TRANING/ PROJECT REPORT

ON
NETWORKING
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
Bachelors of Technology
In
Computer Science & Engineering
(Batch: )

Under the Guidance of:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and supported me
during the writing of this report .My deepest thanks to Lecturer Mr __________
the Guide of the project for guiding and correcting various documents of mine with
attention and care. He has taken pain to go through the project and make necessary
correction as and when needed. I express my thanks to the director
[Mr. _________] of, [Networker Mind], for extending his support.
Thanks and appreciation to the helpful people at [____], for their support. I would also thank
my Institution and my faculty members without whom this project would
have been a distant reality. I also extend my heartfelt thanks to my family and well
wishers.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Content
What is network?
What is networking?
Network Categories
Network Topology
Network Types
OSI model
Network Cabels
Network Devices
A Small School Network
Software used
Network addressing
Routing Protocols
DHCP
TFTP
Tunneling
Vlan
Appendix
Bibliography

What is a Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.
A computer network connects two or more devices together to share a
nearly limitless range of information and services, including:
Documents
Email and messaging
Websites
Databases
Music
Printers and faxes
Telephony and videoconferencing

What is networking?
Networks consist of the computers, wiring, and other devices, such as hubs, switches and
routers, that make up the network infrastructure. Some devices, such as network interface
cards, serve as the computers connection to the network. Devices such as switches and
routers provide traffic- control strategies for the network. All sorts of different technologies
can actually be employed to move data from one place to another, including wires, radio
waves, and even microwave technology.

Network Categories
There are two main types of network categories which are:

Server based
Peer-to-peer
Client/Server Networks
Server based networks, or client/server networks as they are properly called, has a machine
at the heart of its operations called the server. A server is a machine that provides services
over a network by responding to client requests. Servers rarely have individuals operating it,
and even then, it is usually to install, configure or manage its capabilities. The server's
essential role on the network is to be continuously available to handle the many requests
generated by its clients.

Server-based networks provide centralised control of the entire network environment. The
computer systems used for this role are generally more powerful than end-user machines,
incorporating faster CPUs, more memory, larger disk drives and other drive types installed,
like a tape drive for backup purposes. These are required, because servers are dedicated to
handling multiple simultaneous requests from their client communities.
Server based networks provide centralised verification of user accounts and passwords. Only
valid account name and password combinations are allowed access to the network.
Client/Server networks typically require a single login to the network itself, meaning that
users need to remember long password lists to access various resources. Concentrations of
resources on a single server, mean that they are easier to find, as opposed to the peer-to-peer
model, were resources were distributed throughout the network since they were attached to
multiple machines. The server being a central data repository, means that not only is data
more accessible to users, but it also makes life much easier in terms of performing backups,
since the data is in a location know to the administrator.
Server-based networks are easier to scale. Peer-to-peer networks bog down seriously as they
grow beyond ten users, and serious slow up with 20 users. On the other hand, client/server
networks can handle a few users, up to a thousand users as such networks grow to keep pace
with an organisations growth and expansion.
Unlike peer-to-peer networks, client/server networks don't come cheap. The server machine
itself may cost several thousands of pounds, along with the software to make it run; another
thousand pounds. Because of the complex nature of this kind of networking environment, a
dedicated administrator is required to be on site at all times to be involved in the day to day
running of the network. Hiring an individual of this nature adds considerably to the cost of
client/server networks.
Lastly, because the networks operability is so dependant upon the server, this introduces a
single point of failure, if the server goes down the network goes down. There are measures
available, that can legislate for such failures, however these techniques add even more cost to
this solution.

Advantages

Centralised user accounts, security and access controls simplify network

administration.
More powerful equipment means more efficient access network resources.
Single password login, means access to all resources.
Supports greater numbers of users, or networks where resources are heavily used.

Disadvantages

More costly to install and maintain.

Single point of failure, server goes down, the network goes down.
Complex special-purpose software requires appointment of expert staff, increasing
costs.
Dedicated hardware and software increases costs.

Peer-to-Peer Networking
This is a simple network configuration that requires some basic know-how to set up. Each of
the interconnected machines share dual capability and responsibility on the network. That is
to say, that each machine serves a dual purpose or role, i.e. they are both clients and servers
to some extent.
The server capability of the machines is very basic. The services provided by each, is no
more than the ability to share resources like files, folders, disk drives and printers. They even
have the ability to share Internet access.
However, the server functionality of these machines stops there. They cannot grant any of the
benefits mentioned previously, since these are functions provided only by a dedicated server
operating system.
Because all machines on the network have equal status, hence the term peers, there is no
centralised control over shared resources. Sharing is endorsed or repealed by each machine's
user. Passwords can be assigned to each individual shared resource whether it is a file, folder,
drive or peripheral, again done by the user.
Although this solution is workable on small networks, it introduces the possibility that users
may have to know and remember the passwords assigned to every resource, and then re-learn
them if the user of a particular machine decides to change them! Due to this flexibility and
individual discretion, institutionalised chaos is the norm for peer-to-peer networks.
Security can also be a major concern, because users may give passwords to other
unauthorised users, allowing them to access areas of the network that the company does not
permit. Furthermore, due to lack of centralisation, it is impossible for users to know and
remember what data lives on what machine, and there are no restrictions to prevent them
from over-writing the wrong files with older versions of the file.
It may appear that peer-to-peer networks are hardly worthwhile. However, they offer some
powerful incentives, particularly for smaller organisations. Networks of this type are the
cheapest and easiest to install, requiring only Windows95, a network card for each machine
and some cabling. Once connected, users can start to share information immediately and get
access to devices.As a result, networks of this type are not scalable and a limit of no more

than 10 machines is the general rule.

Advantages

Easy to install and configure.

No dedicated server required.
Users control their own resources.
Inexpensive to purchase and operate.
No specialist software required.
No dedicated administrator to run the network required.

Disadvantages

Difficult to employ security.

Too many passwords for shared resources.
Backups difficult to manage.
No centralisation.
Limited users.

Three Network Topologies

The network topology describes the method used to do the physical wiring of the network.
The main ones are bus,
star, and ring.

1. Bus - Both ends of the network must be terminated with a terminator. A barrel
connector can be used to extend it.
2. Star - All devices revolve around a central hub, which is what controls the network
communications, and can communicate with other hubs. Range limits are about 100
meters from the hub.
3. Ring - Devices are connected from one to another, as in a ring. A data token is used to
grant permission for each computer to communicate.
There are also hybrid networks including a star-bus hybrid, star-ring network, and mesh
networks with connections between various computers on the network. Mesh networks
ideally allow each computer to have a direct connection to each of the other computers. The
topology this documentation deals with most is star topology since that is what ethernet
networks use.

