Gliding, Climbing, and Turning

Flight Performance
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics
MAE 331, 2010

Flight envelope
Minimum glide angle/rate
Maximum climb angle/rate
V-n diagram
Energy climb
Corner velocity turn
Herbst maneuver

The Flight Envelope

Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Flight Envelope Determined

by Available Thrust

Flight Envelope: Encompasses all altitudes

and airspeeds at which an aircraft can fly

Additional Factors Define

the Flight Envelope

in steady, level flight

at fixed weight
Piper Dakota Stall Buffet
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCCjGAtbZ4g

Flight ceiling defined by

available climb rate
Absolute: 0 ft/min
Service: 100 ft/min
Performance: 200 ft/min

Excess thrust provides the

ability to accelerate or climb

Maximum Mach number

Maximum allowable
aerodynamic heating
Maximum thrust
Maximum dynamic
pressure
Performance ceiling
Wing stall
Flow-separation buffet

Angle of attack
Local shock waves

Boeing 787 Flight

Envelope (HW #5, 2008)
Best
Cruise
Region

Gliding Flight

Equilibrium Gliding Flight

Gliding Flight

Thrust = 0
Flight path angle < 0 in gliding flight
Altitude is decreasing
Airspeed ~ constant
Air density ~ constant

D = CD

1 2
!V S = "W sin #
2

1
C L !V 2 S = W cos #
2
h! = V sin #
r! = V cos #

Gliding flight path angle

tan ! = "

D
C
h! dh
=" D = =
C L r! dr
L

# D&
# L&
! = " tan "1 % ( = " cot "1 % (
$ L'
$ D'

Corresponding airspeed

Vglide =

2W

!S C D2 + C L2

Maximum Steady
Gliding Range

Maximum Steady Gliding Range

Glide range is maximum when ! is least negative, i.e.,

most positive
This occurs at (L/D)max

# D&
# L&
! max = " tan "1 % ( = " cot "1 % (
$ L ' min
$ D ' max
tan ! =

Glide range is maximum when ! is least negative, i.e.,

most positive
This occurs at (L/D)max

Sink Rate
Lift and drag define ! and V in gliding equilibrium
1 2
!V S = "W sin #
2
D
sin # = "
W
D = CD

1 2
!V S = W cos "
2
2W cos "
C L !S

L = CL
V=

Sink rate = altitude rate, dh/dt (negative)

h! = V sin !
2W cos ! $ D '
2W cos ! $ L ' $ D '
="
&% )( = "
& )& )
W
C L #S
C L #S % W ( % L (
="

$ 1 '
2W cos !
cos ! &
C L #S
% L D )(

#r =

( h " ho )
h!
= negative constant =
r!
( r " ro )

#h
"#h
L
=
= maximum when = maximum
tan ! " tan !
D

Conditions for Minimum

Steady Sink Rate

Minimum sink rate provides maximum endurance

Minimize sink rate by setting ! ( dh/dt)/dCL = 0 (cos ! ~1)
See Mathematica performance calculations in Blackboard
Course Materials

$C '
2W cos "
h! = !
cos " & D )
C L #S
% CL (
=!

2W cos 3 " $ C D '

2 $ W ' $ CD '
*!
& )
3/2 )
&
#S
# % S ( &% C L3/2 )(
% CL (

C LME =

3C Do

and C DME = 4C Do

L/D and VME for

Minimum Sink Rate

( L D)

ME

VME =

( )

3
1
3 L
=
D
2
4 ! C Do
2W

!S C + C
2
DME

"

2
LME

max

( )

" 0.86 L D

L/D for Minimum Sink Rate

For L/D < L/Dmax, there are two solutions

Which one produces minimum sink rate?

