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Investigation of High Reynolds Number

Effects on Rotor Blades for Wind


Turbines
aerodynamic and aeroelastic simulations of
Staffan Wallmann

wind turbine
characteristics are
performed for a

EUROS GmbH, Berlin


wallmann@euros.de

reference wind turbine


of the 3 MW class. The
Blade Element
Momentum (BEM)
calculations are based
on the modified airfoil

Abstract

properties for high


Reynolds numbers.
The effect on the
performance of wind

The increasing size of

turbines is positive,

wind turbines leads to

because the

higher Reynolds

convenient operating

numbers caused by a

range of the airfoils

larger chord length.

becomes wider. The

This work presents a

optimum pitch angle of

method to modify

the rotor blade and the

measured, two-

optimum tip speed

dimensional airfoil

ratio are increased due

properties (Re = 3 M)

to the high Reynolds

to account for high

number effect.

Reynolds numbers (3

However, the better

M < Re < 9 M) by

efficiency of the rotor

using a calculated

also involves higher

Reynolds number

loads. The increased

trend. The airfoil

efficiency, as well as

properties for high

the increased loads,

Reynolds numbers are

can be significant but

characterised by an

is moderate for the

increased maximum

reference wind turbine.

lift, less frictional drag


and a changed width
of the low drag bucket.
In a second step,

1. Introduction

Airfoils (and their


The design of a large

characteristics)

wind turbine can partly


be derived from an
existing smaller wind
turbine. Known
characteristics of the
smaller turbine can be
copied to the new
turbine using

Aerodynamic and
centrifugal forces
increase by the square
of the rotor radius,
while gravity forces
increase by the cube of
the radius. Since the
blade cross-sections
also increase by the
square of the radius,

Christoph Klein

higher stress only


results from gravity
forces. This fact limits

EUROS GmbH, Berlin


klein@euros.de

the size of wind


turbines and has to be
compensated by the
use of lightweight
construction. However,
in terms of

the Law of Similarity


[1]. Accordingly, the
following parameters
have to remain
unchanged.

aerodynamics, keeping
the airfoils unchanged
does not necessarily
result in unchanged
airfoil properties. The
reason therefore is the
Reynolds number

Number of blades

effect. Airfoil properties


depend on the
Reynolds number,

Tip speed ratio

because it indicates
the dynamic similarity
of two flow conditions.

Geometric proportions
of blades

Increasing the rotor


diameter leads to
increased chord length
and thus to increased

Materials

Reynolds numbers.
Hence airfoil
properties, which are
valid for small rotor

blades, are not

properties due to the

generally accepted for

high Reynolds number

large rotor blades.

effect (Re > 3 M) and


studies the
consequences for wind

This work investigates


the changes of airfoil

turbine characteristics.

x 10

Re
7

Vrel c

Section

Chord

Number

Re

Velocity

Length

Kinematic Viscosity

Reynolds

Ordinary Reynolds number of measured airfoil properties: Re = 3 M

Local Reynolds numbers at:

Cut Out Wind Speed

Rated Wind Speed

Cut In Wind Speed

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1

Radius r/R

Figure 1: Local Reynolds number on the reference


rotor blade EU100 at various operating conditions.
The local Reynolds number only depends on the
section velocity, Vrel and the respective chord length,
c at constant kinematic viscosity, .

For that purpose


aerodynamic and aeroelastic simulations
were carried out for a
rotor blade of a
reference wind turbine
of the 3 MW class. The
Reynolds number
distribution over the
blade length is
illustrated in Figure 1
for three operating
conditions in the wind
speed range of 3 to 25
m/s. Particularly, the
outer part of the blade
operates at high
Reynolds numbers of
more than 7 M at rated
wind speed. The
properties of the
airfoils of the reference
rotor blade have been
measured in a wind
tunnel at Re = 3 M.
Hence deviations
between measured
airfoil properties and
the real application are
expected. Since threequarters of the power
is generated with the
outer half of the blade,
a change of airfoil
properties on this part
is important to the
performance of the
rotor. A change of
aerodynamic forces on
the outer part of the
blade is also important
for the loads in the
blade root because of
the long lever arm.

