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Steel
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Steelsarealloysofironandcarbon,widelyusedinconstructionand
otherapplicationsbecauseoftheirhightensilestrengthsandlow
costs.Carbon,otherelements,andinclusionswithinironactas
hardeningagentsthatpreventthemovementofdislocationsthat
otherwiseoccurinthecrystallatticesofironatoms.
Thecarbonintypicalsteelalloysmaycontributeupto2.1%ofits
weight.Varyingtheamountofalloyingelements,theirformationin
thesteeleitherassoluteelements,orasprecipitatedphases,retards
themovementofthosedislocationsthatmakeironsoductileand
weak,andthuscontrolsqualitiessuchasthehardness,ductility,and
tensilestrengthoftheresultingsteel.Steel'sstrengthcomparedto
pureironisonlypossibleattheexpenseofductility,ofwhichiron
hasanexcess.
Althoughsteelhadbeenproducedinbloomeryfurnacesfor
Thesteelcableofacollierywinding
thousandsofyears,steel'suseexpandedextensivelyaftermore
tower
efficientproductionmethodsweredevisedinthe17thcenturyfor
blistersteelandthencruciblesteel.Withtheinventionofthe
Bessemerprocessinthemid19thcentury,aneweraofmassproducedsteelbegan.Thiswasfollowedby
SiemensMartinprocessandthenGilchristThomasprocessthatrefinedthequalityofsteel.Withtheir
introductions,mildsteelreplacedwroughtiron.
Furtherrefinementsintheprocess,suchasbasicoxygensteelmaking(BOS),largelyreplacedearlier
methodsbyfurtherloweringthecostofproductionandincreasingthequalityofthemetal.Today,steelis
oneofthemostcommonmaterialsintheworld,withmorethan1.3billiontonsbeingproducedannually.It
isamajorcomponentinbuildings,infrastructure,tools,ships,automobiles,machines,appliances,and
weapons.Modernsteelisgenerallyidentifiedbyvariousgradesdefinedbyassortedstandards
organizations.

Contents
1Definitionsandrelatedmaterials
2Materialproperties
2.1Heattreatment
3Steelproduction
4Historyofsteelmaking
4.1Ancientsteel
4.2WootzsteelandDamascussteel
4.3Modernsteelmaking
4.3.1Processesstartingfrombariron
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4.3.2Processesstartingfrompigiron
5Steelindustry
6Recycling
7Contemporarysteel
7.1Carbonsteels
7.2Alloysteels
7.3Standards
8Uses
8.1Historical
8.2Longsteel
8.3Flatcarbonsteel
8.4Stainlesssteel
8.5Lowbackgroundsteel
9Seealso
10References
10.1Bibliography
11Furtherreading
12Externallinks

Definitionsandrelatedmaterials
Thecarboncontentofsteelisbetween0.002%and2.1%byweightforplainironcarbonalloys.These
valuesvarydependingonalloyingelementssuchasmanganese,chromium,nickel,iron,tungsten,carbon
andsoon.Basically,steelisanironcarbonalloythatdoesnotundergoeutecticreaction.Incontrast,cast
irondoesundergoeutecticreaction.Toolittlecarboncontentleaves(pure)ironquitesoft,ductile,and
weak.Carboncontentshigherthanthoseofsteelmakeanalloycommonlycalledpigironthatisbrittleand
notmalleable.Alloysteelissteeltowhichalloyingelementshavebeenintentionallyaddedtomodifythe
characteristicsofsteel.Commonalloyingelementsinclude:manganese,nickel,chromium,molybdenum,
boron,titanium,vanadium,andniobium.[1]Additionalelementsmaybepresentinsteel:manganese,
phosphorus,sulfur,silicon,andtracesofoxygen,nitrogen,andcopper.
Alloyswithahigherthan2.1%carboncontent,dependingonotherelementcontentandpossiblyon
processing,areknownascastiron.Castironisnotmalleableevenwhenhot,butitcanbeformedby
castingasithasalowermeltingpointthansteelandgoodcastabilityproperties.[1]Steelisalso
distinguishablefromwroughtiron(nowlargelyobsolete),whichmaycontainasmallamountofcarbonbut
largeamountsofslag.Notethatthepercentagesofcarbonandotherelementsquotedareonaweightbasis.

