Petroleum Gas Compression Workbook 3 PDF

POL
Petroleum Open Learning
Petroleum Gas
Compression
Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
Petroleum Gas Compression - Unit 3 - Centrifugal Compressors

(Part of the Petroleum Processing Technology Series)
Contents
Page
Training Targets
3.2
Introduction
3.3
Section 1 Basic Theory
3.4
Section 2 Design and Construction
3.11
Operating Principles of a Centrifugal Compressor
Compressor Casing
Rotating Assembly
Bearings
Diffusers and Diaphragms
Compressor Seals
Section 3 Auxiliary Systems
Seal Oil System

Lubrication System
Cooling System
Drivers and Couplings
Section 4 The Operation of Centrifugal Compressors
Performance Characteristics
Operating Problems, Alarms and Shutdowns
The Main Operational Checks on a centrifugal Compressor
Check Yourself Answers
3.32
3.42
3.55
Visual Cues
training targets for you to achieve
by the end of the unit
test yourself questions to see how

much you understand
check yourself answers to let you

see if you have been thinking along
the right lines
activities for you to apply your new

knowledge
summaries for you to recap on the

major steps in your progress
3.
Training Targets
When you have completed Unit 3 of the Petroleum Gas Compression series you will be able to:
Explain the basic operating principles of a centrifugal compressor.
Describe the construction a centrifugal compressor.
Explain the function and operation of the principal components of a centrifugal compressor.
Describe the layout and operation of the auxiliary systems associated with a centrifugal compressor.
Explain a basic centrifugal compressor alarm and shutdown system.
List the common operating checks carried out on a centrifugal compressor.
3.
Introduction
In Unit 1 of this Compressor programme, you saw that a centrifugal compressor is a member of the dynamic branch of the continuous flow
family of compressors.
Dynamic compressors increase the pressure of gas in a different way to that of the positive displacement machines. A reciprocating compressor
reduces the volume of a trapped mass of gas to increase its pressure. A dynamic machine, however, uses the principle of energy conservation
to achieve pressure increase.
There are two main types of dynamic compressor, and these are :
centrifugal (radial flow) compressors
axial flow compressors
The Unit is divided into four sections.

Section 1 covers the basic operating theory of a centrifugal compressor.
We are only going to look at centrifugal compressors in this unit. However, in Unit
In Section 2, we will look at the design and construction of a typical machine.
4 of the compressor programme, we will look at axial flow machines in a little
more detail.
In Section 3, we will concentrate on the auxiliary equipment
Centrifugal compressors are large capacity, continuous flow machines with a very
smooth output. When run at their optimum speed and loading, they are vibration and
free and have few moving parts.
Section 4 looks at centrifugal compressor performance and operations.
They are capable of delivering very large volumes of gas. In days gone by,
they tended to be used for lower pressure applications than reciprocating
compressors. However, modern machines are capable of delivering gas at
pressures in excess of 700 bar.
3.
Section 1 - Basic Theory

Operating Principles of a
Centrifugal Compressor
In the Introduction I said that a dynamic machine uses
the principle of energy conservation to increase the
pressure of a gas. This means that one type of energy
is converted to another. In this case it is the energy
a gas has due to its velocity which is converted into
pressure energy.
The compression of gas in a centrifugal compressor is
a two part process.
In part one, gas enters the machine and it is
speeded up or accelerated.This increases
the energy of the gas by giving it kinetic
energy or energy of motion. A certain amount
of pressure energy is also added at this
time.
In part two, the gas is rapidly decelerated.
This converts kinetic energy into more
pressure energy.
The compressor consists of an impeller mounted on a

shaft which can be rotated at high speeds.
This assembly is enclosed in a casing which
incorporates a diffuser. Also built into the casing are
the suction and discharge ports, i.e. the inlet and outlet
of the compressor.
We will be looking at the components of a compressor
in much more detail in Section 2. For the moment we
will concentrate on this rather simple machine.
Look again at Figure 1 and follow the flow of gas
through the compressor from the inlet or suction port to
the outlet or discharge port.
Gas enters the compressor through the suction port
and is directed to the inlet or eye of the impeller.
As the impeller rotates, the gas is forced to rotate with
it, causing the following effects :
Centrifugal force causes the gas to flow from the eye
to the outside or rim of the impeller. As the rim of
the impeller is travelling faster than the eye, the gas
speeds up as it moves outwards.
Look at Figure 1 which shows a simple centrifugal

compressor with its main components.
3.
Figure 2 shows the effect in graphical form.
Again, this effect is shown graphically in Figure 3.
The impeller is fitted with blades which act rather like

airplane wings. These create a lift force which helps
to force the gas from the low pressure at the eye to
the higher pressure at the rim.
These two forces, the centrifugal force and the lift

force, accelerate the gas and raise the pressure. This
is the first part of the process.
3.
When the gas leaves the impeller at the rim, it enters

the diffuser. This part of the compressor is a flow
channel. It is designed in such a way that the flow
area is gradually increased along its length.
As the gas flows through the diffuser, the increase in flow area causes the gas to slow down.
This reduction in velocity means that the gas loses its kinetic energy.
Figure 5 shows this reduction in velocity.
The diffuser shown in Figure 1 is called a volute

diffuser. A volute is an increasing spiral shape, as
illustrated in Figure 4. You will recognise the
shape if you look at shellfish such as whelks or
winkles.
Because the total energy of the gas cannot be reduced, the fall in kinetic energy must be compensated
for by a rise in some other type of energy. In this case the pressure energy of the gas is increased.
3.
The next Figure, 6, shows, in graphical form how the

pressure of the gas increases as it flows through the
diffuser.
3.
So, you have now seen how the two parts of the process produce an overall pressure increase from the inlet to
the outlet of the compressor. Figure 7 shows the overall process from inlet to outlet, again in graphical form.
3.
The compressor we have just been looking at is

called a single stage compressor. It has one
impeller and one diffuser. It will have a capability of
increasing the pressure of gas by a fixed amount.
You will remember from Unit 1 of the compressor
series, that this increase is known as the
compression ratio.
To remind yourself of compression ratio, have a go
at the following simple Test Yourself question.
Test Yourself 3.1

a) If a compressor takes in gas at a
pressure of 25 psia and delivers it at a
discharge pressure of 90 psia, what is
its compression ratio?
b) If a compressor has the same
compression ratio as the one in part (a)
and it takes in gas at 30 psia, what is
its discharge pressure?
You will find the answers in