Basic Network Types

Network types are often defined by function or size. The two most common categories of
networks are:

LANs (Local Area Networks)

WANs (Wide Area Networks)
A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a
common communications line or wireless link. Typically, connected devices share the
resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area (for example, within
an office building). Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are shared in
common by multiple computer users. A local area network may serve as few as two or three
users (for example, in a home network) or as many as thousands of users (for example, in an
FDDI network).
A WAN can be defined one of two ways. The book definition of a WAN is a network that
spans large geographical locations, usually to connect multiple LANs. This is a general
definition, and not always accurate. A more practical definition of a WAN is a network that
traverses a public or commercial carrier, using one of several WAN technologies. A WAN is
often under the administrative control of several organizations (or providers), and does not
necessarily need to span large geographical distances.

Other networks:A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is another category of network, though the term is not
prevalently used. A MAN is defined as a network that connects LANs across a city-wide
geographic area.
An internetwork is a general term describing multiple networks connected together. The
Internet is the largest and most well-known internetwork. Some networks are categorized by
their function, as opposed to their size.
A SAN (Storage Area Network) provides systems with high-speed, lossless access to
high-capacity storage devices.
A VPN (Virtual Private Network) allows for information to be securely sent across a
public or unsecure network, such as the Internet. Common uses of a VPN are to connect
branch offices or remote users to a main office.

What is a Protocol?

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network. In
order for two computers to talk to each other, they must be speaking the same language. Many
different types of network protocols and standards are required to ensure that your computer (no
matter which operating system, network card, or application you are using) can communicate
with another computer located on the next desk or half-way around the world. The OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) Reference Model defines seven layers of networking protocols.

OSI Reference Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), and formalized in 1984. It provided the first framework
governing how information should be sent across a network.

The OSI model consists of seven layers, each corresponding to a specific network function:

7 Application

6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data-link
1 Physical
ISO further developed an entire protocol suite based on the OSI model; however, the OSI
protocol suite was never widely implemented. The OSI model itself is now somewhat deprecated
modern protocol suites, such as the TCP/IP suite, are difficult to fit cleanly within the OSI
models seven layers. This is especially true of the upper three layers. The bottom (or lower) four
layers are more clearly defined, and terminology from those layers is still prevalently used. Many
protocols and devices are described by which lower layer they operate at.

OSI Model - The Upper Layers

The top three layers of the OSI model are often referred to as the upper layers:
Layer-7 - Application layer
Layer-6 - Presentation layer
Layer-5 - Session layer
Protocols that operate at these layers manage application-level functions, and are generally
implemented in software. The function of the upper layers of the OSI model can be difficult to
visualize. Upper layer protocols do not always fit perfectly within a layer, and often function
across multiple layers.

OSI Model - The Application Layer

The Application layer (Layer-7) provides the interface between the user application and the
network. A web browser and an email client are examples of user applications. The user
application itself does not reside at the Application layer the protocol does. The user interacts
with the application, which in turn interacts with the application protocol.
Examples of Application layer protocols include:
FTP, via an FTP client
HTTP, via a web browser
POP3 and SMTP, via an email client
Telnet
The Application layer provides a variety of functions:
Identifies communication partners
Determines resource availability
Synchronizes communication
The Application layer interacts with the Presentation layer below it. As it isthe top-most layer, it
does not interact with any layers above it.

OSI Model - The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer (Layer-6) controls the formatting and syntax of user data for the
application layer. This ensures that data from the sending application can be understood by the
receiving application. Standards have been developed for the formatting of data types, such as
text, images, audio, and video. Examples of Presentation layer formats include:
Text - RTF, ASCII, EBCDIC
Images - GIF, JPG, TIF
Audio - MIDI, MP3, WAV
Movies - MPEG, AVI, MOV
If two devices do not support the same format or syntax, the Presentation layer can provide
conversion or translation services to facilitate communication.
Additionally, the Presentation layer can perform encryption and compression of data, as required.
However, these functions can also be performed at lower layers as well. For example, the
Network layer can perform encryption, using IPSec.

OSI Model - The Session Layer

The Session layer (Layer-5) is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and ultimately
terminating sessions between devices. If a session is broken, this layer can attempt to recover the
session.
Sessions communication falls under one of three categories:
Full-Duplex simultaneous two-way communication
Half-Duplex two-way communication, but not simultaneous
Simplex one-way communication
Many modern protocol suites, such as TCP/IP, do not implement Session layer protocols.
Connection management is often controlled by lower layers, such as the Transport layer.
The lack of true Session layer protocols can present challenges for high availability and failover.
Reliance on lower-layer protocols for session management offers less flexibility than a strict
adherence to the OSI model.

OSI Model - The Lower Layers

The bottom four layers of the OSI model are often referred to as the lower layers:

Layer-4 Transport layer

Layer-3 Network layer
Layer-2 Data-Link layer
Layer-1 Physical layer
Protocols that operate at these layers control the end-to-end transport of data between devices,
and are implemented in both software and hardware.

OSI Model - The Transport Layer

The Transport layer (Layer-4) does not actually send data, despite itsname. Instead, this layer is
responsible for the reliable transfer of data, byensuring that data arrives at its destination errorfree and in order.
Transport layer communication falls under two categories:
Connection-oriented requires that a connection with specificagreed-upon parameters be
established before data is sent.
Connectionless requires no connection before data is sent.Connection-oriented protocols
provide several important services:
Segmentation and sequencing data is segmented into smallerpieces for transport. Each
segment is assigned a sequence number, sothat the receiving device can reassemble the data on
arrival.
Connection establishment connections are established, maintained, and ultimately
terminated between devices.
Acknowledgments receipt of data is confirmed through the use of acknowledgments.
Otherwise, data is retransmitted, guaranteeing delivery.
Flow control (or windowing) data transfer rate is negotiated to prevent congestion.
The TCP/IP protocol suite incorporates two Transport layer protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection-oriented
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) connectionless

OSI Model - The Network Layer

The Network layer (Layer-3) controls internetwork communication, and has two key
responsibilities:
Logical addressing provides a unique address that identifies both the host, and the network
that host exists on.
Routing determines the best path to a particular destination network, and then routes data
accordingly.
Two of the most common Network layer protocols are:
Internet Protocol (IP)
Novells Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).
IPX is almost entirely deprecated. IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP version 6 (IPv6) are covered in
nauseating detail in other guides.

OSI Model - The Data-Link Layer

While the Network layer is concerned with transporting data between networks, the Data-Link
layer (Layer-2) is responsible for transporting data within a network.
The Data-Link layer consists of two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer
The LLC sublayer serves as the intermediary between the physical link and all higher layer
protocols. It ensures that protocols like IP can function regardless of what type of physical
technology is being used.