Materialproperties
IroniscommonlyfoundintheEarth'scrustintheformofanore,usuallyanironoxide,suchasmagnetite,
hematiteetc.Ironisextractedfromironorebyremovingtheoxygenthroughcombinationwithapreferred
chemicalpartnersuchascarbonthatislosttotheatmosphereascarbondioxide.Thisprocess,knownas
smelting,wasfirstappliedtometalswithlowermeltingpoints,suchastin,whichmeltsatapproximately
250C(482F)andcopper,whichmeltsatapproximately1,100C(2,010F).Incomparison,castiron
meltsatapproximately1,375C(2,507F).[2]Smallquantitiesofironweresmeltedinancienttimes,inthe
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solidstate,byheatingtheoreburiedinacharcoalfireandweldingthemetaltogetherwithahammer,
squeezingouttheimpurities.Withcare,thecarboncontentcouldbecontrolledbymovingitaroundinthe
fire.
AllofthesetemperaturescouldbereachedwithancientmethodsthathavebeenusedsincetheBronzeAge.
Sincetheoxidationrateofironincreasesrapidlybeyond800C(1,470F),itisimportantthatsmelting
takeplaceinalowoxygenenvironment.Unlikecopperandtin,liquidorsolidirondissolvescarbonquite
readily.Smeltingresultsinanalloy
(pigiron)thatcontainstoomuch
carbontobecalledsteel.[2]The
excesscarbonandotherimpurities
areremovedinasubsequentstep.
Othermaterialsareoftenaddedto
theiron/carbonmixturetoproduce
steelwithdesiredproperties.Nickel
andmanganeseinsteeladdtoits
tensilestrengthandmakethe
austeniteformoftheironcarbon
solutionmorestable,chromium
increaseshardnessandmelting
temperature,andvanadiumalso
increaseshardnesswhilemakingit
lesspronetometalfatigue.[3]
Toinhibitcorrosion,atleast11%
chromiumisaddedtosteelsothata
hardoxideformsonthemetal
surfacethisisknownasstainless
Ironcarbonphasediagram,showingtheconditionsnecessarytoform
steel.Tungsteninterfereswiththe
differentphases
formationofcementite,allowing
martensitetopreferentiallyformat
slowerquenchrates,resultinginhighspeedsteel.Ontheotherhand,sulfur,nitrogen,andphosphorusmake
steelmorebrittle,sothesecommonlyfoundelementsmustberemovedfromthesteelmeltduring
processing.[3]
Thedensityofsteelvariesbasedonthealloyingconstituentsbutusuallyrangesbetween7,750and
8,050kg/dm3(484,000and503,000lb/cuft),or7.75and8.05g/cm3(4.48and4.65oz/cuin).[4]
Eveninanarrowrangeofconcentrationsofmixturesofcarbonandironthatmakeasteel,anumberof
differentmetallurgicalstructures,withverydifferentpropertiescanform.Understandingsuchpropertiesis
essentialtomakingqualitysteel.Atroomtemperature,themoststableformofpureironisthebody
centeredcubic(BCC)structurecalledferriteoriron.Itisafairlysoftmetalthatcandissolveonlyasmall
concentrationofcarbon,nomorethan0.005%at0C(32F)and0.021wt%at723C(1,333F).At
910Cpureirontransformsintoafacecenteredcubic(FCC)structure,calledausteniteoriron.TheFCC
structureofaustenitecandissolveconsiderablymorecarbon,asmuchas2.1%[5](38timesthatofferrite)
carbonat1,148C(2,098F),whichreflectstheuppercarboncontentofsteel,beyondwhichiscastiron.[6]
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Whensteelswithlessthan0.8%carbon(knownasahypoeutectoidsteel),arecooled,theausteniticphase
(FCC)ofthemixtureattemptstoreverttotheferritephase(BCC).Thecarbonnolongerfitswithinthe
FCCstructure,resultinginanexcessofcarbon.Onewayforcarbontoleavetheausteniteisforitto
precipitateoutofsolutionascementite,leavingbehindasurroundingphaseofBCCironthatislowenough
incarbontotaketheformofferrite,resultinginaferritematrixwithcementiteinclusions.Cementiteisa
hardandbrittleintermetalliccompoundwiththechemicalformulaofFe3C.Attheeutectoid,0.8%carbon,
thecooledstructuretakestheformofpearlite,namedforitsresemblancetomotherofpearl.Onalarger
scale,itappearsasalamellarstructureofferriteandcementite.Forsteelsthathavemorethan0.8%carbon,
thecooledstructuretakestheformofpearliteandcementite.[7]
Perhapsthemostimportantpolymorphicformofsteelismartensite,ametastablephasethatissignificantly
strongerthanothersteelphases.Whenthesteelisinanausteniticphaseandthenquenchedrapidly,itforms
intomartensite,astheatoms"freeze"inplacewhenthecellstructurechangesfromFCCtoadistortedform
ofBCCastheatomsdonothavetimeenoughtomigrateandformthecementitecompound.Dependingon
thecarboncontent,themartensiticphasetakesdifferentforms.Belowapproximately0.2%carbon,ittakes
anferriteBCCcrystalform,butathighercarboncontentittakesabodycenteredtetragonal(BCT)
structure.Thereisnothermalactivationenergyforthetransformationfromaustenitetomartensite.
Moreover,thereisnocompositionalchangesotheatomsgenerallyretaintheirsameneighbors.[8]
Martensitehasalowerdensitythandoesaustenite,sothatthetransformationbetweenthemresultsina
changeofvolume.Inthiscase,expansionoccurs.Internalstressesfromthisexpansiongenerallytakethe
formofcompressiononthecrystalsofmartensiteandtensionontheremainingferrite,withafairamount
ofshearonbothconstituents.Ifquenchingisdoneimproperly,theinternalstressescancauseapartto
shatterasitcools.Attheveryleast,theycauseinternalworkhardeningandothermicroscopic
imperfections.Itiscommonforquenchcrackstoformwhensteeliswaterquenched,althoughtheymaynot
alwaysbevisible.[9]

