Oil Pumping and Metering PDF

POL
Petroleum Open Learning
Oil Pumping
and Metering
Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
POL
Oil Pumping
and Metering
Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
Designed, Produced and Published by OPITO Ltd., Petroleum Open Learning, Minerva House, Bruntland Road, Portlethen, Aberdeen AB12 4QL
Printed by Astute Print & Design, 44-46 Brechin Road, Forfar, Angus DD8 3JX www.astute.uk.com
OPITO 1993 (rev.2002)
ISBN 1 872041 85 X
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval or information storage system, transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publishers.
Oil Pumping and Metering
(Part of the Petroleum Processing Technology Series)
Contents
Page
Training Targets
Introduction
Section 1 - Centrifugal Pumps: Terms and Concepts
Liquids, Gases and Fluids

Mass, Force and Weight
Density and Secific Gravity
Centrifugal Force
Kinetic Energy and Pressure Energy
Pressure
Head Pressure
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
Cavitation
Flow v Differential Pressure
Section 2 - Construction and Operation of Centrifugal Pumps 18
Impellers and impeller Speed

Pump Casings
Bearings
Pump Configurations
Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves
A Centrifugal Pump Arrangement
Minimum Flow System
Visual Cues

training targets for you to

achieve by the end of the unit
test yourself questions

to see how much you
understand
check yourself answers to

let you see if you have been
thinking along the right lines
activities for you to apply

your new knowledge
summaries for you to recap

on the major steps in your
progress
Contents (cont'd)
*
Section 3 - Oil Metering and Sampling
Differential Pressure Metering

Turbine Meters
Metering Systems
Meter Proving
Sampling Systems
Section 4 - Pig Launching Facilities
Types
Pig Launchers
Pig Launching Problems
Basic Rules for Pig Launching
Safety Systems
Section 5 - A Typical Oil Pumping and Metering System
Booster Pumps
Sampling System
Metering System
Oil Pipeling Pumps
Pig Launching
Check Yourself - Answers
Page
33
Visual Cues

training targets for you to

achieve by the end of the unit
test yourself questions

to see how much you
understand
check yourself answers to

let you see if you have been
thinking along the right lines
activities for you to apply

your new knowledge
summaries for you to recap

on the major steps in your
progress
42
49
65
Training Targets
When you have completed this unit on Oil Pumping and Metering, you will be able to:
Explain some of the technical terms and concepts which lie behind the operation of a centrifugal pump
List the component parts of a centrifugal pump.
Explain the operating principles of a centrifugal pump.
Describe the construction and operation of turbine and differential pressure meters.
Explain the function and operation of a typical meter run.
Describe the procedure for proving a meter
List the essential elements of an oil sampling system
Detail the main features of a pig launching system, and its method of operation
Describe a typical layout for the oil handling (or oil pumping and metering) section of a production facility
Tick the box when you have met each target
4
Oil Pumping
and Gas Separation
and Metering
Systems

Introduction
In this unit, we will be looking at the oil handling section of a production facility.
The equipment needed for this system will usually be situated between the final stage of separation
(into oil, gas and water streams) and the point where crude oil leaves the production facility for
transfer to a pipeline, oil tanker or terminal. The layout is illustrated in Figure 1.
The system is often referred to as the oil

pumping and metering system.
The unit is divided into five sections :
in Section 1, we will look at some basic terms
and concepts relating to centrifugal pumps.

Section 2 concentrates on the construction
and operation of centrifugal pumps.
Section 3 gives you an overview of the
metering and sampling part of the system.
In Section 4, pigs and pig launching facilities
are described.
Finally, in Section 5, we will go through a
typical oil pumping and metering system.
Figure 1: Oil Pumping, Sampling and Metering

5
Section 1 - Centrifugal Pumps : Terms and Concepts

In this first section, we will look briefly at a number
of concepts which relate to the operation of
centrifugal pumps. I will also explain some of the
terms often used when we are discussing how
these concepts can be applied in practice.
Throughout this unit we will be concentrating on
centrifugal pumps because these are the most
common ones used in oil pumping and metering
services.
Liquids, Gases and Fluids

Both liquids and gases are called fluids because
each has the ability to flow.
In this unit we will use the term fluid when
describing something which can happen to a gas
or a liquid. When we need to make a distinction, I
will use the specific term liquid or gas.
Mass, Force and Weight

The mass of an object is a measure of the quantity
of matter present. This object may have various
forces acting on it, the most important of which
is likely to be the force of gravity. You can easily
demonstrate that there is a force acting on the
object. Hold it out and release it - the force of
gravity will pull it towards the earth.
Weight is a measure of this force acting on the

object. Therefore, a one pound mass will have
a force of one pound weight acting on it, due to
gravity.
The two terms mass and weight cause a lot
of confusion. Very often they are used as if they
mean the same thing. In many cases, however,
this is not all that important and I think that the
brief explanation given above should be sufficient
to guide you through the remainder of this unit
without any undue problems.
Test Yourself 1
5 litres of water has a mass of 5 kg
5 litres of crude has a mass of 4.25 kg
5 litres of salt water brine has a mass of
5.5 kg
Density and Specific Gravity
What are the specific gravities of gas oil and

brine?
The density of a substance is defined as the mass

per unit volume of that substance. For the same
material, density can be expressed in a variety of
units. For example, the density of water is :
You will find the answers to Test Yourself

1 on page 65.
1 gram per cubic centimeter -1 gm/cm3

Specific gravity (s.g.) compares the mass of a
certain volume of a material with the mass of an
equal volume of a reference substance. In other
words :
specific gravity (s.g.)
For solids and liquids, the reference material used

is usually water. For gases, the reference is often
to air.
mass of a certain volume of material

mass of an equal volume of reference substance
Centrifugal Force
Have a look at Figure 2.
It shows a spinning disk. If we let a drop of water

fall onto the face of the disk, near to the centre
spot, it will follow the type of path shown. This is
because the drop is affected by two forces during
its travel:
centrifugal force, which tends to throw
the droplet outwards, causing it to speed
up as it approaches the edge of the disk
friction, which will cause the disk to
attempt to drag the droplet round with it as
it rotates
The relative size of these two forces will determine
the angle at which the droplet leaves the disk
edge.
This angle is important, as you will see when
we come to the section on Construction and
Operation of Centrifugal Pumps (Section 2). The
design features of the pump encourage a flow
path for the liquid being pumped, which is very
similar to the droplet trajectory in Figure 2.
This ensures that the pump imparts the maximum
amount of energy to the liquid. In this case, energy
of motion, or kinetic energy is transferred.
Kinetic Energy
We have seen that kinetic energy is energy of
motion, or movement.
Test Yourself 2
The amount of kinetic energy possessed by any

moving object depends upon:
A small car has a mass of 1 000 kilograms,

and is travelling at 180 kilometres per hour.
its mass (weight)
its velocity (speed)
In mathematical terms, kinetic energy (KE) can be

calculated by using a formula:

A large truck has a mass of 20 000 kilograms,

and is travelling at 30 kilometres per hour.
Which one has the greater kinetic energy ?
KE = 1/2 mass x velocity2
If the mass is expressed in kilograms and the

velocity in metres per second, the kinetic energy
will be in joules.
You will find the answer to Test Yourself 2

on Page 65.
To confirm your understanding of this relationship,

try the following Test Yourself.
Kinetic Energy and Pressure Energy

Figure 3 illustrates the flow of a fluid across a restriction, and how the fluid velocity and
pressure vary during this process.
Let us go into a little more detail on these pressure

and velocity changes by considering six separate
points in the process:
point A : fluid is flowing along the pipe at a steady
speed and (almost) constant pressure. You will
remember that the kinetic energy of this fluid can
be calculated by the equation:

KE = 1/2 mass x velocity2
The velocity of the fluid at point A is constant. In

addition, the mass of fluid passing each point in
the pipeline per unit of time (mass flow rate) is
also constant. This means that the kinetic energy
content of the fluid at that point is also constant.
point B : the fluid starts to enter the restriction.
The mass flow rate remains constant but, because
the pipe diameter is smaller, the fluid velocity must
increase.
Looking again at the kinetic energy equation, you
will see that the kinetic energy of the fluid will start
to increase at this point as the fluid speeds up.
Now let me introduce you to another principle of

science - Conservation of Energy.
This tells us that the total energy content of a
system will always remain constant
If the kinetic energy content of our system increases
then, to compensate for this, some other form of
energy possessed by the system must decrease.
This other form of energy is pressure energy.
Figure 3 shows that, as the velocity (kinetic
energy) increases, the pressure (pressure energy)
decreases.
point C : this is a new steady state. The fluid has
a higher velocity and a lower pressure but both
of them are steady as the fluid passes across the
restriction.
points D and E reverse the changes which
occurred at points A and B.
It is worth noting that, across the process overall,
a small reduction of pressure has occurred. Due to
turbulence in the system, some pressure energy
has been converted into heat energy. You will no
doubt appreciate that, under conditions of high
flow rates, high turbulence, or extended restrictions
(say, a long pipeline run), pressure losses will be
greater.
We will look into the effects of pressure loss and
flow a little later on in this section.
Pressure
Pressure expresses the relationship between
force (or weight) and area, as follows:
kilogram force (or weight)

pressure =
area
Like density, pressure can be measured in a variety
of units. The most common are pounds per square
inch (psi), or kilograms per square centimetre (kg/
cm2). We normally use the SI term bar, as 1 bar is
almost the same as 1 kg/cm2. (1.019 kg/cm2 to
be exact).
Picture a metre cube of water:
This cubic metre of water weighs 1000 kg. In other

