Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Concept of Curriculum
In the past, the term curriculum signified a course of studies followed by a pupil in a teaching
institution. In the English-speaking tradition it was used as equivalent to the French concept
programme dtudes. Today, it means in general terms, the contract between society, the State
and educational professionals with regard to the educational activities that learners should
undergo during a certain phase of their lives to learn something desirable.
Definitions of curriculum
Standard dictionaries define curriculum as a course of study offered by an academic
institution. [(2) Bryman A 2004. Social Research Methods (2nd ed). Oxford: OxfordUniversity
Press.Candella L, Dalley K & Benzel-Lindley J 2006. A case for learning-centered
curricula.Journal of Nursing Education]. Webster's concisely defines curriculum as, "A course
of study offered by a school" [(3)Webster's II New Riverside Dictionary, 1984 p176].
Curriculum is also often referred to as learning content, activities, and structures as experienced
by students. Ronald C. Doll, in his book, Curriculum Improvement: Decision Making and
Process, goes further, stating that:
The curriculum of a school is the formal and informal content and process by which
learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes,
appreciations, and values under he auspices of that school [(4) Doll, 1996 p15].
According to Ronald Doll, curriculum is the formal and informal content and process by which learners
gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes, appreciations, and values under the
auspices of an academic institution. In other words, curriculum can be defined as the total experience.
From this view point, Curriculum is not only the content selected and delivered, but also the planned and
unplanned activities in which individuals participate as students.
In educational literature, in short, the word curriculum has been defined in the following ways:
Curriculum is such permanent subjects as grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric,
mathematics, and the greatest books of the Western world that embody essential
knowledge.
Curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary society.
Curriculum is all planned learning for which the institution is responsible.
Curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the institution.
Curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to students so that they can
attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites.
Curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes.
Syllabus and Course
The other terms that are commonly used as synonymous to curriculum are syllabus and course. But
curriculum can refer to any level of an educational experience, from that of a particular area within a
course, to the course itself, to a broader program of study that comprises a number of different courses
around a particular content area.[(5) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Deniz 2005. The effects of
Her model was an attempt to ensure that decisions about curriculum are made on the basis of
valid criteria and not whim or fancy. She claimed that decisions should follow in the order of the
seven steps. She advocated analyzing learners' needs by considering the society and culture in
which they live and only then making decisions about the steps that follow. Therefore, she did
not neglect contextual factors. However, her model has the same drawbacks as Tyler's, even
though it is a more expansive model. On the positive side, the model was an advance on Tyler's
and it incorporated up-to-date (at that time) knowledge from educational psychology about
learning and teaching. [(8) Maclellan E & Soden R 2004. The importance of epistemiccognition
in student-centered learning. Instructional Science,32(3):253-268.Martin M 2005. Reflection in
teacher education: How can it besupported? Educational Action Research, 13(4):525-542].
Another group of models include elements of the rational/objective models, but go beyond by
viewing curriculum development as a continuing activity and adding modifications as new
information becomes available, For example, pressure from the public about new business or
social needs might result in updating curriculum.
A new element, called situational analysis, was introduced in the 1970s to Taba's diagnosis of
needs. It refers to a detailed description and analysis of context in which a particular curriculum
is to be implemented. This model comprises the following steps.
situational analysis
selection of objectives
selection and organization of content
Selection and organization of methods of teaching.
evaluation of learning [(9) Hains BJ & Smith B 2012. Student centered course
design:Empowering students to become self-directed learners. Journal of Experiential Learning ,
35(2):357-374].
curriculum is sent to the curriculum wing, Ministry of Education, for their consideration and
approval.
In the Curriculum Wing, the draft curriculum on each subject received from the Provincial Centres is put
up to the concerned National Review Committee. This Committee is usually constituted for each subject
and comprises the nominees of the Provincial Governments and subject specialists considered suitable for
the purpose. The Curriculum finalized by the National Review Committee is then put up to the Education
Secretary for approval. [(10) Lea SJ, Stephenson D & Troy J 2003. Higher education
prior to devolution, the policy and planning have been undertaken by the central and provincial
governments without taking into account the ground realities and without the participation of
community. The main objectives of the devolution plan is to empower the community at the
grassroots level in planning, management, resource mobilization and utilization, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of the education system to improve the service delivery at that level.