Additionally, the LLC sublayer can perform flow-control and error checking, though such
functions are often provided by Transport layerprotocols, such as TCP.
The MAC sublayer controls access to the physical medium, serving as mediator if multiple
devices are competing for the same physical link. Datalink layer technologies have various
methods of accomplishing this Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), and Token
Ring utilizes a token. Ethernet is covered in great detail in another guide.
The Data-link layer packages the higher-layer data into frames, so that the data can be put onto
the physical wire. This packaging process is referred to as framing or encapsulation.
The encapsulation type will vary depending on the underlying technology.
Common Data-link layer technologies include following:
Ethernet the most common LAN data-link technology
Token Ring almost entirely deprecated
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
802.11 Wireless
Frame-Relay
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
The data-link frame contains the source and destination hardware (or physical) address.
Hardware addresses uniquely identify a host within a network, and are often hardcoded onto
physical network interfaces.
However, hardware addresses contain no mechanism for differentiating one network from
another, and can only identify a host within a network.
The most common hardware address is the Ethernet MAC address.

OSI Model - The Physical Layer

The Physical layer (Layer-1) controls the signaling and transferring of raw bits onto the physical
medium. The Physical layer is closely related to the Data-link layer, as many technologies (such
as Ethernet) contain both datalink and physical functions.
The Physical layer provides specifications for a variety of hardware:
Cabling
Connectors and transceivers
Network interface cards (NICs)
Wireless radios
Hubs

Network Cables
Primary Cable Types
The vast majority of networks today are connected by some sort of wiring or cabling that acts as
a network transmission medium that carries signals between computers. Many cable types are
available to meet the varying needs and sizes of networks, from small to large.
Cable types can be confusing. Belden, a leading cable manufacturer, publishes a catalog that lists
more than 2200 types of cabling. Fortunately, only three major groups of cabling connect the
majority of networks:

Coaxial cable
Twisted-pair (unshielded and shielded) cable
Fiber-optic cable

The next part of this lesson describes the features and components of these three major cable
types. Understanding their differences will help you determine which type of cabling is
appropriate in a given context.

Coaxial Cable
At one time, coaxial cable was the most widely used network cabling. There were a couple of
reasons for coaxial cable's wide usage: it was relatively inexpensive, and it was light, flexible,
and easy to work with.
In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulation, a
braided metal shielding, and an outer cover. Figure 2.1 shows the various components that make
up a coaxial cable.
The term shielding refers to the woven or stranded metal mesh (or other material) that surrounds
some types of cabling. Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray electronic signals,
called noise, so that they do not get onto the cable and distort the data. Cable that contains one
layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided metal shielding is referred to as dual shielded.
For environments that are subject to higher interference, quad shielding is available. Quad
shielding consists of two layers of foil insulation and two layers of braided metal shielding.

Figure 2.1 Coaxial cable showing various layers

The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data. This wire core
can be either solid or stranded. If the core is solid, it is usually copper.
Surrounding the core is a dielectric insulating layer that separates it from the wire mesh. The
braided wire mesh acts as a ground and protects the core from electrical noise and crosstalk.
(Crosstalk is signal overflow from an adjacent wire. For a more detailed discussion of crosstalk,
see the section Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable, later in this lesson.)
The conducting core and the wire mesh must always be kept separate from each other. If they
touch, the cable will experience a short, and noise or stray signals on the mesh will flow onto the
copper wire. An electrical short occurs when any two conducting wires or a conducting wire and
a ground come into contact with each other. This contact causes a direct flow of current (or data)
in an unintended path. In the case of household electrical wiring, a short will cause sparking and
the blowing of a fuse or circuit breaker. With electronic devices that use low voltages, the result
is not as dramatic and is often undetectable. These low-voltage shorts generally cause the failure
of a device; and the short, in turn, destroys the data.
A nonconducting outer shieldusually made of rubber, Teflon, or plasticsurrounds the entire
cable.
Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair cabling. As
shown in attenuation is the loss of signal strength that begins to occur as the signal travels farther
along a copper cable.

Attenuation causes signals to deteriorate

The stranded, protective sleeve absorbs stray electronic signals so that they do not affect data
being sent over the inner copper cable. For this reason, coaxial cabling is a good choice for
longer distances and for reliably supporting higher data rates with less sophisticated equipment.

Types of Coaxial Cable

There are two types of coaxial cable:

Thin (thinnet) cable

Thick (thicknet) cable

Which type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of your particular network.
Thinnet Cable Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25 inches)
thick. Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can be used in
almost any type of network installation. Figure shows thinnet cable connected directly to a
computer's network interface card (NIC).

Close-up view of thinnet cable showing where it connects to a computer

Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately 185 meters (about
607 feet) before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation.
Cable manufacturers have agreed upon specific designations for different types of cable. (Table
2.1 lists cable types and descriptions.) Thinnet is included in a group referred to as the RG58 family and has 50ohm impedance. (Impedance is the resistance, measured in ohms, to the
alternating current that flows in a wire.) The principal distinguishing feature of the RG-58 family
is the center core of copper. shows two examples of RG-58 cable, one with a stranded wire core
and one with a solid copper core.

RG-58 coaxial cable showing stranded wire and solid copper cores
Thicknet Cable Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters (0.5
inches) in diameter. Figure shows the difference between thinnet and thicknet cable. Thicknet
cable is sometimes referred to as Standard Ethernet because it was the first type of cable used
with the popular network architecture Ethernet. Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a
thinnet cable core.

Thicknet cable has a thicker core than thinnet cable

The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means that thicknet can
carry signals farther than thinnet cable. Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about
1640 feet). Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer distances,
it is sometimes used as a backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.
Figure shows a device called a transceiver. A transceiver connects the thinnet coaxial cable to
the larger thicknet coaxial cable. A transceiver designed for thicknet Ethernet includes a
connector known as a vampire tap, or a piercing tap, to make the actual physical connection to
the thicknet core. This connector is pierced through the insulating layer and makes direct contact
with the conducting core. Connection from the transceiver to the NIC is made using a transceiver
cable (drop cable) to connect to the attachment unit interface (AUI) port connector on the card.
An AUI port connector for thicknet is also known as a Digital Intel Xerox
(DIX)connector (named for the three companies that developed it and its related standards) or as
a DB-15 connector.

Thicknet cable transceiver with detail of a vampire tap piercing the core

Thinnet vs. Thicknet Cable As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more difficult it is to
work with. Thin cable is flexible, easy to install, and relatively inexpensive. Thick cable does not
bend easily and is, therefore, harder to install. This is a consideration when an installation calls
for pulling cable through tight spaces such as conduits and troughs. Thick cable is more
expensive than thin cable, but will carry a signal farther.
Coaxial-Cable Grades and Fire Codes
The type of cable grade that you should use depends on where the cables will be laid in your
office. Coaxial cables come in two grades:

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) grade

Plenum grade

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a type of plastic used to construct the insulation and cable jacket for
most types of coaxial cable. PVC coaxial cable is flexible and can be easily routed through the
exposed areas of an office. However, when it burns, it gives off poisonous gases.
A plenum is the shallow space in many buildings between the false ceiling and the floor above; it
is used to circulate warm and cold air through the building. Figure 2.11 shows a typical office
and where to useor not usePVC and plenum-grade cables. Fire codes give very specific
instructions about the type of wiring that can be routed through this area, because any smoke or
gas in the plenum will eventually blend with the air breathed by everyone in the building.