words, due to the effects of gravity, it is applying a
downward force of 1000 kg, spread over its base.
The pressure on the base of the cube is therefore:
1000 kg/m2
However, we have just seen that pressure is usually
expressed in bar.
As you will see from Figure 4, the base of this water
cube has an area of one square metre, or:
100 cm x 100 cm = 10,000 cm2)
So, on each square centimetre of the base a
downward force of 1000 kg is applied. 1000 kg
is applied.
10,000
The pressure on the base can, therefore, also be
expressed as:
1000 = 0.1 kg/cm 2, or 0.1 bar.
10,000
10
Head Pressure
The term head pressure or head is often used in
the oil and gas industry, especially when referring
to pumps. It is the pressure developed by a head,
or column height, of liquid.
In the paragraph entitled Pressure, we saw that
the head pressure applied by 1 metre depth of
water will be 0.1 bar. For 3 metres of water the
head pressure would be 0.3 bar; for 30 metres, 3
bar, and so on.
Now let us combine what we know about specific
gravity and head pressure. Try the following Test
Yourself to combine these two factors together:
Test Yourself 3
The specific gravity of crude oil is 0.85, and
that for a particular salt water is 1.1.
What will be the head pressure developed
by 3 metres of crude oil, and 4.5 metres of
this brine?
The answers to this Test Yourself are on

page 65.
We have already shown that centrifugal force can

impart kinetic energy to a substance as a result of
a spinning action. We have also seen that kinetic
energy can be converted into pressure energy.
Centrifugal pumps are dynamic pumps which,
primarily, impart kinetic energy to the fluid being
pumped. They do not create pressure directly.
Pressure results from the liquid slowing down, and
the kinetic energy converting to pressure energy.
The pressure developed will depend on the
density of fluid being pumped.
A centrifugal pump, working at a fixed flowrate,
will generate the same height of head, but will
generate a lower head pressure, when pumping
crude oil, than when water is being pumped,
because water is heavier than crude oil.
The different categories of head pressure referred

to in pumping operations are shown in Figure 5
on the next page.
11
The suction head represents the head pressure

present at the pump suction.
The discharge head represents the head
pressure delivered by the pump.
The total head (which is the difference between
suction and discharge heads) represents the
additional pressure imparted to the liquid by the
pump.
12
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

I would like you to think about two common situations
in which you have seen bubbles coming out of a
liquid.
1.
If you heat up a pan of water, two things happen:

long before the water boils, bubbles are seen
rising through the liquid as dissolved air comes
out of solution when the temperature begins to
increase
at the boiling point, the liquid bubbles

vigorously as the water is rapidly converted
into steam
Water at sea level boils at 100C (212F). I am sure

you will have heard, however, that the boiling point
of water (or any other liquid) falls as you climb from
sea level, so that it can be difficult to cook an egg
properly on top of a high mountain. This is because
atmospheric pressure falls the higher up we get.
2. If you open a bottle of fizzy lemonade, bubbles
are seen rising through the liquid as dissolved gas
comes out of solution when the pressure is released
(reduced).
If these effects are observed in water and lemonade,

it is reasonable to assume that they will happen in
other liquids as well. So let us now visualise how these
effects can influence the operation of a pump.
We already know that fluids can only flow from areas
of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Suppose
that the liquid being pumped enters an area of low
pressure. Then:
if the liquid was near its boiling point,
the pressure drop may cause the
liquid to boil and thus release gas or
vapour
if the liquid was near to the pressure
at which dissolved gases are released,
the pressure drop may cause these
gases to come out of solution
In either case we can predict that, if the
pressure is increased again, the released
gases will go back into the liquid, either
because boiling stops or the released gases
re-dissolve.
The accompanying drop in pressure may cause

gas or vapour to be released for either of the
reasons described above. It is important that we
prevent this happening, for reasons that I will
explain a little later under Cavitation.
We must therefore always have sufficient pressure
at the pump suction to prevent gas or vapour
release for whatever reason. The minimum
pressure necessary to do this is called the net
positive suction head (NPSH).
A further pressure reading which is relevant to
the suction end of the pump is called the static
suction line pressure. As the name implies,
this is the measured pressure at the pump suction
when pumping has stopped.
We now have three pressure values which relate to
the pump suction:

a.

the pressure at which gas or vapour

is released
b.
the static suction line pressure
c.
the NPSH
When a centrifugal pump is running, a low

pressure area is created at the suction. This
encourages liquid further upstream to flow into
the pump suction.
13
Test Yourself 4
As a check on whether you have understood
what I have ben saying about pressures at
the suction end of the pump, list these three
pressure valves:
a. the pressure at which gas or vapour
is released

b. the static suction line pressure
c. the NPSH
To be safe, most pumps will be operated just

above their NPSH. An adequate safety margin
for most applications would be 1 metre, or
10%, head of water pressure above the NPSH
specified by the manufacturer (whichever is
the larger).
In general, the industry standard is to work
in terms of head of water. This is because
everyone knows the density of water and
pumps can easily be tested to make sure that
they produce the level of head specified.
Cavitation
in order of decreasing pressure, and

see if you can explain the reasons for your
answers.
We have discussed at some length the

importance of NPSH and other factors in
preventing the release of gas or vapour bubbles
in the suction of the pump. We will now look at
why it is so important to prevent this.
You will find the correct answers in Check

Yourself 4 on Page 66.
If gas is released at this point in the system, it

will give rise to an effect known as cavitation.
A pump manufacturer will specify the NPSH

and maximum operating temperature required
for each pump to handle a given liquid
effectively. The NPSH should be maintained
over the entire range of the pump
The formation of bubbles is, in itself, quite

harmless. However, as the liquid containing
these gas bubbles, or cavities, passes through
the pump, the pressure will rise. Now we already
know that, if gas is released from a liquid for
the reasons I have described, an increase in
pressure will drive this gas back into the liquid
again.
As these tiny cavities created in the liquid

collapse, the liquid tends to rush in from all
angles to fill the cavity. The cavity is said to
implode.
This inrushing liquid can transmit very large
forces. When the bubbles are near a metallic
surface, these forces are applied directly to the
solid surface. When a pump is cavitating, this
process is being repeated many thousands
of times each second and the effect results in
noise, vibration and eventual erosion of metal
from the surfaces. In very severe cases, for
example where the pump is handling liquids
carrying small solid particles, the impeller can
be eroded in a relatively short space of time.
An equally important factor is that severe
cavitation can result in a failure of the pump to
deliver flow at the expected head.
When pumping oil, the drop in head and
efficiency is not quite so severe as with water
because the liquid is composed of mixtures
of different hydrocarbon compounds. The
bubbles which appear will consist of lighter
hydrocarbons such as methane or ethane.
These can be more easily reabsorbed as the
pressure is increased. When pumping water
the bubbles are nearly always caused by the
water boiling at a reduced pressure. In this
situation the bubbles collapse violently and
each implosion is of a high intensity.
14
Flow v Differential Pressure

Take another look at Figure 3. You will recall that
it illustrates the conversion of pressure energy
to kinetic energy, and the reverse, as a fluid
passes through a restriction. Remember also that,
because of turbulence, some pressure energy
is converted to heat energy. This conversion
is responsible for the pressure loss shown in
Figure 3.
Any pipeline will contain a whole series of
restrictions. These may be bends, changes in
diameter, obstructions and rough internal surfaces,
for example.
You will probably realise, therefore, that:
at low flow rates the turbulence caused
by these restrictions may well be small,
therefore minimising the pressure loss
at high flow rates the turbulence could
be very high, as will be the pressure
loss
We will now take a look at the relationship
between flow and differential pressure between
two points in, say, a pipeline.
Have a look at Figure 6.
15
This shows the relationship between flow and

differential pressure, both expressed as a
percentage of the maximum possible under those
particular circumstances.
We can see, for example, that 50% of the maximum
flow is equivalent to 25% of the maximum
differential pressure.
Now let us suppose that, in our pipeline, we can
generate up to 10 bar of pressure at the inlet
and deliver up to 10 litres of-liquid per minute.
Let us also suppose that, at the outlet, the liquid
discharges into a pond at 0 bar.
We therefore have a differential pressure of 010 bar and a flow rate of 0-10 litres/min. Let us
look at the conditions under different flows and
pressures.
if we regulate the inlet flow to 1 litre/min
(10% of maximum) we could expect very
little turbulence. From Figure 6 we can
estimate that the differential pressure will
be 1 % of maximum, or 0.1 bar, at this flow
rate.
if the flow is increased to 2 litres/min (20%
of maximum), both turbulence and the
pressure drop will increase. At a 20% flow
rate, the differential pressure will rise to 4%
of maximum, or 0.4 bar.
(You will have noticed that, when the flow rate

doubled, the differential pressure increased by a
factor of 4).
let us now increase the flow rate to 4 litres/
min (40% of maximum). The differential
pressure rises to 16% of maximum, or 1.6
bar. Again, as the flow rate doubles, from
2 to 4 litres/min, the differential pressure
quadruples, from 0.4 to 1.6 bar.
This relationship between flow and differential
pressure can be expressed as a mathematical
equation :
Test Yourself 5
In the example we have just used, if the
differential pressure fell from 70% to 40%
of maximum, what would be the change in
flow rate, expressed in litres per minute?
The answer can be found in Check
Yourself 5 on Page 66.
F = DPxl0
where:
F = flow rate as a % of maximum
DP = differential pressure as a % of
maximum
(DP means the square root of DP)
That ends our brief look at some of the key factors
which affect the design and operation of centrifugal
pumps. Before we go on to the next Section,
however, try the following Test Yourself.
16
Summary of Section 1
In this section, we have looked at some of the scientific terms
and concepts which help us to understand the design and
operation of centrifugal pumps.
Net positive suction head (NPSH) was fully described,

and we saw how important it was in relation to preventing
cavitation.
You will remember, for example, that both liquids and gases
are called fluids because they have the ability to flow. We
saw how fluids flow from high energy areas to low energy
areas.
We looked at differential pressure and flow. The

relationship was expressed as a graph, and also as a
mathematical equation.
We examined the relationship between mass, force and

weight, and I tried to clear up some of the confusion which
exists in the common use of these words.
Density and specific gravity were explained.
You are now ready to take a look at the construction and

operation of a centrifugal pump, and see how the terms and
concepts covered in Section 1 can be applied to the design
and performance of this type of pump.
I illustrated centrifugal force by asking you to visualise the

movement of a water drop on a spinning disk.
This led us to a description of kinetic energy, and how
kinetic energy and pressure energy can be interchanged.
We introduced the concept of conservation of energy.
17
Section 2 - Construction and Operation of Centrifugal Pumps