Heattreatment
Therearemanytypesofheattreatingprocessesavailabletosteel.Themostcommonareannealing,
quenching,andtempering.Annealingistheprocessofheatingthesteeltoasufficientlyhightemperatureto
softenit.Thisprocessgoesthroughthreephases:recovery,recrystallization,andgraingrowth.The
temperaturerequiredtoannealsteeldependsonthetypeofannealingtobeachievedandtheconstituentsof
thealloy.[10]
Quenchingandtemperingfirstinvolvesheatingthesteeltotheaustenitephasethenquenchingitinwateror
oil.Thisrapidcoolingresultsinahardbutbrittlemartensiticstructure.[8]Thesteelisthentempered,which
isjustaspecializedtypeofannealing,toreducebrittleness.Inthisapplicationtheannealing(tempering)
processtransformssomeofthemartensiteintocementite,orspheroiditeandhencereducestheinternal
stressesanddefects.Theresultisamoreductileandfractureresistantsteel.[11]

Steelproduction
Whenironissmeltedfromitsore,itcontainsmorecarbonthanisdesirable.Tobecomesteel,itmustbe
reprocessedtoreducethecarbontothecorrectamount,atwhichpointotherelementscanbeadded.In
modernfacilities,thisliquidisthencontinuouslycastintolongslabsorcastintoingots.Approximately
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96%ofsteeliscontinuouslycast,whileonly4%isproducedasingots.[12]
Theingotsarethenheatedinasoakingpitandhotrolledintoslabs,blooms,orbillets.Slabsarehotorcold
rolledintosheetmetalorplates.Billetsarehotorcoldrolled
intobars,rods,andwire.Bloomsarehotorcoldrolledinto
structuralsteel,suchasIbeamsandrails.Inmodernsteelmills
theseprocessesoftenoccurinoneassemblyline,withore
cominginandfinishedsteelcomingout.[13]Sometimesaftera
steel'sfinalrollingitisheattreatedforstrength,howeverthisis
relativelyrare.[14]