The main inherent issues of education systems are: teachers absenteeism, high drop out rates
particularly at primary level, high repetition rates, low completion rates, inequalities by gender,
location and social groups, low literacy rate and unsatisfactory performance of schools, these
issues have been addressed under DOP through empowerment of local communities. The present
government has initiated political and administrative devolution under its reforms agenda under
Local Government Plan 2000. [(12) Marzano, R.J. (1992). A Different Kind of Classroom. Alexandria,
VA: ASCD].The Local Government Ordinance was promulgated on 14th August 2001. Under
devolution, political power, decision-making authority, and administrative responsibilities have
been moved as closes as possible to the village, union council, tehsil and district levels, with only
the major policy-making, coordination, and special service functions being retained with the
central and provincial governments. It is believed that highly centralized system of education is
greatly hampering the efficiency and effectiveness of delivery service at the grass-root level.
Successive governments addressed this problem in their policies and plans since 1947.
The present government has envisioned with a clear commitment to reform a number of aspects
of education system framed within the 1998-2010 National Education Policy and ten year
perspective development plan 2001-2011 to increase educational opportunities for all children, to
enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of delivery service at grass root level. ESR is an Action
Plan for 2001-2005, has been fully integrated into the Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
and about 80% of the ESR packages covers adult literacy, Education for All and technical
education. Devolution plan is the mainframe for implementation of ESR. The education sector
reforms (ESRs) have been design to address the following areas of education system:
7. Innovative programs. [(13) Perkins, D.N. (September 1985). What Creative Thinking Is.
Educational Leadership. Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 1824].
(b) promote with special care the educational and economic interests of backward areas;
(c) remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within minimum
possible period;
(d) make technical and professional education generally available and higher education equally
accessible to all on the basis of merit;
(e) enable the people of different areas, through education , training, agriculture and industrial
development , and other methods to participate fully in all form of national activities including
employment in the services of Pakistan;
(f) ensure full participation of women in all the spheres of national life. [(14) Perkins, D.N. (1992).
Smart Schools. London: The Free Press].
Primary Schooling
This stage consists of five classes I-V and enrolls children of age 5-9 years. Since independence,
the policy makers pronounced to make primary education free and compulsory. According to
Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS) 1998-99, the gross participation rate was 71
percent in 1999, for male it was 80 percent and for female it was 61 percent. For urban female it
was 92 and for rural it was 50 percent. The lowest participation rate observed for rural female in
Sindh Province that was 33 percent. The net enrolment rate was 42 percent, for urban male it was
47 percent and 37 percent for rural female. [(15) Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher
Education. London: Routledge.].
Middle Schooling
The middle schooling is of three years duration and comprised of class VI, VII and VIII. The age
group is 10-12 years. The participation rate at middle school was about 34 percent during 20002001. Males were 36 percent and females were 33 percent.
High Schooling
The high school children stay for two years in classes IX and X. The Board of Intermediate and
Secondary Education conducts the examination. A certificate of secondary school is awarded to
the successful candidates. The participation rate at high school was about 22 percent in 20002001 of which, 24 percent were males and 20 percent were females. Vocational Education is
normally offered in high schooling. There are varieties of trades offered to the students and after
completion of the course they get jobs as carpenters, masons, mechanics, welders, electrician,
refrigeration and similar other trades. There are 498 vocational institutions with an enrolment of
about 88 thousand in 2001-2002. [(16) Swartz, R.J. & Parks, S. (1994). Infusing Critical and Creative
Thinking into Content Instruction. Pacific Grove, CA: Critical Thinking Press & Software.].
Higher Education
To obtain a degree, 4 years of higher education after 10 years of primary and secondary
schooling is required. Students who pass their first-degree stage are awarded a Bachelors degree
in arts or science, typically at the age of 19 years. In order to complete an honors course at
Bachelors degree level an additional one years study is required. Further, a two years course is
required for Masters degree who have completed two years Bachelors degree. A doctoral degree
requires normally 3 years of study after the completion of a masters degree course. [(17) Taba,
Hilda. Curriculum Development.]