The centrifugal pump is the commonest form of pump in use
today. It is relatively cheap, easy to maintain and is to be found
almost everywhere when large flows are required.
We will first take a look at the basic configuration of a centrifugal
pump and then at the component parts, to see what they do and
how they work.
The type of pump illustrated in Figure 7 is one of the simplest. It
consists of:

a casing, which contains and supports the rest

of the pump components. Access to the inside of
the pump is via a vertical split at the back of the
casing (not shown)

a suction flange, which directs the
entering the pump casing into the impeller
liquid

an impeller, which imparts kinetic energy to the
liquid

a pump shaft, connected through a coupling to a
motor which drives the shaft and the attached
impeller(s)

a bearing housing, which supports the shaft

a shaft seal, which prevents liquid escaping from
the casing along the shaft

a discharge flange, which directs the liquid
away from the pump
18
Figure 8 shows a cross section through a single

impeller pump, illustrating three more key items of
equipment:

The wear rings, which act as seals between
the high pressure discharge side and the low
pressure suction side of the impeller

The wear rings are so called because they

wear in preference to the impeller. They are
sleeved on to the impeller, and may be
replaced when worn
The balance holes, which allow the packing

to operate at suction pressure rather than
discharge pressure. This reduces the
differential pressure across the packer and
impeller, and therefore reduces the thrust
forces

The packing, which prevents liquid escaping
from the casing
We will now examine some of these components in

more detail.
19
Impellers
We have already seen that a spinning disk can
impart kinetic energy to a drop of water on its
surface. A centrifugal pump, which is a dynamic
pump, does a similar job on the liquid it is pumping.
The pump then converts this kinetic energy into
pressure energy before the liquid leaves the
outlet.
The elements of the pump which impart kinetic
energy to the liquid are called impellers. We will
now look at the three basic kinds of impeller and
see how they differ from each other.
All impellers are fitted with curved vanes which
spread out radially from the centre. The impellers
are attached to the pump shaft and rotate with it.
Figure 9 shows the three most common types
of impeller.
Your washing machine at home probably has a
pump with an open impeller similar to the one
shown at the top of the diagram. Open impellers
are cheap to make but they are inefficient.
The one on your washing machine will be there
to empty the machine. Washing machine pumps,
however, have to cope with debris - buttons, fluff,
coins and the like. An open impeller is ideal. It will
handle most foreign objects and, if it is broken, it
is cheap to replace.
The water pump on your car will probably be fitted

with a semi-open impeller similar to the one
shown in the centre of Figure 9. The semi-open
impeller is a little more efficient and a little more
expensive than the open impeller.
The car pump has to be reasonably efficient to
provide engine cooling by circulating water around
the engine and through the radiator. But, every
bit of energy used in the water pump means that
there is less available to propel the car itself. The
semi-open impeller is therefore a compromise
between efficiency and cost.
In the oil industry, the closed impeller is the one
most often used. This is shown at the bottom of
Figure 9. It is more efficient than other types of
impeller, but is also considerably more expensive.
This is because special techniques are needed to
weld the vanes to the inside of the shroud which
covers the impeller.
You should notice, in particular, the curve on each
impeller vane, and compare this shape with the
shape of the droplet trajectory in Figure 2. They
are very similar.
Vanes are designed in this way to impart the
maximum amount of kinetic energy to the liquid
being pumped, and to ensure that this liquid
leaves the impeller rim at a particular angle.
This angle will be matched by the shape of the
volute, or angle of the diffusers, depending
on the pump design. (I will talk about volute and
diffuser casings shortly).
20
Impeller Speed
The type of impeller selected will depend on the
planned speed of rotation, and the type and size
of pump.
As a general rule:

low pressure, high capacity pumps will have

large diameter impellers with a low rotating
speed
highpressure,highcapacitypumpswillhave
small diameter impellers with a high rotating
speed
The upper diagram shows a volute casing. In

this type of pump, the liquid leaves the tip of the
impeller, and is thrown into a channel with an
increasing area of cross-section. Here the liquid
slows down and kinetic energy is converted into
pressure energy.
The volute design ensures that it is aligned with
the trajectory of the liquid leaving the impeller. This
ensures efficient energy transfer and conversion.
areas
increase
constantly
The liquid is then guided towards the pump

discharge flange.
The volute type of pump is the most common type
in use.
Pump Casings
We already know that the velocity of the liquid
increases as it passes across the impeller. We
also know that, as the velocity decreases, the
pressure will increase. Figure 10 shows the two
main types of casing which allow this to happen
within the pump.
The lower diagram shows a diffuser casing. In

this type of pump, as the liquid leaves the tip of the
impeller it moves through a set of angled vanes
known as diffusers. Again, these are lined up
with the direction of the pumped liquid as it leaves
the impeller. The diffusers then guide the liquid
into the outer section of casing where its velocity
decreases and pressure increases before flowing
to the discharge flange.
21
Bearings
Figure 11 is an illustration of a simple bearing
arrangement. The shaft is supported by two radial ball
bearing races, which allow it to rotate with minimum
friction.
Thrust force is a force which is directed along the axis
of the pump shaft. It arises because of the difference in
pressure between the discharge and suction sides of
the pump acting on the impeller. In Figure 11, the thrust
force will be from right to left, (from high pressure to low
pressure).
In this case, to counteract the thrust force, a ball bearing
race (the thrust bearing) is mounted between two
vertical plates. It allows the shaft to turn with a minimum
of friction as it takes up this thrust force.
The slinger rings (also called flinger rings) are two
slender rings, often of brass, which slide up and down
the shaft as it rotates. The slinger rings dip into the
lubricating oil and, as they turn, transfer oil onto the shaft.
The oil then runs along the shaft and contacts the faces
of the bearings. Centrifugal force throws the oil outwards
along the bearing faces to lubricate and cool them.
The oil in this type of bearing is either topped up through
an oil fill plug, as shown, or is automatically replenished
via an oil bottle arrangement.
22
Seals
Figure 12 is an illustration of a typical packed
seal. In this type of seal the packing consists of
rings of asbestos rope which are impregnated with
graphite. The rings are placed around the shaft
and compressed into a packing gland by means
of a gland follower, the pressure on which can
be adjusted by four bolts.
In some cases a lantern ring is fitted between

sections of the asbestos packing so that any
liquid which has leaked along the shaft can be
removed.
However, any leak would be dangerous when

pumping oil or other hazardous liquid. In such
cases, a mechanical seal would probably be
used. A typical seal is illustrated in Figure 13 on
the next page.
The problem with this type of shaft seal is that

small leaks almost always occur, whatever liquid is
being pumped. These leaks are usually necessary
in order to keep the packing lubricated and to
prevent the shaft from overheating.
23
The shaft enters the pump casing from the right hand
side of the diagram and passes through a stationary
seal. The stationary seal is fixed to the pump casing
and does not rotate.
Attached to the shaft is a rotary (or rotating) seal.
Leakage along the length of the shaft is prevented
by O rings which seal the gap between shaft and
rotating seal. The O rings turn together with the
shaft and rotating seal.
The sealing faces of the rotating and stationary
seals are usually of machined carbon or high grade
stainless steel which are polished to a mirror finish.
The two faces are held very closely together by a
spring and by the pressure of the liquid in the pump.
A small amount of the liquid being pumped is often
taken from the discharge of the pump, filtered,
and then returned through the mechanical seal via
the seal flush inlet. This liquid helps to keep the
mechanical seal clean, cool and lubricated.
24
Pump Configurations
Figure 14 shows examples of how centrifugal
pumps may be configured to increase flow, or to
increase pressure.
In Figure 14a, a single pump is delivering 500 litres per minute with
a total head of 3.5 bar:
discharge head - suction head = total head.
Figure 14b shows that, to increase the flow, two pumps arranged in
parallel are needed - that is, the pumps have a common suction
and a common discharge.
In this case, we can :

run either pump on its own to produce a flow rate of 500
litres per minute and a total head of 3.5 bar, or,

run both pumps together to produce a flow rate of 1000
litres per minute and a total head of 3.5 bar.
In Figure 14c, we can increase the pressure by running two pumps
in series. This means that the first pump discharges into the
suction of the second pump. In this case:

both pumps must be run together

the combination of both pumps will produce a flow rate of
500 litres per minute and a total head of 7 bar.
In most instances where high pressures are required, it is easier to
mount a number of impellers on a single shaft. These pumps are
called multi-stage pumps. They give us high flow rates, and a
gradual pressure rise over as many stages as required. Some main
oil pipeline pumps may have more than eight impeller stages.
25
Centrifugal
Curves
Pump
Performance
Every centrifugal pump is designed and manufactured

for a specific purpose. This purpose is summarised in
a pump performance curve.
Figure 15 shows a typical performance curve which
gives us the following details about a specific pump:

on the left hand side of the curve, there are
three vertical scales:
1. efficiency - from 0-100%. This compares
the power the pump is using to the work
it is achieving
2. power - from 0-24 kilowatts in this case.
This indicates the amount of power the
motor is consuming
3. total head - this indicates the pressure
which the pump can achieve

on the top right hand side of the chart we

can see the required NPSH (net positive
suction head) in metres of liquid. (You will
recall that NPSH was described in Section 1
on Page 13)
26

the horizontal axis of the chart gives flow rate
in cubic metres per hour.
Test Yourself 6

in the body of the chart we find curves which
show the relationship between:

