Second Year Physics study material 2015

Modern physics possess five important chapters

1. Dual nature of Radiation and Matter
2. Atoms
3. Nuclei
4. Semi conductor electronics
5. Communication systems
Blue print of marks for PUC and CBSE board are as follows

CBSE Board:
Marks weightage
11

12

10

10
8
6

5
3

Marks weightage

2
0
Dual nature of
radiation and matter

Atoms and nuclie

Electronic devices

Communication
systems

For PUC board Karnataka

Marks weightage
11

10

5
3
Marks weightage
Atoms and nuclie

Electronic devices

Communication
systems

Dual nature of
radiation and
matter

Page

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Second Year Physics study material 2015

Nucleus
Introduction:
Now we know Atom consists of positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively
charged electrons revolving around nucleus. Entire atom is almost empty. Nucleus
confined to a very small area. Size of nucleus is about 1 Fermi. Whereas size of atom
is about 10-10 meters.
For example If nucleus is of football size at center of ground. Then size of atom is of
Football stadium
Lot of empty space is there inside the atom. Although nucleus is very tiny, 99.99% of
mass lies inside the nucleus.
In this lesson we try to understand
1. What is the structure of nucleus?
2. Constituents of nucleus and how these are held together?
3. Properties of nuclei such as size , mass , stability
4. Understood nuclear phenomenon such as radioactivity, fission and
fusion.

1. Define Atomic mass unit?

A) Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12th of the mass of carbon 12 atom (6C12). Mass
of nucleus and its constituent particles are expressed by a unit known as Unified
mass unit (u). This unit is also known as Atomic mass unit (a.m.u)
According to definition of a.m.u. 1 a.m.u. = (1/12) x mass of 1 carbon atom (6C12)
1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
In terms of eV ,

1 a.m.u = 931.25 MeV

2. Write a short note on Composition of nucleus?

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Neutrons and Protons comprises nucleus. The total number of protons in a nucleus is
known as Atomic number . It is represented by a letter Z.

A) According to Rutherford experiment, we understood the nucleus is at the center of

atom and electrons revolve around the nucleus. Almost the entire mass of atom is
concentrated at the center known as nucleus.

Second Year Physics study material 2015

The total number of protons and neutrons present inside the nucleus is known as
Mass number. It is denoted by letter A.
A= Z+N

or N = A Z

Where N is the number of neutrons.

Protons and neutrons in the nucleus are collectively known as nucleons. Nuclides are
represented by a notation ZXA .
Where X = symbol of element, Z = atomic number, A = mass number
3. Write a short note on discovery of Neutron?
A)

Isotopes of Hydrogen deuterium and tritium must contain only one proton each . But
masses of nuclei of Hydrogen , deuterium and tritium are different , so there must be
an additional neutral material present in the nucleus.
Neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. Alpha particles from polonium
metal are allowed to strike beryllium metal. Penetrating rays emerging from beryllium
metal were permitted to impinge upon a block of paraffin from which protons were
found to come out with high speed.

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Chadwick assumed that the radiation emitted from beryllium on being bombarded
with alpha particles was not rays, but were uncharged particles with a mass
approximately that of proton. These uncharged particles were known as Neutrons.

Second Year Physics study material 2015

4) Define Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones?
A) Isotopes: The atoms of an element which having the same atomic number but
different mass number are called isotopes.
In Isotopes , no of protons or no of electrons are equal , but no of neutrons are
different.
Ex :

8O

16

, 8O17 , 8O18

Average atomic mass of element is taken as weighted average of the masses of these
isotopes based on occurrence of each isotope in the nature.
Let A be an element having three stable isotopes A1, A2,A3 and Let u1 , u2 , u3 be
respective atomic masses of these isotopes and x, y, z are their relative abundances of
these isotopes
Then average atomic mass of element A =




Isobars : The atoms of an element which having same mass number but different
atomic numbers are called isobars.
Same mass number means, it consists of same number of nucleons.
Ex : 1H3 , 2He3
Isotones: The atoms whose nuclei having same number of neutrons are called
isotones.
Ex : 4Be9 and 5B10
5. Write a short note on Nuclear size and Nuclear Density?