Plenum-grade cabling contains special materials in its insulation and cable jacket. These
materials are certified to be fire resistant and produce a minimum amount of smoke; this reduces
poisonous chemical fumes. Plenum cable can be used in the plenum area and in vertical runs (for
example, in a wall) without conduit. However, plenum cabling is more expensive and less
flexible than PVC cable.
You should consult your local fire and electrical codes for specific regulations and requirements
for running networking cable in your office.
Coaxial-Cabling Considerations

Consider the following coaxial capabilities when making a decision about which type of cabling
to use.
Use coaxial cable if you need a medium that can:

Transmit voice, video, and data.

Transmit data for greater distances than is possible with less expensive cabling.
Offer a familiar technology with reasonable data security.

Twisted-Pair Cable
In its simplest form, twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted
around each other. Figure 2.12 shows the two types of twisted-pair cable: unshielded twistedpair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable.

Figure 2.12 Unshielded twisted-pair and shielded twisted-pair cables

A number of twisted-pair wires are often grouped together and enclosed in a protective sheath to
form a cable. The total number of pairs in a cable varies. The twisting cancels out electrical noise
from adjacent pairs and from other sources such as motors, relays, and transformers.

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

UTP, using the 10BaseT specification, is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast
becoming the most popular LAN cabling. The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters,
about 328 feet.
Traditional UTP cable, as shown in Figure consists of two insulated copper wires. UTP
specifications govern how many twists are permitted per foot of cable; the number of twists
allowed depends on the purpose to which the cable will be put. In North America, UTP cable is
the most commonly used cable for existing telephone systems and is already installed in many
office buildings.

The 568A Commercial Building Wiring Standard of the Electronic Industries Association and the
Telecommunications Industries Association (EIA/TIA) specifies the type of UTP cable that is to
be used in a variety of building and wiring situations. The objective is to ensure consistency of
products for customers. These standards include five categories of UTP:

Category 1 This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry voice but not
data transmissions. Most telephone cable prior to 1983 was Category 1 cable.
Category 2 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 megabits per
second (Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 3 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire with three twists per foot.
Category 4 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 20 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 5 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 100 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.

Most telephone systems use a type of UTP. In fact, one reason why UTP is so popular is because
many buildings are prewired for twisted-pair telephone systems. As part of the prewiring
process, extra UTP is often installed to meet future cabling needs. If preinstalled twisted-pair
cable is of sufficient grade to support data transmission, it can be used in a computer network.
Caution is required, however, because common telephone wire might not have the twisting and
other electrical characteristics required for clean, secure, computer data transmission.
One potential problem with all types of cabling is crosstalk. Figure shows crosstalk between two
UTP cables. (As discussed earlier in this lesson, crosstalk is defined as signals from one line
interfering with signals from another line.) UTP is particularly susceptible to crosstalk, but the
greater the number of twists per foot of cable, the more effective the protection against crosstalk.

Crosstalk occurs when signals from one line bleed into another line

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

STP cable uses a woven copper-braid jacket that is more protective and of a higher quality than
the jacket used by UTP. Figure shows a two-twisted-pair STP cable. STP also uses a foil wrap
around each of the wire pairs. This gives STP excellent shielding to protect the transmitted data
from outside interference, which in turn allows it to support higher transmission rates over longer
distances than UTP.

STP cable
Use twisted-pair cable if:

Your LAN is under budget constraints.

You want a relatively easy installation in which computer connections are simple.

Do not use twisted-pair cable if:

Your LAN requires a high level of security and you must be absolutely sure of data
integrity.
You must transmit data over long distances at high speeds.

Fiber-Optic Cable
In fiber-optic cable, optical fibers carry digital data signals in the form of modulated pulses of
light. This is a relatively safe way to send data because, unlike copper-based cables that carry
data in the form of electronic signals, no electrical impulses are carried over the fiber-optic cable.
This means that fiberoptic cable cannot be tapped, and its data cannot be stolen.Fiber-optic cable
is good for very high-speed, high-capacity data transmission because of the purity of the signal
and lack of signal attenuation.
Fiber-Optic Cable Composition
An optical fiber consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded by a
concentric layer of glass, known as the cladding. The fibers are sometimes made of plastic.
Plastic is easier to install, but cannot carry the light pulses for as long a distance as glass.
Because each glass strand passes signals in only one direction, a cable includes two strands in
separate jackets. One strand transmits and one receives. A reinforcing layer of plastic surrounds
each glass strand, and Kevlar fibers provide strength. See Figure for an illustration of fiber-optic

cable. The Kevlar fibers in the fiber-optic connector are placed between the two cables. Just as
their counterparts (twisted-pair and coaxial) are, fiber-optic cables are encased in a plastic
coating for protection.

Fiber-optic cable
Fiber-optic cable transmissions are not subject to electrical interference and are extremely fast,
currently transmitting about 100 Mbps with demonstrated rates of up to 1 gigabit per second
(Gbps). They can carry a signalthe light pulsefor many miles.
Fiber-Optic Cabling Considerations
Use fiber-optic cable if you:

Need to transmit data at very high speeds over long distances in very secure media.

Do not use fiber-optic cable if you:

Are under a tight budget.
Do not have the expertise available to properly install it and connect devices to it.

Network devices
A Network card (also called a Network Adapter or Network Interface Card, or NIC for short)
acts as the interface between a computer and a network cable. The purpose of the network card is
to prepare, send, and control data on the network.

A network card usually has two indicator lights (LEDs):

The green LED shows that the card is receiving electricity;

The orange (10 Mb/s) or red (100 Mb/s) LED indicates network activity (sending or
receiving data).
To prepare data to be sent the network card uses a transceiver, which transforms parallel data into
serial data. Each cart has a unique address, called a MAC address, assigned by the card's
manufacturer, which lets it be uniquely identified among all the network cards in the world.
Network cards have settings which can be configured. Among them are hardware
interrupts (IRQ), the I/O address and the memory address (DMA).
To ensure that the computer and network are compatible, the card must be suitable for the
computer's data bus architecture, and have the appropriate type of socket for the cable. Each card
is designed to work with a certain kind of cable. Some cards include multiple interface
connectors (which can be configured using jumpers, DIP switches, or software). The most
commonly used are RJ-45 connectors.

Note: Certain proprietary network topologies which use twisted pair cables employ RJ11 connectors. These topologies are sometimes called "pre-10BaseT ".
Finally, to ensure that the computer and network are compatible, the card must by compatible
with the computer's internal structure (data bus architecture) and have a connector suitable for
the kind of cabling used.

