I

CONSTRUCTION WORKER MOTIVATION

MEANS TO IMPROVING WORKER PRODUCTIVITY

TTHE

1o

1c
BY
EDUARD GONZALEZ

i
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91-10906
I,,,I
II 1111
11i
II
1,,
Jl11

I
*

A REPORT PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COMMITTEE

OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
Summer 1991

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CONSTRUCTION WORKER MOTIVATION

THE MEANS TO IMPROVING WORKER PRODUCTIVITY

BY
EDUARD GONZALEZ

A REPORT PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COMMITTEE

OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
Summer 1991

I
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DEDICATION

I
This work

grandmother, who passed-on

support,

in loving memory of Sofia C Pizarro, my

is dedicaced

forceful

on

presence,

January
and

15,

loving care was the major driving

force that led me to continue my education

achieved.

She had

Her continuous

1991.

to the

point I

the great wisdom and foresight to realize that a

quality education was the greatest and most plentiful

pass on.

l
I
I

i
I

have now

gift she could

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would
Bentil

for

like to
his

throughout this

express my

sincere appreciation

suggestions

valuable

and

to Dr. Kweku

assistance

provided

study and for providing an outstanding review during

the writing nf th- r-"''t.

ial Litanks ar'e extendea

to ur. onar

Herbsman and Dr. Ralph Ellis for providing current information on the
subject and for their participation on my supervisory committee.

I
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter One Introduction .. ............

I1.2
1.1

........

Background. .. .......... .............

Overview of Report. .. ............ .......

Chapter Two Individual Behavior. .. ........... .....

2.1
2.2
2.3

Why Individual Behavior is Important to Motivation . . . .

Factors That Influence Behavior. .. ............
Individual Perception .. ............
......
2.3.1

Factors That Mode Perception. .. ...........

12.3.1.1
I2.3.1.4
2.4

.. ................

11

11

Factors That Shape Personality .. ........... 13

Heredity. .. ................... 13
Culture .. ....................
Family. .. ....................
Group Membership. .. ...............
Life Experiences .. ............

14
14
15
15

....

General Personality Traits .. .......... ...

Individual Abilities .. .. .................

Learning .. .....................

...

16
18
19

Behavior Modification. .. ................. 20

Practicing Positive Reinforcement .. ............
Behavior Study Summary .. .. ................

21
23

Motivation and The Process of Motivating. .. ....

25

Review and Definition of Motivation .. ........... 25

Motivation Classifications .. .. .............. 26
Motivation Performance Cyclical Process .. ......... 27
Step 1 Needs. .. .....................
29
3.4.1
3.4.2

j3.4.3

Position. .. ................... 10

Personality. .. ......................

Chapter Three

j3.4

Needs. .. ........... .......... 9

Group Pressure.

2.4.2

3.1
3.2
3.3

2.3.1.5

2.4.1.2
2.4.1.3
2.4.1.4
2.4.1.5

2.8
2.9

6
7
8

Stress .. ............
......... 9
Educatio-n, Background and Values .. ........ 10

12.4.1.1

12.7

2.3.1.2
2.3.1.3

2.4.1

2.5
2.6

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory. .. .......... 30

ERG Theory. .. ....................
33
Achievement Motivation Theory. .. ........... 36

3.4.3.1 Culture, Individuality, Teamwork and Achievement

iii

.37

1
1

3.5
3.5

Step 2
Step 3
3.6.1
3.6.2

3.7

Herzberg's Motivatcr-Hygiene Theory ....

.........
Maslow's Theory Versus Herzberg's Theory ....... ..

Step 4 The employee Contemplates or Does Not

Contemplate Consequences of Actions ...
..............
3.7.1
3.7.2

3.8

. ... . .
38
Are Managers Aware of Employee Needs? . . .
The M4anage Offers Need Satisfiers or Rewards . . . 38

Expectancy Theory .......

.....................
Equity Theory .......
......................

Steps 5 Through 7 Employee is Motivated/ Skills,

Objectives, Job Design, and Tools/ Performance .......

39
40

43
43
46

47

....................
Skills and Training ......
......................
Work Objectives .......
Job Design .....
...
.......................
....
.....................
Performance ......

47
48
48
49

Step 8 Through 10 Needs Satisfied, Employee Evaluates

.................
Rewards, Continued Motivation .....
.................
3.10 Leadership and Communications .....

50
51

...
.......................
3.10.1 Leadership .....
...................
3.10.2 Theory X and Theory Y ......
3.10.3 Communications ........
...................

52
53
56

................

56

....
Motivators and Demotivators ..............

59

.....................
The Right Motivator .......
Motivators Versus Demotivators .....
.................
..
...................... ...
Job Satisfiers ......
Money as a Motivator ......
.......................
...................
Enough Help and Equipment ......
...
...........................
Job Security .....

59
59
66
67
69
69

3.8.1
3.8.2
3.8.3
3.8.4
3.9

3.11 A Review of The Cyclical Process ....

Chapter Four
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

4.6.1
4.7

Innovation and Job Security ....

................

70

Establishing Direction of Effort Through Job Information .

70

4.7.1
4.7.2
4.7.3

Goal Setting .....

.....
....................
.....
.........................
Feedback ....
....................
Measurement System ......

71
72
73

....................
4.8 Participative Management ......
.....................
4.9 Recognition and Status .......
.................
4.10 Advancement and Job Enrichment .....

73
74
75

iv

I4.11

Co-worker Relations
4.2 Job Safety ...

.. .. .. .. .. .. ..

..........................

4.13 Motivators/ Demotivators Summarized ...

Chapter Five
5.1
5.2

5.3

5.4

.............

Motivation in The Construction Industry ..

76
77
78

..... 80

Motivation Applied in The Construction Industry ..

..... 80
The Construction Industry Differences ... ............
80
5.2.1

Project Employment ........

5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4

Union Shop Influence ........

................
Open Shop Influence ........
.................
Weather ........
...........................

Motivation Within The System .....

.................

..................

81
81
82
83
83

5.3.1

Incentives ........

5.3.2

Providing For Job Security ....

5.3.3
5 3.4
5.3.5

Quality Circles ......

....................... 85
Work Facilitation ....
.
...................
86
Construction Worker Recognition .. ............... 87

.......................
................

Summary of Motivation In Construction ...

Chapter Six
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6

.. . ..

Conclusion and Recommendations ...

84
84

............

87

............

89

Motivation Works .......

.........................
Understanding Behavior ......
....................
The Motivation Performance Cycle ....
................
Motivators and Demotivators ............ ...
Motivating The Construction Worker ....
...............
Recommendations for Future Study ....
................

89
90
91
91
92
95

7.0

References ..........

........................ ...

96

8.0

Bibliography .........

..........................

99

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background

James

O'Toole, author of Making America Work,-,identifies three

basic sources of productivity: labor (the mental and physical efforts

of

workers),

management

(the activities of planning, coordinating,

motivating, and controlling),

and

technology

(the

contribution of

machines transferring energy into useful work).'- The analysis of any

construction project will clearly show that
is seeking

to manage

to complete

manager
skills

resources effectively and efficiently in order

the project.

accomplishes
that

he

The

that

success with

which the construction

is highly

dependent upon certain

goal

exhibits.

James

O'toole

activities that embrace management.

selection

of

an

individual

construction competence

and

motivation.

human behavior and

motivating

the

spelled

out

management

position

apply

guarantee that the individual will

manager

often

an understanding
-:Those
the

construction

through improved productivity.

those

based on

enters

the management

some degree of planning and coordinating skills.

many managers often lack

behavior

The

has

It is important to note that tie

for

does not

be the mnst effective.

position with

the construction manager

of human

managers that seek to understand

principles
worker

or appreciation

Yet,

can

of

motivation

theory to

and nearly always benefit

Understanding

motivation

theory to the labor

productivity.
greater

than

outperformed
industry.

force

Japan's
that

of

their

theory

plays

and

an

important

productivity
the

growth

counterparts

role

in increasing

has been considerably

States. 2

United

American

being able to apply this

The

in

Japanese

have

nearly every area of

American managers may allege that the

Japanese culture is

the basis for their success. There may be some truth to that, but the
better answer is that the Japanese

motivation

techniques. 3

among other

American

cultural differences as the

managers

key ingredient

stemming from successful motivators.

root of the evil.

things use effective

should

not

view the

to improved productivity

The American culture is not the

The blame should bc placed

on managerial policies

and practices that were compatible with American culture in the 1940s
and 1960s. 4 Today's manager
--.-.....
at.

the z,

must find

and implement

da, w-1kcr.

To

practices that

,ccomplish this task, the

manager must have an understanding of the nature of man's present day

nt eds and desires.

1.2

Overview of Report

Construction projects present the construction manager with many

challenges.
finances, and
output.

The

Among them is the

labor that

labor,

coordination of

must come

better

known

material, equipment,

together to produce the desired

as

human

beings,

is the most

essential resource available to the construction manager and the most

complex resource with which to

deal.

Therefore,

the construction

manager

needs

to

understand

the

construction

construction manager also needs to make sure that

levels are

sufficiently skilled

can satisfy

the

craftsman's wish
something.

It

motivation

that

objectives.

craftsman's
to be
is

reasons

supervisors at all

an

sense

his or

of

her need to account for

understanding

construction

achievement, the

mrnager

of
can

the

toward increased

the construction worker,

for

why

he

does

influence his actions,

behavior, and

what

the

concepts of

accomplish

The focus of this report centers on how

construction worker
resource,

for

wanted, and

the

The

in handling subordinates, that they

need

through

worker.

to motivate the

productivity.

This most vital

.a:rants an in-depth study

he

these

of the

does, how management decisions

environmental

factors

that

affect his

what management can and must do to motivate the worker

toward increased productivity.

This

topic

construction

should

be

manager.

considerably over

of

great

Management

the past

concern

to

the

prudent

employee relations have changed

hundred years,

especially following the

legislation of the equal rights act, the equal employment opportunity

act and other

current

construction worker
degree of awareness.
authoritarian

trends

is a

America.i

progress.

Today, the

more intelligent individual with a greater

The

approach

in

construction
to

management.

employed by the construction manager are

manager

cannot

rel

on an

The motivation techniques

the means

by which today's

construction worker can be steered toward productive performance.

The

topic

will be

approached by first describing and examining

individual behavior.

The reasons why people react

the manner

in which

they do

what

have

they

abilities

and

motivation

learned,
needs.

their
Needs

theories.

principles of

things are

But,

motivation, the

to a situation and

to a large extent based on

perceptions,

their personalities,

are the basis for the development of

before

understanding

and

individual's behavioral

applying

pattern needs

to be considered.

Following
theories

the

chapter

be

exploced.

will

understanding

of

human

on

individual
This

behavior.

chapter

behavior,
will

Motivation

motivation

build

on

interacts

the
with

individual behavior by providing the stimuli that influence behavior.

The chapter will
cycl

will

introduce

the motivation

performance cycle.

This

serve as the transportation means by which the motivation

theories are

introduced and explained.

The next chapter will provide an

demotivators.

The use

Does money motivate?

examination of

motivators and

of money

as a

motivator will be discussed.

The chapter

also

will

explain

the

merit of

providing goals, feedback, participative management, recognition, and

job security.

Chapter
construction
philosophy.

five
and

will
will

The chapter

examine
elaborate

the

factors

on how they

will address

that

are

unique to

impact the motivation

how motivation

skills can be

pplI ied to impro''o prodIuct~ iv t,. of constri-ct.

uc:sstI1l
it

Mot I'lat ion will work if

andK are
i

c reati%1 y

r~r

i i

const ruct ion managers uniderstand the, conc&,Ijt.,;

in the development and implIementat ion

of

mt. i vat ion

irogfra M,;.

The- f inal c-haptor prrey ides, q. hr ief summnat ion of

:oi(

recommenidat ions.

s hou [d t ake

programs

to remove

-,f

l ist of

The

report

Fhe
,

-i

lS

act ionis that construction manage.-s

nro iert alemot ivators

provided.

is

lit tire study.

aspects

t he I cnrc

final

al though

and implemeint mot i vat i on

paragraphs

introduce items fo r

thorough,

can

motivat ion io the construct ion industry.

niot

c-over ail

Future- study is

rc(4uired to address some of the issues related to motivation.

I
3
3

CHAPTER TWO
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

2.1

Why Individual Behavior is Important To Motivation

The

construction

manager's

goal,

when

he

employs a stimuli

directed toward the construction worker or workers, is

construction

when

that can

attempting

behavior.

to

using

Understanding

the

the

proper motivation

to influence the individual's behavior.

The construction

be

classified as
term,

workers'

Note that the first sentence used the word stimuli and not motivation
technique.

or

individual's behavior is paramount

techniques

worker's

to direct the

but,

behavior can

defined

as

motivators.
stimuli

manager does not always use a stimulus

that

motivator.
Stimuli can

are

not

Not

all

stimuli

can be

direct behavior for a short

sensitive

to

the individual's

produce results that may be short lived and, with time,

may even produce negative

results.

Only motivators,

when properly

applied, stand the best chance of producing the desired behavior with
favorable and lasting results.

The

discussion of

will be delayed until the next chapter.

i

This chapter is devoted to a

presentation of behavioral theory.

Human behavior

affects the

success or

attempts to increase productivity improvement.

with behavior; the proper
*

the

given

behavioral

failure of management's
Motivation is tied in

motivational technique
pattern

Different people are motivated

36

motivation theory

to

achieve

by different

the

must be
desired

methods.

used with
action.

Understanding

Iwhy

person behaves

in a certain manner can help the manger decide

which motivation technique would best accomplish

the manager's goal.

If nothing else, it will help the manager to avoid using stimuli that
have an overall

negative

impact.

It

is

therefore

important to

address and explain the theory of individual behavior.

2.2

Factors That

Influence Behavior

Perception, personality,
factors that affect behavior.
people react

differently to

differ in the
person

will

based

The

reasons, to

factors.

In

have a

terms

These

working conditions.

attitudes

can

Another

cause

the

disciplinary

cooperation
to

in

work

reject certain

the fact that individuals,

being

late

result

is

that people are

Personality is

often the first

The

for

work will

motivated to come to work on

time.

thought a

when evaluating an employee's behavior.