1.
NPSH and flowrate
2.
efficiency and flowrate
3.
power and flowrate
4.
total head and flowrate
Test Yourself 7
When pumping 20 cubic metres per hour the

pump will:
When the flow rate increases to 40 cubic

metres per hour this pump will:
require a minimum of
head of the liquid NPSH
require a minimum of
head of the liquid NPSH
develop
liquid

consume
operate at
metres
metres total head of

kilowatts of power
efficiency
develop
liquid

consume
operate at
metres
metres total head of

kilowatts of power
efficiency
Take a few minutes to study Figure 15 and then try

Test Yourself 6 and 7.
The answers to these can be found in Check Yourself 6 and 7 on Pages 66 and 67.
27
Now, to summarise what we have covered so far in

Section 2, try Test Yourself 8:
Test Yourself 8
Indicate with a tick, to which part or parts of the pump the following items belong.
Check your answers in Check Yourself 8 on Page

67.
Item
Shaft sleeve 'O' ring
Shroud
Lantern ring
Wear rings
Flush inlet
Vane
Slinger ring
Balance holes
Gland follower
Volute
Ball bearing race
Diffuser
Casing
Impeller
Bearing
Seal
28
A Centrifugal Pump Arrangement

Before we look at a typical oil pumping system, let us think about those items of equipment which you are
most likely to come across.
Figure 16 is an illustration of a typical
centrifugal pumping arrangement.
29
The motor which drives the pump is called the

main driver. In this case, the main driver is an
electric motor, but for bigger pumps it may be a
gas turbine or a diesel engine.
The motor has a set of local switches for starting
and stopping. In some cases a local ammeter
is fitted to check whether the motor is running
properly. In many instances, the pump motor may
also be started from a remote location, such as a
control room, either manually or via an automatic
start system.
The motor shaft is linked to the pump shaft via a
coupling, designed to transmit power from the
motor to the pump, and to take care of any small
shaft misalignments which may occur.
The flow of liquid into the pump is through a
suction block valve, which can be used to
isolate the pump from the upstream process if
required. Occasionally, a strainer or filter (not shown)
may be fitted to the suction line, downstream of
the suction block valve, to prevent debris from
entering the pump.
The pump casing is fitted with:
The discharge of the pump is fitted with:

a discharge pressure gauge, which
indicates the pressure produced by the
pump

a discharge check valve, which only

allows flow in one direction, away from the
pump.Thisvalve,therefore,preventsliquid
flowing back through the pump, backspinningitandcausingdamagetotheseals
and bearings of both pump and motor

a discharge block valve, which can
be used to isolate the pump from the
downstream process, if required
Minimum Flow System

All centrifugal pumps require one other item of
equipment for their protection.
If we look back at the performance curve in Figure
15 we can see that, when the pump is running at
zero flow, it is still using about 4 kilowatts of power.
We also know, from the performance curve, that
the pump efficiency will have fallen to zero.

a casing vent valve, used to bleed off any
gas or air in the pump before starting
So, what has happened to the power we are using ?

a casing drain valve, used to drain liquid
from the pump after shutdown
The answer, of course, is that it is converted into

heat energy.
There would be great turbulence inside a pump

with the impeller turning through liquid trapped
within the pump. The temperature would rise,
increasing the chances of cavitation.
In some instances, with large and powerful pumps,
damage can then occur in a matter of seconds. In
smaller machines it may take much longer - but
damage will eventually occur.
To prevent this situation from happening, a
minimum flow must be established and maintained
through the pump at all times while running. This
minimum flow level is specified by the pump
manufacturer.
All centrifugal pumps which are at risk can be fitted
with a minimum flow system. This ensures that,
while the pump is running, there is sufficient liquid
flow to ensure that no damage occurs.
In some instances, the minimum flow system
consists of a simple orifice plate, sized for the
correct flow. The plate is inserted into a line
through which is re-cycled a fixed flow from pump
discharge to pump suction at all times.
In other instances a flow measuring device is
fitted into the suction of the pump. This device
controls a flow control valve, inserted into a line
which re-cycles a fixed amount of flow. If the flow
falls below the pre-set minimum level, the flow
control valve will open to restore flow rate to the
minimum.
30
A simple and very common device is illustrated

in Figure 17. It is called a minimum flow nonreturn valve and serves the purpose of a check
valve and a minimum flow valve.
Ih Figure 17a, there is no flow through the main
part of the valve, but the two smaller valves are
fully open to let liquid flow to the minimum flow
system.
Figure 17b shows that there is some flow through

the main part of the valve, but the two smaller
valves are still partially open, allowing some liquid
flow to the minimum flow system.
In Figure 17c, all flow is through the main part

of the valve and the two smaller valves are fully
closed. In this situation the pump is pumping at
least a minimum flow through the main valve.
31
Ih this section, we have looked at the component parts and method of operation of a centrifugal pump.
These included:
We examined
pump casing (volute or diffuser)
impeller and impeller wear rings

how different types of pump casing played
a part in converting kinetic energy into
pressure energy
pump suction and discharge

shaft bearing systems with radial and
thrust bearings

how we can change flow and/or pressure
characteristics by changing pump
configurations (parallel v. series)
Finally we looked at why centrifugal pumps are

fitted with a minimum flow system, ensuring that
they do not become damaged due to overheating
and cavitation.
In the next section, we will take a look at a typical

oil metering and sampling system.
In particular, we looked at

shaft seals

the construction and interpretation of

a set of pump performance curves for a
typical centrifugal pump and how they
incorporate the concepts and ideas which
we had previously encountered

a typical centrifugal pump arrangement
with its inlet and outlet lines and associated
equipment
32
Section 3 - Oil Metering and Sampling

We have considered the basic design and operation
of a centrifugal pump.
Now it is time to take a look at crude oil metering,
metering systems, and sampling techniques.
There are four main reasons for metering and
sampling a flow of crude oil:
1. to measure the amount of hydrocarbons
removed from the reservoir. This allows field
production plans to be updated and revised.
2. to determine the amount of each component
in a mixed oil stream. This is particularly
important where the production from separate
oil fields are mixed (perhaps as part of pipeline
sharing agreements) prior to the point of sale.
3. to measure the product for tax purposes. This
is called fiscal metering.
4. to ensure that no loss of product has occurred.
In an offshore oilfield, the amount of metered
offshore product, plus any losses or gains due
to packing or unpacking of the pipeline (see
below), is compared regularly with the amount
of onshore metered product.
Multi-component liquids such as crude oil are

slightly compressible. Increases or decreases in
the overall pipeline pressure will produce small
changes in the volume of oil contained within the
pipeline. The terms packing and unpacking are
used to describe these small changes in volume.
If they are ignored, apparent losses or gains in the
pipeline inventory can accumulate.
The process of metering and sampling is therefore

given a very high priority. Meters themselves are
checked regularly, using a permanently installed
meter prover. The meter prover itself is checked
regularly to ensure that it, too, is accurate.
To emphasise this point, try Test Yourself 9 :
The sampling and metering system is placed

as late in the oil handling sequence as possible.
There are a number of reasons for this:
it should be downstream of any booster
pump
which is fitted. (On many
installations, the crude oil passes through a
booster pump to raise the pressure prior to
entering the metering and sampling section.
This ensures that no gas or vapour will break
out of the liquid whilst it is being metered and
sampled)
no further processing of the fluid occurs before
export, and the fluid sampled and metered is
representative of the fluid being exported
metering takes place downstream of water
removal. At a water content higher than about
1%, serious discrepancies occur in meter
accuracy which conflict with the objectives of
metering and sampling
Test Yourself 9
On an offshore installation there is a 1.0%

error in the volume of crude oil being
metered. The installation produces 60 000
barrels of oil per day.
If the price of crude oil is , say, US$25
per barrel, what is the market value of
this discrepancy in the course of a year
(assuming continuous production)?
You will find the answer in Check Yourself
9 on Page 68.
33
There are many methods used to measure fluid

flow. It is worth noting, however, that most flow
rates are arrived at indirectly by measuring some
other property of the flowing fluid, and then relating
the value of this property to flow rate by some form
of calibration. This is true for the two most common
devices used for metering produced oil:

the differential pressure meter

the turbine meter
For example, as you will see later on:

in the differential pressure meter, it is a

pressure difference which is measured
directly
in the turbine meter, we measure the

frequency of electrical pulses
The most common differential pressure device is

one which uses a restriction, usually an orifice
plate, in the pipeline. The pressure drop across this
restriction is measured. This pressure differential
can then be related to flowrate by the use of, for
example, calibration tables or graphs. A large
amount of calibration data has been published on
this.
The orifice plate is popular because it has no
moving parts and is very accurate if calibrated and
maintained correctly.
In order to measure the pressure drop, there should

be pressure tappings on either side of the orifice
plate, as shown in Figure 18. These are usually
located:
one pipe diameter upstream of the orifice plate
and a half diameter downstream
or
in the flanges which hold the orifice in the
orifice plate in the pipeline
In this Unit, we will take a brief look at the differential

pressure meter, and how it operates. We will then
consider the turbine meter.
Differential Pressure Meters