Check Yourself 3.1 on page 3.55
The compression ratio which can be achieved

largely depends on the centrifugal force which is
developed by the impeller. This in turn depends on
three things:
speed of rotation
impeller shape
impeller diameter
There is a practical limit to some of these. For
instance, the diameter of the impeller and its speed
of rotation will determine how fast the rim of the
impeller is travelling. This cannot be allowed to
exceed the speed of sound in the gas it is
compressing. If it does so, serious damage to the
machine may result as the sound barrier is broken.
In order to achieve greater pressure increases,
multiple impellers and diffusers can be fitted inside
one casing. Each impeller and diffuser unit is called
a stage and such a machine is called a multi-stage
compressor.
In a multi-stage compressor, the gas passes
through an impeller, then a diffuser, is then directed
to the eye of the next impeller, and so on.
Now, before moving on to the next section, have a

go at the following Test Yourself question.
Test Yourself 3.2

Of the following 10 items, only 5 belong to a
centrifugal compressor. Indicate with a tick in
the box provided which items are centrifugal
compressor components.
Impeller
Diffuser
Piston Rod
Cylinder
Shaft
Crank
Casing
Blades
Cross Head
Clearance Pocket
Each stage is, in effect, a compressor in its own

right. In the case of a five stage compressor there
are actually five compressors within one casing.
3.
Summary of Section 1
In this Section on the basic theory of centrifugal compressors, you saw that the principle of energy conservation
is used to raise the pressure of gas.
You saw that, within the compressor, the gas is first accelerated to give it kinetic energy and some pressure
energy. It is then slowed down and the kinetic energy is converted into more pressure energy.
We looked at a simple compressor made up of the following parts:
impeller
shaft
diffuser
casing
inlet port
outlet port
It was pointed out that a single impeller has restrictions which can limit the amount of pressure increase it can
produce. In order to achieve greater pressure increases, multi-stage compressors should be used.
In the next Section we will look in more detail at the components of a typical multi-stage centrifugal compressor.
3.10
Section 2 - Design and Construction
In this Section we are going to look at the component

parts of a centrifugal compressor. We will see how
they are constructed and what their function is in the
operation of the machine.
I have listed below the components which we will
consider.
These are:
casing
rotating assembly - consisting of

shaft
impeller
balance piston
bearings
diffusers and diaphragms
seals
Before we proceed, take a look at Figure 8 overleaf,

and identify these components.
3.11
3.12
Of course, a compressor has to be powered by

something. The motor which powers the compressor
is called the main driver or simply, the driver. In
this Section we will not concern ourselves with the
construction or operation of the driver.
However, centrifugal compressors are orientated, or
lined up, relative to the main driver, so it is worth
identifying the orientation at this point. The end of the
compressor nearest to the driver is called the drive
end or inboard end. The end of the compressor
furthest from the driver is called the non-drive end or
outboard end.
Lets move on to the components now.
Compressor Casing
The compressor casing is used to house the
component parts of the compressor. It may be
either horizontally split or vertically split, depending
upon the design and application.
Horizontally Split Casings

Figure 9 shows a compressor with a horizontally
split casing. The casing is made in two halves
which are then bolted together along a horizontal
join.
The internal assembly of the compressor may be

removed only after the two halves of the compressor
casing have been unbolted and lifted apart.
Horizontally split compressors are mainly used in

lower pressure service.
3.13
Vertically Split Casings

A vertically split casing consists of a barrel shape
with end caps bolted onto each end of the barrel.
The internal assembly of the compressor may be
withdrawn from the non-drive end of the casing after
the end plate has been removed.
Vertically split casing compressors are often called
barrel compressors. They are mainly used in high
to medium pressure service.
Figure 10 shows a vertically split compressor
casing.
3.14
Rotating Assembly
You will remember that this assembly consists of a
shaft, impeller(s) and a balancing piston. Lets take
a look at each of these components in turn.
The Shaft
The compressor shaft is the heart of the
centrifugal compressor. It carries the impellers and
balance piston and they all rotate together within the
compressor casing.
Figure 11 indicates the basic shape of the
compressor shaft and the relative positions, on the
shaft, of the various components.
To minimise vibration, the rotating assembly is finely balanced and not allowed to run near any critical
speeds.
Every rotating assembly has a number of speeds, where it will reach a peak of vibration. These speeds are
called the critical speeds.
Critical speeds can be calculated as the compressor is designed and built. The normal running speed of a
compressor is set to avoid being near a critical speed. If any rotating equipment is run at a critical speed,
damage can be caused to bearings within seconds as the vibration causes metal to metal contact.
It is normal practice to go through critical speeds as quickly as possible when accelerating the compressor
to its normal running speed.
3.15
The Impeller
The impellers provide the driving force for the gas

as it flows through the compressor. They are fixed
to the compressor shaft and rotate within the
compressor casing.
The impellers impart kinetic energy to the gas by
increasing its velocity within the compressor casing.
Impellers are available in a variety of designs such
as open, semi-open or closed, and the different
types are shown in Figure 12.
3.16
The open type impeller consists of a number of

blades attached to a shaft. It rotates within the
casing of the compressor and the gas is constrained
between the open impeller blades and the casing
wall.
The semi-open impeller, in addition to the blades,
has a disc or hub to which the blades are attached.
The hub stiffens the assembly, and helps confine
the gas to the blade area.
The closed type of impeller is the most common in
large compressor applications, and this is the one
we will concentrate on.
It has blades of course, and also a hub. At the front
of the impeller, however, the blades are attached to
a cover or shroud.
You will remember from Section 1, that the impeller

cannot be rotated at too great a speed - a speed
which would result in the outer circumference of the
impeller exceeding the speed of sound in the gas it
is compressing. This is due to the possibility of
damage being caused as the sound barrier is
broken and turbulence is created within the casing.
Remember also that, to overcome this restriction, a
multi-stage compressor may be used to achieve a
given compression ratio.
To illustrate this further, if each stage has a
compression ratio of 1.35 then a five stage
compressor would have an overall compression
ratio of 6.75.
The Balance Piston
The shroud also confines the gas to the blade area

and provides stiffening.
The last component of the rotating assembly is the

balance piston.
Closed impellers are made of forged steel. The

blades may be welded to both the disc and the
shroud. Alternatively, the blades may be machined
from a solid disc and then welded to the shroud.
In a compressor the pressure at the inlet is

obviously less than the pressure at the outlet. This
difference in pressure across a compressor acts on
the impellers and shaft to create a thrust force.
The force tends to push the rotating assembly
towards the inlet, or suction end, of the compressor.
A force pushing along the line of the shaft is called
an axial force.
Figure 13 shows a closed impeller.
3.17
In Figure 14, we can see how the thrust force which

is generated will be imposed upon a single impeller.
If nothing was done about this, severe damage could

be done to the machine as the rotating assembly tried
to move axially within the casing.
One way to minimise rotating assembly movement is
to install thrust bearings in the compressor. We will
be looking at how these bearings work shortly.
On a large compressor, the amount of thrust force
developed is extremely high. If a thrust bearing was
the only device installed to prevent thrust forces from
damaging the compressor, then the bearing would
probably be bigger than the compressor itself.
To reduce the effects of the thrust forces and hence
reduce the thrust bearing requirement, a balancing
piston is fitted to the shaft. It is designed to reduce the
thrust forces to an acceptable level.
Figure 15 shows a typical balancing (or balance)
piston assembly which is fitted to the high pressure
end of the rotating assembly.
3.18
The balance piston is a solid drum which is