measured at Re = 3 M
A fundamental
dependency of the
wind turbine
performance,
particularly the
maximum power
coefficient and the
optimum tip speed
ratio, is shown in [2]. A
blade design
optimization for
different Reynolds
numbers verified that
the solidity and the
twist distribution
generally depend on

and a calculated
Reynolds number
trend. Subsequently
the synthetic airfoil
data is used as input
for steady state
calculations and aeroelastic wind turbine
simulations. The
results are reviewed in
comparison to
calculations for the
hypothetical case that
there would be no
Reynolds numbers
effect.

the Reynolds number


too.

High Reynolds number


airfoil properties are
needed to consider the

Reynolds number
effects on airfoil
properties

specific Reynolds
number effect in wind
turbine design and
analysis. The Reynolds
number in wind tunnel
measurements usually
does not exceed 3 to 4
M, because much
effort is required to
achieve higher
Reynolds numbers.
The approach in this
work is to generate
airfoil

A recent measurement
of airfoil properties at
high Reynolds
numbers has been
carried out in the
Langley Low
Turbulence Pressure
Wind Tunnel for the
17% thick S825 airfoil
of the NREL airfoil
family [3]. Measured
characteristics at Re =
1 to 6 M are presented
in Figure 2.

coefficients for high


Reynolds numbers
synthetically on the
basis of data

The effects caused by


increased Reynolds

numbers are as

angle of attack is

follows.

shifted to higher values


and hence the
maximum lift is

Increased maximum lift

increased.

and shift to higher


angle of attack.
Decreased drag.
Reason: a higher
share of inertial forces

Reason: viscous

enables the boundary

forces have less

layer to stay attached

influence for increased

longer in an adverse

Reynolds Numbers.

pressure gradient.

Hence the friction drag

Therefore the stall

is decreased.

Figure 2: Measured airfoil properties of the S825


section at various Reynolds numbers [3]

Decreased width of

Slightly steeper lift-

laminar bucket .

curve slope.

Reason: transition

Steeper lift decrease

occurs earlier for high


Reynolds Numbers.

after reaching of
maximum lift.

The laminar bucket


ends at angle of
attacks, where the
transition location
rapidly moves towards

Increase of lift to drag


ratio, shift to smaller
angle of attacks.

the leading edge. This


effect is shifted to
lower angle of attacks

Increase of pitching

for high Reynolds

moment at high angles

Numbers, hence the

of attack.

laminar bucket
2

becomes smaller .
Increased width of low
3

drag bucket .
Reason: the high drag
outside the low drag
bucket is generated by
separated flow. The
separation is shifted to

These changes of
airfoil properties for an
increased Reynolds
number are confirmed
by other high Reynolds
number
measurements, e.g. in
[4] and [5].

higher angle of attacks


and hence the drag is
lower for a wider range
of angle of attacks.

3. Modification of
airfoil properties

Airfoil properties for

curve). The shape of

high Reynolds

the curve around

numbers are

maximum lift differs but

necessary to

the linear part of the lift

investigate the high

curve is well predicted.

Reynolds number

However, the drag is

effect on wind turbines.

generally

They can, for example,

underestimated by

be calculated by the

RFOIL. Considering

panel code RFOIL,

the calculated airfoil

which is a modification

properties for different

of the well known code

Reynolds numbers in

XFOIL [6]. Figure 3

Figure 3, a trend is

shows the calculated

visible which is

airfoil properties of the

analogue to the trend

EU210 airfoil for the

observed in the high

Reynolds number of 3,

Reynolds number

measurements (see
part 2).