Often,

manager considers

the

cooperative,

manager

can

ambitious,

dominant, attentive, etc.

that

action.

attitudes within that

individual

example is

from early childhood, have learned

in

perception, a

partial influence on the person's behavior. What an

environment, but, also may cause

result

of

What a person has learned

individual has learned formulates long lasting

individual.

extent, why

on their pre-established biases, cultural

experiences and experiences in early life.

also can

a large

motivation techniques is because people

aforementioned
react

learning, ability, and needs are human

be

heard

to

dedicated,
People

describe

honest,

also

differ

hard
in

individuals
working,

as

lazy,

their abilities.

Within the

construction field

traits, and
Among

within each

other

things,

this is typical.

trait there

individuals

are varying

with

technical competency and adaptability

industry.

2.3

great

degrees of skill.

strength, dexterity,

can gain

People also differ in their needs.

psychological.

There are different

an advantage

in the

Needs are physical and

Needs will be discussed in the next chapter.

Individual Perception

The way in which

result

of

what

experiences.
age, sex,

report

the

worker

reacts to
brings

a stimulus

along

from

is in

his

or

part a
her past

All people tend to stereotype other people according to

race or

to

a worker

national origin.

justify

acknowledge that

such

biases.

such biases

It

It

do exist.

is not

is

the intent of this

important

however

to

The perception process can

help the manager to quickly deduce, with varying degrees of accuracy,

the important characteristics of a person and the motivators that can
work.

Perceptions

things to
act.

also

happen or

determine

the way

some preconceived

and treat labor.

as fair

way

an individual

This is especially important

may have

the

with the

an

expects other people to

construction worker who

notions of how management will relate to

If the construction worker does not

see management

and supportive, any incentives or awards that may be offered

by management may not produce the desired effect.

individual expects

2.3.1

Factors That Influence Perception

A partial list of the things that influence perception includes:

a person's needs, stress, education, background, values, position and
group pressure.5

2.3.1.1

Needs

An individual's needs can affect his or her perceptions.

construction worker who has been out of work

for several months

and believes that the economy is in a recession may accept a job

at a lesser pay
construction

than he

boom.

may have
The

worker

accepted during
perceives

a period of

the

economy

as

faltering, and in order to work, the worker will settle for less
pay.

2.3.1.2

Stress

Individuals under

stress often are less objective in their

perception of the ongoing

construction

workers,

pressuring them
tools,

or

management is

they

to accelerate

equipment,

inadequate

events about

or

may

insensitive to

feel

With regards to

that

their productivity

material

unavailable.

them.

The

to

complete

workers

may

management

is

and yet, the

the

task

are

perceive that

their needs or has little idea of

what problems exist on the job site.

2.3.1.3

Based on
may learn

Education, Background and Values

education, background,

to associate

Construction workers

certain groups

being.

The

with certain behaviors.

may characterize

management group that places

well

and values the individual

managers as members of a

project goals

workers,

because

of

ahead of individual
their background and

education,

may

management.

They may view management as typically being pompous

have

and unapproachable.

The

subconscious

resentment

construction manager

against

should be aware

when such an attitude exist and insure that the stimuli provided

do not accentuate such an attitude.

The

manager must

act in a

manner that will not make him or her seem insensitive, snobbish,
insincere, or pretentious

2.3.1.4
An

Position

individual's

perceives the

position

organization.

can

with

other

as

companies. 6

lower

level

workers.

company from the point of view

he

or she

They

better

returned to

again

of workers.

positive perceptions of management.

10

place

to work

The study further evaluated

foremen who, because of cutbacks, had

of

how

Researchers have found that newly

promoted foremen view the company

compared

influence

the position

began to perceive the

They no

longer had

Group Pressure

2.3.1.5
can

Groups

have

influence on a person's

strong

very

Human beings for the most part seek to be accepted by

behavior.

In some situations a worker may "slack off" so as

their piers.

not to be shunned by others in the

very strong

Unions

work group.

position in creating such an atmosphere.

individuals

the culture is such that

hold

have a
In Japan

paramount and

work

will never forsake their work because they will "lose face" with
their colleagues.

The manager should be

the fact

sensitive to

may not perceive things as he or she does.

the

construction

resistance

worker's

that workers

This can be noted in

to

technological

The manager may view the innovation as a means to

advancement.

improved productivity while the construction worker will view it

as a

threat to

his or

her job

rewards as attractive incentives,

distrust

management's

motives,

security.
but
such

Management may view

if construction workers
rewards

may have little

impact on productivity.

2.4

Personality

The unique quality that represents an individual is referred to

as personality.

Personality theorist, Salvatore Maddi, provides the

following definition of personality:

I1

I
"Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that
determine those commonalities and differences in the psychological
behavior

(thoughts,

feelings

continuity in time and

and

that may

actions)

not be

of

people that have

easily understood

as the

"7
sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment.

The definition

contains several important ideas. The definition

presents the idea that personality is a determinant

the time.s

Second,

every person is in certain ways, like all other

people, like some other people and

important for

the construction

workers, in many ways,

are

personalities.

Yet,

individual worker

is like

characteristics.

In realizing

other person. 9

like no

manager to understand.
breed

it also

of

should

no other

people
be

and has

this, the

The last

idea presented

with

his or

suddenly.

One

last

individual's actions
the manager should

that

each

her own unique

a certain incentive

in Maddi's definition is that an

note

"action" that is enveloped within

very similar

manager should understand

individual's personality is somewhat undeviating and

changed

This is

Construction

understood

that each employee may not react the same way to

program.

of behavior all

is to

Maddi's

often cannot be

shed light on thLe word

definition.

It

is the

that the manager seeks to direct, and therefore

have

some

appreciation

directs individual actions.

12

of

the

phenomena that

2.4.1

Like

Factors That Shape Personality

perception

tfere

individual's personality.

are

The

many

factors

factors

can

that

be

determine

grouped

an

into

the

following categories: heredity, culture, family, group membership and

life experiences.

A few of these factors, group membership

experiences, are
can

therefore

be

perception and

concluded

to the development of perceptions.

that

how

an

individual

It

develops

what an individual perceives from any given situation

is tied in with
understand

also common

and life

the individual's

that

mentioned shape

individuals

personality.

are

that difference.

different

I4 ia important to
and

that

If the manager

the factors

can gain insight

into these factors, he or she may be able to determine the behavioral

pattern of the employees

and consequently

identify suitable stimuli

that will achieve motivation.

I2.4.1.1

Heredity
Heredity

determines

physique,

eye

color,

muscular characteristics, health characteristics

individual's physical
or her personality.
perceptions that

by

provided

113

potential.

and so

on. An

This

personality

can

be

molded

by the

others develop about him or her because of his

those

with

color,

characteristics can have an effect on his

or her physical characteristics.

limited

hair

the

perceptions
opportunity

Individual
because
to

the

reach

abilities might be
individual is not
his

or

her

full

I
2.4.1.2

Culture

Culture defines

how the

performed.' 0

in that society are to bc

that the

different roles necessary to life

Japanese culture

Earlier it

may be believed to be the reason for

Japan's success as an industrial nation.

between American

being

oriented toward group needs.'1

be

The

presented

in

to note

and competitive;

for being cooperative and

merits of

later

culture plays a distinctive role.

marked difference

independent

rewards individuals

Japanese culture

will

One

culture and Japanese Culture is that, American

culture rewards people for

Attitudes

was stated

these differing

chapters.

Apparently

Still, again, it is necessary

that culture is but one facet of a very complex subject

matter.

Additionally,

not

all

individuals

respond

to the

influence of their culture equally.

2.4.1.3

Family

Families play

an important

individual's personality.
the development

role in

Parents

are

the development of an
role

models throughout

of the individual. The influencing factors that

the parents provide include: social economic level, family size,

race,

family

and so on.
through

religion, geographical location, parents education

An individual's likes and dislikes can be formulated

the

grandparents,
workers, an

influence

of

the

,unts and uncles.

individual who

parents,
Relating

was an

14

brothers,
this

sisters,

to construction

only child may seek to work

independently.

An individual

raised in

a poor family setting

may develop a greater appreciation for economizing.

I2.4.1.4
Social

Group Membership

and

group

individual's behavior

experiences

beyond that

continue
of the

to

influence an

family group.

It is

important for the manager to recognize the group surroundings of

his

employees.

One

very

powerful

group is the union.

individual's behavior may be dictated by the group.

a desire
others.

to belong.

The

People have

For some, this desire is stronger than for

If the manager uses

stimuli that

alienate individuals

from the group motivation will most certainly not be achieved.

2.4.1.5
The

experiences

individual.

interacted

Life Experiences

Where he

with,

and

subjected to all shape

circumstances

occur

categories and can be

of

each

or

she

what

individual
has

been,

conditions

context

calculated

as

who

he

the personality.
in the

are

of
a

or

unique to that
he

or

she

she has

has

been

Life

experiences and

the

other mentioned

product

of

the other

Icategories.
Knowledge

of

these

factors

understanding of the individual.

helps

the

manager to develop an

Because the individual comes from a

close knit family, the individual's needs may be predominantly family

oriented.

The individual seeks need

satisfiers that

15

address family

to spend quality time with the family.

the ability

security or

this individual, requiring him

night shift

while providing

compensation may not yield the desired

adequate financial

more than

to work

For

If the individual is easily persuaded or influenced by

productivity.

he or

his co-workers,

she may react more positively to stimuli that

good standing

help him or her to maintain

with the

group.

If the

individual has been exposed to projects in which innovation has often

lead to less work availability, this individual may view new ideas as
job threatening.

The

individual may overlook the fact that the new

ideas simply provide him or her with a way of simplifying his

job.

If the

or her

construction manager can somehow assess these factors,

the manager may be capable of correctly identifying

the stimuli that

will more than likely motivate the individual.

General Personality Traits

2.4.2

Dr. D. W. Fiske performed a study on personality traits in which

more than

twenty

personality

individual

combined them into five general traits.

general personality traits.
table

in an

effort

to

The

traits

were

gathered and

Table 2-1 represents the five

construction

manager

can

identify a worker's personality.

use this
While the

table is not all-encompassing it does provide a starting point for the

manager

that

as

unfamiliar

with

human behavior.

individual that fits the social adaptability

accept innovation.

For example, the

trait is more likely to

This individual also is most probably motivated by

the challenge of the job and the opportunity to develop close

16

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.17

friendships with

co-workers.

The individual that fits the conformity

trait is more likely to conform to nearly

any job

motivate

should

this

individual,

the

manager

condition. Yet, to
solicit

his or her

suggestions and ideas for improving the project.

2.5

Individual Abilities

Abilities

are

an

integral

part

of

person's personality.

People's personality is sometimes defined by their abilities.

In the

construction field, an individual's abilities are crucial to

his or her role.

It

is

important

realize this very simple fact.

that

the

construction manager

The most highly motivated person will

be unable to accomplish the desired objective if he or

she lacks the

ability to perform the task required to meet the objective.

abilities

include:

psychomotor

mental

abilities

and

include intelligence,

abilities,
physical

mechanical

abilities.

inductive reasoning

Types of
abilities,

Mental abilities

and verbal comprehension.

Mechanical abilities

involve understanding the aspocts of mechanical

jobs.

abilities

Psychomotor

manipulative ability,

eye and

include

such

things

as dexterity,

hand coordination, and motor ability.

Physical abilities include strength, endurance and adaptability.

The

construction worker is required to exhibit these abilities to varying

dogres tnmder varyinq...
enhanced through
should

strive

practical.

t...
. .

,ducation and
to

take

Mny....
abilities can be gained or

training.

advantage

of

The construction manager

training

opportunities when

The cost "f training and the time must be considered with

regards to the long

range benefits.

The
18

benefits will

be greater

than just

Providing training also leads to

increased productivity.

increased motivation.

2.6

Learning

as the

Learning can be defined

which an individual

process by

changes his or her behavior as a result of experience.'2

construction workers, as workers

their job,

learn about

In terms of
they learn

what sorts of behaviors the manager prefers and similarly what cannot
be

done.

Slowly

personality and

over

workers.

actions

learning

shapes

perceptions,

The effects of the experience are revealed

skills.

through the worker's actions.

management's

this

time

and

The

the

manager needs

to be

aware that

programs in place are scrutinized by

behavior toward productive

If the manager wishes to direct

performance, he or she must use each and every opportunity to provide

the workers with experiences
experiences

are

negative,

that are

positive.

Similarly, if any

must take quick and decisive

management

action to correct such situations.

Learning can be grouped into two schools of thought:

and cognitive.

In

the associative school of thought it is believed

that learning results from habit formation.

belief

concerning

When a person

is

the association
constantly

rnsponse t hat w i I I become

roasoning,

associative

uinderstanding and

be the

between a raise and working harder.

influenced

habit.

An example would

by

stimuli

there

is

But, humans possess factors such as

insight.

19

The second school

of thought,

cognitive school,

emphasizes the

in learning.

It is this

patterns that

cannot be

importance of the thinking process

thought that

best explains

those behavior

explained in terms of habit formation.

manager should fully recognize the

fact

that

workers

The

are thinking

people who can logically dissect a stimuli and react differently than
what would be expected.

He should bear in mind that the same stimuli

may not always result in the same response or habit.

2.7

Behavior modification

Understanding
determine

the

person's

human

elements

behavior

can

that

serve

as

blend
the

influencing behavior toward the required objective.

discussed, learning, serves to tie together
Behavior can

be modified

through learning.

achieve the desired behavior

and mtivation
serve to

reinforce

desired

positive

Positive

reinforcement

reinforcing the

The last element

other elements.

manager may seek to

reinforcement.

behavior.

There

reinforcement,

the

desired

and

negative

desired behavior.

behavior

Negative reinforcement

foundation for

Reinforcement

are

negative

four

types of

reinforcement,

extinction and punishment.

5
5

through

to

are not synonymous, still, motivational techniques do

-Inforcement:

all the

together

through

reinforcement

focus

on

Positive reinforcement addresses

items

such

as

praise

or

raises.

applies itself as a negative consequcnce that

the employee avoids when he produces the desired

20

behavior.