attached to, and rotates with the shaft. The high
pressure gas at the discharge of the compressor,
acts on the inboard side of the drum. Low pressure
gas from the suction side of the compressor is fed to
the outboard side of the drum. The pressure
differential across the drum is maintained by having
seals between the drum and the casing.
Figure 16 shows how the low pressure gas from the
suction side is fed to the outboard side of the drum
via a balancing line.
The pressure differential across the drum produces an axial force which opposes the thrust
exerted by the unbalanced forces acting on the impellers.
3.19
Bearings
The rotating assembly of a compressor needs to be
supported within the casing and allowed to rotate
freely. This means that some form of bearing is
required. The bearings used for this application are
usually referred to as the main bearings or journal
bearings.
Also, as you have already seen, a thrust bearing is
required, but lets look at the journal bearings first.
Look back to the drawing of the shaft. It is Figure 11
on Page 3.15. You will see that there are just two
locations for journal bearings. They are at the extreme
outboard and inboard ends of the shaft.
The bearings can be of several different types, but the
one I will describe is known as a tilting pad journal
bearing.
It is a development of a simple sleeve type journal
bearing which is shown in Figure 17.
3.20
The sleeve type journal bearing consists of a simple

housing forming a sleeve around the shaft. As the
shaft rotates, it causes the film of oil to form a
wedge which holds the shaft and housing apart.
The tilting pad type bearing is a development of

this. It has a number of pads which are located on
fixed pivots attached to the stationary housing.
Figure 18 shows the arrangement of the pads in the
bearing.
As the shaft rotates, the film of oil again forms a
wedge between shaft and pad. In addition, the
tilting pads give the bearing self aligning properties.
These compensate for any slight misalignment of
shaft and bearing. They also tend to distribute
evenly the loads which are created when the
rotating assembly is spinning.
And now, let us take a look at thrust bearings.
3.21
You have already seen how the balancing drum helps to reduce the thrust forces to acceptable levels.
Any residual thrust, however, must be taken up by a thrust bearing.
A typical thrust bearing is shown in Figure 19 and is called a pivoting pad thrust bearing.
The bearing has a collar which is fitted to and rotates

with the shaft. Located in recesses machined into a
fixed or non-rotating thrust surface, are a number of
metal shoes or pads.
The collar rotates against the pads which are free to
pivot. An oil wedge forms between the collar and the
pads, as in the tilting pad journal bearing.
Figure 19 shows a thrust bearing which is capable of
taking up thrust in one direction only. Most thrust
bearings, however, can take up thrust axially in both
directions. This requires two fixed or stationary shaft
thrust surfaces containing two sets of pads.
Diffusers and Diaphragms

From Figure 8 we can see that the diaphragms and
diffusers are non-rotating parts of the compressor.
From Section 1, you will remember that gas leaving
the impeller at the rim enters a flow channel called the
diffuser. In the simple, single stage compressor which
I used as an example, the diffuser was in the shape
of a volute. In a multistage compressor, having a
volute after each stage would be unwieldy. Therefore,
in this case, the flow channels are formed by having
diaphragms, which form part of the casing, and
separate the stages. The adjacent walls of individual
diaphragms form a diffuser passage.
3.22
Figure 20 demonstrates the layout of the

diaphragms and diffusers in a horizontally split.
multi-stage centrifugal compressor.
3.23
The diaphragms also guide the gas through return

passages to the eye of the next impeller.
Although not shown in Figure 20, the diaphragms
also carry labyrinth seals which prevent the back
flow of gas along the shaft from the high to the low
pressure sides of the impellers. We will now have a
closer look at seals.
Compressor Seals
Compressor seals can be divided into:
internal seals, which are designed to prevent
the movement of gas within the compressor
casing
external seals, which are designed to prevent
the escape of gas from the compressor casing
to the atmosphere.
Internal Seals
Let us consider internal seals first.
Labyrinth seals are the most common form of
internal seal. They consist of a series of teeth,
across which the gas would have to flow, in order to
escape from a high pressure area into a low
pressure area. Figure 21 shows a labyrinth seal
and how it works.
3.24
In a labyrinth seal the teeth are most commonly

machined into sleeves which are attached to the
casing or diaphragm, and are a very close fit with
the revolving shaft.
They operate by maintaining a minimum gap
between the shaft and the seal, and creating
turbulence in the gas as it passes across each seal
surface.
This turbulence converts pressure energy into heat
energy, and pressure is therefore lost across each
stage of the labyrinth.
The teeth of the labyrinth are machined into soft
alloys of aluminium or lead. In order to minimise the
gap between shaft and seal they are often allowed
to rub against the rotating element when being
bedded in.
The number of teeth on the labyrinth will vary from
as few as two to well over 20. The number used will
depend upon:
the type of gas being compressed
the level of sealing required
the differential pressure across the seal
The type of seal selected depends upon the job it

has to do. However, because of the imperfect
sealing nature of a labyrinth seal, it is never used as
the external shaft seal when compressing
flammable or dangerous gases.
Typical uses of labyrinth seals in a centrifugal
compressor are :
as interstage seals to prevent the flow of high
pressure gas from the tip of the impeller to its
eye
The most common devices used for external sealing

are liquid film seals.
Liquid film seals are commonly used as external
seals on high pressure, heavy duty compressors as
they provide complete sealing capabilities. There
are, however, other types of seal in use. You will
come across carbon ring seals, mechanical
contact seals and increasingly, dry gas seals. In
this Unit, we will concern ourselves only with the
liquid film seal and the dry gas seal.
Figure 22 on the next page shows a liquid film seal

to maintain the differential pressure across the and the way in which it works.
balance piston
to control the escape of compressor gas into
the sealing system of an oil film seal
to control the loss of lubricating or seal oil
along a shaft
External Seals
Now let us look at external seals.
When flammable or dangerous gases are being
compressed it is important that the gases do not
escape from the compressor. To prevent this from
occurring, the gap between the compressor shaft
and the compressor casing, at each end, is sealed.
3.25
Liquid Film Seals

The liquid film seal uses oil as the sealing medium.
Oil is pumped between the shaft and two tight fitting
sleeves which are anchored to the compressor
casing. The two sleeves form an inboard sealing
element and an outboard sealing element.
The oil flowing across the outboard sealing element
does not come into direct contact with the
compressed gas and is returned directly to a seal
oil reservoir.
The oil flowing across the inboard sealing element
comes into contact with the compressed gas. Some
of the gas may dissolve in the oil, and the oil is
therefore routed to a de-gassing system before
being returned to the seal oil reservoir.
The liquid film seal has no touching parts in its
assembly. It is therefore not prone to wear, and is
very reliable.
3.26
Dry Gas Seals