Hubs
A special type of network device called the hub can be found in many home and small business
networks. Though they've existed for many years, the popularity of hubs has exploded recently,
especially among people relatively new to networking.
A hub is a small rectangular box, often made of plastic, that receives its power from an ordinary
wall outlet. A hub joins multiple computers (or other network devices) together to form a single

network segment. On this network segment, all computers can communicate directly with each
other. Ethernet hubs are by far the most common type, but hubs for other types of networks such
as USB also exist.
A hub includes a series of ports that each accept a network cable. Small hubs network four
computers. They contain four or sometimes five ports, the fifth port being reserved for "uplink"
connections to another hub or similar device. Larger hubs contain eight, 12, 16, and even 24
ports.

Key Features of Hubs

Hubs classify as Layer 1 devices in the OSI model. At the physical layer, hubs can support little in
the way of sophisticated networking. Hubs do not read any of the data passing through them and
are not aware of their source or destination. Essentially, a hub simply
receives incoming packets, possibly amplifies the electrical signal, and
broadcasts these packets out to all devices on the network - including
the one that originally sent the packet!
Technically speaking, three different types of hubs exist:

passive
active
intelligent
Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical signal of incoming packets before broadcasting them
out to the network.
Active hubs, on the other hand, do perform this amplification, as does a different type of
dedicated network device called a repeater. Some people use the terms concentrator when
referring to a passive hub and multiport repeater when referring to an active hub.
Intelligent hubs add extra features to an active hub that are of particular importance to businesses.
An intelligent hub typically is stackable (built in such a way that multiple units can be placed one
on top of the other to conserve space). It also typically includes remote management capabilities
via SNMPand virtual LAN (VLAN) support.
Hubs remain a very popular device for small networks because of their low cost.
A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within
one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link
Layer) of the OSI model.

Switches
Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch generally contains more
intelligence (and a slightly higher price tag) than a hub. Unlike hubs, network switches are
capable of inspecting data packets as they are received, determining the source and destination
device of each packet, and forwarding them appropriately. By delivering messages only to the
connected device intended, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and offers generally
better performance than a hub.
As with hubs, Ethernet implementations of network switches are the most common. Mainstream
Ethernet network switches support either 10/100Mbps Fast Ethernet or Gigabit

Ethernet(10/100/1000) standards.
Different models of network switches support differing numbers of connected devices. Most
consumer-grade network switches provide either four or eight connections for Ethernet devices.
Switches can be connected to each other, a so-called daisy chaining method to add progressively
larger number of devices to a LAN.

HUB vs SWITCH
hub:- It is a multiple-port repeater. any signals send via the hub is transmitted to all the the ports
on the hub
switch:- It transmit data only to the destination port.
hub: Each port of hub is collision domain&broadcast domain
switch: Each port of switch is collision domain & each vlan is broadcast domain
hub: is layer 1 device which do not breaks collision domain.ie if more devices are added the
bandwith will be shared.
switch is layer 2 device which breaks collision domain.ie every device connected to the switch
has the equal bandwidth.

Router
A router is specialized computer connected to more than one network running software that
allows the router to move data from one networkto another. Routers operate at the network layer
(OSI Model's layer 3). The primary function of a router is to connect networks together and keep
certain kinds of broadcast traffic under control. There are several companies that make
routers:Cisco (Linksys), Juniper, Nortel (Bay Networks),Redback, Lucent, 3Com, and HP just to
name a few.
Routers used in networks perform the following functions:
1.
Restrict broadcasts to the LAN
2.
Act as the default gateway.
3.
Move (route) data between networks
4.
Learn and advertise loop free paths
RESTRICT BROADCASTS TO THE LAN
Networks (especially Ethernet networks use broadcast communication at
the physical,datalink and network layer. Network layer broadcasts are transmissions sent to all
hosts using the network layer protocol (usually Internet Protocol [IP] or
IPX). Network broadcastcommunication is used to communicate certain kinds of information

that makes the networkfunction (ARP, RARP, DHCP, IPX-SAP broadcasts etc.). Since several
devices could attempt to transmit simultaneously and cause collisions, it is preferable to separate
large sets of hosts into different broadcast domains using a switch, or router.
As the number of hosts on the network increases, the amount of broadcast traffic increases. If
enough broadcast traffic is present on the network, then ordinary communication across
the network becomes difficult.
To reduce broadcasts, a network administrator can break up a network with a large number of
hosts into two smaller networks. Broadcasts are then restricted to each network, and the router
performs as the 'default gateway' to reach the hosts on the other networks.

ACT AS THE DEFAULT GATEWAY

Especially in today's networks, people are connecting to the Internet. When your computerwants
to talk to a computer on another network, it does so by sending your data to thedefault
gateway (your local router). The router receives your data, looks for the remote address of that
far-off computer makes a routing decision and forwards your data out a different interface that is
closer to that remote computer. There could be several routers between you and the
remote computer, so several routers will take part in handing off thepacket, much like a fireman's
bucket brigade.

MOVE (ROUTE) DATA BETWEEN NETWORKS

Routers have the capability to move data from one network to another.
networks managed by different organizations to exchange data. They create a networkbetween
them and exchange data between the routers on that network. Because a router can accept traffic
from any kind of network it is attached to, and forward it to any other network, it can also allow
networks that could not normally communicate with each other to exchange data. In technical
terms, a token ring network and an ethernet network can communicate over a serial network.
Routers make all this possible.
A router can take in an Ethernet frame, strip the ethernet data off, and then drop the IP data into a
frame of another type such as SDH/SONET, PDH/T1, ATM, FDDI. In this way a router can also
perform 'protocol conversion', provided it has the appropriate hardware and software to support
such a function. The whole point, however, is to forward the data from the interface it receives
data on, to another interface that retransmits the received data onto another interface serving
another network.

LEARN AND ADVERTISE LOOP-FREE PATHS

Routers can only learn and advertise routes dynamically if they are using a routing protocol such
as RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, IS-IS or BGP. Otherwise, a human has to configure the routes by hand,
which is called static routing.
Routing moves data on a hop-by-hop basis, what is often called 'hot potato' routing. If a set of

routers ends up passing the data around in a circle, without reaching the destination, it's called a
'routing loop'. Packets get tossed around the loop until they die of old age: their 'Time To Live'
counter in the IP datagram is decremented as it passes through each router and eventually it
reaches zero and is discarded.

A small school network

Software Used:-

1.-Cisco packet tracer

Cisco Packet Tracer is a powerful network simulation program that allows students to
experiment with network behavior and ask what if questions. As an integral part of the
Networking Academy comprehensive learning experience, Packet Tracer provides simulation,
visualization, authoring, assessment, and collaboration capabilities and facilitates the teaching
and learning of complex technology concepts.
Packet Tracer supplements physical equipment in the classroom by allowing students to create a
network with an almost unlimited number of devices, encouraging practice, discovery, and
troubleshooting. The simulation-based learning environment helps students develop 21st century
skills such as decision making, creative and critical thinking, and problem solving. Packet Tracer
complements the Networking Academy curricula, allowing instructors to easily teach and
demonstrate complex technical concepts and networking systems design.