Negative

reinforcement serves

as an

intimidator that overshadows the worker.

The workers avoid items such as reprimand, harassment, relocation and

deduction of pay.

Extinction

and

punishment

extinction, positive
withholding

reinforcement is

promotions,

realizes that
opportunity

the
to

receive

unlike positive

correct

and
has

bonuses.

Punishment

behavior.

With

Some examples are

eliminated

benefits.

Extinction

The worker
his

or her

is the least
and punishment

reinforcement focus on eliminating the

but are not

types of reinforcement.
reference to

many

desired

withheld.

behavior

and negative

or

on undesired behavior.

increases,

modifying

undesired behavior,
the

pay

undesired

desired method of

focus

much use

behavior.

in teaching

Table

The manager

the employee

2-2 summarizes the four

can use

table 2-2

as a quick

makeup company policy so that the company provides only

positive reinforcement.

2.8

Practicing Positive Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement is
employee performance.
any of the

other

productive for

Positive

behavior

negative

used

successfully

reinforcement often

modification

to improve

is better than

techniques.

It

is more

workers to signify the positive elements of their job

than to dwell on the negative.

the

being

aspects

the

When

perception

the positive
typically

aspects override
developed is that

management is concerned for the individual. On the other hand, if

21

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r-

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S.

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r-

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00
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U-~

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management's tendency

is to

highlight the

punishment for undesired

behavior, workers will often become discontented with their jobs.

Positive reinforcement must be

the job

scope.

direction,

objectives.

an understanding of

Workers need to understand the scope of the project

and the desired objective.

proper

preceded by

The

manager therefore

disseminate

policy

It relates back to

employee knows

the

and understands

and

idea

needs to provide

delineate
of

the

desired

learning.

Once the

what is required, he can work toward

achieving the desired objective.

But, if there exist a

breakdown in

communications, it will be difficult to achieve the desired behavior.

Besides good
worker

communications,

proceeds

through

feedback

the

reinforcement as a worker

work

should

process.

reaches each

be

provided

Providing

plateau channels

as the
positive

his action

toward reaching the desired behavior.

2.9

Behavior Study Summary

Before advancing on to a discussion of motivation theory and its

applications,
signify its

it

link to

accomplishing a
behavior.

necessary

to

motivation.

desired

recap

individual

behavior and

First, to motivate a person toward

objective

is

to

influence

that person's

Individuals, however are different and therefore may react

differently
different

is

to
to

perceptions,

different
a

large

stimuli.

extent

personality,

is

The
that

abilities

23

reason

individuals

are

individuals have differing

and

learning

capacity.

Individual needs

can be

discerned from the individual's perception,

personality, or abilities.
person sees

the world.

Perceptions distort and screen

Stress,

needs, values, organizational role

and group pressure influence perceptions.

individual

characteristics

Personality

isa

outgrowth

of

that

ending

heredity,

experiences.

never

integral to

personality.

Personality is the set of

cannot

be

easily

evolutionary

culture,

Abilities involve

the way a

process

altered.
that

is an

family, group membership and life

intelligence

and

dexterity

and is

Abilities play a major role in performance

because despite the motivation, unless the individual has the ability

to do

the job,

ingredient

to

he or

she will not perform well.

influencing

and

altering

behavior modification go hand in hand.

Learning is a key

behavior.

Learning and

Of the various ways to modify

behavior, positive reinforcement is agreed upon

to achieve

the best

results.

The study
behavior
behavior.

are

of motivation
understood.

is best
Applied

pursued when
Motivation

Motivation is centered around

that behavior is driven by needs.

the concepts of
seeks

needs.

Although

to

direct

It can be stated

needs can

be classified

into several categories, the specifics of what an individual needs is

formulated by many of the same factors that shape behavior. Therefore
in order

to understand

to understand
motivation have

what

the needs of the individual, it is necessary

directs

a cyclic

his

or

her

relationship.

behavior.

Behavior and

Motivation affects behavior

and behavior dictates what motivational techniques will work.

24

CHAPTER THREE

MOTIVATION AND THE PROCESS OF MOTIVATING

3.1

Review and Definition of Motivation

In the last chapter, individual behavior was explored to develop

a very basic

understanding

of

what

makes

the

person.

chapter, motivation is analyzed and related to behavior.

a ten step process
theories

in

an

is introduced
attempt

to

that links

In this
To do this,

the various motivation

clarify the concepts of motivation and

establish their connection to performance.

Industrial-organizational psychologists have been

motivation

and

work

satisfaction

for

several

studying work

years.

important motivation theories have been developed and applied

industrial

setting.

Several
to the

In many cases successful motivation has been

achieved by aligning organizational interest with personnel interest.

Among

the

findings

have discovered,
motivated

that the industrial-organizational psychologist

is the

workforce

realization

results

that

in low

a dissatisfied, poorly

productivity,

high turnover,

absenteeism and counterproductive behavior.

Motivation involves the

toward

preferred

situations

psychological force.
described as

active

process

and

objects. 1 3

For the purposes of this

the amount

of effort

that one

given direction toward the attainment of

25

of

directing behavior
Motivation

is a

report, motivation is
desires to ex, 2nd in a

some goal.

It encompasses

those variables

acting on

or within

a person that arouse, sustain,

1959). 1 4

and direct behavior (Madsen,

The

amount

of

effort one

expends in pursuit of a goal is in direct proportion to the magnitude

of the force that causes the

expenditure.

exert

believe

such

behavior

definition

does

not

energy

need.' 5

because

The

they

preceding

appreciation of

the concept

of motivation.

only as in introduction to the

motivation and
work

performance.

motivation

proceeds, the

will

can

formation

As

the

be

Having
placed

on

already

willing to

will relieve a

provide

a complete

Its purpose is to serve

of

the

Throughout this

unfold.

are

concepts

of work

chapter the theory of

discussion

of motivation

reader should bear in mind that motivation

to affect behavior.
emphasis

Humans

discussed

is supposed

behavior,

now the

describing motivation theories and the

motivation process.

3.2

Motivation Classifications

To study motivation and performance the major theories should be

analyzed separately.
theories

and

Motivation

process

theories can be classified as need

theories.

Need

theories

emphasize

the

identification of specific needs and rewards that influence behavior.

Process

theories

motivation

takes

try

to

place.

explain

the

processes

through

which

These theories identify factors such as:

incentive, reinforcement, and expectancy, and then attempt to specify

how

these

factors

interact

offers some

unique insight

theories do

not by

and

lead

into the

to motivation.

motivation process.

Each theory
Yet, the

themselves significantly explain motivation.

26

It

is helpful

for the

manager to

become somewhat

acquainted with the

theories and combine the general categories to build an understanding

of motivation.

The greatest
manager

service that this study can achieve is to help the

develop

process.

an

operational

model of

illustrate the

the

major

represents

the

theories
model

depicts the relationships beL

of

Human Relations

relate the subject of

practitioner.

Since

practitioner in mind

process is

aspects of many motivation

are

this

interrelated.

Figure 3.1

motivation-performance. 16

the

Concepts and

motivation and

and

With this goal

It

,ceuindividuals, the individual and the

organization and the individual and

author of

motivation

This model is a complete representation of

motivation
cyclical

the

the motivation-performance

most significant

and performance theories.

how

of

The manager needs to know how to motivate.

in mind, the single

used to

understanding

report

seeks

to

self.

James

Skills, used

performance to
is

M. Higgens,
this model to

the management

written with the management

present

complex

subject in

simplest form, Mr. Higgens' outline is used to present the subject.

3.3

Motivation Performance Cyclical Process

This report presents the model depicted in figure 3.1

first and

tien proceeds with the introduction and description of each theory as

it relates

IaLLempLb

127

to the

various elements

of the

model.

Since the model

to consolidate the various motivation theories into one

S. Organization and
manager offer need

satistiers, rewards

. Employee contemplates or
does not contemplate
conlsequences of actions

2. Are organization and manager

aware of needs? willing and able

to offer need satistiers?

mlyei

oiae

to expend effort

Moivio/prfmacyc

stisie

B. Does employee have sufficient

training and abilities? What
are perceived role and objectlve?

10. Will employee continue to be

Are job design, tools, technology

motivated in the same waa

appropnate?

7. Performance
9- Individual examines

situation or not

8. Need satisfiers.
rewards given?

Figure 3. 1. Motivation/ Performance Cycle Model

28

understandable

framework,

associate

the

various

proceeds.

Thus, the model gives the reader a point of reference from

help

idea.

managers

in

is

theories

which to start in order

their central

it

to

better
to

the

evaluate

present

model

the

An evaluation
strengthening

to

as

the discussion

theories

of the
their

it first and

and interrelate

model, by managers, can

human

relations

skills

particularly with regards to:

1.

"Leadership

choices:

How

to

treat

people in order to

motivate them."
2.

"Motivation:

Influencing

certain

so

way,

that

others,
they

will

treating

them

perform

their

in

work

adequately or better."
3.

"Communication:

Communicating leadership

choices in order

with an individual's needs.

By offering need

to motivate."

3.4

Step 1.

Needs

Motivation begins
satisfiers, managers can
primarily on

motivate

the needs theories.

workers.

Figure

3.1

is based

Needs relate to the basic types of

relation required by the individual for optimal functioning.

Needs identify
from within

intrinsic concepts

the individual.

of motivation.

Motivation comes

Yet, by understanding individual needs,

the manager can create a proper environment.

29

3.4.1

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory

The most widely used theory of motivation is the needs hierarchy

theory. Abraham H. Maslow
sets of
lives.

needs that

proposed that

they strive

all individuals

have basic

to fulfill over the course of their

The theory represents a hierarchy of needs.

Underlying this

hierarchy are four assumptions:

1.

satisfied

need

does

not

another

need

emerges

Isatisfied,

motivate.
to

When

take

its

need

is

place, so

people are always striving to satisfy some need.

2.

The grouping

of needs

for people

separate number of needs

is very complex, with a

affecting

the

behavior

of each

person at any one time.

3.

Lower-level

needs

must

be

satisfied before higher level

needs can be fully dealt with to drive behavior.

4.

There are more

ways

to

satisfy

higher-level

neuds than

lower level needs.

Maslow's theory

suggest that

there are

five needs categories:

physiological, security, affiliation, esteem, and self-actualization.

Figure

3.2

shows

the

five

need

categories

hierarchy. The needs are as follows:

3
I
i3

arranged in Maslow's

Self

Actualization
Esteem and
Status
Social Activity

Safety and Security

Physiological Needs

Figure 3.2 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

31

1.

Physiological

needs.

satisfied

those

include

by
needs

for

The
things
food,

lowest
which

level

of

sustain

water,

shelter

needs

life.
and

is

These

clothing.

Managers who focus on these needs try to motivate employees

by offering wage increases, better working conditions, more
leisure time, and better fringe benefits.
2.

Safety and

security needs.

reasonably

satisfied,

the

next

level

safety and

security,

begin

to

dominate

behavior.

A manager who provides for this individual need

focuses on providing

job

When

physiological needs are

security,

needs,

those for

an individual's

fringe

benefits, and

employee protection against automation.

3.

Social

needs.

The

need

for

acceptance,

affection,

friendship, love, and a feeling of belonging are all social

needs.

Managers

emphasizing

address

employee

these needs by being supportive,

acceptance

by

co-workers,

extracurricular activities and following group norms.

4.

Esteem needs.

This describes the need an individual has to

occupy a position in time and space as

he is

and of

what he

is capable.

feeling of achievement

or

respect from

Managers who

others.

a function

of whom

The individual seeks a

self-worth

and

recognition or

focus on esteem needs

tend to emphasize public awards and recognition.

9.

Self-actualization needs.
for

fulfillment,

The

highest level

of needs is

self-realization and self actualization.

This is the need that one has to accomplish his or her full

32

potential.
involve

Managers who

employees

emphasize self-actualization may

in

designing

jobs,

make

special

assignments that capitalize on employees' unique skills, or

allow work crews to develop work

procedures and

plans for

implementation.

Mlaslow's theory

states the

goals that people value and suggest

types of behavior that will influence the fulfillment

needs. The

manager should

come away

understanding that individuals

natural objectives

have

of the various

from this presentation with an

needs

and

therefor

that they want to achieve.

they have

The manager needs to

focus on providing for these nee'.;.

3.4.2

ERG Theory

Clay Alderfer supported Maslow's

needs that

are arranged

in a hierarchy.

proposes that the individual

has

only

existence, relatedness, and growth.

hierarchy of
needs and

the three

,ie satisfied

are

needs

that

that

individuals have

But, Alderfer's ERG theory

three

basic

set

of needs:

Figure 3.3 represents Aldetfer's

basic needs.

Existence

needs are material

by environmental factors such as food, air,

water, pay, fringe benefits,

needs

theory

and

deal

working
with

conditions.

establishing

and

Relatedness
maintaining

interpersonal relationships with co-workers, superiors, subordinates,

fri ends, and

family.

Growt.h needs

are needs that are displayed by

the [ndividiual's attempt to find opportunitios for unique personal

3",

Gro wth

Relatedness

Existence

Figure ,3.3 Alderfer's ERG Theory

34

development.

They comprise the needs that involve a person's attempt

to make creative or productive contributions at work.

Alderfer's theory

differs

from

Maslow's

theory

in

that for

Maslow's theory, the process is one of fulfillment-progression, while

Alderfer,

the

process

is

frustration-regression.

one

of

Maslow

fulfillment-progression

states

and

that unfulfilled needs are

motivators and that the next higher-level needs become activated only
as lower-level needs are satisfied.
is

continually

frustrated

in

Alderfer states that if a person

attempts

to

satisfy

growth

relatedness needs will reemerge as a major motivating force.

theory has merit for a manager
satisfy a

higher level

because if

the manager

The

ERG

theory,

manager can always

higher level

unlike

deploy

needs are

Maslow's

means

to

theory

satisfy

blocked, though

is~ae

of

suggest that the

needs if

these lower-level needs may

This aspect of

behavioral

the ERG

It

also suggests

factors.

theory relates

to the individual.

back to

Understanding an individual's

personality and percoptions can provide insight

more fitting

or existence

people have different degrees of strengths as related

to the three needs.

the

is unable to

lower-level

become less important to the individual over time.

that different

The ERG

need, the manager should attempt to redirect

the subordinates behavior toward satisfying relatedness

needs.

needs

into what

needs are

For example, the following findings

were p-esented in Alderfer's study of work motivation:

35

1.