Differential pressure metering is one of the oldest
methods of measuring flowrates. It is simple,
accurate, reliable and relatively inexpensive. It will
record volume flowrates (say, cubic meters per
day), but mass flowrates (say, tonnes per day) can
be calculated if the density of the oil is known.
34
The first method provides more accuracy, but the

second method is most widely used.
in general, accurate metering can only be achieved
when the orifice plate is designed, fabricated and
installed with great care.
The most common type is the square-edge orifice
plate, shown in Figure 18.
We must ensure that the flow entering the device
is steady and free of eddies which would affect the
accuracy of the meter. The orifice plate should,
therefore, be placed at a point where temperature
and pressure are constant. In addition, bends,
valves and other fittings upstream of the orifice
plate tend to disturb the flow pattern of the fluid
approaching the plate. To avoid this, it is common
practice to specify:
Figure 19, demonstrates how the pressure

changes as fluid passes through an orifice plate.
The differential pressure is measured between
points P1 and P2. Point P2 is positioned in line
with the vena contracta - the point at which
fluid velocity is at its highest, and pressure at its
lowest.
The differential pressure thus created will depend
mainly upon:
type of fluid
pipe diameter
orifice diameter
flow rate
inlet pressure
The differential pressure thus recorded may then
be converted into a flowrate figure.
a minimum length of straight pipe both

upstream and downstream of the orifice
plate
or
a flow straightening vane to be fitted upstream of the plate
A flow straightening vane is a length of pipe with

a set of fins running along the inside. As the fluid
flows along this stretch of pipe, the fins straighten
the flow and prevent swirling. Flow straightening
vanes are also used upstream of turbine meters.
35
Turbine Meters
Turbine meters are the most popular method of
measuring produced oil. They are accurate, reliable
and are easily proved and adjusted.
Turbine meters consist of a straight flow tube within
which a turbine or fan is free to rotate. You can see this
in Figure 20. The flowing stream causes the turbine
to rotate at a speed proportional to the flowrate. If the
flow increases, the turbine will spin faster. If the flow
decreases the turbine will rotate more slowly.
In most units, a magnetic pick-up system senses

the rotation of the turbine rotor. As each blade
passes the pick-up coil, an electric pulse is
generated. Each pulse is counted and, as each
pulse represents a known volume of liquid, the total
flow of oil can be calculated. In some cases, two
pick-up coils are installed, so that the two separate
pulse counts may be compared with each other as
an additional check.
One of the major advantages of a turbine meter

is in its use for producing additional flow data.
The electrical pulses generated can be fed into a
computer system, which can then perform other,
more complex, flow calculations. This additional
information may be added to the final read-out.
It should always be remembered that the accuracy
of a turbine meter depends almost entirely on the
precision of the rotor and how consistently its
speed of rotation can be related to flow. If the rotor
becomes damaged, worn or dirty, then its capacity
to measure flow accurately will suffer dramatically.
36
Metering Systems
The component parts of a typical turbine
metering run are shown in Figure 21. These
consist of:
A manually operated inlet block and bleed
valve, which allows the metering run to
be positively isolated from the rest of the
process upstream. The bleed facility allows
the space between the two valve seals to
be de-pressurised, proving that no liquid is
passing across the valve.
A filter, to remove any particles which may
damage the measuring element. The filter
is fitted with a differential pressure switch
(PDS), which gives an alarm if the pressure
drop across the filter gets too high (due to
filter blockage).
Flow straightening vanes, to remove
turbulence and any tendency for the fluid
to swirl.
A measuring element, in this case a
turbine meter fitted with a pulse transmitter.
The electrical pulses produced may be
transmitted to the flow computer. (In the
case of an orifice plate metering system,
the differential pressure across the plate
produces an electrical signal, which may
also be sent to the flow computer.)
37
A flow control valve, which controls the flow of

liquid through the metering run. When there are
two or more metering runs, a central metering
controller will apportion flow between the
different flow control valves to ensure that each
meter run is operating within its limits.
A motor operated outlet block and bleed
valve (MOV), which allows the metering run
to be positively isolated from the rest of the
process downstream. This isolation is required
when the meter run is out of service, or when it
is being proved by the meter proving system.
A second, motor operated block and bleed
valve (MOV), which is opened when the meter
run is being proved. When this occurs the flow
is diverted through the second MOV to the
meter proving system.
In practice, the pressure, temperature and density
of the oil may change while the flowrate is being
measured. To compensate for these changes,
readings of the temperature, pressure and density
are taken. This information is then fed, together with
data from the flow measurement device, into the
flow computer. Corrected values for volume flow
rate, mass flow rate, etc., can then be computed
and recorded.
Therefore, in many meter runs, but not shown in

Figure 21, you will find:
The basic principle on which a pipe prover works

is as follows:
a thermometer, which measures the

temperature of the stream being metered
A slightly oversize, elastic sphere is installed in a

special length of pipe. It is free to move within the
pipe as it is pushed by oil flowing through. As it
moves it forms a travelling seal against the inside
of the pipe.
a pressure transmitter
an on-line densitometer
Meter Proving
You saw, from Test Yourself 9, that small
inaccuracies in measurement of oil can result in
considerable revenue losses. In order to minimise
any errors the meters are proved at regular intervals.
The term proving is used in the oil industry to refer
to the calibration of oil meters.
The procedure involves comparing the indicated
(recorded) volume of oil passing through the meter
with the actual (true) volume as measured by a
very accurate device known as a prover. From this
comparison a correction factor can be obtained
which is then used to convert the observed flow
readings to true values.
This correction factor is known as the meter
factor.
There are various types of meter prover, but the
most common one is the pipe prover.
The prover is connected in series with the meter

to be proved. So, the volume swept out by the
sphere in a given time is identical to the volume
passing through the meter.
Two detectors are installed in the special pipe near
each end. These emit a signal when the sphere
passes them, which is transmitted to the pulse
counter of the meter. When the sphere reaches the
first detector it starts the counter. When the sphere
reaches the second detector it stops the counter.
The pulses, and therefore the volume, recorded by
the meter should be the same as the true volume
displaced by the sphere as it travels between the
detectors. If it is not, the recorded volume and the
true volume are compared, to arrive at the meter
factor.
The meter factor then is
accurately calibrated volume of prover
volume registered by meter
38
Pipe provers usually consist of a U-shaped

or W-shaped length of pipe. Figure 22 is an
illustration of a bi-directional U-shaped meter
prover loop.
39
A bi-directional U-shaped meter prover loop,

operates as follows :
The second pass is now completed as above, but

with the oil flow reversed.
The flow enters the meter prover through the meter

under test.
A sampling system must therefore be installed

to. determine the precise nature of the liquid being
pumped.
The flow computer will then average the two

metered volumes from the first and second passes
and compare this average with the known volume.
If the volume recorded by the meter under test is
the same as the known volume then the meter has
been proved.
Sampling systems have two main functions:
In the position shown, the oil flow is holding the

calibration sphere against the buffer. If the 4-way
diverter valve is now turned through 90 degrees,
the flow through the prover loop is reversed. This
reversed flow picks up the sphere and carries it
round the prover loop for the first pass. Two sphere
detectors are mounted in the prover loop, and the
internal pipe volume between these detectors is
already known.
As the sphere passes sphere detector 'A', a
signal to the flow computer records the flowmeter
reading at that point.
When the sphere passes sphere detector 'B', a
new flowmeter reading is recorded.
The difference between these two meter readings,
representing the metered volume of the prover
loop, is now computed and stored.
The calibration sphere, at the end of the first pass,
is now held against the other buffer.
The flow computer now turns the 4-way diverter
valve through another 90 degrees to start the
second pass.
If there is a discrepancy between the measured

volume and the known volume, the flow computer
will calculate a correction factor and then apply
this to the meter under test. Another meter proving
run will then take place.
When the flowmeter reading (including any
correction factor) falls within 0.5% of the known
volume, without adjustment, for at least five
consecutive proving runs, it is classed as being
accurate.
Sampling Systems
It is not only important that the crude oil is
metered accurately. It is equally important to
gather information on the nature of the oil being
pumped. The chemical and physical nature of
the oil may change with time, as may the level of
contaminants, such as water or solids, still present
after the separation process.
sampling for metering

sampling for analysis
Sampling for metering involves the use of an
online density measuring system. This system
continuously samples the fluid and passes the
density results to the flow computer. The computer
then combines values for density, pipeline pressure
and temperature to calculate the mass flow.
Sampling for analysis is carried out by a second
system. At regular intervals, a pump extracts a
small amount of the fluid being metered, and these
small samples are stored in a sample jar or similar
vessel. Periodically, this combined fluid sample is
taken away to be analysed in detail.
An on-line basic sediment and water (BS&W)
system is also installed on most oil handling
facilities. The BS&W analyzer ensures that the water
and solids content of the crude does not exceed
pre-set limits (typically less than 1%") without a
warning being transmitted to the operator.
The automatic sampling systems described above
are usually backed up by samples taken manually
by the operator, as a check on the automatic
systems.
40
Before leaving this section, work through the following Test

Yourself. It will help you to recall the topics we have covered:
Test Yourself 10
During this section we have looked at:
The following pieces of equipment are used in the metering and

sampling system I have described. Can you say briefly what their
purpose is, and where in the system they are located ?
the reasons why we need to meter the crude oil before

it leaves the production facility
1.
densitometer
the different types of meter which may be used
2.
flow straightening vanes
3.
4-way diverter valve
a typical meter run and what equipment it contains
4.
vena contracta
a bi-directional meter proving loop and how it works
5.
prover loop
6.
BS&W analyser
a typical sampling system and the reasons for sampling

the crude oil.
7.
booster pumps
8.
pick-up coil
9.
orifice plate
10.
sphere detectors
11.
turbine meter
12.
block and bleed valves
We will now take a look at the final stage in an oil production

facility - the Pig Launcher.
You will find the answers in Check Yourself 10 on Page 69.
41
Section 4 - Pig Launching Facilities