2.GNS(graphical network simulator)

GNS is a graphical network simulator that allows simulation of complex networks.
To provide complete and accurate simulations, GNS3 is strongly linked with:

Dynamips, a Cisco IOS emulator.

Dynagen, a text-based front end for Dynamips.
Qemu, a generic and open source machine emulator and virtualizer.
VirtualBox, a free and powerful virtualization software.

GNS3 is an excellent complementary tool to real labs for network engineers, administrators and
people wanting to study for certifications such as Cisco CCNA, CCNP, CCIP and CCIE as well
as Juniper JNCIA, JNCIS and JNCIE.
It can also be used to experiment features of Cisco IOS, Juniper JunOS or to check
configurations that need to be deployed later on real routers.
Thanks to VirtualBox integration, now even system engineers and administrators can take
advantage of GNS3 to make labs and study for Redhat (RHCE, RHCT), Microsoft (MSCE,
MSCA), Novell (CLP) and many other vendor certifications.
This project is an open source, free program that may be used on multiple operating systems,
including Windows, Linux, and MacOS X

The main area of project :-

Network addressing
Routing protocols
Dhcp
Tftp
Tunneling
Vlan

Network addressing
IP addresses are broken into 4 octets (IPv4) separated by dots called dotted decimal notation. An
octet is a byte consisting of 8 bits. The IPv4 addresses are in the following form:
192.168.10.1
There are two parts of an IP address:
Network ID
Host ID
The various classes of networks specify additional or fewer octets to designate the network ID
versus the
host ID.
When a network is set up, a netmask is also specified. The netmask determines the class of the
network except for CIDR. When the netmask is setup, it specifies some number of most
significant bits with a 1's value and the rest have values of 0. The most significant part of the
netmask with bits set to 1's specifies the network address, and the lower part of the address will
specify the host address. When setting addresses on a network, remember there can be no host
address of 0 (no host address bits set), and there can be no host address with all bits set.

Class A-E networks

The addressing scheme for class A through E networks is shown below. Note: We use the 'x'
character here to denote don't care situations which includes all possible numbers at the location.
It is many times
used to denote networks.
Network Type Address Range Normal Netmask Comments
Network Addressing
Class A 001.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x 255.0.0.0 For very large networks
Class B 128.1.x.x to 191.254.x.x 255.255.0.0 For medium size networks
Class C 192.0.1.x to 223.255.254.x 255.255.255.0 For small networks
Class D 224.x.x.x to 239.255.255.255 Used to support multicasting
Class E 240.x.x.x to 247.255.255.255
RFCs 1518 and 1519 define a system called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) which is
used to allocate IP addresses more efficiently. This may be used with subnet masks to establish
networks rather than the class system shown above. A class C subnet may be 8 bits but using
CIDR, it may be 12 bits.
There are some network addresses reserved for private use by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority(IANA) which can be hidden behind a computer which uses IP masquerading to
connect the private network to the internet. There are three sets of addresses reserved. These
address are shown below:

l 10.x.x.x
l 172.16.x.x - 172.31.x.x
l 192.168.x.x

Other reserved or commonly used addresses:

l 127.0.0.1 - The loopback interface address. All 127.x.x.x addresses are used by the loopback
interface which copies data from the transmit buffer to the receive buffer of the NIC when used.
l 0.0.0.0 - This is reserved for hosts that don't know their address and use BOOTP or DHCP
protocols to determine their addresses.
255 - The value of 255 is never used as an address for any part of the IP address. It is reserved
for
broadcast addressing. Please remember, this is exclusive of CIDR. When using CIDR, all bits of
the address can never be all ones.

The IPv6 Address

The IPv6 address is 128 bits, as opposed to the 32-bit IPv4 address. Also unlike IPv4, the IPv6
address is represented in hexadecimal notation, separate by colons.
An example of an IPv6 address would be:
1254:1532:26B1:CC14:0123:1111:2222:3333
Each grouping (from here on called fields) of hexadecimal digits is 16 bits, with a total of eight
fields. The hexadecimal values of an IPv6 address are not case-sensitive.
We can drop any leading zeros in each field of an IPv6 address. For example, consider the
following address:
1423:0021:0C13:CC1E:3142:0001:2222:3333
We can condense that address to: 1423:21:C13:CC1E:3142:1:2222:3333 Only leading zeros can
be condensed. If we have an entire field comprised of zeros, we can further compact the
following address:
F12F:0000:0000:CC1E:2412:1111:2222:3333
The condensed address would be: F12F::CC1E:2412:1111:2222:3333 Notice the double colons
(::). We can only condense one set of contiguous
zero fields. Thus, if we had the following address: F12F:0000:0000:CC1E:2412:0000:0000:3333
We could not condense that to: F12F::CC1E:2412::3333 The address would now be ambiguous,
as we wouldnt know how many 0 fields were compacted in each spot. Remember that we can
only use one set of double colons in an IPv6 address!
The IPv6 Prefix
IPv4 utilizes a subnet mask to define the network prefix and host portions of an address.
This subnet mask can also be represented in Classless

The IPv6 Address Hierarchy

IPv4 separated its address space into specific classes. The class of an IPv4address was identified
by the high-order bits of the first octet:
Class A - (00000001 01111111, or 1 - 127)
Class B - (10000000 10111111, or 128 - 191)

 Class C - (11000000 11011111, or 192 - 223)

Class D - (11100000 11101111, or 224 - 239)
IPv6s addressing structure is far more scalable. Less than 20% of the IPv6
address space has been designated for use, currently. The potential for
growth is enormous.
The address space that has been allocated is organized into several types,
determined by the high-order bits of the first field:
Special Addresses addresses begin 00xx:
Link Local addresses begin FE8x:
Site Local addresses begin FECx:
Aggregate Global addresses begin 2xxx: or 3xxx:
Multicasts addresses begin FFxx:
Anycasts
(Note: an x indicates the value can be any hexadecimal number)
There are no broadcast addresses in IPv6. Thus, any IPv6 address that is not a multicast is a
unicast address. Anycast addresses identify a group of interfaces on multiple hosts. Thus,
multiple hosts are configured with an identical address. Packets sent to an anycast address are
sent to the nearest (i.e., least amount of hops) host. Anycasts are indistinguishable from any other
IPv6 unicast address.
Practical applications of anycast addressing are a bit murky. One possible application would be a
server farm providing an identical service or function, in which case anycast addressing would
allow clients to connect to the nearest server.