The dry gas seal is a recent development which is
becoming increasingly popular as an external
compressor seal.
Figure 23 illustrates the construction and operation
of this type of seal.
The seal consists of :
a rotating tungsten ring, attached to the
compressor shaft
a static carbon ring, attached to the casing
The static carbon ring is pushed towards the rotating
tungsten ring by a set of coiled springs. When the
compressor is at rest, the two faces touch to form a
gas tight seal. Each contact face is machined to a
high degree of flatness so that this sealing effect
can be achieved.
3.27
A series of spiral grooves are cut into the face of the

tungsten ring, as shown in Figure 24. When the
shaft begins to rotate, gas is pulled into these
grooves, and forced towards the centre of the ring. A
tiny area of high pressure gas is created at the
inside end of each groove, called a sealing dam.
Pressure of gas in the sealing dams forces the carbon

ring away from the tungsten ring, against the coiled
springs. At this point, the two surfaces are no longer
in contact and, therefore, no frictional heat is being
generated. This means that no cooling is required
under normal running conditions.
Now have a go at the following Test Yourself question.
If we were handling a non-flammable gas, some of the

gas being compressed would be used to create the
seal. The small amount of leakage through the seal
could then be vented.
Figure 23, however, shows the seal arrangement used
for flammable or toxic gases.
A labyrinth seal is mounted between the gas being
compressed and the dry gas seal. Nitrogen is injected
into this space at a pressure slightly higher than the
gas being compressed. Some nitrogen may leak back
into the compressor, but no toxic or flammable gas can
escape across the dry gas seal to atmosphere. When
used in this way, the nitrogen is called a buffer gas.
Dry gas seals give a reliable level of sealing without
the ancillary equipment associated with liquid film
seals- tanks, pumps, filters, de-gassers, and so on.
Apart from cost savings, the weight of this equipment
could be as high as seven or eight tons. This will be a
very important factor on an offshore production facility,
and the use of dry gas seals in this environment is
expected to increase.
3.28
Test Yourself 3.3

Read through the following statements and fill in the missing words from the list given below:
1.

In a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. split casing, the casing is made in two halves which are

bolted together.
2.
At a rotating assemblys............................... speed it will reach a peak of vibration.
3.
In a closed impeller the blades are attached to both the................... and the.........................
4.

The thrust force acting on the rotating assembly is taken up by two items. They are the
..................... and the ...................................
5.

The ........................guide the gas through the return passages to the eye of the next
impeller.
6.
The most common internal seal is the............................seal.
LIST OF WORDS
HUB, DIFFUSERS, CRITICAL,

SHROUD,
THRUST BEARING,
LABYRINTH, BALANCING PISTON, HORIZONTALLY.
You will find the answers in Check Yourself 3.3 on page 3.55
3.29
In the Section we have just worked through, we looked at the component parts of a centrifugal
compressor.
These items are :
casing
rotating assembly (shaft - impeller-balance
piston)
bearings
diffusers and diaphragms
seals
You saw that the casing can be horizontally split or
vertically split and I illustrated the difference between
the two.
From there we moved on to look at the rotating

assembly which consists of a shaft, one or more
impellers and a balancing piston. The impellers are
mounted on the shaft and rotate with it. You saw that
there are a number of basic types of impeller open,
semi-closed and closed. The balance piston is also
mounted on the shaft and its function is to reduce
the thrust forces which can act on a centrifugal
compressor. I pointed out that it does this by using a
pressure difference across it to counteract the main
thrust.
Bearings were the next thing we considered. We
looked at journal bearings and thrust bearings. Journal
bearings are used to support the rotor and allow it
to rotate freely. Thrust bearings are used to prevent
movement of the shaft in an axial direction. In both
cases the tilting or pivoting pad type bearing was
illustrated.
Next we looked at diaphragms and diffusers.

These are the non-rotating parts of the compressor
which reduce the velocity of the gas leaving the
impeller, thus raising its pressure. They also guide
the gas from the outlet of one impeller to the inlet
eye of the next.
Finally we considered seals. You saw that they
are either internal or external seals. The labyrinth
types are commonly used as internal seals.
Liquid film seals are most often used for external
sealing purposes, although dry gas seals are
becoming increasingly popular. Both types were
considered in detail. You should be aware,
however, that other designs maybe used as
external seals.
3.30
Before moving on to Section 3, where we will be

looking at auxiliary systems, take some time to try
the following Test Yourself.
Test Yourself 3.4

State whether the following components
are part of :
1.
Inboard element
...................
a)
the rotating assembly
2.
Labyrinth teeth
...................
b)
the sealing system
3.
Impeller rim
...................
c)
the casing and non-rotating assembly
4.
Diffuser
...................
5.
Thrust collar
...................
6.
Diaphragm
...................
7.
De-gasser
...................
8.
Journal bearing
...................
9.
Balancing piston
...................
10.
Inlet port
...................
You will find the answers in Check Yourself 3.4 on

page 3.56
3.31
Section 3 - Auxiliary Systems

In this, the third section of the Unit, we will be looking
at the auxiliary systems associated with centrifugal
compressors. These are:
seal oil system
lubrication system
cooling system
driver and coupling
Seal Oil System
Figure 25 also shows how the oil flows through the

seals. Note how part of the oil in each seal flows
outwards past the outboard sealing element. This oil
does not come into contact with gas and, therefore,
can flow directly back to the seal oil reservoir. The oil
which flows inwards past the inboard sealing element
becomes contaminated with gas. In order that this oil
can be used again it must be cleaned. It is therefore
routed to a de-gassing system before returning to the
reservoir.
(We will talk about the reference line very shortly).
Lets start with the seal oil system.

As we saw in the last Section, high pressure, heavy
duty compressors are often fitted with liquid film seals.
These are designed to prevent any gas from leaking to
the atmosphere from the shaft ends.
Look at Figure 25. This is a simplified view of a
compressor which shows the liquid film seals at each
end of the shaft. Each seal will be the same type as
the one illustrated in Figure 22 on Page 3.26.
3.32
3.33
The system which supplies the oil to the seals consists

of the following items.
a seal oil reservoir
one main and one auxiliary seal oil supply
pump
filters
coolers
a header tank
seal oil traps (de-gassing system)
Take a look at Figure 26 which shows the seal oil
system in simplified form.
3.34
The oil is pumped from the reservoir via the filters

and coolers to the header tank.
A pressure reference line takes gas from the seals
and feeds it to the header tank. Variations in this
gas pressure at the seals are, therefore, mirrored in
the tank.
However, the oil pressure at the seal must always
be greater than the gas pressure there, otherwise
gas will escape. This is achieved by always
positioning the header tank above the compressor,
and maintaining the seal oil at a fixed level in the
tank with a level controller. The seal oil pressure,
therefore, will always exceed the gas pressure at
the seal by an amount equal to the static head of oil.
From the header tank the oil flows to the seal.
As you have just seen, some of the oil then flows
outwards between the shaft and the outboard
sealing element to the reservoir. The rest flows
across the inboard sealing element, to the reservoir
via the de-gasser
Follow carefully the layout of the seal oil system in
Figure 26 and ensure that you are familiar with the
components and the method of operation.
As you look at Figure 26, remember the comment I
made on Page 28 about the weight of a liquid film
seal system - that it could easily reach several tons.
It will be clear why lighter systems, such as dry gas
seals, often prove more popular in an offshore
environment.
Lubrication System
We can now move on to the lubrication system.
All rotating machinery must have a lubrication
system of some form or another. Compressors are
no exception. The lubricant, in this case oil,
performs the following functions:
separates moving parts
removes heat generated by friction
reduces metal wear
protects metal surfaces from corrosion
consider the two as separate systems.