In previous sections, we have looked at the
equipment used to pump the oil. I have described
typical metering systems and how we prove that
they are accurate. Sampling and analysis of the
crude oil were touched upon.
In Figure 1 we saw that the last stage in a crude oil
production facility is normally the pig launcher -the
final item of equipment on the installation before
the oil enters the main oil pipeline.
The oil which flows through the pipeline may have
a small amount of residual water in it. There may
be traces of sand, or wax may be deposited from
the oil as it cools down. All of these materials may
settle out and affect the efficiency of the pipeline.
Devices called pigs may then be pumped through
the pipeline, from the pig launcher, to remove the
water or sediments which have settled out from
the oil.
Pigs should form a reasonably tight fit inside the
pipeline, in order that
they perform their cleaning duties effectively
they are efficiently transported through the
pipeline by the fluid flow
By the way, there are two main explanations given

for the name "pig", both of which are equally
unlikely !
The first is that the original pigs were made from
stuffed pigskins, sent through water pipelines
to clear them out
The second is that early pigs were made of
wood, with metal bands around them to help
withstand constant rubbing against the wall of
the pipeline. As they travelled along the pipeline
they "squealed like pigs" as the metal bands
scraped along the pipe
I will leave you to choose which one you believe.
the brush pig is used for cleaning and dewaxing pipelines. (Scrapers may also be
included in the design). Brush pigs in liquid
service often incorporate a series of pipes
which provide liquid channels through the pig
centre. Some of the liquid behind the pig will
pass through the pipes and, because of the
angle at which these pipes are set, the pig
rotates, thus improving the brushing effect. In
addition, the jetting action this causes ahead of
the pig stops a build up of debris at that point
the sphere is used mainly to de-water gas
pipelines but it is occasionally used for very
light cleaning work on oil pipelines
Pigs come in a variety of shapes and sizes

depending on the service which they are intended
to perform.
the foam pig is most often used for the initial

de-watering and cleaning of pipelines. Any
welding rods, or other sharp objects which
may have been left in the pipeline, embed
themselves into the foam as the pig passes
by
Figure 23 on page 43 illustrates a few of the

designs available. Their main uses are as follows:
the foam brush pig is used in lightweight

cleaning service, usually on gas pipelines
Types of Pig
the squeegee pig is often used for separating

different liquids or gases when pipelines are
being filled or emptied, or when the same
pipeline is being used for different products.
It may also be used for lightweight cleaning
duties and for de-watering gas pipelines
42
Figure 23: Pig Designs
43
A very specialised pig is shown in Figure 24. This

is the Kaliper pig or Linaiog pig.
As this type of pig travels along the pipeline, two
wheels, positioned near the centre of the pig, press
against the walls of the pipe and record how far the
pig has travelled.
At the same time a series of fingers, mounted at
the back of the pig, slide along the walls of the pipe
and measure its diameter.
The information thus collected is recorded on a
chart which is built into the pig. The chart can be
analysed on arrival, to reveal variations in internal
diameter (caused, perhaps, by dents or corrosion
pitting) and precisely where these variations
occur.
Pigs are becoming more sophisticated and, these
days, are capable of measuring and recording a
wide range of data related to the condition of the
pipeline and contents.
44
Pig Launchers
We will how take a look at Figure 25, which shows the basic layout of a pig
launcher, and think about how it operates.
45
Under normal conditions, the crude oil supply

bypasses the pig launcher and flows through
valve X directly into the pipeline.
To load a pig into the pig launcher:
valve B and valve C should be closed
the pig launcher must be de-pressurised and
drained of liquid
when these steps are completed, the pig
launcher door - door A - is opened and the pig
placed inside the launcher
door A is then closed
the pig launcher is refilled with liquid and re-
pressurised using the pressurising valve
the pig launch indicator is re-set to record
when the pig passes that point
valve B and valve C are then opened, and
valve X slowly closed
the flow of oil is diverted through the pig
launcher and this flow forces the pig into the
pipeline
as the pig passes the pig launch indicator it
activates a "flag" which tells the operator that
the pig is in the pipeline
the operator can now open valve X, and close
valves B and C
Pig Launching Problems

It all looks pretty straightforward, so what can go
wrong?
Well, some pigs are very reluctant to leave the pig
launcher and it may take three or four attempts
at loading, to get them far enough into the pig
launcher for them to leave.
Again, pigs can break up as they traverse the
pipeline. This may result in the non-arrival of a pig,
and then damage to pigs which are sent down
after it.
Pigs can stick in the pipeline. Some pig / pipeline
combinations found onshore are so prone to
sticking that the pig is fitted with a radio transmitter
to assist in locating the sticking point. When a pig
is stuck, the operator must decide whether to
launch another pig in an attempt to shift the first
one. If this doesn't work, you have two stuck pigs.
Is it wise to try a third?
On occasion, foam pigs will leapfrog' each other
inside the pipeline. Launched in the order 1,2,3,
they arrive in the order 1,3,2.
Pigs may leave the launcher and enter the pipeline
without triggering the 'pig launched' signal; or arrive
at the other end of the pipeline without triggering
the 'pig received' signal.
In addition, it should be remembered that the

operation of pig launchers and pig receivers is a
major cause of explosions in the oil and gas
industry. You will understand, therefore, why the
launching and recovery of pigs is an operation which
must be treated with a great deal of respect.
Basic Rules for Pig Launching

Always bear in mind the following basic rules:
stick closely to your own laid down proce dures
and do not take any short-cuts
during pig launching and receiving operations,
do not assume that any event has occurred
or not occurred until you have checked and
double-checked thoroughly
always make sure that you are launching the
correct size of pig :
too narrow, and it may not travel
too wide, and it may stick, blocking the
pipeline
too long, and it may jam on a bend, again
blocking the pipeline
too short, and it may hang on a bend allowing
the flow to bypass it
46
always ensure that the pig is properly positioned

in the launcher so that it will leave cleanly when
the flow is diverted
always remember to re-set the 'pig launched*
device before you launch the pig, otherwise
you cannot tell whether it has entered the
pipeline or not
As I have already emphasised, opening and
closing pig launchers is potentially dangerous and,
because of this, most of the launching facilities
are fitted with safety systems. These prevent the
operator from opening the wrong valve or, worst of
all, opening the fauncher door whilst the launcher
is open to the pipeline.
Safety Systems
You will note from Figure 25 that a number of
interlocks have been labelled. I do not intend
to go into any detail on these - this topic will
be covered extensively by other Units in the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series.
As a simple illustration, however:
interlock A on the pig launcher door
interlock B on valve B (inlet to the pig launcher)
interlock C on valve C (outlet from the pig
launcher) interlock D on the pig launcher low
pressure switch
work together to ensure that the pig launcher
door cannot be opened unless
valve B is closed
valve C is closed
the pig launcher pressure is low
47
Test Yourself 11
In this section we have looked at:
the reasons why we need to pig a pipeline
the different types of pig which may be used
1.

Why do pig launcher systems present an explosion

hazard ?
2.

What steps should always be taken before a pig

launcher door is opened ?
a typical pig launcher and how to launch a pig

and, very briefly, the need for safety systems
The answers are given in Check Yourself 11,

which you will find on Page 70.
We will now look at a typical Oil Pumping and Metering System and see how it
compares with what we have learned so far. Before that, however, try the following
Test Yourself :
48
Section 5 - A Typical Oil Pumping and Metering System

In this section we will take a look at a typical oil
pumping and metering system and see how it
relates to what we have covered previously in this
Unit.
Booster Pumps
You may like to refer back to Figure 1, which

shows the general layout.
The crude oil flows from the 2nd stage separator

through an emergency shutdown valve, ESDV
1. Valve ESDV 1 is common to the suction of all
three pumps we are using here.
A few assumptions have been made in the design

illustrated:
the production operation is offshore and the main
pipeline takes the oil to an onshore facility, where it
is treated further
there is no crude oil buffer storage facility.
Therefore, the separated crude oil is pumped
directly frohi the second stage separator, through
booster pumps and pipeline pumps into ah export
pipeline system
the crude oil metering facility is located between
the booster pumps and the pipeline pumps. As
previously explained, this location ensures that
there is a stable flow to the metering system and
that the pressure is sufficiently high to prevent any
gas bubbles forming
If we look at Figure 26, on the next page, we can

see how the booster pump system works.
ESDV 1 will be closed by remote signals if an

emergency occurs. Typical emergencies would
be:
a very low oil level in the 2nd stage separator
(part of a process shutdown because only the oil
process would be closed down if this occurred)
a fire in the wellheads area (part of an
emergency shutdown, which would shut down
all processes).
ESDV 1 also has an interlock (IL) which, if the
valve is in the closed position will prevent any of
the booster pumps from starting.
It should be noted that, after the pumps are running,
the closure Of ESDV 1 will not shut them down via
the emergency shutdown system. It only acts as
an inhibit to prevent the pumps starting in certain
circumstances. If ESDV 1 closes while the pumps
are running, then the low-low pressure switch on
the discharge of the booster pump (PSLL) would
shut down the pumps
Downstream of ESDV 1, the line branches into

three, which provide suction to each of the booster
pumps. It is normal practice to specify that the
piping configuration to the pumps is designed to
distribute the oil flow evenly.
The first valve on the suction of booster pump A is
HV1. HV 1 is a hand operated valve and it is also
interlocked as an inhibit, to prevent the starting of
booster pump A when it is closed.
Downstream of HV 1 and just upstream of the inlet
to the pump is a T filter. This is usually a coarse
screen, designed to prevent larger items of debris
(gloves, helmets, spanners, etc.) from entering and
damaging the pump.
The filter is fitted with a differential pressure
switch (PDS) which incorporates a high
differential alarm. This arrangement will give an
alarm in the event of a high differential pressure
caused by filter blockage. It should be noted that a
low or zero reading here may be caused either by
a clean filter or a ruptured filter!
The discharge of booster pump A is fitted with
a pressure switch low (PSL) and a pressure
switch low-low (PSLL). PSL will give an alarm
and PSLL will cause the pump to shut down in the
event of low pressures.
49
50
After a shutdown, PSLL creates a potential problem.