Individuals with

parents who had higher educational levels

had greater growth n"-ds than did

individuals with parents

who had lesser educational levels.

2.

Men

had

higher

strength

of

existence

needs

and lower

strength of relatedness needs than women.

3.

Blacks showed

significantly greater

strength of existence

needs than did whites.

3.4.3

David

Achievement Motivation Theory

McClelland

proposed

that

needs: achievement, affiliation, and

people

are

motivated

according

humans

have

power.

to

the

three important

McClelland states that

strength of their need to

perform in terms of a standard of excellence or their need to succeed

in competitive

situations.

motive, however probably only

strongly

motivated

individual has
behavior.

for

the

10 percent

achievement.

is dependent

With

Almost all people have an achievement

need

on
for

the

of the

U.S. population is

The amount of achievement an

same

factors

that influence

achievement also exist the fear of

failure.

The individual associates certain actions with

therefor

will

likely

repeat

those

individual will unlikely repeat an

actions.

action

that

success and

On the flip side, an

he

associates with

failure.

High achievers

prefer to

set their

for which success is moderately high.

36

The

own goals and pursue tasks

task must

be attainable

and, yet

they must

be equally

challenging.

These individuals seek

feedback so they may gauge their performance.

which

their

determining

own
the

efforts

and

outcome

of

ability
their

They prefer

tasks in

will have a major impact on

efforts.

The

high

achiever

personality develops most often under the following circumstances:

1.

A favorable religious/ ethical climate in which the systems

belief

and

that

distinction.

cf

the

culture

encourages

individual

This attitude is more prevalent among western

cultures.
2.

A society in which

the

stories

told

to

children stress

economic achievement.
3.

A favorable

family environment in which the family stress:

(1) high

achievement

performance,

(2)

provide

performance, (3) give

headed

by

in

person

terms

of

objectives

positive

continuous
whose

recognition

feedback,

leadership

and

and
for

(4) are

style

is more

Culture, Individuality, Teamwork and

Achievement
Japanese society, while the culture

stresses

devotion

so

democratic than authoritarian. 17

3.4.3.1
In the
teamwork

and

individuality,

the

three stated above.

is rooted
they

culture

the
does

organization
practice

more

than

conditions two and

However, the Japanese quest for achievement

more in their work ethic toward the company in which

believe

that

Stressing teamwork

to

if the
as the

firm

does

Japanese do

37

well,

so

will

is important.

they.

Yet, for

Americans,

individuality

does not have to

imitate

achieve motivation.
their culture.

is

very important.

Japanese

culture

American culture
in

this

sense to

Japanese use motivation techniques that fit

It is this simple fact

Japanese highly successful.

with American culture.

that probably

makes the

American management has not evolved

The American

of achieving great productivity.

workforce is

very capable

The key may be in management's

ability to come of age.

3.5

Step 2.

Are Managers Aware of Employer Needs?

Managers and
their employees
discussion on
behavior.

organizations can
and by

being concerned

behavior, several

to

needs by knowing

about their

factors were

needs.

In the

presented that affect

To understand behavior the manager should understand those

factors that influence behavior.

effort

know employee

understand

those

If the manager makes a concentrated

elements

of

behavior

he will in all

probability be better able to understand what needs subordinates have

as individuals

and as a group.

He also will be in a bettcr position

to understand the degree of those needs.

The ERG

theory touches on

this point.

3.6

Step 3.

The Manager Offers Need Satisfiers or Rewards

The first

two points identified the needs that individuals have

and discussed the necessity for management to satisfy those needs. If

38

the manager

is aware of those needs and can satisfy those needs, the

broke

down

into

needs

step further a

Frederick Herzberg went a

worker will be motivated.

he called motivator needs and hygiene

what

It has also been called the two-factor theory.

needs.

3.6.1

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory

Herzberg reported that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were not

different degrees

caused by

or levels

he

called

"motivators,"

motivator

needs,

is

higher-order

responsible

achievement, trust,
appeal to

These needs

challenging
and

work,
respect

or growth needs.

These

from other animals.

are

satisfied

by

things

such as

independence of action, recognition,

for

the

individual.

Motivators

needs

that cause

hygiene

needs,

security,

is

lower

level

absent, but when present do not motivate.

are basically maintenance needs.

coworkers,

These needs include

They

such things as

working conditions, and company

general

The factors associated with motivators and hygiene factors

are summarized in table 3-1.

39

The first

The second

dissatisfaction when

policies.

with

employees' higher level needs and self esteem.

set of factors,

pay,

associated

work itself, recognition, advancement,

includes the

and responsibility.

those

distinguish them

needs are unique to humans and

Motivator needs

and

"hygiene factors."

dissatisfying experiences he called

factor,

same factors, but by

The factors associated with satisfying

completely different factors.

experiences

of the

I
Table 3-1 The Factors in Herzberg's Theory
Hygiene factors

Motivators

(external, extrinsic dissatisfiers) (internal, intrinsic satisfiers)

Comrany policy and administration
Methods of supervision
Interpersonal relations with peers,
superiors, and subordinates
Working conditions
Compensation
Job security
Symbols of status
Personal problems

Achievement
Recognition of achievement
Responsibility
Advancement
Interesting work
Personal growth

Source:
James M. Higgins, Human Relations Concepts and Skills,
Random house, Inc., New York, 1982, p.40

When

hygiene

dissatisfied.

factors

Yet, adding

motivate someone, they

dissatisfied.

are

inadequate,

employees

more hygiene factors to the job does not

simply

insure

The implications

that

the

the causes for dissatisfaction.

affect

lower-level

satisfied, the
motivate

hygiene

the

as

and

since

manager will
employee.

have to
One

is not

that will minimize

Yet, he needs to be cautious so that

factors

needs

individual

to the construction manager is that

he or she should provide an efficient environment

he does not use

will become

motivators.

Hygiene factors

lower level needs are quickly

escalate the

offer to further

important element includes pay.

The

manager has only so much he can offer and should not rely exclusively
on pay in his attempt to motivate the worker.

3.6.2

Maslow's Theory Versus Herzberg's Theory

I
Herzberg's theory
importance of

may be

psychological

helpful for focusing attention on the

needs.' 8

40

The

theory

is

useful for

drawing attention

to the

infinite, difficult
while the

fact that

to satisfy,

lower-level needs,

higher level needs are somewhat

and therefor

being easier

their effectiveness as motivators. 1 9

Maslow's theory

should be

that

an

influence

perception.

useful as motivators,

to satisfy, quickly lose

Herzberg's

theory as

well as

applied while bearing in mind the factcrs

individual's

behavior

such

as

personality or

An individual whose primary goal is security rather than

responsibility and independence may not function to his optimal level

under a job enrichment program.

Herzberg's theory
of motivation.
apparent that

does contribute

to the growing understanding

When compared with Maslow's hierarchy of needs, it is

the hygiene

factors correspond

the hierarchy and the motivators correspond

(figure

3.4).

theories can

The
select

manager
among

organization has

to offer

manager will have

modeled

the

who

many

or

to the

two upper levels

uses the combine aspects of both

to achieve
his

to the lower level of

her

satisfiers

that

motivation.
organization

his

or her

In doing so the
to accomplish

individual objectives while accomplishing organizational objectives.

41

Herzberg's motivation maintenance model

Maslow's need hierarchy

Self-realization and

Work itself
Achievement
Possibility of growth
Responsibility

Esteem and status

Advancement
Recognition
Status

Social activity

Interpersonal relations
Superior
Subordinates
Peers

Safety and security

Company policy and

administration
Job Security

Physiological needs

Working condition

Salary
Personal Life
Figure 3.4 Maslow's Need Hierarchy and
Herzberg's Motivation -Maintenance Model

42

3.7

Step 4.
The Employee Contemplates or Does Not
Contemplate The Consequences of Actions

The manager

has followed

in figure 3.1, and

step

four,

steps one through three, as presented

still, performance

the

empluyee

is

has yet

deciding,

to be

whether

subconsciously, if he or she should expend some

may

ask

himself/herself

employee will decide to

something that

process

theory,

chapter

two.

behavior

addressed

center

What's

process

reinforcement of

follow

on

consciously

or

in il for me?
if it

The

will provide

The theories that apply in the

modification,

theory

modification through

as

In

energy. The employee

the activity

values.

categorized

The

that

question,

engage in

the employee

following steps are

theories

the

achieved.

was
the

Lheories.
already
process

The first
discussed in
of

behavior

desired characteristics.

the

cognitive

ability

of

The
the

individual.

3.7.1

Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory of motivation assumes that an individual's

motivation depends on his or her perception of how his
and rewards

will be

that subdivided the

related. 20
theory

into

or her actions

Victor Vroom developed a hypothesis

three

areas:

(1)

expectancy, (2)

valence, and (3) instrumentality.

Expectancy

relates

effort will be followed by

to
a

the

belief

particular
4-1

that a particular level of

level

of

performance. The

employee may
will I get

ask himself
the

outcome with

the question,

or herself

reward?

Expectancy

regards to

input.

offer a reward for which only

considers

the

probability of

must be careful not to

The manager

a few

if I do the job,

can benefit.

Some employees may

believe that there is no chance that they will get the reward.

Valence represents

outcome has for the individual.

reward

is

outcome

worthwhile

may

be

cuutt'ction

short

term

The

terms

attracting

securiLy and a small

many

in

industry

or importance that the particular

the value

the

or

it may

workers

but

may

job

construction that can negate each other

be

if the

In the

greater value on job

large wage
security.

is good

The

increase with
Another area of

wages but

,irty and

dangerous working conditions.

Instrumentality refers

to the

raise.

The

basic

question

relationship between first level

second level

outcomes, such as a promotion, and

is,

outcomes, such

What's in it for me?

answer that will result in performance is that

evaluate

dissatisfying.

place

over a

no

will

current and future needs.

of

wage increase

benefits

employee

as a

The correct

the promotion provides

the increase in
pay which is an outcome that the employee values.

Vroom asserts
step process:
probability of
level outcome

that motivation

(1) does

the person

involves a
feel that

largely conscious three

the action

has a high

leading to an outcome (expectancy), (2) does the first

produce other

outcomes (instrumentality),

44

and (3) are

those outcomes

of any

importance to the person (valence).

these steps are negatively perceived by the employee,

be

lacking

and

the

desired

manager can apply the

performance

principles of

If any of

motivation will

may not be achieved.

this theory

The

in association with

the behavioral factors discussed in chapter two to motivate employees.

Managers
values.

should

Using

determine

the

the

outcomes

that

manager

personality, perceptions

can

ask

the

employees

performance and

observable and

managers

measurable,

desire

of

so

them.

that

This

employees

this

means

developing

measurement indexes that can

The manager

should make

are reachable.

in terms that are

can

and

In

the construction

maintaining

As

the desired levels of performance

the

connection

between

performance

subsequently make sure the employees see

also

should

insure

by employees to

stated in chapter two, the employees may

perceive things very differently than the manager.

make

productivity

feedback to employees.

Managers should link outcomes desired

specific performances.

to

understand what

relates to the aspect of positive

provide valuable

sure that

and abilities.

Managers also must

adequate performance,

reinforcement previously defined in chapter two.

industry

employee

about the kinds of

rewards they want and the career goals they have.

define good

each

behavioral knowledge the manager should observe

employees to determine their

Similarly,

the

that

sufficiently large to motivate

changes

in

The manager needs

and

the relationship.
outcomes

significant behavior.

not be trivial.
45

outcomes

or

and

Managers

rewards

are

Rewards should

3.7.2

Equity Theory

Equity theory assumes that individuals are strongly motivated to

maintain a

balance

between

what

they

contributions, and their rewards.

outputs with

those of

perceive

as

their inputs,

Employees compare their inputs and

other employees.

Equity

exist whenever the

ratio of a person's outcome to inputs equals the ratio of outcomes to

inputs for
inputs

others. Inequity

are

not

equal.

exists when

Inequity

also

overpaid. If the employee perceives

will develop

in his

or her

an

th2 ratios
can

result when people are

inequity,

theory

explores

the

tension

behavioral

the inequity.

The

perception.

Two

factor,

valuable conclusions can be drawn from the equity

manger

who

understands

the

perception, understands that

or drive

mind. Since tension is not pleasurable,

the employee is motivated to reduce or eliminate

equity

of outcomes to

equity
he

or

balance in the working environment.

theory
she

must

theory. First, the

and

can

seek

relate it to
to

maintain a

The manager must treat employees

equitably.

Second, individuals make decisions concerning equity only

after they

compare their

manager c

provide for equity within the organization.

the manager

inputs/outcomes with those of others.

settings

In addition,

must work to establish equity within the profession.

the construction field this is easier to do than in

since

craft

wages

are

The

In

other industrial

typically equivalent for the same

geographical area.

46

3.8

Steps 5 Through 7.
Employee is Motivated/ Skills,
Ob.Jectives, Job Design, and Tools,/ Performance

At

this

stimulating

point

the

positive

rewards

that are offered are suitable for

responses.

The

satisfiers

meet

with

the

individual's behavior.

The individual will attempt to expend effort.

Now the employee needs

to develop

a knowledge

which

to

that effort.

he

or

she

is

expend

employee expends and in which

effort

becomes

question

direction
of

the

several

ability, training, work objectives,

of the

How much effort the

employee

factors

job design

direction in

expends that

including skills,

and a.ailable tools.

Once management addresses these aspects the desired results should be

achieved.