( L D)
VME

max

2 (W S )
#
" 0.76VL Dmax
!
3C Do

Gliding Flight of
the P-51 Mustang
Maximum Range Glide
Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)

( L / D )max =

1
= 16.31
2 ! C Do

$ L'
" MR = # cot #1 & ) = # cot #1 (16.31) = #3.51
% D ( max

( C D )L / D

= 2C Do = 0.0326

( C L )L / D

max

max

VL / Dmax =

C Do

= 0.531

76.49
m/s
*

4.68
m/s
h!L / Dmax = V sin " = #
*
Rho =10 km = (16.31) (10 ) = 163.1 km

Maximum Endurance Glide

Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)
S = 21.83 m 2

C DME = 4C Do = 4 ( 0.0163) = 0.0652

C LME =

( L D )ME

3C Do

=
!
= 14.13

3( 0.0163)
= 0.921
0.0576

4.11
2 $ W ' $ C DME '
h!ME = "
m/s
& )&
) ="
# % S ( % C L3/2
#
(
ME

* ME = "4.05
58.12
VME =
m/s
#

Climbing Flight

( )

! 0.86 L D
! 0.76VL Dmax
ME

max

Climbing
Flight
(T ! D ! W sin " )
V! = 0 =
m
T ! D)
(
(T ! D )
sin " =
; " = sin !1
W
W

Steady Rate of Climb

(

L = W cos !

mV

Rate of climb, dh/dt = Specific Excess Power

(T " D ) = Pthrust " Pdrag

h! = V sin ! = V
W
W
Specific Excess Power (SEP) =

Note significance of thrust-to-weight ratio and wing loading

Maximum Steady
Rate of Climb:
Propeller-Driven Aircraft

Condition for Maximum

Steady Rate of Climb
C (V 3 2) (W S ) cos 2 *
!h = V !# T $& ' Do
'
" W % 2 (W S )
(V

At constant
power

! Pthrust (" T %
" ! T / !V % +
= *$ ' + V $
=0
# W '& -,
!V
)# W &

With cos2! ~ 1

3C Do #V 2 2$ (W S )
! h!
=0="
+
!V
2 (W S )
#V 2

Necessary condition for a maximum with respect

to airspeed
2
20 (W S ) cos 2 1
! h!
(" T %
" !T / !V % + 3C Do /V
= 0 = *$ ' + V $
+
.
'
# W & -, 2 (W S )
!V
/V 2
)# W &

" W % cos !
V = 2$ '
# S & CL (

*! T $ C Do q ( (W S ) cos 2 ) '
h! = V ,# & '
/
q
+" W % (W S )
.
3
2
2( (W S ) cos )
! T $ C D 0V
=V# & ' o
'
" W % 2 (W S )
0V

Pthrust " Pdrag

Excess Power
#
W
Unit Weight

L = CL q S = W cos !
" W % cos !
CL = $ '
#S& q

*" T % C D + ) C L2 q o
/
h! = V sin ! = V ,$ ' (
(W S ) /.
,+# W &

( L " W cos ! )
!! = 0 =

Airspeed for maximum rate of climb at maximum power, Pmax

(W S ) ' = V
! 4 $ ' (W S )
V =# &
; V= 2
ME
2
" 3 % CD (
(
3C Do
o
2

Maximum Steady
Rate of Climb:
Jet-Driven Aircraft

Optimal Climbing Flight

Condition for a maximum at constant thrust and cos2! ~ 1

! h!
=0
!V
3C Do # 4 $ T ' 2 2* (W S )
V +& )V +
0="
%W (
2 (W S )
#
="

3C Do #

2 (W S )

(V )

2 2

2* (W S )
$T'
+ & ) V2 +
%W (
#

( )

Airspeed for maximum rate of climb at maximum thrust, Tmax

0 = ax 2 + bx + c and V = + x

What is the Fastest Way to Climb from

One Flight Condition to Another?