If the pressure at that stage is below the setting of
PSLL, the pump cannot be re-started. A shutdown
signal is still being sent from the Pressure Switch
Low-Low. Something must be done to allow the
pump to restart.
The problem is overcome by, automatically,
bypassing PSLL for 30 seconds when the pump
is started. This allows sufficient time to build
up enough pressure to re-set the switch. If the
increasing pressure does not re-set PSLL before
the 30 seconds have elapsed, then the pump will
shut down again. This system is called a timepressure race, i.e., the pump is racing against
time to generate sufficient pressure to re-set the
switch.
The discharge of the pump is also fitted with a
pressure switch high (PSH) and a pressure
switch high-high (PSHH). PSH will give ah alarm
and PSHH will cause the pump to shut down in
the event of high pressures, perhaps because of
problems downstream.
The discharge from pump A now passes through a

hand-operated valve, before joining the flow from
the other pumps. The combined flow then passes
through level control valve LCV 2. This valve
controls the oil level in the 2nd stage separator. The
separator level controller will open this valve if the
level rises, and close it if the level falls. We can see
that, in the event of a failure of supply to the 2nd
stage separator, the valve would close completely
and the booster pumps would go on to minimum
flow.
After passing across LCV 2 the oil flows to the
sampling and metering systems.
You should note that the booster pump system
is designed so that its discharge pressure is high
enough to meet the required suction pressure at
the main oil pipeline pumps, which we will look at
later.
The discharge of the booster pump is fitted with a

minimum flow non-return valve (SV1), which we
have already described in Section 2, Page 31 and
Figure 17. To prevent the continuously re-cycled oil
from becoming progressively hotter, it is routed all
the way back to the 2nd stage separator via HV 2.
51
Sampling System
Figure 27 shows the layout of a typical sampling system.
52
You will see that a side stream is removed from the

inlet header to the metering system by one of two
sample pumps, A and B.
This side stream is drawn through two continuous
sampling devices (A and B) where a small sample
is removed and stored.
As an illustration of the sampling routine:
sample device A may take a composite sample
of five litres per day
A BS&W analyzer checks for the basic sediment

and water contained in the crude oil flow. Most
pipeline operations have a maximum specification
for BS&W which, typically, may be "not more than
1%". This means that no more than 1 % of the
total volume pumped into the pipeline should be
sediment and water.
If an increased BS&W level occurs for any length of
time, the pipeline pigging programme is readjusted
to increase the rate of pigging. This is required to
prevent the sediments and water from blocking
and corroding the pipeline.
sample device B may take a composite sample

of 35 litres per week
one litre spot samples may be taken manu ally
by the operator, as a back-up, at twelve hour
intervals
After leaving the sample pumps, the sample
stream flows to two densitometers (A and B) and
a basic sediment and water (BS&W) analyzer
before returning to the inlet header.
A densitometer is designed to measure the
density of the sample stream fluid. It does this by
comparing this fluid with a reference, whose density
is known. The result is then passed automatically
to the flow computer.
53
Metering System
In the metering system shown in Figure 28,
i have included just one meter run and a prover
loop. The meter run, which we could designate run
'A', is from upstream of the inlet block valve (HV 1)
to downstream of the outlet block valve (MOV 1).
In a complete system there would be three or more
parallel runs. I have indicated this in the drawing as
additional runs 'B' and 'C'. A single prover loop is
used and there are connections between each run
and the prover, enabling it to be placed in series
with any of the meters.
54
When meter run 'A' is in service, the normal flow

pattern would be through:
the 4-way prover loop diverter valve (MOV 3)
the inlet block valve (HV1)
the prover loop flow control valve (FCV 2)
the filter (F)
and from there to the pipeline oil pumps.
the flow straightening vanes
Note the flow computer in the drawing. You will

remember from Section 3 that one of its jobs is
to compare the volume indicated by the meter
with the true volume of the loop to obtain a meter
factor. In addition, it ensures that there is equal
flow between each of the meters being used. It
does this by altering the settings of the appropriate
flow control valves. If meter run TV were in normal
service this would be FCV 1. If meter W is being
proved however, the flow would be controlled via
FCV 2. The flow reading from each meter is fed to
the computer via a flow transmitter (Ft).
the turbine meter

the flow control valve (FCV1)
the outlet block valve (MOV 1)
and from there to the pipeline oil pumps.
When the meter in run 'A' is being proved, the
flow would be through:
the inlet block valve (HV1)
the filter (F)
the flow straightening vanes
the turbine meter
the prover loop block valve (MOV 2)
the 4-way prover loop diverter valve (MOV 3)
the prover loop
So, when the meter in run 'A' is being proved, the

flow computer:
closes MOV 1
opens MOV 2
transfers control of flow from FCV 1 to FCV 2
allows flow to stabilise
operates MOV 3 to start first proving run
operates MOV 3 again, to reverse flow through

prover and start second (and any further) proving
runs
performs necessary calculations to obtain
meterfactor
A few other points to note are:
1. interlocks are fitted to MOV 1 and MOV 2 to
ensure that these valves are at the right setting
(open or closed) before the meter proving starts
2. pressure relief valve PSV1 is located
downstream of the filter and upstream of the flow
straightening vanes. If HV 1, MOV 1 and MOV 2
are all closed for any reason, the pressure inside
the meter run may rise due to any temperature
increase. PSV 1 is fitted to relieve this pressure
3. to ensure the accuracy of the prover loop, the
sphere is always oversized by 1-2%. This ensures
a tight fit between the surface of the sphere and
the walls of the prover loop. The sphere is replaced
on a regular basis, and it is normally the first item
to be changed if the accuracy of the prover loop is
suspect
4. An independent contract company is often
used to prove the prover loop, say, on an annual
basis
55
Oil Pipeline Pumps

If you look at Figure 29, you can probably see how the oil pipeline pumping
system works.
56
It is rather similar to the booster pump layout, so we will

concentrate only on the important differences:
When the minimum flow system is operating, crude oil is
re-cycled from the discharge to the suction of the pump
and is not routed back to a separator, as was the case in the
booster pump layout. (The separators are upstream of the
meters. Therefore, if the oil was re-cycled to the separators,
it would pass through the meters twice, which, of course,
would introduce errors into the flow measurements)
However, because the pipeline pumps are transferring
a large amount of energy to the oil, this direct re-cycling
would result in a rapid and substantial temperature rise.
To prevent this from occurring, a re-cycle cooler is fitted
to cool the crude before it is returned to the suction of the
pipeline pumps. Offshore, the re-cycle cooler would often
use seawater as a cooling medium (as shown in Figure 29)
because it is cheap and plentiful
Fluid Coupling
Pipeline pumps have a variable speed drive. The speed at
which they operate is determined by the pipeline pressure
controller (which we will look at later). If the line pressure is too
low, then the controller increases the pump speed; if it is too
high, the pump speed is decreased.
This speed variation may be achieved by a fluid coupling
between an AC electric motor and the pump. Fluid couplings
are also known as hydraulic couplings.
Acommon design is shown in Figure 30
57
Figure 30 is a three dimensional cut-away drawing

of the coupling assembly. You will see that the
coupling comprises:
an inlet shaft, connected to the drive motor
an outlet shaft, connected to the main pump
The inlet shaft drives an oil circulating pump. The
oil path is from the reservoir, via a cooler and small
holding tank, into the circulating pump section.
From the pump discharge, the oil flows to the
scoop chamber
You should take particular note of the components
labelled the runner and the impeller. They are
both of similar design and look like a ring of cups
attached to a wheel. The runner is a t the end of the
inlet shaft, and the impeller at the beginning of the
outlet shaft. Each turns independently of the other
within the casing. The only connection between
them is made by the circulating oil when the unit is
in operation-hence the term fluid coupling.
The basis of operation is as follows:
Pump Speed Control
the inlet shaft turns the runner, and drives the

oil circulating pump. Note that the runner turns
at 100% of the drive motor speed at all times
The amount of oil transferred between the runner

and the impeller and, therefore, the main oil
pump.
the cups on the runner pick up oil from the

outer perimeter of the scoop chamber and
throw it into the receiving cups of the impeller.
The runner is therefore acting as a pump
the oil striking the impeller cups turns the
impeller, which is acting as a turbine
Figure 31, on page 59, shows a series of cross

sectional diagrams through a fluid coupling,
which help us to explain this mechanism of speed
control.
the impeller then turns the main pipeline

pump
58
59
The position of the scoop tube will determine how

much power is transmitted across the coupling.
In Figure 31 a the scoop tube is at maximum extension, at a radius slightly greater
than the outer boundary of the circulating
oil. Therefore, all oil entering the scoop
chamber is 'scooped' away by the open
tip of the scoop tube and returned to the
reservoir. The scoop chamber is virtually
empty, and no oil remains for the runner to
throw at the impeller. Power transmission
is therefore nil, and the main pipeline pump
is stationary.
At an intermediate extension of the scoop
tube, (Figure 31b), a ring of oil can accumulate in the scoop chamber between the
tip of the scoop tube and the outer boundary. This limited volume of oil is now available for the runner to throw at the impeller.
An intermediate level of power can now be
transferred across the coupling to drive the
main pump.
In Figure 31 c, the scoop tube is at minimum ra dius, the oil retained within the
scoop chamber is at a maximum, and full
power transfer is taking place.
Pipeline Pumping Pressure

Returning to Figure 29 again, the oil pipeline pump
speed is controlled by the speed controller (SC)
which takes its signal from the pipeline pressure
controller.
If the pipeline pressure is too low, these controllers
will speed up the oil pipeline pump by shortening
the extension of the scoop tube.
If the pressure is too high, the controllers will slow
down the main pump by increasing the radius of
the scoop tube.
Pressure Transmitter
Finally, just upstream of the main outlet valve
ESDV 2 is a pressure transmitter (PT) which sends
a telemetry signal to the local control room, to the
shore (in offshore locations), and to other oilfields
sharing the same pipeline facility.
This safety feature is required to prevent overpressuring the pipeline.
60
Pig Launching
Normal flow through the system would be:
The pig launching facility is illustrated in Figure