3.8.1

Skills and Training

Skills require two things: ability and training.

discussed in

chapter two.

organization.

provided

Training is critical to the success of an

"Training is one key

individual will
with

be unable
some

to superior

to reach

degree

of

performance.'21

theory.

seek

to

They work

intrinsic objective.
to reach

that level.

become

training.

good

An

his full potential unless he is

Maslow's

identified self-actualization as the highest of needs.

individuals

Abilities were

at

something

needs theory
The fact that

supports Maslow's

to claim expertise in a certain area. This is an

The manager can help by

providing the training

Providing the required training motivates, and

the development of motivation generates a

47

greater capacity

to learn

I
3

and to better ones abilities.

lack of training to develop ones ability leads to dissatisfaction.

Work Objectives

3.8.2

On the other hand, lack of ability and

The behavior that the manager desires may or may not be realized

unless the

manager ensures that subordinates are aware of management

objectives and that both agree on the objectives.

*

imply that

subordinates must

Agreement does not

accept the objectives unconditionally.

It does suggest, however that the subordinates must have an awareness

and

understanding

understanding

of

of

the

their

objectives.

roles

and

accomplishment of the objectives.

goal setting.

Goal

setting

where to direct effort.

They
how

3.8.3

to

the

provides

considerable

information on

Employees know what is expected of them and

Job Design and Tools

the world

does not insure

that the desired performance and accompanying results are achieved if

are

construction

inadequate
industry,

or

the

productive

tools, proper materials, a workable

required

equipment.

Lack

difficult for the employee

*48

relate

have an

as a result have a clearer focus on what is to be done.

the tools

they

must

Objectives can be achieved through

Simply stated, all the motivation in

also

of

any

job

design

is

poor.

In the

performance is based on adequate

schedule,

and

availability of

of these elements will make it

to accomplish

the stated

objectives and

goals.

"Primarily,

in

the

construction industry, a well planned

project seems to be the first and most important step to achieve good

productivity."2 2

Duplication

of effort, numerous modifications to

plans, incorrect sequence of

task,

slip have

on motivation.

degrading effects

or

schedules

In comparison, a good

plan, the availability of quality tools, and the

of

required

materials

greater motivation.
is going

leads

to

that consistently

timely availability

better performance and in turn to

For example, a carpenter who has a

power hammer

to nail more boards than one who only has a regular hammer.

Provided the boards are on-site

carpenter should

and

be more productive.

objectives, feels good about

his or

the

schedule

is correct, the

He or she accomplishes company

her performance,

and satisfies

his or her needs for mastery and status.

3.8.4

Having

Performance

accomplished

performance

should

performance

needs

be
to

steps

realized.
be

measured.

one

through

In the

six,

the

construction

desired
industry

If the ultimate goal of the

manager is to improve productivity and he or she realizes that one of

the factors

to achieve

that goal is to motivate the workforce, then

he or she must also measure

productivity.

productivity is developed and

If a quality measure of

fed back, it will lead to significant

increases in productivity through increased motivation.

3.9

Step 8 Through 10.

Needs Satisfied, Employee
Evaluates Rewards, Continued Motivation

Once the

performance has

that the rewards are given.

often result

in failure

the rewards and

Irewards
IThe

and

manager needs to insure

Failure to provide rewards promised will

to repeat the performance.

satisfiers,

the

employee

applies

will

Iout

the

rationale

has reached

if the individual will

manner.

that

a decision

was

presented

in the

continue

to

point where he must figure

be

rewarded

for

his

bought the reward.

Yet, not

behavior

be satisfied.

react

in the same

tend

The individual who is

to repeat the behavior that

as positive reinforcement.

all individuals react in the same manner to the reward.

perceptions, personality,

to

will

The reward will serve

the motivation process fails

does not

motivated

Depending on what has happened previously the individual may

or may not be motivated in the same way again.

to keep

in tune

and abilities,

If

with the individual's

the individual may fail to

If the individual's personality is such that he or she

wish to be singled out as an achiever or he or she is prone

to

group

individual's needs.
performance,

and

pressure,

the

reward

may

not

satisfy

the

Additionally if the reward is not related to the

therefore

satisfaction

is

performance, the performance is unlikely to reoccur.

evaluate the

discussion of the expectancy theory.

The manager

Having received

ask the same questions that were asked during step four.

employee

need

occurred the

50

not

related

to

process

motivation

The

must

also

they

the

work

they

They

do.

construction worker is searching

that are

him

or

The

continued motivation.
-I

personal growth

as

her

in the

blue

of

more

trade.

their

The

order needs

the higher

to satisfy

The motivation process that

unique

worker's

the

take considerable pride

artist

Maslow's theory.

presented in

recognizes the construction

belittle

are

are

they

turn

in

In construction, most craftsmen

productive.
in

and

themselves,

about

good

feel

improve

and healthier when

are happier

individual's self image. Individuals

or

maintain

ability

does not

and

collar worker will often lead to

construction

accomplishment of

worker

seeks

status and

his or her trade.

When a

the performance may not

manager uses pay exclusively as a motivator,

reoccur.

3.10 Leadership and Communications

If construction managers are to achieve the level of performance

*

they desire when working

through

the

motivation/performance cycle,

and develop a motivated workforce, they must have the ability to lead

and direct
must

be

the work
able

to

force.
communicate

the construction manager

In addition,
effectively.

This report will not

elaborate greatly on leadership and communications.

can make

up a

report in their own right.

of each item will be discussed.

I
*

51

These

two items

Still, just a few aspects

3.10.1

Leadership

A construction manager's leadership ability will impact upon his

or her ability to motivate the construction worker.
choices

to

make

as

to

the

Understanding the concepts of

these concepts

will enable

way

he

motivation
the manager

treats
and

The
his

being

to make

made

only

after

the

major

situation have been considered.

organizational

needs

and

able

to apply

Choices should

factors that affect the particular

The choices will depend on:

objectives,

subordinates, especially their needs

dynamics of

subordinates.

the propcr choices

that in turn should result in productive performance.

be

manager has

(1) the

(2) the personalities of the

(Maslow and

Alderfer),

(3) the

the group, (4) the particular task or .job concerned, and

23
(5) other major situational variables.

Among all the things that the construction manager can do

an effective

leader and

motivator, he

or she

must be able to work

effectively with people in a variety of situations.

respect others

leadership

behaviors

motivation and performance.

would

Greg Oldham hypothesized that

significantly influence worker

The following leadership qualities are a

24
modification of Oldham's study:

1.

The effective

construction manager will search for ways to

build upon the self esteem of the workers.

The manager must

and realize that to accomplish the project tasks, the

manager must be considerate of others.

Icertain

to be

52

2.

"The manager will reward the worker for producing good work
by congratulating the worker, patting
back, indicating

a job

well done,

him

or

her

on the

or engaging in similar

supportive activities."
3.

The

manager

craftsmen and

will,

when

practical,

consult

with

the

evaluate their opinions and suggestions when

making decisions.
4.

The manager also will

show confidence

that craftsmen will

attain high standards of performance.

5.

The

manager

will

set

specific performance goals for the

workers to achieve.
6.

The manager will provide feedback to

the workers

and will

keep them abreast of the job progress.

7.

The

manager

Manager

will

will

be

supportive

provide

responsibility and

of

his

opportunities

independence of

workforce. The
for

increased

action so that the job

becomes more challenging or demanding.

3.10.2

Theory X and Theory Y

Leadership styles can vary between an

participative,

democratic

view.

authoritarian view

In the

past,

and a

the construction

manager has functioned primarily on the authoritarian type of leader.

Douglas

Mcgregor

certain assumptions
these Ibeliefs

presented
that are

help to

two

leadership

held by

explain why

theories

managers.

that rely on

He theorized that

managers behave in certain ways.

53

The

traditional

authoritarian

view

relates

progressive approach relates to Theory y.25

these theories

help the

to

Theory X, and the

With

respect to people,

manager to understand the classification of

people and in turn the process of directing their efforts, motivating

them,

and

modifying

1organization.
1.

their

Theory

behavior

to

fit

the

needs

of

the

X is based on the following assumptions:

The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and

will avoid it
if
he can.

2.

Because of

this human

most people must be

punishment to

characteristic of

controlled, directed,

dislike of work,
threatened with

get them to put forth adequate effort toward

the achievement of the organizational objectives.

3.

The average human being prefers to

be directed,

wishes to

avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, wants

security above all (Maslow).

Theory Y is based on the following assumptions:

1.

The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as

natural as play or rest.

2.

External control

and the

threat of punishment are not the

only means for bringing about effort

objectives.

control

in

committed.

Man
the

will
service

toward organizational

exercise self-direction and selfof

objectives

to

which

he is

3.

Commitment to
with their
rewards,

objectives depends on the rewards associated

achievement.
the

satisfaction

actualization needs
direct

The

products

most
of

significant
the

ego

(Maslow's higher-level

of

of such

and

self-

needs), can be

effort directed toward organizational

objectives.
4.

The average human being

learns,

under

proper conditions,

not only to accept but to seek responsibility.

5.

The

capacity

to

exercise

relatively

imagination, ingenuity, and creativity

organizational

problems

is

high

in the

widely,

degree of
solution of

not

narrowly,

distributed in the population.

6.

Under

the

conditions

of

modern

intellectual potentialities

industrial

life,

the

of the average human being are

only partially used.

"Whether the manager believes

concepts provide
people". 2 6

managers

I!5

Theory

Theory X managers practice management by control.

practice

approaches.

unskilled labor.
labor.

X or

Y, the

a useful way of approaching the problem of managing

management

by

manager can develop worker motivation

Theory

in Theory

Theory

objectives.
by

using

Theory

The construction
both

Theory

X and

may serve better when applied to

Theory Y may serve better

when applied

to skilled

3.10.3

Communications

A construction

manager's communication ability also will impact

upon his ability to

developing and

motivate the

construction worker.

constantly changing

nature of construction work, the

construction manager must continuously

supervisors

and

craftsmen

during

communicate with

the

unable to communicate with the worker,

can

do

to

change

worker

Because the

project.

the project

If the manager is

there is not much

he or she

attitudes and generate motivation.

The

manager must insure that what he or she transmits is received by the

receiver and

is not misinterpreted.

before they are communicated.

from

the

correctly.
his

or

receiver

to

The manager must clarify ideas

The manager also must solicit feedback

insure

that

the

receiver

interprets

it

How the receiver interprets the communication is based on

her

background

and

experience

Therefore, the manager must be sensitive

(aspects

to nature

of

behavior).

of the receiver.

Likewise, the manager, if his goal is to motivate, must avoid talking

down to the worker or workers.

The manager should bear in mind that

how he or she presents something may be equally important if not more

important than what he or she presents.

3.11 A Review of the Cyclical Process

Motivation

has

motivated, people
individual

needs.

been

must he
The

portrayed

as

motivated again.
needs

theories:

56

cyclical

proress; once

The process begins with

Maslow's

hierarchy,

Alderfer's

ERG

theory,

and

McClelland's

achievement motivation

theory attempt to explain those needs and provide insight as

satisfiers the

manager should

offer.

Herzberg's two-factor theory

builds on the needs theories and makes a

factors and

motivators.

The essence

factors, if present, provide

for

to what

distinction between hygiene

of his theory is that hygiene

attainment

of

lower-level needs.

Similarly, if bygiene factors are present, relatedness and existence

needs (ERG theory) are not likely to be frustrated.
do

not

satisfy

satisfied.
needs, or

when

present;

in their absence, the worker is not

Only motivators will satisfy.

growth needs

does not have

(ERG theory).

lower-level

satisfied through

needs.

They

satisfy higher-order

Achievement motivation theory

The

achievement

needs

may be

hygiene factors, but more importantly, achievement

needs require motivators to yield a sense of

Hygiene factors

achievement, power, and

control.

The process theories: expectancy and equity theory relate to the

cognitive ability of humans.

and

rationalize

his

actions

Man is a thinking person who can ieason

and

make

rewards or satisfiers that are offered.

asking himself
and rewards.
they

must

He

or

she

is constantly

or herself questions and is evaluating the satisfiers

Therefore, rewards must

maintain

should

be

relate to

respectable

Additionally, the motivation process

rewards

choices in response to the

offered

self-image
must be

the performance and

that

man

seeks.

continuous meaning new

and satisfiers should ascend the ladder

established by the needs theories.

57

Effective leadership must be established by the manager in order

to motivate.
all situations

may not

The same style of leadership

or personal.

Yet,

when the

manger understands the

personalities of the workforce and can relate to

she can

be effective for

their needs,

he or

use the leadership style which best fits the situation.

manager should, despite the style of

the individual

and

important

open

is

satisfiers
and

focus in on

present the right rewards and satisfiers.

needs, and

These rewards

leadership chosen,

The

must

relate

to

performance.

effective communications.

understand what he wishes to

communicate

and

Also

The manager must

insure

that

what he

desires to communicate is what is interpreted by the receivers.

58

ICHAPTER
4.1

FOUR
MOTIVATORS AND DEMOTIVATORS

The Right Motivator

Chapters two

and three

have sought to develop an understanding

*and appreciation of the complex

motivation process.

nature

of

human

behavior

and the

The various motivation theories were categorize

together to help explain the concept of motivation. Their interaction

helped to

formulate the

motivation-performance cycle.

explores some of the various stimuli that may be used

and examines

their reliability

as motivators.

Iand

to reaffirm

(2) worker motivational

board.

by the manager

Another area that is

explored is the existence of "demotivators."

is important

This chapter

Before proceeding it

the fact that (I) worker situations differ

practices cannot

be applied

across the

Having said that, however, an understanding of the behavioral

principles, the motivation theories,

and the

stimuli themselves can

help the manager to adapt to each unique situation.

4.2

Motivators Versus Demotivators

The Civil
Austin

Engineering Department

conducted

project motivators

and

in-depth

to

I59

the

effects of

fact

that

study

and demotivators. 27

most successful method for

reduce the

at the University of Texas at

that

revealed

The study concluded that the

improving worker

motivation is

any existing demotivators.

even

if

motivators

construction

aren't

first to

The study alluded

present,

when the

demotivators

are

eliminated,

routine.

The study

spend an

average of

another

and

an

workers

discovered that
57.9% of

average

fall

in construction

their time

of

into a more productive

14.3%

of

the worker can

waiting for one reason or

their

time

redoing

work.