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The size of the nucleus has been measured with the help of a variety of experiments
involving scattering of particles such as electrons , Protons and neutrons . From all
these experiments it is found that

A) Nuclear size : The finite size of nucleus is evident from Rutherford Alpha ray
scattering experiment. The distance of closest approach of the alpha particle helped in
estimating the size of nucleus. The radius of Gold nucleus was estimated to be 4.1 x
10-14 m. At Kinetic energy more than 5.5 MeV distance of closest approach will be
smaller. At Kinetic energy more than 5.5 MeV attractive nuclear forces start effecting
coulombs repulsive force.

Second Year Physics study material 2015

Volume of nucleus is directly proportional to the number of nucleons (Mass number)
constituting the nucleus.
If R is the radius of nucleus having mass number A then
4/3 R3 A
R A1/3
R = R0 A1/3
Where Ro = 1.1 x 10-15 m is the range of nuclear force . Fermi (F) is to used to measure
the size of nucleus.
1 Fermi = 10-15 m
Nuclear Density :
Mass per unit volume of the nucleus is called Nuclear Density
Nuclear density =

  
  

Nuclear density = (A x (1.66 x 10-27))/( 4/3 Ro3A)

= 2.38 x 1017 kg m-3
The nuclear density is constant and it is independent of mass number of nuclei. (i.e.,
Nuclear density of all atoms are same)
6. Explain briefly the properties of Nuclear forces ?
A) Nuclear forces are one of the fundamental forces in nature. It is a strong attractive
force . The properties of nuclear forces are as follows
1. Nuclear forces are strongest forces in Nature
2. Nuclear forces are short range forces. The range of nuclear forces are taken as 1.5
fermi.
3. Nuclear forces are strong attractive forces

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5. Nuclear forces are charge independent.

4. Nuclear forces are saturated forces, A nucleon inside the nucleus does not
experience nuclear force due to all other nucleons. It experiences force only due to its
nearest neighbouring nucleons.

Second Year Physics study material 2015

6. Nuclear force is due to exchange of pi mesons between nucleons , so they are
called exchange forces.
7. Nuclear forces is a non central forces
7. Write a short note on Mass energy equivalence?
A) Einstein through his theory of special relativity showed that mass and energy are
not different. Mass is another form of energy and one can convert from one form to
another form.
Einstein mass energy equivalence relation is given by
E = mc2
Einstein mass energy equivalence relation is verified by Nuclear reactions.
8. Write a short note on Mass Defect?
A) Mass defect is defined as the difference between the mass of constituent nucleons of
a nucleus in the free state and the mass of nucleus . It is denoted by m .
When a nucleus of an atom is formed by bringing protons and neutrons together , the
mass of nucleus so formed is always less than the sum of the mass of constituents
protons and neutrons in free state. This difference in mass is called mass defect.
Mass defect = m = { mpZ + mn(A Z)} M
Mass defect can be measured by means of a.m.u. or Kg.
9. What is nuclear binding energy and Binding energy per nucleon ?
A) Binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass
defect of nucleus.
When nucleus is formed from the free nucleons , the decrease in mass of the nucleons
is released as equivalent energy. Energy equivalent to mass defect is used in binding
the nucleons and is called binding energy of nucleus. In order to break the nucleus or
to completely separate the nucleons from each other , an equal amount of work has to
be done.
Mass defect = m = { mpZ + mn(A Z)} M

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Average energy required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy
per nucleon.

Binding energy = Mass defect x 931 MeV

Second Year Physics study material 2015

Binding energy per nucleon = (Mass defect x 931 MeV)/A
Binding energy per nucleon gives stability of the nucleus . If Binding energy per
nucleon is more , nucleus is stable.
10. What is Packing Fraction?
A) Packing fraction is defined as the mass difference per nucleon
Packing fraction =

 

 