Historyofsteelmaking
Ironorepelletsfortheproductionofsteel

Ancientsteel
Steelwasknowninantiquity,andmayhavebeenproducedby
managingbloomeriesandcrucibles,orironsmeltingfacilities,in
whichtheycontainedcarbon.[15][16][17]
Theearliestknownproductionofsteelarepiecesofironwareexcavated
fromanarchaeologicalsiteinAnatolia(KamanKalehoyuk)andare
nearly4,000yearsold,datingfrom1800BC.[18][19]Horaceidentifies
steelweaponslikethefalcataintheIberianPeninsula,whileNoric
steelwasusedbytheRomanmilitary.[20]
SouthIndianandMediterraneansourcesincludingAlexandertheGreat
(3rdc.BC)recountthepresentationandexporttotheGreeksof100
talentsofSouthIndiansteel.ThereputationofSericironofSouth
India(wootzsteel)amongsttheGreeks,Romans,Egyptians,East
Africans,ChineseandtheMiddleEastgrewconsiderably,ahigh
qualityhighcarbonironandsteelimportedfromTamilpeopleofthe
dynastyChera.[17]MetalproductionsitesinSriLankautilizedthese
noveltechniquesusinguniquewindfurnacesdrivenbythemonsoon
Bloomerysmeltingduringthe
winds,capableofproducinghighcarbonsteel,aswellasimported
MiddleAges
artefactsofancientironandsteelfromKodumanal.LargescaleWootz
steelproductioninTamilakamusingcruciblestheyinventedand
carbonsourcessuchastheplantAvramoccurredbythesixthcenturyBC,thepioneeringprecursorto
modernsteelproductionandmetallurgy.[16][17]
SteelwasproducedinlargequantitiesinSpartaaround650BC.[21][22]
TheChineseoftheWarringStatesperiod(403221BC)hadquenchhardenedsteel,[23]whileChineseof
theHandynasty(202BC220AD)createdsteelbymeltingtogetherwroughtironwithcastiron,gaining
anultimateproductofacarbonintermediatesteelbythe1stcenturyAD.[24][25]TheHayapeopleofEast

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Africainventedatypeoffurnacetheyusedtomakecarbonsteelat1,802C(3,276F)nearly2,000years
ago.EastAfricansteelhasbeensuggestedbyRichardHookertodatebackto1400BC.[26][27]

WootzsteelandDamascussteel
EvidenceoftheearliestproductionofhighcarbonsteelintheIndianSubcontinentarefoundinKodumanal
inTamilNaduarea,GolcondainAndhraPradeshareaandKarnataka,andinSamanalawewaareasofSri
Lanka.[28]ThiscametobeknownasWootzsteel,producedinSouthIndiabyaboutsixthcenturyBCand
exportedglobally.[29][30]Thesteeltechnologyexistedpriorto326BCintheregionastheyarementioned
inliteratureofSangamTamil,ArabicandLatinasthefineststeelintheworldexportedtotheRomans,
Egyptian,ChineseandArabsworldsatthattimewhattheycalledSericIron.[31]A200BCTamiltrade
guildinTissamaharama,intheSouthEastofSriLanka,broughtwiththemsomeoftheoldestironandsteel
artefactsandproductionprocessestotheislandfromtheclassicalperiod.[32][33][34][35]TheChineseand
localsinAnuradhapura,SriLankahadalsoadoptedtheproductionmethodsofcreatingWootzsteelfrom
theCheraDynastyTamilsofSouthIndiabythe5thcenturyAD.[36][37]InSriLanka,thisearlysteelmaking
methodemployedauniquewindfurnace,drivenbythemonsoonwinds,capableofproducinghighcarbon
steel.[38][39]SincethetechnologywasacquiredfromtheTamiliansfromSouthIndia,theoriginofsteel
technologyinIndiacanbeconservativelyestimatedat400500BC.[29][39]
Wootz,alsoknownasDamascussteel,isfamousforitsdurabilityandabilitytoholdanedge.Itwas
originallycreatedfromanumberofdifferentmaterialsincludingvarioustraceelements,apparently
ultimatelyfromthewritingsofZosimosofPanopolis.However,thesteelwasanoldtechnologyinIndia
whenKingPoruspresentedasteelswordtotheEmperorAlexanderin326BC.Itwasessentiallya
complicatedalloywithironasitsmaincomponent.Recentstudieshavesuggestedthatcarbonnanotubes
wereincludedinitsstructure,whichmightexplainsomeofitslegendaryqualities,thoughgiventhe
technologyofthattime,suchqualitieswereproducedbychanceratherthanbydesign.[40]Naturalwindwas
usedwherethesoilcontainingironwasheatedbytheuseofwood.TheancientSinhalesemanagedto
extractatonofsteelforevery2tonsofsoil,[38]aremarkablefeatatthetime.Onesuchfurnacewasfound
inSamanalawewaandarchaeologistswereabletoproducesteelastheancientsdid.[38][41]
Cruciblesteel,formedbyslowlyheatingandcoolingpureironandcarbon(typicallyintheformof
charcoal)inacrucible,wasproducedinMervbythe9thto10thcenturyAD.[30]Inthe11thcentury,there
isevidenceoftheproductionofsteelinSongChinausingtwotechniques:a"berganesque"methodthat
producedinferior,inhomogeneous,steel,andaprecursortothemodernBessemerprocessthatusedpartial
decarbonizationviarepeatedforgingunderacoldblast.[42]