Construction workers in general have a need to succeed and complete a

project

on

especially

time

with

quality

demotivating.

The

workmanship.
study

Here,

concludes

motivating construction craftsmen seems to be

and its

resources to

findings

generated

interviews that

allow the
by

the

were conducted

were

4-1, presents

the

key to

based

be productive.
on

the

results of

The study generated a list of

demotivators that were common to each project.

project

The

with over 1000 craftsmen and foremen

on twelve large construction projects.

motivators and

that

are

organizing the project

individuals to

study

delays

motivators.

Table

4-2,

Table

presents numerous

demotivators.

Figure

4.1

was

developed

to

graphically represent the total

summation of the values presented in table 4-1.

most

dominating

motivation

descending order, (1) pay,

factors
(2) work

among

The

the

itself, (3)

prevailing and

projects

were, in

a good orientation

program, (4) a good safety program, (5) good craft relations, and (6)
suggestions solicited.

Most of these factors except

associated

higher-level

with

hierarchy of needs.

the

This

study

needs

lends

Herzberg's two-factor theory.

60

some

for pay

identified
degree

by
of

can be
Maslow's

support to

Table 4-1 Survey Results of Motivators in

Twelve Construction Projects
PROJECTS
A B C

MOTIVATORS

Good craft relations

FG H.IJKL

1t 2
7

Good orientation program

311

Good safety program

It'1

Work itself

1*1 2$!

2 22
2?

Overtime

2,

3 3

Pay

Recognition

l2

12

Goals defined1
.Ijpen house & project tour

Well-planned project

I somewhat important
2 major importance
7

2*2t~i

II

lt

Suggestions solicited
KEY:

l1
*

2*:11

demotivator and motivator

extremely important

Source: Garner, Couglas F.,

Samelson, Nancy M., Factors
of Craftsmen and Foremen on
Projiects, The University of
1978

Borcherding, John, D. and

Influencing the Motivation
Large Construction
Texas at Austin, August,

61

Table 4-2

Survey Results of Demotivators in

Twelve Construction Projects
PROJECTS

*
8

Disrespectful treatment

33,

IJ

23 33
2

Little accompl.ishment

F G H

O DE

iDEMOTIVATORS

Material availability

,2

,Tool avaiiability

:il

3:~ii2i

22

21

Redoing work

Lack of recognition

2 i2

ll

lil1:i
1

1*1 1*1

122
i

2 2

urgeo but
~Productivity

no one cares
Ineffective utilization of
skills

Lack of cooperation
among crafts

1
I.

Incompetent personnel

2
3

13

Overcrowaing.
Poor inspection programs

.1:

unsafe conditions

IV

Lac of participation in
decision making

I.1

~2

:~~Communication Dreakaown

KEY:

i somewhat important
2 :major importance
3 :extremely important

~2
21i I

2
2

It

It;

"emotivator and motivator

Source: Garner, Couglas F., Borcherding, John, D.

and Samelson, Nancy M., Factors Influencing the
Motivation of Craftsmen and Foremen on Large
Construction Prnjet, The University of Texas at
Austin, August, 1978
*

62

Figure 4.1
Value of Motivators
Graphical Representation

lR

20

................

. ...............
...................

15

.. .........................

...
............
............
...................
---.
................. ........

e
0

10

11

Motivators
-M

Series I
Based on Table 4-1: Raw score is the
summation of the values in table 4-1
1
2

3
4
5
6

I
*63

Good craft relations

Good orientation program
Good safety program
Work itself
Overtime
Pay

7
8
9
10
11

Recognition
Goals defined
Open house & project tour
Well-planned project
Suggestions solicited

I
Figure 4.2
Value of Demotivators
Graphical Representation

*
*
*

20

R 15...................o
.....................................
.....

rew 5

- ...

...

-....

...
........................

1 2 3 4 5

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Demotivators

Series i

Based on Table 4-2: Raw score is the

summation of the values in table 4-2

I
1
2

Disrespectful treatment
Little accomplishment

10

Ineffective Utilization of
skills

Material availability

11

Incompetency of personnel

4
5

Tool availability
Redoing work

12

Lack of cooperation among

crafts

Crew discontinuity

7
8

Project confusion
Lack of recognition
Productivity urged but

13

Overcrowding

14
15
16
17

Project inspection programs

Communications breakdown
Unsafe conditions
Lack of participative
decision-making

Figure

4.2

represents

presented in table 4-2.

classified

as

the

total

summation

of

needs.

It

is

important to note that

factors such as recognition, cooperation among crafts,

and

values

Most of the demotivating factors also can be

lower-level

decision-making,

the

safe

participative

conditions are potential motivators that

have turned into demotivators.

Herzberg categorized factors

such as

recognition, work itself, and participative management as motivators.

Similarly, he identified work conditions (items
13),

company

policy

and

administration

3, 4,

5, 6,

(items

9,

7, 11,

14),

and

relationship with peers (item 12) as hygiene factors.

This study concludes that any factor

from proceeding
of the

on schedule can be severely demotivating.

demotivators

minimal

effort,

cited

many

originate

demotivators

from
can

trivial

be

the project
Yet, many

causes.

repressed.

exist

on

the

management's

Until the

For
job

example,
site,

neglect,

in construction, if unsafe conditions

and

increased

workers
pay

have
or

been

injured through

advancement will often be

ineffective as a motivating tool.

Equally important to motivation of

the

study

construction

laborer,

this

stresses

the importance of

proper planning; elimination of delay causing factors, and the timely

availability of quality tools, equipment, and project materials.

65

With

demotivators are removed, the effectiveness of motivators will remain

questionable.

I
i

that prevents

4.3

Job Satisfiers

This report

leads to the conclusion that individuals have needs

and the basis of motivation

is

needs.

the

Determining

what

situation is not an easy task

formulated
correct

for

the

around

satisfying these

satisfier

is

manager.

for a given

But,

when the

manager combines the many motivation theories and makes an attempt to

understand the principles of
have

better

chance

motivation program.

identified

through

multiple motivators

motivation,

the

manager will

identifying and implementing the correct

careful
The

the

correct

assessment

manager also

over a

period of

motivators

of

individual

must understand
time may

may be

and

that often

be required because

want to satisfy a range of needs rather than only one or two.

The process

of

Additionally,

organizational needs.

5workers

process

theories: behavior

equity theory help to

modification, expectancy theory, and

explain why

individuals react

differently to

different motivators.

1974 U.S. Department of Labor study tabulated the results of a

study that sought to

collar workers

in

table

and white

4-3.

refprence as

show

Table

to what

factors that are showed

what

satisfiers

collar workers.

4-3

gives

are

important

The results are presented

construction

managers

a quick

is important for the construction worker.

in

table

4-3

will

be

examined

adequacy as a motivator in the proceeding sections.

to blue

66

The

for their

Table 4-3

Job Satisfiers

White Collar
Interesting work
Opportunity to develop
special abilities
Enough information
Enough authority
Enough help & equipment
Friendly helpful co-workers
Opportunity to see results of

Blue Collar
Good pay
Enough help & equipment
Job security
Enough information
Interesting work
Friendly helpful co-workers
Responsibility clearly defined
Opportunity to see results of

work
Responsibility clearly defined

work
Enough authority

Good pay

Competent supervision

Source: U.S. Department of Labor Study, Job satisfaction: is there a

trend? Workers rate job facets that were "very important" to them

4.4

Money as a Motivator

Frederick Herzberg states that an increase in wage motivates the

individual to

seek the

next wage

increase. 2 8

Herzberg's statement

suggest that money is not a motivator that can increase productivity.

The

majority

of

performance that a worker achieves is not directly related to the pay

earned.

gain.

Pay has its

This is not to say that pay is not important.

position in the motivational-cycle.

Money

enables

the

Workers

want and

need monetary

worker to satisfy other internal needs.

Money is a source of pride, security, and

believe that the level of

behavioral-psychologist

Yet, using

satisfaction.

money to motivate is very expensive for the organization.

To use money as a motivator, the pay must be appropriate for the

level of performance and should
average.

167

Pay

will

only

be

motivate

comparative
toward

with

the community

prescribed level of

I
I

performance if

performance.

the employee

perceives it as fair pay for his or her

This reasoning that the

the expectancy

theory.

If the

individual applies

outcome of

then it must be related to performance, it

relates to

the performance is pay,

must be

of value

to the

individual, and the individual must perceive that the effort expended

leads to the performance sought.

The presence

of demotivators

But, money can never be used alone.

or the

lack of

other satisfiers will

negate any potential that money has to motivate.

It is

important that

the construction

manager understand that

money cannot be used independently as a motivator.

the

manager

Herzberg, a

must

strive

laborer who

to

make

pay

In regard to pay,

equitable.

receives equitable

According to

pay for what he does is

not dissatisfied, but neither is he motivated.

The laborer

must be

satisfied through other means.

Increase in

pay may not be an effective motivator in all cases,

but there are other

without

imposing

aspects of
a

include programs such

heavy
as

money that

financial
profit

can serve

burden

sharing,

as motivators

upon the firm.

better

These

fringe benefits,

retirement plans, rebates for educational courses, flexible time, and

medical plans.
these aspects
security of

These aspects
provide not

the

provide

tangible

rewards.

Some of

only for the individual, but also for the

individual's

family.

extremely strong motivators.

Many

of

these

areas are

4.5

Enough Help and Equipment

Both, the
the

study conducted

University

of

interruptions to

Texas

at

work

Austin

make

in

allude

it impossible

routine.

As

to

their

to

explained

individuals have a natural desire to

successful

U.S. Department of Labor and

the

fact

work progress lead to worker demotivation.

interruptions to work
efficient

by the

endeavors.

by

work.
If

get

that

To many

into

a smooth,

McGregor's

Theory Y,

Individuals wish

to be

workers see that a sustained

exertion of effort does not lead to the desired productivity, to them

the effort

is
senseless and they are demotivated.

"What's the use?"

According to

will

motivated

fail

to

be

the expectancy

because

between effort and performance.

performance.

theory, the workers

they do not see a correlation

Effort

alone

will

lead to

Management needs to be aware of this fact and strive to

Job Security

Job security

positive impact
guaranteed
introducing

when

related

on motivation.

employment
innovative

for

a
work

understanding of the guidelines

to

performance

Employment
specified

a significant

aspects such as tenure,

period,

processes,
for

has

dismissal

and
in

sensitivity
developing

69

when
an

the organization

provide a means to satisfying security needs (Maslow).

not

provide the needed help and state-of-the art equipment and tools.

4.6

Workers will say,

4.6.1

Innovation and Job Security

Employees will resist change if they perceive that the change is

a

threat

to

automation can
will welcome
effort

their

job

security.

advances

cause such fear if not properly introduced.

an innovative

while

Technological

his

or

idea that

her

leads to

employment

and

A worker

less expenditure of

position

is

safeguarded.

Additionally, employees will welcome an innovative idea that helps to

eliminate

the

worker's

exposure

This is especially true in the

to the hazards of his profession.

construction industry.

worker does not want to be designed out a job.

;
must seek to train the employees and util "-

the job.

However, the

Therefore, management

them in other aspects of

Management's concern over the employee's job security, and

the programs that management initiates

to

provide

for

those needs

will have a positive effect on worker motivation.

4.7

Establishing Direction of Effort Through Job Information

Workers

desire

to

understand

and

be knowledgeable about the

organization in which they work and be informed

on and
be

what is the general aim of the organization.

:onsidered an iivtegral

Similarly,

workers

need

and important
to

know

part of

their

performance

to

what is going
Workers want to

that organization.

the direction in which to expend

Pffort tormake the organization successful.

relate

as to

the

They want to

organizational

Management must c-:learly identif> what a worker is

70

to do.

be able to
objectives.
To assist

effort, goals should be set and feedback should be provided.

in this

Management also should establish a productivity measurement system by

employees

which

may

their

gauge

These factors are

performance.

specifically important to the construction industry. Often management

establish or

fails to

And

the workers.
Also, many

even communicate
the

often,

measurement

get to

workers never

the goals of the project to

see what

The result is that the workers never obtain

the accomplishment

of the

if they saw the results of

indexes

are inadequate.

the finished product is.

the feeling

of pride in

work that they would otherwise experience

their

efforts,

and

their

efforts were

acknowledged.

4.7.1

Goal Setting

Setting specific,
increase performance.
provide a

meaningful, and
Goals

greater reward

derived from challenging,

that

are

hard goals on employees will

meaningful

when accomplished.
meaningful, and

and challenging

The motivation that is

attainable goals relates

to the essence of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's theory, and

the achievement theory.

For the goals to be effective,

clearly established and communicated to the employees.

they must be
Chapter three

stated that goals are effective because they give direction.

have a

clearer focus on what they are to do.

The goals also must be

aware of

how the accomplishment

meaningful.
of

Workers

their

Workers should be made

ostablihed

goals

are

important to the success of other

workers, other crafts, and the organization.

71

Setting goals

also are

effective

when

they

are

tied

recognition or bonuses (positive

be

subdivided

recognized.

so

that

into

tangible

results

reinforcement).

intermediate

points

such

as

Goals also should

of

achievement

This helps the employee feel good about himself

are

and his

or her achievements (Maslow: self esteem, and McCelland's achievement

Itheory).

While the workers are performing the task, they

the performance

is really yielding achievement.

sense that

Intermediate stages

also help to provide workers feedback.

4.7.2

Feedback

Feedback works as a motivator because it lets employees know how

well they

are doing.

Feedback provides workers with information so

that they may properly

themselves.

track their

Feedback also

provides information

they may take corrective action

Feedback helps

the worker

progress and

when

they

to equate

are

set new

goals for

to workers so that
veering

off track.

effort with performance.

appropriately provided, feedback provides positive reinforcement.

praise from
way.

the manager

takes

the

theory)
setting.

time

are

to

given following the performance goes a long

provide

addressed.

the

training

to

the

employee to correct

employee's growth
Feedback

needs (Alderfer's ERG

is an important element of goal

For goal sotting to be effective

must he pro ided.