and 9
M
and the measured
properties at
Re = 3
M.
Comparing the
calculated and

The conclusion from


the above
considerations is that
the Reynolds number
trend may be predicted
well by RFOIL,
although the absolute
values slightly differ
from measurements.
Hence RFOIL
calculations cannot
replace the measured
airfoil properties, but

measured airfoil
properties leads to the
fact that the measured
maximum lift is lower
and occurs at lower
angles of attack
(dotted red curve) as
predicted by RFOIL for
the same Reynolds
number (solid red

can be used to modify


the measured airfoil
properties to account
for the Reynolds
number trend. This is
done by isolating the
main Reynolds number
effects of the
calculated airfoil
properties listed in part

2 (first four items) and

Figure 4, which

including them to the

presents the airfoil

measured airfoil

properties of the

properties. Thus,

EU210 airfoil for

synthetic airfoil

different Reynolds

properties for high

numbers, once from

Reynolds numbers are

RFOIL calculations

generated. The

and once the

detailed method for

measured and

modifying the lift and

synthetic airfoil

drag coefficients is

properties. The

described in [7]. The

Reynolds number

general approach and

trend predicted by

result is visible in

RFOIL can be

EU210

C
l

Airfoiltype
Re
EUROS Measured 3 M
RFOIL Calculated
3M
RFOIL Calculated
6M
RFOIL Calculated
9M

[]

Figure 3: Measured and calculated airfoil properties


of the EU210 for various Reynolds numbers

laminar bucket: range of particularly low drag due to a high share


of laminar flow

The for wind turbines less relevant lower end of the laminar
bucket is shifted to higher angle of attacks

low drag bucket: range of low drag because of mostly attached


flow (includes laminar bucket)

Measured

re

C
e
T

e
T

Measured

Calculated

[]

Calculated

Re Trend

re

Re = 6 M

Re = 3 M

Cd

Measured

Measured

C
lC

Synthetic =

Synthetic =

Measured + Re Trend

Measured + Re Trend

Re = 9 M

[]

Cd

Figure 4: Generation of synthetic airfoil properties.


Transfer of the Reynolds number trend from airfoil
properties calculated by RFOIL to measured airfoil
properties.
properties, but the
found directly in the
synthetic airfoil

general characteristics of
the curves are similar to

the measured airfoil


properties. Hence the
Reynolds number trend
is captured well in the
synthetic airfoil
coefficients, as long as
RFOIL predicts the
Reynolds number trend
well.

a) Langley Measurement Re = 3 M b) Langley


Measurement Re = 6 M c) Langley
Measurement Re = 9 M d) RFOIL Trend 3 -> 6
M applied to a) e) RFOIL Trend 3 -> 9 M
applied to a)

4. Verification of
the method

measured high Reynolds


number airfoil properties
(blue and green solid

Two measurements of

curves).

airfoil properties at high


Reynolds numbers [4]

and [3] are used to verify Comparing the measured


and synthetic drag curves
the method for the
generation of the
synthetic airfoil
properties (see Figures
5 and 6). The lift and
drag coefficients which
are measured at Re = 3
M (solid red curves) are
modified by a Reynolds
number trend which is
calculated by RFOIL for
the respective airfoil.
Thus synthetic airfoil
properties for high
Reynolds numbers are
generated (dashed

of both airfoils leads to


the conclusion that the
drag coefficient is

predictable. However, the


prediction of the
maximum lift increase
shows some deviations.
In the case of the
NACA64618 (Figure 5),
the maximum lift increase
is underestimated by the
synthetic airfoil properties
while it is slightly
overestimated in the case
of the S825 airfoil (Figure

curves) and presented in 6). Nevertheless the use


of the synthetic airfoil
comparison to the
coefficients for wind

turbine calculations is
more appropriate than
NACA64618

using low Reynolds


number airfoil data. The
advantage of this method
is that there is reasonable

airfoil data available at a


time before wind tunnel
tests at high Reynolds

0.9

numbers are carried out.