The deviation of nuclear mass from the mass number is expressed in the form of a
quantity called Packing fraction.
Packing fraction measures the stability of nucleus. Smaller the value of Packing
fraction, Larger is the stability of the nucleus.
11. Explain briefly Binding energy curve?
A) Binding energy curve gives the stability of nucleus. In nucleus there is always
competition between electronic repulsion force and nuclear force. If nuclear force is
more binding energy per nucleon increases.
If Nuclear forces exactly balances the repulsive electromagnetic forces, then atom are
stable.
Iron and nickel are more stable elements and they found most in planet cores.
If Electro magnetic force dominates the nuclear force , Binding energy per nucleon
decreases. At high atomic numbers , in order to balance electro magnetic repulsive
force either it decays or undergoes fission.
From the graph , the following conclusions can be made
1. Average binding energy per nucleon for mass number < 3 is very small.
2. Nuclues having mass numbers between 3 and 20 have large binding energy per
nucleon than their neighboring nuclei , so these nuclei are more stable than their
neighbours.
3. For nucleus having mass number 30 and 62 , binding energy per nucleon increases
gradually till it attains a maximum value of 8.8 MeV per nucleon corresponding to
Ni nucleus. Iron and Nickel are stable elements.

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4. Nuclie having Mass number > 62 , binding energy per nucleon gradually decreases.

Second Year Physics study material 2015

Conclusions from Binding energy curve :
1. Intermediate nuclei have large value of binding energy per nucleon , so they are
most stable.
2. The binding energy per nucleon has low value for both light and heavy nuclei. So
they are unstable.
3. When heavy nucleus splits up into lighter nuclei , then binding energy per nucleon
of lighter nuclei is more than that of original heavy nucleus. Thus energy is released in
this process. This process is known as nuclear fission.
4. When two very light nuclei ( A < 10) combines to form a relatively heavy nucleus
then binding energy per nucleon of combined becomes more than lighter nuclei. Thus
energy is released in this process. This process is called nuclear fusion.
12. Define Radioactivity and explain reason for Radioactivity?
A) The spontaneous transformation of an element into another with the emission of
some particle (or particles) or electromagnetic radiation is called Radioactivity.
Instability of heavy nucleus is cause of radioactivity. Binding energy per nucleon
decreases for nuclides having mass number > 140. Heavy nuclei have large number of
protons and badly effects the nuclear force binding the nucleons and thereby the
heavy nucleus unstable.
They are three types of Radioactivity in nature
1. Decay in which a Helium nucleus is emitted
2. Decay in which electrons or positrons are emitted.
3. Decay in which high energy photons are emitted

13. Explain briefly Laws of Radioactivity?

A) The number of nuclei decaying per unit time at an instant is directly proportional to
the number of nuclei in the radioactive substance at that time.
Radioactive decay follows below laws

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2. When a radioactive atom disintegrates, either an alpha particle or a Beta particle is

emitted.

1. Radioactive decay is spontaneous process and not effected by external conditions

like temperature, pressure etc.,

Second Year Physics study material 2015

3. When radioactive element decays by emitting an alpha particle, the position of
daughter element is down by two places in periodic table.
4. When radioactive element decays by emitting an Beta particle, the position of
daughter element raised by one place in periodic table.
5. When a radioactive element decays by emitting an Gamma rays , its position
remains same in periodic table , it comes to normal state from excited state by
emitting a energy in the form of photon or Gamma ray.
14. Derive an expression for Radioactive decay and Half life time?
A) Consider a Radio active substance Having N0 number of atoms at time t = 0 . When
Radioactive decay starts , the number of atoms in the substance decreases.
After time t No of atoms remains undecayed in substance is N . If dN is the no of
atoms decayed in small interval of time dt
Then Rate of disintegration

R = -dN/dt

According to decay law

-dN/dt N
R = -dN/dt = N ----------- (1)

Where is decay constant or disintegration constant.

Equation 1 can be written as dN/N = - dt
Integrating on both sides we get

logeN = -t + C

Where C is constant of integration

When t= 0 , N = N0 ,

logeN0 = C
logeN = -t + logeN0
logeN - logeN0 = -t
loge (N/ N0 ) = -t
(N/ N0 ) = e-t

=
N = No e-t

Half life time:

When t = t1/2 , N = N0/2

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N = No e-t

The time during which half of the atoms of the radioactive substance disintegrate is
called life of radioactive substance.