A typical lubrication system would consist of the
following components :
an oil reservoir
a main and auxiliary pump
coolers
filters
The system layout is shown in Figure 27, overleaf.
Take a look at this now and identify the
components.
The lubrication system normally provides a flow of

oil to the journal and thrust bearings of the
compressor. In addition, it provides lubrication for
the main driver, gear box and other accessories.
Most lubricating oils, usually abbreviated to lube
oils, are refined from crude oil. However, to give
them their special properties, chemical additives
may be mixed with them.
Each compressor will have a lube oil which is
specified for that particular machine. Care must be
taken to ensure that no other lubricant is used, in
order to prevent the possibility of damage to the
compressor.
In some compressors, the lubrication system may be
combined with the seal oil system which we have
just been looking at. Here, however, we will
3.35
The lube oil is pumped from the reservoir through

coolers which reduce the temperature of the oil
to its correct operating value. From there it passes
through filters which remove any dirt particles. The
cooled, clean oil then flows under pressure to each
bearing through pipework, grooves and channels.
After performing its lubricating job, the oil flows back
to the reservoir under gravity. The system pressure is
maintained by having a pressure controller in the line
between the filters and the compressor.
Note that a header tank is incorporated into the
system. Under normal running conditions the tank is
kept topped up with oil from the main feed line. A small
amount of oil will overflow back to the reservoir.
If the main lube oil pumps fail, the compressor will shut
down. When this happens, the bearings are lubricated
using a gravity feed from the header tank. This ensures
that there will be no damage caused to unlubricated
bearings during the time that the compressor is rolling
to a halt.
Before moving on to the next part of Section 3,
in which we will look at cooling systems, try Test
Yourself 3.5.
3.36
Test Yourself 3.5

Indicate if the following statements are true or false. If false give the correct answer.
a)
The external seals of a high pressure compressor are usually labyrinth seals.
b)

In a seal oil system a pressure reference line takes gas from the seals and feeds it to a
header tank.
c)

In a seal oil system the oil which comes in contact with the gas is routed to the reservoirs via
the filters.
d)
Lubricating oil helps to remove heat generated by friction.
e)
In a typical lube oil system the filters remove dirt particles from the oil.
You will find the answers in Check Yourself 3.5 on page 3.56
3.37
Cooling System
Compression generates heat. It is often necessary
to cool the compressed gas for safe and efficient
operation of the plant. In many installations, there
may be a number of compressors working in series.
If the hot, compressed gas from the first compressor
were passed directly to the suction of the next
machine, overheating and damage could occur.
In such a situation, an aftercooler may be installed
downstream of each compressor.
Figure 28 shows a typical aftercooler for a
centrifugal compressor, and its position in the
system.
3.38
Large compressors will consist of two or more sets

of impellers mounted on a common shaft. In order
to reduce the temperature increase within such a
machine, the gas may be discharged after the first
set of impellers, cooled, and directed to the suction
of the next set.
In this case, the gas passes through an intercooler
as it flows between the two sets of impellers.
This arrangement is shown in Figure 29.
3.39
Drivers and Couplings

In the final part of this Section, I want to have a brief
look at drivers and couplings.
Centrifugal compressors used in oil and gas field
operations are normally driven by gas turbines
or electric motors. These are connected to the
compressor by means of drive shafts and couplings.
Some drivers, which rotate at high speeds, may be
coupled directly to the compressor. However, it is
often necessary to incorporate some kind of speed
increasing gearbox between driver and compressor.
Couplings are used to connect two shafts together and
transmit the rotary motion of one to the other. Great
care is taken to align the driver shaft to the compressor
shaft. However, due to variations in loading and
possible uneven heating of materials and equipment,
small misalignment conditions can occur.
Because of this a flexible coupling is required.
You should not misunderstand the word flexible.
A compressor coupling may be over 10 inches in
diameter, and appear to be far from flexible when
handled.
In some instances, it may be necessary for the

compressor to run at a variable speed, even though
the driver may be a constant speed machine such
as an electric motor. In these instances, a variable
speed fluid coupling may be fitted between the main
driver and the gearbox to permit this.
In this short piece on drivers and couplings I have not
tried to describe the components in detail. However, it
is important that you know the terminology associated
with them.
Before I summarise this Section, attempt

Test Yourself 3.6.
Test Yourself 3.6

In the following list of components, some belong
to the compressor auxiliary systems, some do
not. If not, to which system do they belong?
1.
Impeller
2.
Lube oil cooler
3.
Coupling
4.
Driver
5.
Balancing piston
6.
Diaphragm
7.
Intercooler
8.
De-gasser
9.
Reservoir
10.
Thrust collar
You will find the answers in Check Yourself

3.6 on page 3.56
3.40
In this Section on auxiliaries, we have looked at seal oil systems, lubricating systems, cooling
systems, drivers and couplings.
Starting with seal oil systems, you saw that the oil is pumped from a reservoir, through coolers and
filters, to a header tank. The level in the tank maintained the correct oil pressure on the seal.
Some of the oil, which becomes contaminated with gas, is cleaned in a degassing system before
being used again. The rest of the oil goes straight back to the reservoir.
Turning our attention to the lubricating system, you saw that the system is very similar to the seal
oil system. Again, coolers and filters are used and the oil is continually circulated round the
system and back to a reservoir. The lube oil not only lubricates the compressor bearings, but also
the driver and gear box.
A cooling system may be required to reduce the temperature of the gas for safe and efficient
operation. You saw that this system may take the form of an intercooler, or an after cooler.
Finally, in the Section, we had a brief look at drivers and couplings. The compressors may be
driven by electric motors, or gas or steam turbines. They may be directly coupled or be driven via
a gear box. Couplings connect the shafts of the driver and compressor. These couplings are
called flexible couplings which are capable of taking up any small misalignments between the
shafts.
In the final Section of this Unit on centrifugal compressors, we will take a look at compressor
operations.
3.41
Section 4 - The Operation of Centrifugal Compressors

