocietyisatotal
complexofhumanrelationshipsinsofarastheygrowoutoftheactionintermsofmeansendrelationshipintrinsicorsymbolic.G.H
Meadconceivedsocietyasanexchangeofgestureswhichinvolvestheuseofsymbols.MorrisGinsbergdefinessocietyasacollectionof
individualsunitedbycertainrelationsormodeofbehaviorwhichmarkthemofffromotherswhodonotenterintotheserelationsor
whodifferfromtheminbehavior.ColeseesSocietyasthecomplexoforganizedassociationsandinstitutionswithacommunity.
AccordingtoMaclverandPagesocietyisasystemofusagesandproceduresofauthorityandmutualaidofmanygroupingsand
divisions,ofcontrolsofhumanbehaviorandliberties.Thiseverchangingcomplexsystemwhichiscalledsocietyisawebofsocial
relationship

TypesofSocieties
WritershaveclassifiedsocietiesintovariouscategoriesGemeinschaftandGesellschaftofTonnies,mechanicalandorganicsolidaritiesof
Durkheim,statusandcontractofMaine,andmilitantandindustrialsocietiesofSpencer.Allthesethinkershavebroadlydividedsociety
intopreindustrialandpostindustrialsocieties.SociologistslikeComtebasedtheirclassificationofsocietiesonintellectualdevelopment.
Mostofthemconcedetheevolutionarynatureofsocietyonetypeleadingtotheother.Onemorewayofdividingsocietiesisthatof
Marx.Hisclassificationofsocietyisbasedontheinstitutionalframeworkofsocietyasdeterminedbyagroupofpeoplewhocontrolthe
meansofproduction.Marxdistinguishesfiveprincipaltypesofsocieties:Primitive,Asiatic,ancient,feudalandcapitalist.
Followingtheseclassifications,sociologistsoftenrefertosocietiesasprimitiveormodernnonliterateorliterate.Amorerecentkindof
classificationwhichisalsousedwhiledistinguishingsocietiesintotypesistheonebetweenopenandclosedsocieties.Aclosedsocietyis
theonewhichisatraditionalandsimplesocietyoratotalitarianStatetendstoresistchange,whileanopensocietyadmitschange.
Noneoftheseclassificationsisaccurateforeverymajortypehavenumberofsubtypes.Onetypelikethecapitalistcanbeofvarious
kindslikecarboniferoustype,financecapital,andthemodernneocolonialormultinationaltype.Further,itistobeborneinmindthat
thechieftaskofasociologistisnotthatofidentifyingsocietiesbutfindingoutwhetheraparticularkindofsocietyhasthepotentialto
nurture,defendandsurvive.Suchastudyalonecanrevealthesociologicalaspectsofsocietiesandtherebyfacilitatingunderstandingof
societiesastheyare,and,ifneedbe,activatetherequiredchanges.Inotherwords,sociologybasedonvaluesreliesonobjective
analysisofsocieties.
However,inrecentyearstherehavebeenseveralstudiesofwhatarevariouslycalledirrigationcivilizationorhydraulicsocieties.These
studieshavebeenrelatedtothegeneralstudyofbureaucracy,butlittlehasyetbeendoneinthewayoflargescalecomparativeworkof
variouscomplexorganizedsocieties.Itisnotenough,however,tocharacterizepreBritishIndiaasanirrigationcivilizationwitha
centralizedbureaucracyandavillagesystemofproduction.TheunityandstabilityofIndiansocietydependedalsoupontwoother
factors,casteandreligion.There,theaspectofcastetobeemphasizedisnotsomuchitsrigidhierarchicalcharacterandthewayin
whichitdividedgroupsfromeachother,asitsintegratingfunction,closelyconnectedwithreligion.
MNSrinivas,inadiscussionofIndiansocialstructure,observesthatcasteguaranteesautonomytoacommunityintorelationwith
numerousothercommunitiesallgoingtoformahierarchy.TheimportanceofsuchaninstitutionisobviousinavastcountrylikeIndia
whichhasbeenthemeetingplaceofmanydifferentculturesinthepastandwhichhasalwayshadconsiderableregionaldiversity.While
theautonomyofasubcastewaspreserveditwasalsobroughtintorelationwithothersandthehierarchywasalsoascaleofgenerally
agreedvalues.
TheworkofK.Wittfogedsuggeststhatmanyimportantsimilaritiescanbefound,inancientEgypt,inByzantiumandelsewhere
especiallyinthesocialfunctionsofthepriestsandintheelementsandcasterevealedindetailedregulationofthedivisionoflabor.Each
humangroupdevelopsitsownsocialandpoliticalstructureintermsofitsowncultureandhistory.Therebroadtypesofsocial
structuresmaybedistinguished.First,thetribalsocietyrepresentedbythesocialstructuresofAfricantribessecond,theagrariansocial
structurerepresentedbythetraditionalIndiansociety.Andthethird,theindustrialsocialstructurerepresentedbytheindustrially
advancedcountriesEuropeandUSASociologistsalsospeakofyetanothertype,calledpostindustrialsociety,whichisemergingoutof
theindustrialsociety.

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