Modernsteelmaking
Sincethe17thcenturythefirststepinEuropeansteelproductionhasbeenthesmeltingofironoreintopig
ironinablastfurnace.[43]Originallyemployingcharcoal,modernmethodsusecoke,whichhasproven
moreeconomical.[44][45][46]
Processesstartingfrombariron

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Intheseprocessespigironwas"fined"inafineryforgetoproducebariron,whichwasthenusedinsteel
making.[43]
TheproductionofsteelbythecementationprocesswasdescribedinatreatisepublishedinPraguein1574
andwasinuseinNurembergfrom1601.Asimilarprocessforcasehardeningarmourandfileswas
describedinabookpublishedinNaplesin1589.TheprocesswasintroducedtoEnglandinabout1614and
usedtoproducesuchsteelbySirBasilBrookeatCoalbrookdaleduringthe1610s.[47]
Therawmaterialforthisprocesswerebarsofiron.Duringthe17thcentury
itwasrealizedthatthebeststeelcamefromoregroundsironofaregion
northofStockholm,Sweden.Thiswasstilltheusualrawmaterialsourcein
the19thcentury,almostaslongastheprocesswasused.[48][49]
Cruciblesteelissteelthathasbeenmeltedinacrucibleratherthanhaving
beenforged,withtheresultthatitismorehomogeneous.Mostprevious
furnacescouldnotreachhighenoughtemperaturestomeltthesteel.The
earlymoderncruciblesteelindustryresultedfromtheinventionof
BenjaminHuntsmaninthe1740s.Blistersteel(madeasabove)wasmelted
inacrucibleorinafurnace,andcast(usually)intoingots.[49][50]
Processesstartingfrompigiron
ThemodernerainsteelmakingbeganwiththeintroductionofHenry
Bessemer'sBessemerprocessin1855,therawmaterialforwhichwaspig
iron.[51]Hismethodlethimproducesteelinlargequantities
cheaply,thusmildsteelcametobeusedformostpurposesfor
whichwroughtironwasformerlyused.[52]TheGilchrist
Thomasprocess(orbasicBessemerprocess)wasan
improvementtotheBessemerprocess,madebyliningthe
converterwithabasicmaterialtoremovephosphorus.

ABessemerconverterin
Sheffield,England

Another19thcenturysteelmakingprocesswastheSiemens
Martinprocess,whichcomplementedtheBessemerprocess.[49]
Itconsistedofcomeltingbariron(orsteelscrap)withpigiron.
ASiemensMartinsteelovenfromthe

Thesemethodsofsteelproductionwererenderedobsoleteby
BrandenburgMuseumofIndustry.
theLinzDonawitzprocessofbasicoxygensteelmaking(BOS),
developedinthe1950s,andotheroxygensteelmaking
methods.Basicoxygensteelmakingissuperiortoprevioussteelmakingmethodsbecausetheoxygen
pumpedintothefurnacelimitsimpuritiesthatpreviouslyhadenteredfromtheairused.[53]Today,electric
arcfurnaces(EAF)areacommonmethodofreprocessingscrapmetaltocreatenewsteel.Theycanalsobe
usedforconvertingpigirontosteel,buttheyusealotofelectricalenergy(about440kWhpermetricton),
andarethusgenerallyonlyeconomicalwhenthereisaplentifulsupplyofcheapelectricity.[54]