In this, the final Section of the centrifugal
compressor unit, we will be looking at the operation of
the compressor.
I have divided the Section into the following topics:
compressor performance characteristics
operating problems, alarms and shutdowns
operational checks
Lets start by considering the performance
characteristics.
Performance Characteristics
The performance of a centrifugal compressor can
be shown on a set of operating curves. These are
graphs prepared individually for each compressor.
They show the range of flows, heads, efficiencies
and speeds within which a particular compressor is
capable of operating. In other words, they indicate
the performance of the compressor under different
operating conditions.
Figure 30 is a simple graph which shows a single
operating curve for a specific compressor.
3.42
You can see that:

the vertical axis gives the actual compression
ratio (or head) as a percentage of the design
compression ratio
the horizontal axis gives the inlet flow (capacity)
as a percentage of the design capacity
The solid line curve which passes through the design
point shows the relationship between head and inlet
flow when the machine is running at 100% of its design
speed.
The design point for any compressor is the point at
which the machine is :
You will notice three other lines on Figure 30, marked

as:
optimum efficiency
approximate surge limit
stonewall (choke) line
We will look at all of these in some detail later.
In fact, the performance of a compressor is usually
expressed by a family of curves. The shape and
position of the curves depend on a number of things.
These include the design, size, speed and the number
of impellers.
running at 100% of its design speed

compressing 100% of the design capacity or
inlet flow
producing 100% of the design compression
ratio
A typical set of curves is shown in Figure 31, overleaf.
At this point the compressor is operating at 100%

efficiency. As you can see from the operating curve,
any changes to the speed, flow or pressure will remove
it from this point.
3.43
In Figure 31, the curves represent the relationship

between head and flow for a number of different
speeds.
The efficiency of the machine at various heads, flows
and speeds is indicated in the graph as a series of
ellipses representing lines of constant efficiency. You
will also see that optimum efficiency at varying
speeds is represented by a single line running through
the ellipses.
The machine is capable of operating at conditions
anywhere within the envelope of the curves. This
means that the compressor is able to operate at
conditions away from its design point, but at a reduced
efficiency.
The boundaries of this envelope to the left and right
are labelled approximate surge limit and stonewall
(choke) line. I will have more to say about these lines
shortly.
The upper boundary of the envelope is determined by
the maximum speed at which the impeller is capable of
rotating. This in turn depends on its size and
construction.
The lower boundary is not really a problem for the
compressor. If the surge and stonewall lines were
extended down, they would meet at the point of zero
flow and zero head. So the compressor could operate
at much lower speeds. This lower limit is usually
determined by the minimum speed at which the driver
can be operated.
3.44
Lets now look at the two boundaries of the compressor performance curves shown in
Figures 30 and 31.
These are the approximate surge limit and stonewall. First of all, surge limit.
Compressor Surge
The surge limit is the minimum flow for a given speed at which the compressor can maintain
stable operation. At inlet flow rates to the left of this line, the operation of the machine
becomes unstable.
We can analyse a compressor characteristic curve to see how surge in a compressor occurs.
Take a look at Figure 32 which shows a curve of discharge pressure against inlet flow for a
constant speed. You should note that I have deliberately exaggerated the shape of this
curve in order to make the following explanation of surge more easily understood.
Imagine that the compressor is running at constant

speed at Point 1 on the curve. This means that it will be
delivering a certain pressure (P) with a corresponding
inlet flow (F). Everything is normal.
Supposing, however, that there is a sudden increase in
downstream resistance which reduces the inlet flow to
Point 2 on the curve.
Dont forget that, if the compressor is running at a
constant speed, the pressure and flow values must lie on
the curve.
At this point the compressor will continue to operate in a
stable manner. Even though there is a pressure increase
in the downstream pipework, the compressor discharge
pressure has risen to overcome this.
Now look at Figure 33
3.45
Supposing, now, that the compressor is operating at

Point 3 on the curve which is right at the peak.
Now, if there is a reduction in flow due to an increase
in downstream resistance, the operating point moves
to Point 4.
This point is in a region where the compressor actually
produces less pressure than at Point 3. The machine
now cannot produce the pressure necessary to
overcome the downstream resistance.
When this condition occurs, the flow momentarily
reverses its direction so there is no forward flow. The
operating point now moves to Point 5.
In major cases of surge there are complete reversals of

flow which result in a massive shunting of the rotating
assembly. Each cycle may occur over twice per second
and on every cycle the whole rotating assembly (which
may weigh in excess of two tons) shunts inside
the compressor casing as the thrust forces change
direction across the compressor.
Each shunt can throw enormous stresses on thrust
bearings, journal bearings, seals and shaft
couplings.
The effects of compressor surge are well known and

predictable. Because of this, all high pressure
compressors are fitted with anti-surge control
loops which prevent the situation from occurring.
The anti-surge control loops operate by controlling
the flow of gas through the compressor to a pre-set
minimum.
The ultimate result of compressor surge is the rapid

backward and forward movement of the rotating
assembly, and the resulting vibration may:
With no flow through the machine, the discharge

pressure is reduced. This then allows the gas flow rate
to build up again towards Point 6.
destroy internal labyrinth seals
But, at that flow rate, the pressure delivered by the

machine is less than that required to overcome the
downstream resistance. The operating point then
moves along the curve towards Point 3 again and,
once beyond there, the cycle is repeated.
seize the rotating assembly in its bearings
The cycling I have just described causes oscillations of

the gas flow in the compressor and pipeline, which is
known as surge.
shatter the impellers and/or the compressor

casing
destroy journal and/or thrust bearings
stall the main driver

shatter the shaft coupling and/or gear box
3.46
Figure 34 is a drawing of a simple anti-surge controller which re-cycles gas from the
discharge of the compressor back to the suction line.
You can see from the drawing that the anti-surge controller is
connected to a control valve. The valve is in a pipeline which
is connected between the compressor suction and discharge
lines outside the machine.
The controller senses and compares the rate of gas flow into
the compressor, and the pressure rise across it. If the flow rate
at a given pressure rise is less than the setting of the controller,
the control valve is opened. This allows enough gas to flow
from the discharge to the suction of the compressor to keep the
suction flow rate above the surge value.
Note that the recycled gas is cooled in a heat exchanger. This
is to prevent a rapid increase in temperature as hot discharge
gas is fed to the suction and further heated as it is compressed
again.
In view of the damage which may result from surge, most
centrifugal compressors are fitted with an approaching surge
alarm and an anti-surge shutdown, in addition to an
anti-surge controller. These systems work as follows :
The anti-surge controller should normally prevent surge from
occurring. If it fails to operate, then the approaching surge
alarm will be activated.
The approaching surge alarm will alert the operator to the fact
that the anti-surge controller has not managed to rectify the
situation. If the situation is not corrected then the anti-surge
shutdown is activated.
The anti-surge shutdown device is set to activate just before the
point at which the compressor will enter surge. When this
safety device operates, the compressor will be stopped.
3.47
Stonewall or Choke
Operating Problems, Alarms

and Shutdowns
You will remember that the second boundary line

on the compressor performance graph was called
the stonewall (choke). Figures 30 and 31 both
show this.
Stonewall is the point at which the flow rate through
the compressor approaches the speed of sound in
the gas it is compressing. As this occurs, the shock
waves generated result in a choking effect, which
prevents the gas from building pressure.
The symptoms that the compressor is approaching
a stonewall condition are a rapidly falling discharge
head coupled with very little extra flow.
Stonewall limits the maximum flow which the
machine can achieve at a given speed.
Test Yourself 3.7

a)

List 3 possible consequences of surge

in a compressor.
b)

What measurements are compared by

an anti-surge controller?
c)