0.6

0.3

1.5

0.0

1.2

-0.3

-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0
0.004
0.008
0.012
0.016
0.02
0.024

[]

Figure 5: Comparison of measured [4] and synthetic


airfoil properties of the NACA64618 airfoil

Cl

S825

1.5

1.2

0.9

0.6

0.3

0.0

a) Langley Measurement Re = 3 M

-0.3

b) Langley Measurement Re = 6 M

c) RFOIL Trend 3 -> 6 M applied to a)

-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0
0.004
0.008
0.012
0.016
0.02
0.024

[]

Cd

Figure 6: Comparison of measured [3] and synthetic airfoil properties of the S825 airfoil
particularly important at low tip speed ratios
and hence at rated power.

Effects of high Reynolds numbers


on wind turbines

However, the Reynolds number effects are


moderate for the considered rotor blade.
The reason therefore can be seen in Figure

Steady state calculations and aero-elastic


simulations were performed to study the
Reynolds number effect on wind turbines.
The calculations are based on the Blade
Element Momentum Theory (software GH
Bladed). The synthetic airfoil properties for
high Reynolds numbers have been used in
comparison to calculations with the ordinary
airfoil data for Re = 3 M. Generally, the
performance is increased for high Reynolds
numbers. Figure 7 shows the power curve
for the ordinary (coloured) and high
Reynolds number calculations (black). The
power performance of the rotor is increased
for high Reynolds numbers and this effect is

Power Curve and Rotor Speed

8 and 9, which present the dimensionless


coefficients of the rotor. The power
coefficient is increased for high Reynolds
numbers at most tip speed ratios, but the
rotor blade operates only in the range
where the differences are very small. If the
tip speed ratio at rated power were lower,
the wind turbine would benefit significantly
from the increased power coefficient due to
the Reynolds number effect. For example,
this would be the case if the rotor would be
used on a turbine with higher nominal
power. The reason for the increased
efficiency is the increased maximum lift of
the airfoils and the shift to higher angles of
attack.

Electrical Power

Shaft Power

V=9.

7 m/s

for

ord.

RN

V=9.
2 m/s
for

Rotor Speed

high

RN

5
0
0

Tip Speed Ratio

3000
High RN Calculation

Rated Power at V=11.4


m/s for ord. RN V=11.3
m/s for high RN

2500

TipSpeedRatio

Rotor
Spee

15

2000

d
opt. TSR up to

Po

12

1500

w
er
[k
W]

12

15

18

21

24

Wind Speed [m/s]

Figure 7: Power curve and control variables of the reference rotor for ordinary (coloured) and
high (black) Reynolds numbers (RN). The Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) is increased in the variable
speed mode and hence the tip speed limitation starts at lower wind speed. Rated power is
reached earlier due to the slightly better efficiency for high Reynolds numbers.
Power Coefficient

cT

cP
0.55

1.0

0.50

Opt. TSR
0.7

0.35
0.9

0.6

0.45

Ordinary Reynolds Numbers


Rated

0.30

0.8

Optimum Blade Set Angle


0.40

0.5

Thrust Coefficient

High Reynolds Numbers

Opt. TSR

Rated

Same Blade Set Angle

5
6

10

11

10

12

11
12

Tip Speed Ratio

Tip Speed Ratio

Figure 8: Power and thrust coefficients of the reference rotor for ordinary (red) and high
Reynolds Numbers (blue) with equal blade set angle.

Power Coefficient
cP

0.9

cT

0.55

0.45

Rated

1.0

0.8
0.50

0.40

Opt. TSR

High Reynolds Numbers

0.7

0.35

0.6

Optimum Blade Set Angle (Increased)

Ordinary Reynolds Numbers

5
6
7

0.30

9
10
11
Optimum Blade Set Angle

12

0.5

Thrust Coefficient

Rated

6
Opt. TSR

7
8
9
10
11
12

Tip Speed Ratio

Tip Speed Ratio

Figure 9: Power and thrust coefficients of the reference rotor for ordinary (red) and high
Reynolds numbers (blue). The blade set angle of the high Reynolds number coefficients is
optimized (increased).
angle to the optimum value for high
The thrust coefficient is also increased at