Steelindustry
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Itiscommontodaytotalkabout"theironandsteelindustry"asifitwereasingleentity,buthistorically
theywereseparateproducts.Thesteelindustryisoftenconsideredanindicatorofeconomicprogress,
becauseofthecriticalroleplayedbysteelininfrastructuralandoveralleconomicdevelopment.[55]
In1980,thereweremorethan500,000U.S.steelworkers.By2000,thenumberofsteelworkersfellto
224,000.[56]
TheeconomicboominChinaandIndiahascausedamassiveincreaseinthedemandforsteelinrecent
years.Between2000and2005,worldsteeldemandincreasedby6%.Since2000,severalIndian[57]and
ChinesesteelfirmshaverisentoprominencelikeTataSteel
(whichboughtCorusGroupin2007),ShanghaiBaosteelGroup
CorporationandShagangGroup.ArcelorMittalishoweverthe
world'slargeststeelproducer.
In2005,theBritishGeologicalSurveystatedChinawasthetop
steelproducerwithaboutonethirdoftheworldshareJapan,
Russia,andtheUSfollowedrespectively.[58]
In2008,steelbegantradingasacommodityontheLondon
MetalExchange.Attheendof2008,thesteelindustryfaceda
sharpdownturnthatledtomanycutbacks.[59]

Whitehotsteelpouringoutofanelectric
arcfurnace.

Theworldsteelindustrypeakedin2007.Thatyear,
ThyssenKrupp
spent$12billion
tobuildthetwo
mostmodern
millsinthe
world,in
Calvert,
Alabamaand
Sepetiba,Riode
Janeiro,Brazil.
Theworldwide
GreatRecession
startingin2008,
however,sharply
Steelproductionbycountryin2007
lowereddemand
andnew
construction,andsopricesfell.ThyssenKrupplost$11billiononitstwonewplants,whichsoldsteel
belowthecostofproduction.Finallyin2013,ThyssenKruppofferedtheplantsforsaleatunder$4
billion.[60]

Recycling

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Steelisoneoftheworld'smostrecycledmaterials,witharecyclingrateofover60%globally[61]inthe
UnitedStatesalone,over82,000,000metrictons(81,000,000longtons)wasrecycledintheyear2008,for
anoverallrecyclingrateof83%.[62]

Contemporarysteel
Carbonsteels
Modernsteelsaremadewithvaryingcombinationsofalloy
metalstofulfillmanypurposes.[3]Carbonsteel,composed
simplyofironandcarbon,accountsfor90%ofsteel
production.[1]Lowalloysteelisalloyedwithotherelements,
usuallymolybdenum,manganese,chromium,ornickel,in
amountsofupto10%byweighttoimprovethehardenability
ofthicksections.[1]Highstrengthlowalloysteelhassmall
additions(usually<2%byweight)ofotherelements,typically
1.5%manganese,toprovideadditionalstrengthforamodest
priceincrease.[63]

AsteelplantintheUnitedKingdom.

RecentCorporateAverageFuelEconomy(CAFE)regulations
havegivenrisetoanewvarietyofsteelknownasAdvanced
HighStrengthSteel(AHSS).Thismaterialisbothstrongand
ductilesothatvehiclestructurescanmaintaintheircurrent
safetylevelswhileusinglessmaterial.Thereareseveral
commerciallyavailablegradesofAHSS,suchasdualphase
steel,whichisheattreatedtocontainbothaferriticand
martensiticmicrostructuretoproduceaformable,highstrength
steel.[64]TransformationInducedPlasticity(TRIP)steel
involvesspecialalloyingandheattreatmentstostabilize
BethlehemSteelinBethlehem,
amountsofausteniteatroomtemperatureinnormallyaustenite
Pennsylvaniawasoneoftheworld'slargest
freelowalloyferriticsteels.Byapplyingstrain,theaustenite
manufacturersofsteelbeforeits2003
undergoesaphasetransitiontomartensitewithouttheaddition
closureandlaterconversionintoacasino.
[65]
ofheat. TwinningInducedPlasticity(TWIP)steelusesa
specifictypeofstraintoincreasetheeffectivenessofworkhardeningonthealloy.[66]
CarbonSteelsareoftengalvanized,throughhotdiporelectroplatinginzincforprotectionagainstrust.[67]

Alloysteels
Stainlesssteelscontainaminimumof11%chromium,oftencombinedwithnickel,toresistcorrosion.
Somestainlesssteels,suchastheferriticstainlesssteelsaremagnetic,whileothers,suchastheaustenitic,
arenonmagnetic.[68]CorrosionresistantsteelsareabbreviatedasCRES.