Energy Height
Specific Energy
= (Potential + Kinetic Energy) per Unit Weight
= Energy Height

Total Energy
mgh + mV 2 2
V2
! Specific Energy =
=h+
Unit Weight
mg
2g
! Energy Height, Eh ,

ft or m

Could trade altitude with airspeed with no change in energy

height if thrust and drag were zero

Contours of Constant
Specific Excess Power

Specific Excess Power

dEh d !
V 2 $ dh ! V $ dV
= #h + & =
+
dt
2g % dt #" g &% dt
dt "

Specific Excess Power is a function of altitude and airspeed

SEP is maximized at each altitude, h, when d [ SEP(h)]
=0
dV

1
(CT ( CD ) 2 )(h)V 2 S
! V $ ! T ( D ( mg sin ' $
T ( D)
(
= V sin ' + # & #
=V
=V
%&
" g%"
m
W
W
= Specific Excess Power (SEP) =

Pthrust ( Pdrag
Excess Power
*
W
Unit Weight

Subsonic Energy Climb

Objective: Minimize time or fuel to climb to desired altitude

and airspeed

Supersonic Energy Climb

Objective: Minimize time or fuel to climb to desired altitude

and airspeed

Typical Maneuvering Envelope:

V-n Diagram

The Maneuvering Envelope

Maneuvering envelope
describes limits on normal
load factor and allowable
equivalent airspeed

Structural factors
Maximum and minimum
achievable lift coefficients
Maximum and minimum
airspeeds
Protection against
overstressing due to gusts
Corner Velocity:
Intersection of maximum lift
coefficient and maximum
load factor
Typical positive load factor limits

Transport: > 2.5

Utility: > 4.4
Aerobatic: > 6.3
Fighter: > 9

Typical negative load factor limits

Transport: < 1
Others: < 1 to 3

C-130 exceeds maneuvering envelope

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4bDNCac2N1o&feature=related

Maneuvering Envelopes (V-n Diagrams)

for Three Fighters of the Korean War Era
Republic F-84

Lockheed F-94

North American F-86

Turning Flight

Level Turning Flight

Level flight = constant altitude

Sideslip angle = 0

Vertical force equilibrium

Load factor

Treq = C Do + ! C L2
= Do +

) 12 "V S = D
2

2! # W &
"V 2 S %$ cos ('

2!
( nW )2
"V 2 S

Turning Rate and Radius in Level Flight

Turning rate

C qS sin W tan g tan

!! = L
=
=
=
mV
mV
V
=

W n2 " 1
=
mV

(T

req

L2 " W 2
mV

" Do #V 2 S 2$ " W 2
mV

Turning rate is limited by

C Lmax or Tmax or nmax

Turning radius
V
V2
Rturn = ! =
! g n2 " 1

W
1
= =W
C L qS n

(T

req

2!
" Do #V 2 S

*
$ W '
"1 $ 1 '
"1
,W
= cos "1 &
=
cos
=
cos
&
)
% n(
% C L qS ()
,+

Thrust required to maintain level flight

Bank angle
cos =

n = L W = L mg = sec ,"g"s

: Bank Angle

: Bank Angle

L cos = W

Maximum Bank
Angle in Level Flight

(T

req

2!
/
" Do #V 2 S /
.

Bank angle is limited by

C Lmax or Tmax or nmax

Maximum Turn Rates

Corner Velocity Turn

Corner Velocity Turn

Corner velocity

Vcorner =

Tmax " D
W

V 2 cos 2 !

g n " cos !
2
max

2
" cos 2 #
g nmax

V cos #

Time to complete a full circle

t2! =

Turning radius

Rturn =

Turning rate

!! =

For steady climbing or diving flight

sin ! =

2nmaxW
C Lmas !S

V cos "
2
g nmax
# cos 2 "

Altitude gain/loss

!h2 " = t 2 " V sin #

Not a turning rate comparison
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5aUGum2EiM

Herbst Maneuver

Minimum-time reversal of direction

Kinetic-/potential-energy exchange
Yaw maneuver at low airspeed
X-31 performing the maneuver

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Aircraft Equations of Motion