Routing protocols
We use two routing protocols in our school network :-

1.static routing
Configuring Static Routes
The basic syntax for a static route is as follows:
Router(config)# ip route [destination_network] [subnet_mask] [next-hop]
Consider the following example:
RouterA will have the 172.16.0.0/16 and 172.17.0.0/16 networks in its routing table as directlyconnected routes. To add a static route on RouterA, pointing to the 172.18.0.0/16 network off of
RouterB: RouterA(config)# ip route 172.18.0.0 255.255.0.0 172.17.1.2
Notice that we point to the IP address on RouterBs fa0/0 interface as the next-hop address.
Likewise, to add a static route on RouterB, pointing to the 172.16.0.0/16 network off of RouterA:
RouterB(config)# ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 172.17.1.1 To remove a static route, simply
type no in front of it: RouterA(config)# no ip route 172.18.0.0 255.255.0.0 172.17.1.2
On point-to-point links, an exit-interface can be specified instead of a next hop address. Still
using the previous diagram as an example:
RouterA(config)# ip route 172.18.0.0 255.255.0.0 fa0/1
RouterB(config)# ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 fa0/0
A static route using an exit-interface has an Administrative Distance of 0, as opposed to the
default AD of 1 for static routes. An exit-interface is only functional on a point-to-point link, as
there is only one possible next-hop device.

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

OSPF is a standardized Link-State routing protocol, designed to scaleefficiently to support larger
networks.
OSPF adheres to the following Link State characteristics:
OSPF employs a hierarchical network design using Areas.
OSPF will form neighbor relationships with adjacent routers in the same Area.
Instead of advertising the distance to connected networks, OSPF
advertises the status of directly connected links using Link-State

Advertisements (LSAs).
OSPF sends updates (LSAs) when there is a change to one of its links, and will only send the
change in the update. LSAs are additionally refreshed every 30 minutes.
OSPF traffic is multicast either to address 224.0.0.5 (all OSPF routers) or 224.0.0.6 (all
Designated Routers).
OSPF uses the Dijkstra Shortest Path First algorithm to determine the shortest path.
OSPF is a classless protocol, and thus supports VLSMs. Other characteristics of OSPF include:
OSPF supports only IP routing.
OSPF routes have an administrative distance is 110.
OSPF uses cost as its metric, which is computed based on the bandwidth of the link. OSPF has
no hop-count limit.

The OSPF process builds and maintains three separate tables:

A neighbor table contains a list of all neighboring routers.
A topology table contains a list of all possible routes to all knownnetworks within an area.
A routing table contains the best route for each known network.

OSPF Neighbors
OSPF forms neighbor relationships, called adjacencies, with other routers inthe same Area by
exchanging Hello packets to multicast address 224.0.0.5.Only after an adjacency is formed can
routers share routing information. Each OSPF router is identified by a unique Router ID. The
Router ID can be determined in one of three ways:
The Router ID can be manually specified.
If not manually specified, the highest IP address configured on any Loopback interface on the
router will become the Router ID.
If no loopback interface exists, the highest IP address configured on any Physical interface will
become the Router ID.
By default, Hello packets are sent out OSPF-enabled interfaces every 10 seconds for broadcast
and point-to-point interfaces, and 30 seconds for non broadcast and point-to-multipoint
interfaces. OSPF also has a Dead Interval, which indicates how long a router will wait
without hearing any hellos before announcing a neighbor as down. Default for the Dead
Interval is 40 seconds for broadcast and point-to-point interfaces, and 120 seconds for nonbroadcast and point-to-multipoint interfaces. Notice that, by default, the dead interval timer is
four times the Hello interval.
These timers can be adjusted on a per interface basis:
Router(config-if)# ip ospf hello-interval 15
Router(config-if)# ip ospf dead-interval 60

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

This protocol is used to assign IP addresses to hosts or workstations on the network. Usually a
DHCP server on the network performs this function. Basically it "leases" out address for specific
times to the various hosts. If a host does not use a given address for some period of time, that IP
address can then be assigned to another machine by the DHCP server.
When assignments are made or changed, the DHCP server must update the information in the
DNS server.
As with BOOTP, DHCP uses the machine's or NIC ethernet (MAC) or hardware address to
determine IP address assignments. The DHCP protocol is built on BOOTP and replaces BOOTP.
DHCP extends the vendor specific area in
BOOTP to 312 bytes from 64. RFC 1541 defines DHCP.
DHCP RFCs
DHCP RFCs are 1533, 1534, 1541, and 1542. Sent from DHCP server:
l IP address
l Netmask
l Default Gateway address
l DNS server addresse(s)
l NetBIOS Name server (NBNS) address(es).
l Lease period in hours
l IP address of DHCP server.
DHCP Lease Stages
1. Lease Request - The client sends a broadcast requesting an IP address
2. Lease Offer - The server sends the above information and marks the offered address as
unavailable. The message sent is a DHCPOFFER broadcast message.
3. Lease Acceptance - The first offer received by the client is accepted. The acceptance is sent
from the client as a broadcast (DHCPREQUEST message) including the IP address of the DNS
server that sent the accepted offer.
Other DHCP servers retract their offers and mark the offered address as available and the
accepted address as unavailable.
4. Server lease acknowledgement - The server sends a DHCPACK or a DHCPNACK if an
unavailable address was requested.
DHCP discover message - The initial broadcast sent by the client to obtain a DHCP lease. It
contains the client MAC address and computer name. This is a broadcast using 255.255.255.255
as the destination address and 0.0.0.0 as the source address. The request is sent, then the client
waits one second for an offer. The request is repeated at 9, 13, and 16 second intervals with
additional 0 to 1000 milliseconds of randomness. The attempt is repeated every 5 minutes
thereafter. The client uses port 67 and the server uses port 68.

DHCP Lease Renewal

After 50% of the lease time has passed, the client will attempt to renew the lease with the
original DHCP server that it obtained the lease from using a DHCPREQUEST message. Any
time the client boots and the lease is 50% or more passed, DHCP the client will attempt to renew
the lease. At 87.5% of the lease completion, the client will attempt to contact any DHCP server

for a new lease. If the lease expires, the client will send a request as in the initial boot when the
client had no IP address. If this fails, the client TCP/IP stack will cease functioning.

Client Reservation
Client Reservation is used to be sure a computer gets the same IP address all the time. Therefore
since DHCP IP addressassignments use MAC addresses to control assignments, the following are
required for client reservation:
l MAC (hardware) address
l IP address
Exclusion Range
Exclusion range is used to reserve a bank of IP addresses so computers with static IP addresses,
such as servers may usethe assigned addresses in this range. These addresses are not assigned by
the DHCP server.