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Somemoremodernsteelsincludetoolsteels,whicharealloyedwithlargeamountsoftungstenandcobalt
orotherelementstomaximizesolutionhardening.Thisalsoallowstheuseofprecipitationhardeningand
improvesthealloy'stemperatureresistance.[1]Toolsteelisgenerallyusedinaxes,drills,andotherdevices
thatneedasharp,longlastingcuttingedge.Otherspecialpurposealloysincludeweatheringsteelssuchas
Corten,whichweatherbyacquiringastable,rustedsurface,andsocanbeusedunpainted.[69]Maraging
steelisalloyedwithnickelandotherelements,butunlikemoststeelcontainslittlecarbon0.01%).This
createsaverystrongbutstillmalleablesteel.[70]
Eglinsteelusesacombinationofoveradozendifferentelementsinvaryingamountstocreatearelatively
lowcoststeelforuseinbunkerbusterweapons.Hadfieldsteel(afterSirRobertHadfield)ormanganese
steelcontains1214%manganesewhichwhenabradedstrainhardenstoformanincrediblyhardskin
whichresistswearing.Examplesincludetanktracks,bulldozerbladeedgesandcuttingbladesonthejaws
oflife.[71]
In2015abreakthroughincreatingastronglightaluminiumsteelalloywhichmightbesuitablein
applicationssuchasaircraftwasannouncedbyresearchersatPohangUniversityofScienceand
Technology.Addingsmallamountsofnickelwasfoundtoresultinprecipitationasnanoparticlesofbrittle
B2intermetalliccompoundswhichhadpreviouslyresultedinweakness.Theresultwasacheapstronglight
steelalloywhichisslatedfortrialproductionatindustrialscalebyPOSCO,aKoreansteelmaker.[72][73]

Standards
Mostofthemorecommonlyusedsteelalloysarecategorizedintovariousgradesbystandards
organizations.Forexample,theSocietyofAutomotiveEngineershasaseriesofgradesdefiningmany
typesofsteel.[74]TheAmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterialshasaseparatesetofstandards,which
definealloyssuchasA36steel,themostcommonlyusedstructuralsteelintheUnitedStates.[75]

Uses
Ironandsteelareusedwidelyintheconstructionofroads,railways,
otherinfrastructure,appliances,andbuildings.Mostlargemodern
structures,suchasstadiumsandskyscrapers,bridges,andairports,
aresupportedbyasteelskeleton.Eventhosewithaconcrete
structureemploysteelforreinforcing.Inaddition,itsees
widespreaduseinmajorappliancesandcars.Despitegrowthin
usageofaluminium,itisstillthemainmaterialforcarbodies.Steel
isusedinavarietyofotherconstructionmaterials,suchasbolts,
nails,andscrewsandotherhouseholdproductsandcooking
utensils.[76]

Arollofsteelwool

Othercommonapplicationsincludeshipbuilding,pipelines,mining,
offshoreconstruction,aerospace,whitegoods(e.g.washing
machines),heavyequipmentsuchasbulldozers,officefurniture,steelwool,tools,andarmourintheform
ofpersonalvestsorvehiclearmour(betterknownasrolledhomogeneousarmourinthisrole).

Historical
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BeforetheintroductionoftheBessemerprocessandothermodern
productiontechniques,steelwasexpensiveandwasonlyused
wherenocheaperalternativeexisted,particularlyforthecutting
edgeofknives,razors,swords,andotheritemswhereahard,sharp
edgewasneeded.Itwasalsousedforsprings,includingthoseused
inclocksandwatches.[49]
Withtheadventofspeedierandthriftierproductionmethods,steel
hasbecomeeasiertoobtainandmuchcheaper.Ithasreplaced
Acarbonsteelknife
wroughtironforamultitudeofpurposes.However,theavailability
ofplasticsinthelatterpartofthe20thcenturyallowedthese
materialstoreplacesteelinsomeapplicationsduetotheirlowerfabricationcostandweight.[77]Carbon
fiberisreplacingsteelinsomecostinsensitiveapplicationssuchasaircraft,sportsequipmentandhighend
automobiles.