Second Year Physics study material 2015

N0/2 = No e-t1/2
e-t1/2 = 2
Taking logarithms on both sides we get ,
t1/2

= loge2 = 2.303 log102

t1/2 = (2.303 log102)/

= (2.303 x 0.3010)/
= 0.6931/
Half life of radioactive substance is inversely proportional to decay constant ()
15. Define Mean life of radioactive substance?
A) Mean life of a radioactive substance is given by the sum of total life of all atoms
divided by the total no of atoms present.
Mea life = Sum of lives of all atoms/ Total no of atoms present
= Ttotal/ N0
Mean life measures the average time of radioactive substance exists.
= N0/No = 1/
Average or mean life of a radioactive substance is reciprocal to decay constant of
substance.
16. Write a short note on alpha decay, Beta decay , Gamma decay ?
A) Alpha decay :
The spontaneous emission of alpha particle from a radioactive substance is called
alpha decay. As alpha particle is a Helium nucleus , Nucleus emitting alpha particle
looses two protons and two neutrons, as a result atomic number decreases by 2 ,
the mass number A decreases by 4
ZX

--

z-2Y

A-4

+ 2He4 +Q

Beta Decay :

90U238

90Th234

+ 2He4

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Example :

10

Where Q = (mX mY m)c2 is also known as disintegration energy and is shared by

daughter nucleus and alpha particle.

Second Year Physics study material 2015

The spontaneous process of emission of Beta particle from a radioactive nucleus is
called Beta decay.
Beta particles are electrons , when a nucleus emit an Beta particle, atomic number
increases by one unit and mass number does not change.
ZXA

--

z+1YA

+ -1e0

They are three types of Beta decay . + decay , - decay , electron capture.
In - decay , a neutron is transformed into proton and an electron with emission of
antineutrino (-)
0n

 1P1 + -1e0 + -

To conserve momentum , the spin and angular momentum , anti neutrino is emitted.
In - decay atomic number of daughter nuclei increase by one.
ZXA

Example :

6C14

--

z+1YA

+ -1e0 + - + Q

-- 7N14 + -1e0 + - + Q

In + decay , a proton is transformed into neutron and a positron with emission of

neutrino ()
 0n 1 + 1e 0 + + Q

1 P1

In + decay atomic number of daughter nuclei decreases by one.

ZXA

Example :

--

7N13

z-1YA

+ 1e 0 + + Q

-- 6C13 + 1e0 + + Q

In an Electron capture decay mode , parent nucleus captures one of its own orbital
atomic electron and emits a positron with neutrino. The final product after decay is a
nucleus whose charge is (Z -1) . Electron capture also due to excess protons relative to
neutrons. This is similar to + decay.

Gamma decay:

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The emission of Gamma rays from the nucleus does not alter either atomic number or
mass number. It just results in the change of energy state of a nucleus.

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When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating rays , it is said to undergo decay.

Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations of higher energy.

Second Year Physics study material 2015

When a parent nucleus emits an alpha or Beta particle, the daughter nucleus may be
formed in one of excited states. Such a nucleus will eventually come to ground state.
In this process gamma radiation is emitted.
Example :
82Pb210
83Bi

--

210 *

83Bi210 *

83Bi

210

+ -1e0 + - (excited state)

+ ray

17. Write a short note on Types of nuclear energy?

A) Energy obtained from the conversion of nuclear mass is known as nuclear energy.
Binding energy per nucleon of light and heavier nuclei is small as compared to the
binding energy per nucleon of intermediate nuclei.
When heavier nucleus splits in to lighter nuclei, Binding energy per nucleon increases
for lighter nuclei. Thus a large energy is released in the process of splitting the
nucleus. This process is known as Nuclear fission.
When two light nucleus fuse or combine together to form a relatively heavy nucleus,
binding energy per nucleon increases. Large amount of energy is released in this
process known as Nuclear fusion.
18. What is nuclear fission?
A) The nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of a heavier element splits into two or more
smaller nuclei accompanied by energy. Such a process is called Nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission of
0n 1

92U235

is represented as follows

92U235

56

Ba

141+ 36

Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Q (energy)

The energy released during the fission of uranium nuclide is equivalent to the
difference between mass of reactants and mass of products.
Mass of

92U

235

= 235.124 a.m.u.

Mass of 0n1

= 1.009 a.m.u.

Total mass of reactants = (92U235 and 0n1) = 236.133 a.m.u.

Ba

Mass of

36

Kr92 = 91.926 a.m.u.

141

= 140.95 a.m.u.

Mass of 3 0n1 = 3.027 a.m.u.

Total mass of products = 235.911 a.m.u.