Likewise, when deficient performance is flagged and the manager

deficient performance,

When

as a

motivator, feedback

4.7.3

Measurement System

Establishing

goals

measurement

systems.

measurement

is

the

to
In

be

achieved

the

driving

should

construction

force

that

tied

into

industry productivity

gauges the success of the

construction

firm.

inadequate.

This has been a long standing problem that recently has

Yet,

productivity

begun to get much attention.

measurement

However, the

systems

means used

productivity is not the focus of this section.

are

for measuring

The intent here is to

alert the manager to the fact that the

specific information

or she

system must be related to the

gains through

workers.

the measurement

When productivity

feedback, and

work effort,

how their efforts impact

have the

by

measurement is
the workers

tied into

goal setting,

develop an understanding of

the organizational

objectives.

They also

means by which they can gauge their performance.

important, if
productivity

is not

that he

properly

measured,

Yet, more

the correct

direction for effort cannot be established.

4.8

Participative Management

Worker
objectives,

participation

in

goals,

performance

schedules is

plans,

an effective

the

development

of

evaluation

part

craftsmen,

of

the

team.

feel that they

criteria,

way of improving work motivation.

involvement in management decisions helps the workers

are

organizational

Employees,

have something

73

feel

specifically

of value

and

Active

that they

construction

to contribute to

the project

and they

will more likely accept working ccnditions and

provide productive performance if their opinions

legitimately

considered.

Employee

participation

goals helps management to establish goals

needs

while

fitting

organizational

management and labor working

misdirected

toward

participate in developing performance

understanding
mission.
about

of

the

performance

Also, workers

the

job

they

often

are

perform.

does

pursuits.

When

criteria, they
required
the

to individual
Similarly,

motivation

interest

in establishing

that relate

objectives.

together,

personal

and suggestions are

by

not become
employees

have a clearer

and the organizational

most

knowledgeable persons

Participative

management helps to

performance

provides

achieve work satisfaction.

4.9

Recognition and Status

Recognition

for

reinforcement.

Recognition

peers and family.

lead

to

aspects

improved
of

It iman nature is

is

performance.

the

Chapter
preferred

two

indicated

method

the negative.

make the individual

feel good,

influences

create

fear.

individual

is

riri , r

t,

and compliments

Recognition stresses the positive

of

such that individuals have a

positive than

positive

projects self-worth to an individual's

Things as simple as honest praise

behavior.

reinforcement

to the

good

notably better response

factors motivate and

and secure

Whon

an

:. id

the

71

positive

behavior modification.

Positive

safe,

that

individual
unpl,asant,

(Maslow) .

Negative

reacts to fear the

hut,

he

is

not

motivated

to

provide

the

desired

performance.

Praise

and

recognition also tend to satisfy the ego needs (Maslow).

Recognition
motivator.

is

also

Recognition

listed
also

can

status needs of the individual.

employee

in

his

activity

by

Herzberg

be

st atuI.

Granting additi-nal

status

needs.

varying forms

authority to an

management

and

also

supports

status

self-fulfillment needs.
provides for

and status.

Giving an

unit of work provides recognition and

Recognition

realization of

effective

and increasing the accountability of the

complete natural

Participative

an

provided by relating to the

individual for his work provides recognition

individual a

as

also

the individual's

provide

for

the

In summary, recognition in

the attainment of The higher-level needs

portrayed by Maslow.

4.10 Advancement and Job Enrichment

According
employees

to

Maslow's,
a

desire

chance

Herzberg,
to

and
and

advance

Management needs to address these needs.

to

see

what

fie

nr

-;hould he given the

rit'ds

to

idiancoment
:-,f ine

Ihrnugh

Ind
an

feel

that

she

&.ffct.i

,v

his
orga

gain new experiences.

An employee should

whenever

assignments

in the organization.
i mprov,

theory,

he able

must do to advance in an organization and

opportunity
job

McCelland'b

)r

are

possible.
stepping

The individual also

her

skills.

stones toward
has a

need to

This can he acc,-mplished

,:ati. onal Iriining program.

75

The enmployee

The

manager

5advancement
Iani

should

realize

that

opportunities in different

content with

their present

and job

work, training,

ways.

situation.

pay,

individual with fair

Individual's

security he

may be

If the manager provides such

working

safe

view different

indi%iduals

conditions, challenging

will continue to be motivated.

The individual will feel that his opportunity for advancement lies in
the

experience

position.

I
gmight
3
3

and

expertise

that

he

gains

through his present

This is especially applicable to the

construction worker.

Instead of desiring advancement to a supervisoiry position, the worker

seek advancement or

placement in a job

that builds

lie may view himself as more marketable

craft skills.

upon his

if hie possesses

greater craft skills than supervisory experience.

4.11 Co-worker Relationships

The manager

3werkter,
5
he i

have

~'' st
I

3
3

close ties

hudd i ew.

iridustrY.

Th if

Van Ze s

rue tion

h(
In

(()cI~t

to their

fact-,

is

rfeco)rds

mt,

.i

recogn ize

workers want

app Ii iab I

o rmed

helAore

ld

i ;rn-ver,

must

group.

ve ry

o rk crews, wepre

.1:q

t,h i1,4s

roduIc tion costs when

11'iet fl

ri

other

t to

i hat many

to work with

the construction

-onducted in experi menit, to measure the effect on

it'sp

r'res iuiL
rsli

atmong all

the

in

hcr-

wsl

'

Anld

rh,I 1ril1
in

respouise

r,, pe)r t

to0

w h,r f

s;tuiid,;

i nid ica ted

wo rked

fri ends

a toi
was

ind icat ed worker

iIpIi caIt ed .

The

I Qsav i its

i n prnduc t i on

:iihstat

ial

atK*v
-st,it

together. 29

r
hait

r(i(tct ion

happier with

sr -i lm pr, kmo t

3
I

techniques
working

that

would

together

enhance

would

be

the

chances

accepted

of

compatible groups

favorably

and

improve

work

motivation.

4.12

Job Safety

The physical

work place has a very significant impact on worker

motivation and productivity.

free, much

time and

When

the

work

spent on

energy is

system

is

not hazard

trying to protect oneself.

The manager must be attentive to mainLaiiig the work place

free

from

possible.
long as

hazards

and

should

Many professions
the job

is being

safe and

make the environment as pleasant as

have inherent
performed.

realize those inherent risks.

The

risk that

will exist as

Workers in those professions

key

then

to

motivating those

workers or more importantly preventing them from being demotivated is

to provide safeguards against the inherent hazards.
time

to

implf+ment

productivity,
procet-ds.

it

ill

safety
enhance

The manager

which injury may result

program

productivity

must always
from,

may

if

keep in

not safe

at

Although taking
first

ten

detract from

fold

as

mind that hazards,

fatil uz'

ilI

appli,,d,

.rkers

for

guarded against inhibits

productivity and can severely demotivate the work force.

theory is

the work

are geared toward survival,

If

Maslow's

and any act or

to act on mtragement's part that negatively affects this need

-:ujse dissatitsf:iction of man's most basic need.

77

4.13 Motivators/ Demotivators Summarized

Doctor

Paul

Mali

guidelines for using motivators.A0

provided

consider when

manager should

His guidelines best summarize what the

establishing an

organizational motivation program.

a few of Mali's

guidelines that

are applicable

The following is

to the construction

manager:

1.

Motivators do not have the same effect on every individual.

2.

The

values

of

motivators

change

over time.

motivation/performance cycle motivators

must

During the

be evaluated

and updated to meet the present situation.

3.

Multiple motivators

are often

required instead

of one or

two motivators.
4.

Individuals

have,

should

to

contribute to

opportunity to

varying

degrees,

the

the development of their own

3motivators.
5.

Motivator's

are

most

when

effective

they

project

an

individual's self worth.

6.

Individual's

have

varying

needs.

Being able to identify

these needs through individual assessment will

inidentifying
'hance

7.

can

individual needs

motivators

that

stand

the greatest

of succeeding.

Motivators

too

the

provide aid

become
is not

demotivators

if

sensitivity

to

maintained or they are to much or

little.

78

In

deciding

writings of

this

described in

which

motivator

chapter

as

to

use, the manager can use the

guide.

The

list

of motivators

the previous sections are not intended to be definitive

or all inclusive.

There is no one complete list of motivators.

chapter

helping

aims

at

the

motivators are and how they are

that not
As

used.

acquire

insight

The manager

into what

will understand

all motivators will serve as motivators in every situation.

indicated

motivator may

in

statement

become a

seven

There

is no

above,

it

is

possible

that a

demotivator when used in the wrong situation

or with the wrong individual.

an art.

manager

This

Work Motivation is not

detailed technique

a science, but

to be followed.

Yet, the

manager who can acquire an insight into employee needs, decide on the
organizational objectives, establish alignment between organizational
objectives and
motivators

that

individual
relate

needs,
to

eliminate

demotivators,

and use

performance will most definitely have a

positive impact upon productivity.

79

CHAPTER FIVE
MOTIVATION IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

5.1

Motivation Applied In The Construction Industry

All

motivation

industries

are

industry.
differences

construction

need

to

be

successfully

effective

necessarily

not

The

applied

techniques

industry

the

in

is

most

construction
and

these

Notwithstanding

these

different,

recognized.

in

differences, the principles discussed in the preceding chapters still

apply.

The construction manager must understand the limitations that

are imposed by the very nature of the industry when attempting to set
up

motivation

Considering

program.

explores those factors that are unique

and

explains

their

impact

upon

chapter concludes by presenting

construction industry

to the

motivation

and performaice.

The

despite the

techniques that,

a few

the

This chapter

must be resourceful and creative.

construction manager

differences,

the

industry's differences, have some merit in serving the industry in an

attempt to motivate the work force.

5.2

The Construction Industry Differences

The construction
industrial community.

industry
The

The

distinguishable

theories of

performance "hen applied must

effective.

is

differences

reflect
are

pages.
80

from

any other

motivation and productivity

this

distinct

examined

in

status
the

to be

proceeding

Project Employment

5.2.1

In

the

construction

industry

the

project, not the construction company.

the construction

worker may

work

force

works for the

During the course of the year

have worked on several projects, unlike

the factory worker who works for a single company, attends

christmas party,

gets an

looks forward to a
migratory sole

company pension.

who seldom

one construction firm.

firm is

annual report

if ever

of the company's profit and

The

construction worker

is a

establishes a lasting unity with

His or her tenure of employment

indefinite and

an annual

transient.

with any one

As such, the construction worker

rarely establishes any deep rooted loyalty to any one firm.

5.2.2

Union Shop Influences

Unions provide a means by which

worker's rights

are protected.

Unions negotiate for wages, hours, and working conditions.

Unions do

address some of the very same issues that lead to the satisfaction of
worker's

needs.

While

contributions to
safeguard

the

employee

members.

management

that

the

rules are

prolong

prerogatives.

true
of

the

work rules

Some work

unnecessarily

is

operation
rights,

motivation programs
Unions promulgate

it

that

the

unions

construction

unions

do

that. pertain

manager

time,

limitations

81

may implement.

to the employment of its

very restrictive

The

industry and

impose limits upon the

construction

construction

make important

and increase cost,

and

interfere

that

with

restrict

construction

manager's

ability

to

programs include: prohibitions on

tools,

inflexible

jurisdictional

requirements that
periods,

and

used.

of

out effective motivation

of

labor-saving

overtime

limitations

methods and

requirements,

on

daily

craft

production,

skilled workers do unskilled jobs, regulated break

hiring

indirectly dictate
be

use

application

requirements,

carry

procedures.

Sometimes

the

union

also may

how the job will be done, and what materials will

Also,

through

negotiated

established fixed wages for its members.

labor

contracts,

unions

Therefore, monetary rewards

for superior performance are not generally available.

5.2.3

Open Shop Influence

In the open shop arrangement

signatory

to

labor

construction manager

the

agreement

hires

his

with
work

without regards to union status.

the project.
promote, or
the

The

discharge as

construction

establishing

construction

and

They may

The construction

the

can

the

recruit,

open market

hire, train,

The open oc'p provides

greatest

decide

flexibility

in

the

size

of

the work

as they desire and attempt to group

preference

manager may

from

The

multi-faceted motivation program.

may

arrange crews

is not

The construction manager can manage

with

implementing

company

construction union.

he or she desires.

manager

workers according to their

a
force

manager

The open shop construction firm

crews.

construction

thus

improving

motivation.

pay workers according to their ability

and performance. The manager can use monetary incentives to motivate.

82

One

significant

factor

that

relates

construction manager may assign workers

utilize labor

effectively.

When the

to

job security is that the

according

with the

This single fact

can

firm until
greatly

need

and can

level of work volume is down,

skilled personnel can be assigned to lower task

these workers

to

levels, thus keeping

the work volume again increases.

motivate

workers

to

work

hard and

develop their skills.

5.2.4

Weather

The effects
the fact

that,

weather is

of weather

are mentioned

especially

an impediment

in

of

industry, adverse

As such, adverse weather

It was previously mentioned

that any

impedes production can demotivate the work force.

the construction
effects

construction

to productivity.

can demotivate the work force.

factor that

the

here simply to highlight

manager

adverse

consideration, he

cannot

weather,

or

she

completely

if

will

he

safeguard

or

she

takes

minimize

its

adverse

While

against the
weather

into

impact upon

production.

5.3

Motivation Within The System

It has already been stated that the construction manager must be

resourceful
Given the
few of

the

and

creative

in

motivating

the

construction worker.

differences and uniqueness of the construction industry, a

motivators

that

were

mentioned

83

in

chapter

four are

I
B

presented

construction.

again

in

5.3.1

There is
a wide

3
3

this

chapter

and

related

specifically

to

Incentives

construction.

use

of

Incentives

incentives
provide

in industries

tangible

other than

rewards when given to

those who perform at a given level.

The measure used to decide those

rewards

and

should

be

carefully

set

should be clearly linked to

performance.

Profit sharing is the

most frequent

program used

by construction companies. 3 1

company-wide incentive programs for

determined.

type of incentive

Yet, the effectiveness of

construction firms

has not been

Incentive programs for a construction firm must be on a

case by case basis for each

best design

an incentive

project.