Longsteel
Asreinforcingbarsandmeshinreinforcedconcrete
Railroadtracks
Structuralsteelinmodernbuildingsandbridges
Wires
Inputtoreforgingapplications

Flatcarbonsteel
Majorappliances
Magneticcores
Theinsideandoutsidebodyofautomobiles,trains,andships.

Asteelbridge

Stainlesssteel
Cutlery
Rulers
Surgicalinstruments
Watches
Guns
Railpassengervehicles

Lowbackgroundsteel

Asteelpylonsuspendingoverhead
powerlines

SteelmanufacturedafterWorldWarIIbecamecontaminatedwithradionuclidesduetonuclearweapons
testing.Lowbackgroundsteel,steelmanufacturedpriorto1945,isusedforcertainradiationsensitive
applicationssuchasGeigercountersandradiationshielding.

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Astainlesssteelgravyboat

Seealso
Carbonsteel
Globalsteelindustry
trends
Ironinfolklore
Knifemetal
Machinability
Pelletizing
Rolling

Rollingmill
RustBelt
Secondindustrial
revolution
Siliconsteel

Steelabrasive
Steelmill
Galvanising
Damascussteel
Wootzsteel
Tamahagane,usedinSamurai
swords.
Tinplate

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Furtherreading
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MarkReutter,MakingSteel:SparrowsPointandtheRiseandRuinofAmericanIndustrialMight
(https://books.google.com/books?
id=bdkUfDoY24QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Making+Steel:+Sparrows+Point+and+the+Rise+a
nd+Ruin+of+American+Industrial+Might&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NxHuVIe6DIzcoAS
oICICQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Making%20Steel%3A%20Sparrows%20Point%20a
nd%20the%20Rise%20and%20Ruin%20of%20American%20Industrial%20Might&f=false)(2005).
DiscussionwithMarkReutter,part1of3(http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=13277)(February2015),part2of3
(http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=13284)(February2015),part3of3
(http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=13298)(March2015),TheRealNews
DuncanBurn,TheEconomicHistoryofSteelmaking,18671939:AStudyinCompetition
(http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3914930).CambridgeUniversityPress,1961.
HarukiyuHasegawa,TheSteelIndustryinJapan:AComparisonwithBritain
(http://questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108742046).1996.
J.C.CarrandW.Taplin,HistoryoftheBritishSteelIndustry(http://questia.com/PM.qst?
a=o&d=808791).HarvardUniversityPress,1962.
H.LeeScamehorn,Mill&Mine:TheCf&IintheTwentiethCentury(http://questia.com/PM.qst?
a=o&d=94821694).UniversityofNebraskaPress,1992.
Needham,Joseph(1986).ScienceandCivilizationinChina:Volume4,Part1&Part3.Taipei:
CavesBooks,Ltd.
Warren,Kenneth,BigSteel:TheFirstCenturyoftheUnitedStatesSteelCorporation,19012001
(http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0558).UniversityofPittsburghPress,2001.

Externallinks
WorldSteelAssociation(worldsteel)
WikimediaCommonshas
(http://www.worldsteel.org/)
mediarelatedtoSteel.
steeluniversity.org:Onlinesteeleducationresourcesfrom
worldsteelandtheUniversityofLiverpool
Lookupsteelin
(http://steeluniversity.org/)
Wiktionary,thefree
Hugearchiveonsteels,CambridgeUniversity
dictionary.
(http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phasetrans/2005/Fealloys.html)
CookingwithSteels
(http://www.wastedtalent.ca/comic/cookingsteel)
MetallurgyfortheNonMetallurgistfromtheAmericanSocietyforMetals
(http://books.google.com/books?id=brpx
LtdCLYC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&d#v=onepage&q&f=true,)
MATDATDatabaseofPropertiesofUnalloyed,LowAlloyandHighAlloySteelsobtainedfrom
publishedresultsofmaterialtesting(http://www.matdat.com)
Newsfeatureon"openhearth"steelworkersattheU.S.SteelFairlessMillsnearPhiladelphia
(https://news.google.com/newspapers?
id=ArNdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0V0NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1275%2C782046)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel&oldid=663248579"
Categories: Buildingmaterials Steel
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