What determines the lower speed limit

of a centrifugal compressor?
Just like any other machinery or process plant,

compressors are protected from malfunction or
damage by instrumentation systems. These
systems will generate alarms and compressor
shutdowns if dangerous situations should arise.
Lets have a look at some of these situations now.
Excessive Compressor Speed

If the compressor is being driven by an electric
motor, rotational speed is normally fixed and normal
running speed cannot be exceeded.
If the compressor is being driven by a steam or gas
turbine, normal running speed could be exceeded
which might result in severe damage to the system.
In these cases the compressor, and the main driver,
are normally protected by :
a speed governor on the main driver which is
set to control the compressor at a maximum
of 100% normal running speed
Before moving on, have a go at Test Yourself 3.7.
an electronic speed sensor on the main

driver which will shut down the compressor if
its rotational speed exceeds 105% of normal
running speed
3.48
a mechanical trip which flies out from the shaft The results are varied but may include:
of the main driver and trips the fuel supply,
The compressor may slow down or stop and
if the rotational speed of the compressor
the main driver may stall
exceeds 110% of normal running speed
Ingress of Liquids
Ingress of free liquids into the compressor can be
extremely dangerous. The liquids could be in the
form of mist or droplets, or in the form of larger
slugs.
If liquids enter a centrifugal compressor in mist or
droplet form, there may be erosion of the impellers,
diaphragms and casing.
The strain on the gear box may cause it to fail

or burst
The compressor shaft may be bent by the
sudden and uneven forces which occur. This
bending of the compressor shaft may often
result in a compressor casing failure
The seal system may fail due to an over
pressuring of the system
This erosion may create a loss of efficiency, or

problems of vibration as the impellers become
unbalanced.
The most common result is that considerable

damage to the compressors shaft, shaft coupling,
impellers and casing will occur.
In extreme cases, the erosion will result in both

impeller and casing failure.
In order to prevent liquids entering the machine, all

centrifugal compressors are fitted with suction
knock-out drums. These are pressure vessels
located in the pipework leading to the suction of the
compressor. They are designed to separate any
free liquid from the suction gas stream.
If the liquids are in the form of slugs when they enter

the compressor then, as liquids are both
incompressible and denser than gases, the effects
are likely to be sudden and dramatic.
The liquid which is separated from the gas,

accumulates in the bottom of the drum. If this liquid
level rises beyond a certain point, there is a danger
of it being carried over with the gas. To prevent this,
a low liquid level is maintained in the vessel by level
control instrumentation. Any further rise in level,
perhaps through a level control malfunction, will
trigger an alarm at a pre-set value. If the level still
continues to rise, the instruments will cause a
shutdown of the compressor plant.
Figure 35, on the next page, shows a simple layout

of compressor and knock out drum.
3.49
3.50
Vibration
If the compressor starts to vibrate, the rotating
impellers could rub against the casing. This could
damage the machine, and in severe cases, cause
catastrophic failure.
The vibration could be caused by surge, corrosion
products being deposited in the compressor, erosion
of impellers, or misalignment of the driver and
compressor.
To protect the compressor, vibration monitors are
installed at various points on the machine. At predetermined vibration levels, the monitors will initiate
alarms, followed by shutdowns.
Surge
We looked at the problem of surge a little earlier in
this Section. Check that you remember what protects
the machine in the case of surge by attempting Test
Yourself 3.8.
Test Yourself 3.8

Describe with the aid of a simple sketch an
anti-surge controller.
temperature alarms and shutdowns.

In addition to the alarms and shutdowns which I
have just described, other alarms may be fitted to
the compressor. These are called inhibit alarms.
They are fitted to prevent the compressor being
started under conditions which may be detrimental
to the machine. Once the machine is running,
however, the inhibit alarm will not cause a
shutdown.
I have included below, as examples, a few inhibit
alarm situations :
An inhibit which will not allow the compressor
lube-oil pump to start until the lube-oil
temperature is at a pre-set level.
You will find the answer in


to start until the lube-oil temperature is at a
pre-set level.
to start until the lube-oil reservoir is full.
Lube Oil Pressure and Temperature

to start unless the suction valve is open.
If the pressure on the lube oil system is too low, the

compressor will not be lubricated properly.
Excessive wear on bearings would then occur. To
prevent this, pressure sensors initiate an alarm,
followed by a shutdown, if the pressure falls below a
set value.
Similarly, if the lube oil gets too hot, it will become
too thin and lose its lubricating properties.
Temperature sensors will initiate high lube oil
3.51
The Main Operational Checks on a

Centrifugal Compressor
Check that the valves in the suction and

discharge pipelines and the anti-surge system
are in the correct position, i.e., open or closed.
We have looked at how the system is controlled,

and what alarm and shutdown systems are
commonly installed. Now we can look at how the
compressor should be operated.
any lube-oil added to the system is of the

correct type and grade
The golden rules for operating a centrifugal

compressor are:
We have to make sure that the compressor has an

uninterrupted supply of gas to the suction. We also
have to make sure that the gas is able to flow away
from the compressor to where it is intended to go.
The anti-surge line should also be checked to
ensure that the control valve is fully open when the
compressor is being started.
Before Starting the Compressor
Check that dependent systems are operational
auxiliary lube oil pumps are available for use
Check that the compressor is purged of all air

If the compressor is not completely purged of air,
the gas/air mixture may burn or explode when the
compressor is started.
We have to check that the compressor is not going

to shut down because of a lack of gas, or because
the main driver has run out of fuel, or for any other
reason which is not directly related to the
compressor itself.
Check that the suction line and compressor

casing is free from liquids
Check that the discharge valve is in the correct

position
Liquids are incompressible. If we try to compress

them, the pressure increase maybe so high that the
compressor is damaged.
Some centrifugal compressors are started up with

the discharge valve closed and allowed to go
through a re-cycle stage before they are put on line.
The high rotational speeds of centrifugal

compressors also means that they develop high
torque when starting. Trying to spin a casing full of
liquid may stall the main driver during the start
sequence.
Check that all relief valves are operational
seal oil flows are within normal limits
Check that the lube-oil system is operating

correctly
auxiliary seal oil pumps are available for use
We should check that:

there is sufficient lube-oil in the reservoir
main lube oil pumps are running and header

tanks are full
lube-oil flows are within normal limits
Check that the seal oil system is operating

correctly
there is sufficient seal oil in the reservoir
any seal oil added to the system is of the
correct type and grade
main seal oil pumps are running and header
tanks are full
3.52
Check that the lube-oil and seal oil cooling

medium is available
the lube-oil and seal oil coolers are operating
correctly
the temperatures are being properly
maintained
Check that no current alarm or shutdown
conditions exist
In addition to the alarm and shutdown instrumentation
(including inhibit alarms), centrifugal compressors are
often fitted with various by-passes which allow them to
start up. The most common bypasses are:

An anti-surge shutdown by-pass. Surge is

a function of low flow, and the anti-surge

shutdown operates when the flow through the

compressor is low. Before start-up there is,

of course, no flow. Therefore, the anti-surge

shutdown must be by-passed during start-up,

to prevent it shutting down the compressor

due to the temporary, low flow conditions

which exist at this time.
A high vibration shutdown by-pass. As the

compressor starts up it may pass through two
or more critical speeds which will cause high
vibration. Unless the high vibration shutdown
is by-passed, the compressor will be shut
down as it passes through these critical
speeds.
If you are involved in compressor operations

you should become completely familiar with the
equipment under your control. Your specific
operating procedures should be followed, and
safe working practices adopted at all times.
When the Compressor is Running

Check that the pressures, levels, flows and

temperatures are within operational limits.
These checks must be made at regular
intervals, at least once every two hours.
Check that the lube-oil and seal oil levels

are maintained. If it becomes necessary to
top up the systems with oil, the following
points should be noted:
Always use the correct type of oil for each system.