32.
It is similar to the one I have described previously.
through ESDV 2
through MOV 1
through ESDV 3, and then
to the pipeline
ESDV 2 and ESDV 3 are two emergency shutdown valves which

are interlocked with the ESD system to ensure that the pipeline
pumps cannot be operated when these valves are closed.
On an offshore installation, ESDV 3 may be situated on the sea
bed. It is designed to ensure that ho oil can flow back to the
installation in the event of platform malfunction. It is only operated
in extreme emergencies such as a fire or large oil leak.
61
Now, with reference to Figure 32 again, we can

list the steps involved in launching a pig:
1. check that the pig is undamaged, the correct
size, and that the shape is undistorted. Spherical
pigs may be passed through a sizing ring to make
sure that they are the right size
2. ensure that the pig signalling device (SX) has
been re-set, ready to tell us when the pig has been
launched
3. check that MOV 2, MOV 3 and HV 1 are closed
so that we may de-pressurise th pig launcher
7. confirm that the pressure is off the pig launcher

by checking a pressure guage (PG). Then close
HV 3
8. open HV 4 to allow nitrogen (N2) to flow through
the pig launcher to remove hydro carbon gasses.
Close HV 4 and HV 2
9. open the pig launcher door
10. load the pig, ensuring that it is past the inlet
from MOV 2
4. begin the de-pressurisation process by

opening HV 3, allowing pressure in the pig launcher
to blow the oil it contains to the drain system
11. close the pig launcher door and purge air from
the launcher (with nitrogen) before re-pressurising.
the reason for purging is to prevent an explosion
when we bring the pressure up to normal operating
level
5. as the pressure falls, the high pressure switch

(PSH) will show that the pressure is not high.
Then the low pressure switch (PSL) will show
that the pressure is low
(in our example, the purging operation is carried

out by re-opening HV 2 and then HV 4 this allows
a small amount of nitro gen to displace air to the
vent system via HV 2)
6. when this situation is reached, we can open HV 2

to the vent system and allow the pig launcher and
vent system pressures to equalise. As this occurs,
the remainder of the oil will drain to the d r a i n
system through HV 3
12. when all air has been displaced, close HV 4

and HV 2 and allow pressure to build up to the
pipeline operating pressure by opening HV 1 as
this occurs, PSL will tell us that the pressure is not
low and PSH will finally tell us that the pressure is
high. When these two switches have given their
indications, we will close HV 1
13. open MOV 3 and then MOV 2. We open MOV

3 first because we do not want a sudden flow of
oil through the pig launcher to try to force the pig
through MOV 3 as it is opening
14. when MOV 2 is fully open, close MOV 1 to
divert the flow through the pig launcher. We keep
closing MOV 1 until the flow launches the pig.
When the pig enters the pipeline, it will hit the pig
signalling device (SX). This will then tell us that the
pig has passed this point
15. re-open MOV 1, close MOV 2 and MOV 3, to
return the system to normal
You should note that a pig should never be
launched without first ensuring that the pig receiver
at the other end of the pipeline is ready to receive
it.
During all pigging operations, you should
follow the operational and safety procedures
laid down specifically for your equipment and
installation
62
In this section we have:
looked at the main design features of a typical oil handling and
metering system
examined the layout of a booster pump unit and, in particular, how it
may be controlled
discussed the key elements of a sampling system and noted that
density and BS&W are measured automatically
worked through the operation of a metering system and, in
particular, a meter proving loop
looked at a typical arrangement of the main pipeline pumps, and
compared this arrangement with that for booster pumps
discussed the main design features of a fluid drive system, and how
it may be used to control pumping rate
Now, finally, try this Test Yourself, which covers some of the topics we
have discussed in Section 5.
Test Yourself 12
1. What do you understand by a time-pressure race ?
2. In pig launching operations, what does the flag do ?
3. What do we mean by the meter factor ?
4. In the case of the booster pumps, why does the minimum
flow system re-cycle oil back to the second stage separator,
and not directly to the booster pump inlet ?
5. The minimum flow system for the main pipeline pumps
re-cycles oil directly to the pump suction. Why does this
arrangement differ from that for the booster pumps ?
6. What types of analysis does our sampling system perform
continuously on the oil flow ?
described the procedure for launching a pig to the pipeline

You will find the answers to these questions in Check Yourself
12 on Page 70.
63
Unit Summary
In the course of this Unit on Oil Pumping and Metering, we have:
looked at some of the theories behind the operation of centrifugal pumps, including
the behaviour of fluids, centrifugal force and energy
detailed the component parts of a centrifugal pump, and the role each plays in its
operation
examined the main design features of a metering and sampling system, and how it
is controlled and operated
familiarised ourselves with the layout and operation of a pig launching facility
discussed the main design and operational aspects of a typical oil pumping and
metering system
Now go back to the Training Targets on Page 4 of this unit and satisfy yourself that you
are able to meet those targets.
64
Check Yourself 1
Specific gravity of gasoline:
=
mass of five litres of crude oil

mass of five litres of water (reference)
= 4.25 kg = 0.85
5 kg
Check Yourself 2
Velocity of the car:
mass of five litres of brine

mass of ive litres of water (reference)
= 5.5 kg = 1.1
5 kg
3 metres head of water exerts a pressure

of 0.3 bar.
S.G. of crude = 0.85
=180kph = 50 metres / sec

kinetic energy of the car:
= 1/2 1000 kg x (50 m / sec x 50 m / sec)
= 1 250 000 joules
Specific gravity of the brine:

=
Check Yourself 3
Head Pressure 3 metres of crude oil =

0.3 x 0.85 = 0.25 bar.
4.5 metres head of water exerts a
pressure 0.45 bar.
Velocity of the truck:
S.G. of brine = 1.1
= 30kph = 8.3 metres / sec
Head Pressure 4.5 metres of brine =

0.45 x 1.1 = 0.5 bar.
kinetic energy of the truck:

= 1/2 x 20 000 kg x (8.3 m / sec x 8.3 m/sec)
= 688 900 joules
Therefore, the car has the greater kinetic energy
65
Check Yourself 4
b.
the static suction line pressure
c.
the NPSH
a.

the pressure at which gas or

vapour is released
The NPSH represents the minium design

pressure to prevent gas or vapour release
and should therefore be above this gas /
vapour release pressure by a safe margin.
The static suction head pressure would
normally be maintained at about 10%
above the NPSH.
Check Yourself 5
Check Yourself 6
70% diffrential pressure =

84% flow = 8.4 litres/min
When pumping 20 cubic metres per hour

this pump will:
40% differential pressure =

64% flow = 6.4 litres/min
require a minimum of 3.4 metres

head of liquid NPSH
Therefore, the flow rate would fall by

8.4 - 6.4 = 2 litres/min
develop 57 metres total head of

liquid
consume 8 kilowatts of power

operate at 72% efficiency approxi
mately
66
Check Yourself 7
When pumping 40 cubic metres per hour this
pump will:
Check Yourself 8
Your answer should look like the following:
Item
require a minimum of 3.9 metres head of liquid

NPSH
shaft sleeve 'O' ring
develop 47 metres total head of liquid
lantern ring
consume 11J kilowatts of power

operate at 85% efficiency
approximately
Casing
Bearing
flush inlet
vane
slinger ring
balance holes
gland follower
volute
ball bearing race

diffuser
Seal
shroud
wear rings
Impeller
67
Check Yourself 9
1.0% of 60 000 bbl/day = 600 x 365 bbl/year = 219 000 bbl/year
(assuming, of course, that the installation produces at that rate without interuption).
at $25 per barrel, this error is valued at about $5.5 million per year.
This example emphasises very effectively the importance of accuracy in the metering process. You should note that the error
is equally undesirable, whether it involves an over-measurement or under-measurement of crude oil volume.
68
Check Yourself 10
1. densitometer

an instrument, installed between booster

pumps and metering system, to measure
the density of the pipeline fluid.
7. booster pumps

located upstream of the metering and

sampling system (to discourage gas/
vapour breakout).
2. flow straightening vanes

installed upstream of a flow meter to

smooth flow and prevent swirling
8. pick-up coil

part of a turbine meter, used to sense

and transmit speed of rotation.
3. 4-way diverter valve

part of a meter proving loop, allowing flow to

be reversed for a second pass of the sphere.
9. orifice plate

an essential part of the most common

type of differential pressure meter.
4. vena contracta

this is cheating a little bit - the vena

contracta is the point in the flow pattern
through an orifice plate where flow rate is
highest and pressure lowest
10. sphere detectors

part of a meter prover loop, and

signals the begining and the end of a
prover run, allowing the meter reading
to be recorded at thoses points.
5. prover loop

a pipe loop of known volume in the meter

proving system which allows accurate
calibration of the meter.
11. turbine meter

the most common type of oil flow

meter, located downstream of booster
pumps, filter and flow straightening
vanes.
6. BS&W analyser

an instrument, installed between booster

pumps and metering system, to measure
basic sediment and water (BS&W) in the
pipeline fluid
12. block & bleed valves

located at various places in a metering

run, allowing the run to be positively
isolated from the rest of the process.
The "bleed" facility allows the space
between the two valve seals to be
depressurised.
69
Check Yourself 11
1. They are the only part of the pipeline
system which is regularly opened to
the atmosphere.
2. the pig launcher must be :

a) isolated from the pipeline
b) drained of liquids
c) depressurised
1. when restarting the booster pumps after

a shutdown due to low pressure, it will be
necessary to by-pass the pressure switchlow (PSLL- see figure 26) for a short while.
This gives the pump sufficient time to build
up enough pressure to re-set PSLL.
2. The flag is part of the pig launch indicator
mechanism, and signals that the pig has
passed that particular point in the system.
3. The meter factor is a correction factor which
allows us to convert observed flow readings
to true values.
It is calculated during the meter proving
procedure, by comparing the true volume of
liquid passing through the meter in a given
time, with the volume registered by the meter
in the same time :
4. Re-cycling directly back to the pump section

would cause the oil to become progressively hotter. Re-cycling to the separator will give the oil an
opportunity to cool down.
5. The separators are upstream of the flow meters. If we re-cycled oil to the separators, it would
pass through the meters twice and give us a false
flow reading.
6. a. density or specific gravity

b. basic sediment and water (BS&W)
samples are also taken for more detailed

laboratory analysis.
meter factor = true volume of liquid passing through meter in a given time
volume registered by meter in same time
70

Oil Pumping and Metering PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Oil Pumping and Metering PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

POL

Petroleum Open Learning

Petroleum Open Learning

OPITO 1993 (rev.2002)