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56

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Mass of

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Mass defect = Mass of reactants - Mass of products
= 236.133 235.911 = 0.22 a.m.u
But 1 a.m.u. = 931 MeV
Energy released per fission of

92U

235

= 0.22 x 931 = 206.6 MeV

19. Explain the principle involved in nuclear reactor? Name the main
components of nuclear reactor and state the function of each component?
A) A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be carried out through
sustained and a controlled chain reaction. It is also called as Atomic pile.
Construction of Nuclear reactor is as shown in figure
Nuclear fuel and Clad :
The fissionable material used in the
reactor is called Nuclear fuel.
The nuclear fuel is fabricated in the
from of thin and long cylindrical rods.
The part of nuclear reactor housing
the nuclear fuel is known as core of
reactor. The nuclear fuel used are
natural uranium , enriched uranium ,
plutonium , Uranium 233.
Moderator:
The material used to slow down the fast moving neutrons produced as a result of
nuclear fission is called moderator. In Nuclear reactor the moderator is either
graphite or Heavy water. Moderators should not absorb neutrons.
Control rods:
The materials that can absorb the neutrons are used to control the nuclear chain
reaction. Cadmium and boron rods are used for this purpose.

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A large amount of heat developed in the reactor due to chain reaction. The heat
generated in fuel elements is removed by using a suitable coolant to flow around them.
The coolants used are water at high pressure , molten sodium etc.,

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Coolant :

Second Year Physics study material 2015

Protective shield :
A protective shield in the form a concrete thick wall surrounds the core of the reactor
to save the persons working around the reactor from the hazardous radiations.
Working of Nuclear reactor:
A few Uranium nuclei undergo fission liberating fast neutrons. These fast neutrons
are slowed down by a moderator (usually Graphite) through elastic collisions. When
reactor becomes critical , the cadmium rods are used to control the chain reaction.
This fission produces heat in the nuclear reactor core.
The coolant transfers this heat from core to heat exchanger , where steam is formed.
This steam produced at a very high pressure runs the turbine and the electricity is
obtained at the generator.
This process repeats and we get continuous supply of energy in the form of electricity.
20. Write a short note on Chain reactions?
A) In nuclear fission, three neutrons are produced along with the release of large
amount of energy . These newly produced neutrons can cause further fission of more
nuclei, producing large number of neutrons. This process continues and the number
of fissions taking place at each stage goes on increasing at fast rate. This process is
called uncontrolled chain reaction.
This chain reaction can be controlled by slowing down the neutrons and by absorbing
neutrons.
The neutrons emitted during fission are very fast and they travel large distance before
they slowed down . If the size of fissionable material is very small , the neutrons
emitted will be escape from fissionable material before they are slowed down. Hence
chain reaction cannot be sustained.
Therefore the size of a fissionable material should be larger than critical size. The
reproduction factor determines whether or not any mass of fissionable material will
sustain chain reaction.
    
    

If K = 1 , the rate of production of neutron is equal to rate of loss of neutron, the mass
of fissionable material is said to be critical and the chain reaction is sustained.
If K<1 , then chain reaction stops

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K=

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It is given by

Second Year Physics study material 2015

If K >1, chain reaction is accelerated.
21. Explain briefly Nuclear fusion reaction?
A) The process of formation of single stable nucleus by fusing two or more light
nuclei is called nuclear fusion. The energy released in this process is called fusion
energy.
Nuclear fusion cannot taken place in normal conditions. Nuclear fusion can be
achieved at high temperatures and hence is known as thermo nuclear reaction. The
temperature of the order 107K is required to trigger nuclear fusion. This much
temperature is available in core of sun and stars. So nuclear fusion is possible in the
sun and other stars.
The source of stellar energy is thermo nuclear reactions. Two types of cycles occurs in
stars
1. Proton proton cycle
2. Carbon Nitrogen cycle
Proton Proton cycle takes place as follows
1 H1

+ 1H1  1H2 + 1e0 + + 0.42 MeV

1 H2

+ 1H1  3He2 + +5.49 MeV

2He3

+ 2He3  4He2 + 21H1 + 12.86 MeV

Total energy released in this cycle = (0.42 + 5.49 + 12.86 ) = 18.77 MeV

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The two protons produced in the last step of the cycle repeat the proton proton cycle.