The construction

program that

meets the

manager can

conditions of the

project before project start-up.

5.3.2

Providing For Job Seaurity

Providing for
particularly

job

difficult.

changing jobs from time

plan that

security
Most
to time.

fully addresses

in

the

construction

construction
There

this issue.

is no

construction

expect to be

conclusive workable

Yet, there are a few things

that can be (lone by the construction manager.

better methods

workers

industry is

Economist

argue that

mean lowei custs which mean more construction. 32

manager

must

seek

and

84

implement

work

The

improvement

techniques.

Additionally, the

union halls by working with the local

construction firms can maintain a

gets

priority

suggestions.

in

project

baseline

steady

assignments.

But, any program that

work

These

are

force that
only

two

demonstrates management's intent

to provide job security will strengthen worker motivation.

5.3.7

Quality Circles

The concept

of quality

circles originated in Japan.

circle is defined as a small

work who

meet

encounter

regularly

in

management,

their
and

circles can be

to

work

volunteers performing similar

identify

and

assist

environment,
management

effective

Quality circles

group of

as

include a

member of

analyze

to

with

form

of

propose

of

the

group

can

problem and each member may

raise

problems
solutions

implementation.

they
to

Quality

participative management.

management, whether

project supervisor or the project engineer.

member

A quality

it be the

In quality circles, each

an issue or issues they feel is a

propose

ideas

for

resolving problems.

Through this method, cost saving ideas can be generated, common goals
can he generated, organizational objectives can be agreed

satisfaction can

he achieved, a more cohesive work unit can develop,

and demotivating facLors can be eliminated.

a

means

of

generating

also provides
employee needs.
the only

upon, work

effective communications.

management
John

industry where

Quality

with

means

to

assess

circles provide
Quality circles
and understand

D. Borcherding noted that construction may be

participative decision

85

making should occur

Foreman have

to

participate

with

make

many

project

policies as coffee breaks,

have an

of

challenge

the

of

because

naturally

day-to-day
management

environment. 3 3

work

the

decisions;

they

must also

in establishing such job site

crew sizes,

and assignments.

Craftsmen

opportunity to participate in method selecting decisions and

help mesh the work done by different trades.

5.3.4

Work Facilitation

Since mankind's
things never

Humans

already there.

capable builder.
endeavor.

are compulsive
The

The craftsman

For the

most part,

want to leave behind a product

ownership.
itself

Therefore, one

is

inherently

satisfaction from
The

art

results,

of

sought to build

builders.

individual takes
vants

to

for

which

The desire to

pride in becoming a

see

human nature

the

results

of his

is such that craftsmen

they

can

proclaim proud

could conclude that construction work in

satisfying.

Construction

workers

get

seeing their efforts produce permanent structures.

building,

demonstrating

nothing" with one'5

fulfillment.

individual has

before built or become the best builder of whatever the

individual builds.
build is

beginning, the

having
one's

hands

the

ability

skills,

satisfies

to

accomplish lasting

and building "something from

the

ego

and

leads

to self-

This would tend to make construction workers easier to

motivate by simply

facilitating

facilitate the ;ork.

accomplish this is to:

the

work.

Removing demotivators

The means by which the construction manager can

(1) insure that the

86

project is

well planned,

(2) provide

workers with

proper instructions, equipment, tools, and

materials, (3) keep the job

site

clean

and

free

of

hazards, (4)

structure the job site to ensure efficient material flow and minimize
worker inconvenience, (5) and remove any other hindrances that impede
upon the worker's ability to accomplish the job.

5.3.5

On

Construction Worker Recognition

average,

construction

workers

recognition for their efforts. 34

construction manager

satisfies ego

craftsman-of-the-month awards,
of the

entire project,

methods.
he or

needs.

or

no

provided by the

Recognition can include

crew-of-the-month awards, recognition

an active

empowered to

might decide to have the

essence,

and status

little

public affairs program, and other

Status can be conferred on the worker by the decisions that

she is

cutting

Praise

receive

ceremonies,
the

firm's

make.

The construction firm owner also

construction

especially
management

in

crews
large

should

present
complex

share

the

during ribbon
projects.

In

visibility and

prestige that comes with the accomplishment of a construction project

with the labor force.

5.4

Summary of Motivation In Construction

This chapter has

different from

stressed

other industries.

that

the

construction

industry is

As such, the construction manager

must recognize these differences when applying motivation techniques.

87

Probably more so in construction than in other industries, the key to

motivating the construction worker
project and

its resources.

most important

factors

appears to

be in

organizing the

Job facilitation seems to rank among the

to

achieving

construction

job motivation.

Individual or group recognition also provides strong motivation.

Non

monetary recognition serves as positive reinforcement, and is usually

the least

expensive motivation

method available.

The construction

manager should realize that construction workers are artist

trade and

as such they possess a special ability that can and should

be considered unique.
the

of their

project

on

time

When the firm provides the means to accomplish

with

quality

results,

and gives thanks and

recognition they deserve, the construction worker will continue to be

motivated when

he or

she works

for that firm.

The use of quality

circles provides the construction manager with a means by which he or

she

can

improve

the

work

place

simultaneously creating a sense

an industry

important in

of

and

satisfy

belonging.

The underlying fact remains;

must

appreciation

an

and

and motivation

she

making

he

creative

can

be very

in

the construction manager

understanding

individual and group needs,

must

This

in which workers work more for the prcject

than the firm.

hav

worker needs while

them

ind'lst ry.

88

of

human behavior,

techniques.
fit

And,

he or

into the construction

CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1

Motivation Works

Management
performance.
and

can

no

and

Manvgement by
gives

are

to

human

behavior

the

attainment

toward

on

Every manager

should be

L nderstarding

human

construlnt ion

basic cncepts

project

When

the

to the problem.

Motivation

by

arousing,

of

some

Motivation

is

work effectivply.

have mrny 'nd

sustaining, and

goal.

Individual

Motivating

the work

and

toward human motivation.

motivation and human behavior.

motivation

as

The

is

is

project

as

important to

organization

and

quality assurance,

management, equipment operations, or material

construction

manager

understands

the most

of human behavior and motivation theory, he or she is

ppod with the means

to

situation.

he sensitive

management

to provide,

varied

for the

motivation of

the work

a cycle made up of various steps in which each

stop is impo)rtant and cannot he

is

new attitudes,
the

g, contract familiarization, estimating,

procuromnt .

f.rc,..

remedy

motivation.

'-ducated in

behavior

,,ngir-wrirg, financial

,ui

to

and

to improved performance and increased productivity.

construction manager needs to

Pchedu

management is outdated

suffering

the answer

performance is based in part

force leads

is

required

motivation is

it

approach to

Productivity

methods

direction

directing

rely on old incentives to stimulate

The authoritarian

ineffective.

concepts,

longer

nrglected if

the motivation process

Motivation begins with needs.

rneds.

'urin.t ru.t ion

managers

Individuals
must prov ide

employees with some means of satisfying those needs.

those needs

cannot

ability or
the

be

accomplished

training to

second

ingredient

the employee

individual

lacks the

expectations,

importantly eliminates or

to

individual

Ability is
performance.

will be achieved if the manager provides

work satisfiers that address

reasonable

the

satisfying

perform the designated function.

important

Motivation of

if

Yet,

needs,

provides

comnmunicates
minimizes

training, establishes

those expectations, and most

the

effects

of

negative work

practices.

6.2

Tndividual Behavior

This

report

addressed

behavior

as a separate chapter because

human beh.;ior is what motivation theory

construction manager
or she is

should have

attempting

to

is directed

a basic knowledge of that which he

direct.

Chapter

two

rudimentary :xplanation of a very complex subject.

make the construction manager aware
behavior.

When the

manager is

of

the

presented

that influence

aware of the factors that influence

underlying reasons

people behave the way they do and may be able to predict how

the individual will behave under

various

concluded with

of behavior modification.

the presentation

conditions.

modification assumes that behavior results from

of a

a very

Its intent was to

factors

behavior, he or she will have an awareness of the

for why

toward and the

stimulus and

response.

The chapter
Behavior

the habitual pairing

The best way to modify behavior is to

provide positive reinforcement.

90

6.3

The Motivation Performance Cycle

Chapter
cycle.

three

introduced

the

ten part motivation performance

This cycle greatly enhanced

motivation

theories.

construction
motivation

The

manager
is

to

built

Satisfaction of those
theories

help

to

chapter

learn

upon

how

the

needs

explain

the presentation

to

motivation cycle.

the gist

of the

knowledge

from

at

motivate.
of

is

riot

an

how

the

individual

easy

helping
The

the

basis of

individual needs.

task.

The various

is motivated.

No one theory

The

can stand alone

When the construction manager understands

motivation theories,
which

aimed

satisfaction

motivation theories are interrelated.

in the

was

of the various

to

draw

he or

she has

an arsenal of

upon when attempting to develop and

implement a motivation program.

6.4

Motivators and Demotivators

General

motivation

financial incentives,

techniques

that

have

been

used include:

providing proper help and equipment, providing

job security, goal setting,

worket

participation,

and recognition.

Yet, the most important motivator, particularly in construction is to

remove or
detrimental

minimize
effect

the
on

demotivators.
productivity.

work performance will improve.

Demotivators

have

a very

Remove work demotivators and

If motivators are implemented without

removing the demotivators, the effectiveness of those motivators will

be greatly limited.

91

6.5

The Construction Project Motivation Program

Development

implementation

of

construction projects is as important

as

is

construction

and

chedule.

Each

the

uniqueness

of

the

program for

development

of t

project can benefit immensely from a

motivation program that is designed for

account

motivation

that project

the industry.

and takes into

The construction manager

must understand the differences inherent in the construction industry

when designing

a motivation program.

The most important undertaking

that the manager can take to improve worker

or

minimize

impediments

to

productivity.

overwhelming majority of construction

motivated.

motiva-ion is
In

workers arrive

to remove

general,

the

at the project

Yet, time and time agaia, projects have demotivators that

deflate individual motivation to

unhappy, dispirited,

the point

and demotivated.

that the

worker is left

To correct this, the actions

on the part of management can be few and simple:

1.

Provide appropriatp and complete information.

The workers

need to know what is expected and what is to be accomplish.

2.

Provide proper well working equipment and tools.

3.

Provide required material on time.

4.

Insure that
in effect.

a well

working, streamlined safety program is

Constantly

strive

to

eliminate

or safeguard

against work hazards

5.

Insure

that

quality

timely and that quality

control
control

inspections
inspectors

are

quick and

are competent

anrlfn- thb: Pro prrpved when they visit the job site.

92

6.

Minimize

redoing

interpretations

of

work

by

plans,

providing

for

specifications,

the
and

proper
building

codes before the actual work is in progress.

7.

Minimize late design changes.

8.

Plan for foul weather.

9.

Minimize problems

with crew interface.

work sequence, consider crowding

When planning the

conditions caused

by the

presence of too many crews in one location.

10.

Allow

workers

planning

of

to
the

contributc
project.

to

the

organization

Solicit

worker

ideas

and
and

suggestions.
11.

Provide suitable recognition fox good work.

The most

successful construction

companies will

implement sonhisticated motivation programs

and

that

communications between management and employees.

be those that
maintain good

Motivation programs

should be designed with consideration given to the following aspects:

1.

Find ways to learn about the

they have.

employees.

Learn what needs

Develop an understanding of their personality,

skills, and abilities.

2.

Establish quality circles.

11

Provide ample training opportunities.

4.

Identify goals and objectives.

Providp

feedback.

Link

organizational objectives with individual needs.

5.

Structure

L.3

' ",at

L.~

.-

variety, and lead to self-regulation.

93

ultigi11ig,

provide

6.

Improve

productivity

measurement

indexes.

Keep the work

force informed as to productivity.

7.

Attempt to group crews according to worker preference.

8.

Where possible provide flexible working hours.

9.

Provide worker and crew recognition.

10.

Exercise caution
Above all,

when using

financial incentive programs.

in regards to money, insure that pay and fringe

benefits are at least adequate.

11.

Provide

profit

program.

sharing

The profits

performance.

Crews

project schedule

opportunities

generated

an

incentive

can be prorated based on the crew's

that

had

positive

impact

on the

and delivered a quality product free from

rework or warranty claims would share

and

as

profit.

The

in the

cost savings

program would be similar in

fashion to contracts that provide time incentives.

12.

On union type projects, work

establish job security.
work with the local
force

that

projects

in

accepted

into

is
the

closely

the

unions to

The various construction firms can

unions

to

guaranteed

establish
employment

geographical
this

with

work

area.

force

minimum work

on

construction

Workers

based

on

would be

demonstrated

performance.
13.

Query the work force through

use

dumotivators affecting the work.

94

of

surveys

to identify

6.6

Recommendations For Future Study

One

area

that

will

continue

to

present

motivation cycle is job security.

Job security is a

has

need

problem

been

detailed

security

in

the

construction

in

all

the

construction

workers

are

theories.

industry

required

to

their families and move to a new location

job opportunities.

New

developed and analyzed.

is

on the

human need that

Providing for job

difficult.

Often

pickup their belongings and

that provides construction

methods to improve this shortfall should be

This will have to

be a

common effort among

owners, contractors, and unions.

Another area
unions in the
purpose that
the

that needs to be evaluated is the restructuring of

construction
cannot be

potential

development of

to

industry.

Unions

eliminate

demotivators

effective motivation

They are

a means

structured to work closely

schedules,
security.
way

to

implement

an important

and should not be discontinued.

and

programs.

to providing
with project

motivation

Unions have

provide

are the

job security.
management to

programs,

its

merits

is

to

the

and

means of

They can be
develop work

provide

The practicality of this proposal is uncertain.

view

for

In the construction

industry, more so than in other industries, unions

hiring.

serve

for

job

The only

establish a prototype program and

monitor it over a period of time, probably a five year period.

95

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2.

Helligriegel, Don.,
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3.

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4.

O'Toole, op. cit.,

5.

Dessler, Gary, Organization and Management, Reston Publishing

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6.

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97

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100