Madrassah Education:
Side by side with modern education system there is also religious education system, which
provides Islamic education. These institutions have their own management system without
interference from either the provincial or federal governments. However, grants-in-aid are
provided to these institutions by the government. During 2000 there were 6761 religious
institutions with an enrollment of 934,000, of which 132,000 were female students in 448
institutions (Khan, 2002). Efforts have been made by the present government to bring the
Madrassah in the mainstream under Education Sector Reforms. The main purpose of
mainstreaming Madrassah is to enlarge employment opportunities for their graduates. Pakistan
Madrassah Education Boards are established to regulate the Madaris activities.
Non-formal Education
There are millions of people in Pakistan who have no access to formal education system. It is not
possible for the formal system to meet educational needs of the rapidly growing population.
Non-formal Basic Education School scheme has been introduced for those who have no access to
formal education. This scheme is very cost-effective. Under this scheme primary education
course is taught in forty months. Non-formal schools are opened in those areas where formal
schools are not available. Government provides teachers salary and teaching material whereas
community provides school building/room. There are 6371 NFBE schools functioning in the
country.
Examinations
Examinations are usually held annually, which are the main criterion to promote the students to
higher classes or to retain them in the same class. However, recently a system of automatic
promotion up-to grade-III has been introduced in some schools. In the primary classes,
examinations are conducted by the respective schools. However, at the end of the fifth year of the
primary stage a public examination is held by the education department for promotion to the next
grade. Another examination is held for the outstanding students to compete for the award of
merit scholarships. Similarly, the examination in Middle Schools are held by the individual
schools but there is a public examination at the end of grade VIII conducted by the Education
Department for awarding of scholarships. The Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education
(BISE) conducts the examinations of Secondary and Higher Secondary. The degree level
examinations are conducted by the respective universities.
Teachers Training
In Pakistan, there are 90 Colleges of Elementary Education which offer teachers training
programs for Primary Teaching Certificate (PTC) and Certificate in Teaching (CT) to primary
school teachers. For secondary school teachers, there are 16 Colleges of Education, offering
graduate degrees in education and there are departments of education in 9 universities which
train teachers at the masters level. There are only 4 institutions which offer in-service teachers
training. Besides these, the Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, offers a very
comprehensive teachers training program based on distance learning; its total enrolment is about
10,000 per annum of which 7,000 complete various courses every year.
located in various provinces are administered by the provincial governments, but are exclusively
funded by the federal government through the Higher Education Commission.The Federal
Ministry of Education is headed by the Minister of Education. The most senior civil servant in
the Ministry is the Education Secretary assisted by Joint Secretary and Joint Educational
Advisors of each wing. There are 6 wings in the Federal Ministry of Education and each wing is
headed by Joint Educational Advisor.
The provincial Education Departments are headed by their respective Provincial Education
Ministers. The civil servant in charge of the department is the Provincial Education Secretary.
The provinces are further divided into districts for the purpose of administration. The head of the
Education Department in a district is Executive District Officer (EDO). Literacy Department
functions separately in case of Punjab and Sindh only it is headed by Executive District Officer
(EDO) literacy. In the Provinces of NWFP and Balochistan, literacy is the part of Education
Department. The hierarchy then runs down to the District Education Officer, Sub-district
Education Officer, Supervisors or Assistant Sub-district Education Officers .
At the grass root level (the union council level), Learning Coordinators (LCs) provide academic
guidance as well as supervise the schools. The administrative structure has been decentralized
under the Devolution Plan. Village Education Committees (VECs)/ School Management
Committees (SMCs) have been set up in the provinces at grass root level.
during 2000-01. There are 68 universities in Pakistan with the enrolment of 1.1 million. Out of
the total universities, 40 universities are managed by public sector. There are 203,439
educational institutions in Pakistan of which 36,096 institutions are run private sector and the
share of the private sector is about 18 percent.
The major issues and challenges of the education system include low literacy rate, high
drop out rate, wide spread teacher absenteeism, weak management and supervision
structure, shortage of trained and qualified teachers specially female, lack of teachers
dedication, motivation and interest in their profession and lack of physical facilities.
Moreover the curriculum is mostly outdated, irrelevant and does not fulfill the
requirements of present day.
monitoring and evaluation of the education system to improve the service delivery at that level.
The major issues and challenges of the education system include low literacy rate, high drop out
rate, wide spread teacher absenteeism, weak management and supervision structure, shortage of
trained and qualified teachers specially female, lack of teachers dedication, motivation and
interest in their profession and lack of physical facilities. Moreover the curriculum is mostly
outdated, irrelevant and does not fulfill the requirements of present day.