Reynolds numbers.

low tip speed ratios. This holds the risk of


increased loadings due to the Reynolds
number effect. In Figure 9, the coefficients
of the high Reynolds number calculations
are presented for an optimised blade set
angle. The best lift to drag ratio of the
airfoils at high Reynolds numbers occurs at
lower angles of attack. Therefore the
optimum blade set angle is increased for
high Reynolds numbers. The thrust
coefficient is generally lower for higher pitch
angles. As a result, the increased thrust
coefficient at rated power can partly be
compensated by adjusting the blade set

The Reynolds number effects are


particularly important at low tip speed
ratios, e.g. in gusts. Dynamic simulations of
gusts at various mean wind speeds and are
presented in Figure 10. The rise of the wind
speed (blue) leads to a decrease of the tip
speed ratio (dark blue). The response of the
wind turbine control to the gusts,
particularly the pitch angle (dark

green), is different for the ordinary and high

profile losses and thus a power coefficient

Reynolds number simulation. The flapwise

which is closer to the theoretical maximum

bending moment (red) is slightly increased

of CP = 0.59.

in gusts due to the Reynolds number effect.

Summary of high Reynolds number effects


on wind turbines are as follows.

The power coefficient at low tip speed ratios


is increased. This is because more lift can
be generated due to the higher maximum
lift caused by the Reynolds number effect.
Also less blade sections operate in stalled

The maximum power coefficient CP.max is

conditions which results in less drag. Hence

increased. This is caused by a lower drag in

profile losses are decreased at low tip

the low drag bucket, which leads to less

speed ratios as well.

Power Production and Gust at four different hub wind speeds

[m/s]
25
Wind Speed

20

15

10

T [kNm]
60

Gen. Torque
25

40

15

20
Pitch Angle
[]

12

[rpm]
15

12.5
Tip Speed Ratio
8

[-]

n
10
Rotor Speed
4

P [MW]
3
Power

Flapwise Bending Moment

+ 3.2%

[kNm]
4

My

5
10
15 | 0
5
10
15 | 0
5
10
15 | 0
5
10
15

Simulation Time [s]

Figure 10: Simulation of four gusts at different mean wind speeds displayed in series.
Ordinary Reynolds number calculations (coloured) are compared to high Reynolds numbers
(black).
The optimum tip speed ratio is increased.
The shape of the power coefficient curve
changes, its saddle becoming wider. This
is a consequence of points 1 and 2
above. This is advantageous for
operating conditions at non-optimum tip
speed ratios, namely for operation at

With this, the optimum lift to drag ratio occurs


at smaller angles of attack and hence at
smaller lift coefficients. The decrease in lift
coefficient is compensated by increasing the
section velocity, which shifts the optimum tip
speed ratio to higher values.

maximum tip speed below rated power.


The thrust coefficient is increased at low tip
The optimum blade set angle is
increased, because the best lift to drag
ratio is shifted to smaller angles of attack

speed ratios, but can be partly decreased by


increasing the blade set angle (see item 4
above).

and thus smaller lift coefficients. Hence


the optimum performance is reached at
smaller section inflow angles which are
achieved by increasing the blade set
angle.

Conclusion

In this work the effects of high Reynolds

properties. Thus synthetic airfoil properties

numbers (Re > 3 M) on airfoil properties

for high Reynolds numbers have been

have been investigated. The main effects

generated for the EUROS airfoil family.

are increased maximum lift and a shift to

Validation of the method with experimental

a higher angle of attack, decreased drag,

data shows good agreement for the drag

decreased width of the laminar bucket

modification. However, the prediction of the

and increased width of the low drag

increased lift and stall angle of attack is

bucket. The airfoil analysis code RFOIL

potentially less precise, but the general trend

is generally capable of predicting this

of increased lift and stall angle of attack is

Reynolds number trend. A method has

reasonably predictable. Hence, the method

been developed to transfer the trend

for the modification of airfoil properties for

predicted by RFOIL to measured airfoil

high
airfoils allows a wider operating range at

Reynolds numbers can be used to improve


the accuracy of wind turbine performance
and loading calculations, when measured
high Reynolds number airfoil data are not
available.