Tftp server
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple protocol to transfer files. It has been
implemented on top of the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) using port number 69. TFTP is
designed to be small and easy to implement, and therefore it lacks most of the features of a
regular FTP. TFTP only reads and writes files (or mail) from/to a remote server. It cannot list
directories, and currently has no provisions for user authentication.
In TFTP, any transfer begins with a request to read or write a file, which also serves to request a
connection. If the server grants the request, the connection is opened and the file is sent in fixed
length blocks of 512 bytes. Each data packet contains one block of data, and must be
acknowledged by an acknowledgment packet before the next packet can be sent. A data packet of
less than 512 bytes signals termination of a transfer. If a packet gets lost in the network, the
intended recipient will timeout and may retransmit his last packet (which may be data or an
acknowledgment), thus causing the sender of the lost packet to retransmit that lost packet. The
sender has to keep just one packet on hand for retransmission, since the lock step
acknowledgment guarantees that all older packets have been received. Notice that both machines
involved in a transfer are considered senders and receivers. One sends data and receives
acknowledgments, the other sends acknowledgments and receives data.
TFTP typically uses UDP as its transport protocol, but it is not a requirement. Data transfer is
initiated on port 69, but the data transfer ports are chosen independently by the sender and
receiver during initialization of the connection. The ports are chosen at random according to the
parameters of the networking stack, typically from the range of Ephemeral ports.

Tunneling
An IP tunnel is an Internet Protocol (IP) network communications channel between two
networks. It is used to transport another network protocol by encapsulation of its packets.
IP tunnels are often used for connecting two disjoint IP networks that don't have a native routing
path to each other, via an underlying routable protocol across an intermediate transport network.
In conjunction with the IPsec protocol they may be used to create a virtual private
network between two or more private networks across a public network such as the Internet.
Another prominent use is to connect islands of IPv6 installations across the IPv4 Internet.
In IP tunnelling, every IP packet, including addressing information of its source and destination
IP networks, is encapsulated within another packet format native to the transit network.
At the borders between the source network and the transit network, as well as the transit network
and the destination network, gateways are used that establish the end-points of the IP tunnel
across the transit network. Thus, the IP tunnel endpoints become native IP routers that establish a
standard IP route between the source and destination networks. Packets traversing these endpoints from the transit network are stripped from their transit frame format headers and trailers
used in the tunnelling protocol and thus converted into native IP format and injected into the IP
stack of the tunnel endpoints. In addition, any other protocol encapsulations used during transit,
such as IPsec or Transport Layer Security, are removed.
IP in IP, sometimes called ipencap, is an example of IP encapsulation within IP and is described
in RFC 2003. Other variants of the IP-in-IP variety are IPv6-in-IPv4 (6in4) and IPv4-in-IPv6
(4in6).
IP tunneling often bypasses simple firewall rules transparently since the specific nature and
addressing of the original datagrams are hidden. Content-control software is usually required to
block IP tunnels.

Virtual LANs (VLANs)

Virtual LANs (or VLANs) separate a Layer-2 switch into multiple broadcast domains. Each
VLAN is its own individual broadcast domain (i.e. IP subnet). Individual ports or groups of ports
can be assigned to a specific VLAN. Only ports belonging to the same VLAN can freely
communicate; ports assigned to separate VLANs require a router to communicate. Broadcasts
from one VLAN will never be sent out ports belonging to another VLAN.
Please note: a Layer-2 switch that supports VLANs is not necessarily a Layer-3 switch. A Layer3 switch, in addition to supporting VLANs, must also be capable of routing, and caching IP
traffic flows. Layer-3 switches allow IP packets to be switched as opposed to routed, which
reduces latency.
VLAN Example
Consider the following example:
Four computers are connected to a Layer-2 switch that supports VLANs.Computers A and B
belong to VLAN 1, and Computers C and D belong toVLAN 2.
Because Computers A and B belong to the same VLAN, they belong to the same IP subnet and
broadcast domain. They will be able to communicate without the need of a router.
Computers C and D likewise belong to the same VLAN and IP subnet. They also can
communicate without a router. However, Computers A and B will not be able to communicate
with Computers C and D, as they belong to separate VLANs, and thus separate IP subnets.
Broadcasts from VLAN 1 will never go out ports configured for VLAN 2. A router will be
necessary for both VLANs to communicate. Most Catalyst multi-layer switches have integrated
or modular routing processors. Otherwise, an external router is required for inter-VLAN
communication. By default on Cisco Catalyst switches, all interfaces belong to VLAN 1.
VLAN 1 is considered the Management VLAN (by default).

Advantages of VLANs
VLANs provide the following advantages:
Broadcast Control In a pure Layer-2 environment, broadcasts are received by every host on the
switched network. In contrast, each VLAN belongs to its own broadcast domain (or IP subnet);
thus broadcast traffic from one VLAN will never reach another VLAN.
Security VLANs allow administrators to logically separate users and departments.
Flexibility and Scalability VLANs remove the physical boundaries of a network. Users and
devices can be added or moved anywhere on the physical network, and yet remain assigned to
the same VLAN. Thus, access to resources will never be interrupted.
VLAN Membership
VLAN membership can be configured one of two ways:
Statically Individual (or groups of) switch-ports must be manually assigned to a VLAN. Any
device connecting to that switch-port(s) becomes a member of that VLAN. This is a transparent
process the client device is unaware that it belongs to a specific VLAN.

 Dynamically Devices are automatically assigned into a VLAN based on its MAC address.
This allows a client device to remain in the same VLAN, regardless of which switch port the
device is attached to. Cisco developed a dynamic VLAN product called the VLAN Membership
Policy Server (VMPS). In more sophisticated systems, a users network account can be used to
determine VLAN membership, instead of a devices MAC address. Catalyst switches that
participate in a VTP domain (explained shortly) support up to 1005 VLANs. Catalyst switches
configured in VTP transparent mode support up to 4094 VLANs.
Static VLAN Configuration
The first step in configuring VLANs is to create the VLAN:
Switch(config)# vlan 100
Switch(config-vlan)# name MY_VLAN
The first command creates VLAN 100, and enters VLAN configuration mode. The second
command assigns the name MY_VLAN to this VLAN.
Naming a VLAN is not required.
The list of VLANs is stored in Flash in a database file named vlan.dat. However, information
concerning which local interfaces are assigned to a specific VLAN is not stored in this file; this
information is instead stored in the startup-config file of each switch. Next, an interface (or range
of interfaces) must be assigned to this VLAN. The following commands will assign interface
fa0/10 into the newly created
MY_VLAN.
Switch(config)# interface fa0/10
Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 100
The first command enters interface configuration mode. The second command indicates that this
is an access port, as opposed to a trunk port (explained in detail shortly). The third command
assigns this access port to VLAN 100. Note that the VLAN number is specified, and not the
VLAN name.
To view the list of VLANs, including which ports are assigned to each VLAN:
Switch# show vlan
VLAN Name Status Ports
----------------------------------------------1
default
active
fa0/1-9,11-24
100
MY_VLAN
active
fa0/10
1002
fddidefault
suspended
1003
token-ring
-default
suspended
1004
fddinet
-default
suspended

Appendix

Dhcp

Static routing

Ipv6

Ipv6(ospf)

tftp

tunneling

Vlan

Bibliography

CCNA Study Guide v2.52 Aaron Balchunas

The CTDP Networking Guide - Mark Allen
CCNA Study Guide Todd lammle