Always top up the system with clean and dust free
oil of identical grade.
I have described a few checks that an operator of
compression plant should carry out as part of his
routine duties. The list is by no means exhaustive
and is certainly not meant to be taken as an
operating procedure.
3.53
In the final Section of this Unit on centrifugal compressors, we have concentrated on the operation
of the system.
The section was split into three parts:

In the first part we looked at compressor

performance characteristics. You saw that
the performance can be illustrated by a set
of operating curves. These curves show the
range of heads, flows, efficiencies and
speeds within which a compressor can
operate.
We studied a set of typical curves and used

them to explain surge and stonewall. You
saw how a compressor is protected against
surge by an anti-surge system.
We then went on to consider some

operating problems, alarms and shutdowns.
We looked at some typical problems and
saw how a compressor is protected against
the damage that they can cause.
Finally we had a look at some of the

operational checks which should be carried
out before a compressor is started and when
the machine is running.
Now that you have completed Section 4, you

have come to the end of Unit 3 of the
compression programme. I must emphasise
once again that this unit is not meant to take
the place of specific manufacturers
guidelines or operating instructions. It is
intended to give you a good basic grounding in
the design, construction and operation of
centrifugal compressors.
Now, go back to the Training Targets and satisfy
yourself that you have met those targets .
3.54
Check Yourself - Answers
Check Yourself 3.1

a)

Compression ratio

discharge pressure
=
suction pressure

90 psia = 3.6
=
25 psia
Check Yourself 3.2
The items marked with a tick are centrifugal

compressor items. The others belong to a
reciprocating compressor.
Impeller
Diffuser
Piston Rod
b)

Discharge pressure

=
Suction pressure x Compression ratio
=
30 psia x 3.6
108 psia
Cylinder
Shaft
Crank
Casing
Blades
Cross Head
Clearance Pocket
Check Yourself 3.3

1.

In a HORIZONTALLY split casing,

the casing is made in two halves
which are bolted together.
2.

At a rotating assemblys
CRITICAL speed it will reach a
peak of vibration.
3.

In a closed impeller the blades are

attached to both the HUB and the
SHROUD
4.

The thrust force acting on the

rotating assembly is taken up by
two items. They are the
BALANCING PISTON and the
THRUST BEARING
5.

The DIFFUSERS guide the gas

through the return passages to
the eye of the next impeller.
6.

The most common internal seal is

the LABYRINTH seal.
3.55
Check Yourself 3.4
Check Yourself 3.5
Check Yourself 3.6

Impeller
Inboard element
(b)
FALSE
The external seals are usually liquid
film seals or other, equally efficient types.
1.
1.
a)

2.
Lube oil cooler YES
2.
Labyrinth teeth
(b)
TRUE
3.
Coupling
YES
3.
Impeller rim
(a)
Driver
YES
4.
Diffuser
(c)
5.
Thrust collar
(a)
b)

c)

6.
Diaphragm
(c)
7.
De-gasser
(b)
8.
Journal bearing
(c)
9.
Balancing piston
(a)
10.
Inlet port
(c)
d)
e)
FALSE
4.
The oil which comes into contact with
the gas is routed via the DE-GASSERS to the 5.
reservoirs.
6.
TRUE
7.
TRUE
8.
NO - Rotating assembly
Balancing piston NO - Rotating assembly

Diaphragm
NO - Non rotating assembly
Intercooler
YES
De-gasser
YES
9.
Reservoir
YES
10.
Thrust collar
NO - Rotating assembly
3.56
Check Yourself 3.7
Check Yourself 3.8
a)
Using a sketch similar to that in Figure 34, your description should have been as
follows :
Any three of the following :
destroy internal labyrinth seals
destroy bearings
stall main driver
shatter coupling and/or gear box
shatter impeller
b)

Inlet flow rate, and pressure difference between suction

and discharge.
c)
The minimum speed at which the driver can be operated.
An anti-surge controller compares the inlet flow to the compressor

with the pressure rise across the compressor. If the inlet flow rate is
too low for a particular pressure rise the controller opens a valve in a
line between compressor suction and discharge.
This allows gas to flow from the discharge to the suction side of the
compressor to keep the suction flow rate above that at which surge
will occur.
3.57
3.58

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Petroleum Open Learning

THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY

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Petroleum Gas Compression - Unit 3 - Centrifugal Compressors

Section 1 Basic Theory

Section 2 Design and Construction

Operating Principles of a Centrifugal Compressor

Section 3 Auxiliary Systems

Seal Oil System

Section 4 The Operation of Centrifugal Compressors

Check Yourself Answers

test yourself questions to see how

check yourself answers to let you

activities for you to apply your new

summaries for you to recap on the

Petroleum Open Learning

Explain the basic operating principles of a centrifugal compressor.

Describe the construction a centrifugal compressor.

Explain a basic centrifugal compressor alarm and shutdown system.

List the common operating checks carried out on a centrifugal compressor.

Petroleum Gas Compression - Unit 3 - Centrifugal Compressors

Petroleum Open Learning

The Unit is divided into four sections.

Petroleum Gas Compression - Unit 3 - Centrifugal Compressors

Section 1 - Basic Theory

Petroleum Open Learning

The compressor consists of an impeller mounted on a

Look at Figure 1 which shows a simple centrifugal

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Figure 2 shows the effect in graphical form.

Again, this effect is shown graphically in Figure 3.

The impeller is fitted with blades which act rather like

These two forces, the centrifugal force and the lift

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When the gas leaves the impeller at the rim, it enters

The diffuser shown in Figure 1 is called a volute

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The next Figure, 6, shows, in graphical form how the

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Petroleum Open Learning

The compressor we have just been looking at is

Test Yourself 3.1

You will find the answers in

The compression ratio which can be achieved

Now, before moving on to the next section, have a

Test Yourself 3.2

Each stage is, in effect, a compressor in its own

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Petroleum Gas Compression - Unit 3 - Centrifugal Compressors

Section 2 - Design and Construction

Petroleum Open Learning

In this Section we are going to look at the component

Before we proceed, take a look at Figure 8 overleaf,

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Petroleum Open Learning

Of course, a compressor has to be powered by

Horizontally Split Casings

The internal assembly of the compressor may be

Horizontally split compressors are mainly used in

Petroleum Open Learning

Vertically Split Casings

Petroleum Open Learning