fixed rotor speed and hence a higher


maximum power (higher rotor rating) of the
wind turbine. Turbines at particularly windy
locations (such as those offshore) benefit
from this. In the case of the rotor blade
reference rotor blade, the Reynolds
number effect could possibly enable the

Steady state and non-steady state


performance and loading calculations have

use on a wind turbine with higher rated


power at windy sites.

been carried out for a reference wind


turbine of the 3 MW class. Here the
synthetic airfoil characteristics have been
applied. The effect of high Reynolds
numbers on the performance of a wind
turbine is generally positive. At fixed rotor
speed below rated power, where the
turbine operates at low tip speed ratios,
there is significant better efficiency. This
increase in efficiency is a consequence of
the increased lift of the airfoils at high
angles of attack. At low tip speed ratios,
the blade cross sections operate mainly
between the best lift to drag ratio (or just
below) and maximum lift. Since the angle
of attack of the best lift to drag ratio is
decreased and the stall angle of attack is
increased for high Reynolds numbers, the
convenient operating range becomes
wider. A wider operating range of the

The efficiency at the optimum tip speed


ratio is slightly increased as well. The
reason being that profile losses are
reduced for high Reynolds numbers. Since
the best lift to drag ratio occurs at lower
angles of attack, the optimum blade set
angle for maximum energy yield is
increased. A positive side effect from this is
that loadings are generally decreased for
higher blade set angles. It has to be
considered that a higher blade set angle,
and hence a lower design angle of attack,
results in operation at lower lift at optimum
tip speed ratio. This has to be
compensated by increasing the tip speed
ratio or increasing the chord length.

High Reynolds numbers increase the


loading of wind turbines when the rotor
blade operates near or above the stall
angle of attack. This is due to the
increased lift of the airfoils, which

Cuerva, Alvaro, Reynolds Nuber


Implications on the Determination of Wind
Turbine Optimum Rotors, EWEC, 2009

increases the thrust force and hence the


blade root bending moment. The increase
of the bending moment of the reference
rotor blade is relatively moderate because
the lift increase does not occur on

the entire rotor blade at the same time. In


the case of the reference rotor blade, a
blade set angle optimised for high
Reynolds number can compensate the

Somers, D.M., Design and Experimental


Results for the S825 Airfoil, NREL/SR-50036346, January 2005

Abbott, Ira H., Doenhoff, Albert E. von and


Stivers, Lois S. Jr., Summary of Airfoil
Data, NACA Report No. 824, Langley
Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, 1945

higher steady state bending moment at


rated wind speed. Since the increased
blade set angle was not accounted for in
the design of the reference rotor blade, the
increased bending moment is not
compensated in the current blade setting.
However, the blade root bending moment is
only increased slightly and is certainly

Somers, Dan M. and Tangler, James L.,


Wind-Tunnel Tests of Two Airfoils for Wind
Turbines Operating at High Reynolds
Numbers, Presented at the AIAA Wind
Energy Meeting, NREL/CP-500-27891,
January 2000

catered for by the safety factors applied in


the design.

Rooij, R.P.J.O.M. van, Modification of the


boundary layer calculation in RFOIL for

References

Gasch, R. und J. Twele (Hrsg.),


Windkraftanlagen, Wiesbaden : B. G.
Teubner Verlag / GWV Fachverlage GmbH,
2005. Bde. 4., vollst. berarb. und erw.
Auflage.

improved airfoil stall prediction, Report IW96087R, Delft, September 1996

Wallmann, S., Investigation of High


Reynolds Number Effects on Rotor Blades
for Wind Turbines, Diploma Thesis,
Technical University of Berlin, April 2010

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