Injection Water Treatment PDF

POL
Petroleum Open Learning
Injection Water Treatment

Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
POL

Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
Designed, Produced and Published by OPITO Ltd., Petroleum Open Learning, Minerva House, Bruntland Road, Portlethen, Aberdeen AB12 4QL
Printed by Astute Print & Design, 44-46 Brechin Road, Forfar, Angus DD8 3JX www.astute.uk.com
OPITO 1993 (rev.2002)
ISBN 1 872041 85 X
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval or information storage system, transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publishers.
(Part of the Petroleum Processing Technology Series)
Contents
Page
Training Targets
Introduction
Section 1 - The Reasons for Water Injection
Reservoirs and Rock Properties

Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
Oil Recovery
Pressure Maintenance by Water Injection
Section 2 - Reasons for Treating Injection Water
Bacteria
Suspended Solids
Dissolved Gases
Dissolved Solids
Other Chemical Treatments
15
Visual Cues

training targets for you to

achieve by the end of the unit
test yourself questions

to see how much you
understand
check yourself answers to

let you see if you have been
thinking along the right lines
activities for you to apply

your new knowledge
summaries for you to recap

on the major steps in your
progress
Contents (cont'd)
*
Section 3 - Sea Water Treatment Equipment
Page
19

Bacteria Control

Sodium Hypochlorite Generation

Filtration Equipment

Basket Filters

Sand Filters

Dual Media Filters

Cartridge Filters

Oxygen Removal

Gas Stripping

Vacuum Deaeration
Section 4 - A Typical Injection Water Treatment System 37
Sea Water Intake and Coarse Filters

Chlorination Facilities
Sea Water Reservoir
Fine Filtration
Deaeration
Water Injection Pumps
Water Injection Wells
Check Yourself - Answers
54
Visual Cues

training targets for you to

achieve by the end of the unit
test yourself questions

to see how much you
understand
check yourself answers to

let you see if you have been
thinking along the right lines
activities for you to apply

your new knowledge
summaries for you to recap

on the major steps in your
progress
Training Targets
When you have completed this unit on Injection Water Treatment you will be able to :
Define the terms porosity and permeability as applied to reservoir rock
Explain three basic reservoir drive mechanisms
Explain how reservoir pressure is maintained by water injection
Explain the reasons for treating injection water
Describe the function, construction and operation of sea treatment equipment,
including filters, sodium hypochlorite generators, and deaerators
Describe a typical injection water treatment
List and describe common chemicals used in the treatment of injection water
Tick the box when you have met each target.
Oil and Gas

Injection
Water
Separation
Treatment
Systems

Introduction
The production efficiency of most oil reservoirs can be improved by injecting water into the layer of water which
underlies the oil in the reservoir rock. But why should this be so ? Where do we get the water from and what
treatment does the water require before it is injected ? In this unit we are going to look at these questions and
try to answer them.
The unit is divided into four sections.
In Section 1, we will look at the reasons for injecting water into a reservoir in oilfield operations. We will concentrate
on the nature of a typical reservoir and the properties which influence the way in which oil is produced. You will
see that the most common type of water used for injection purposes is sea water.
Section 2 will focus on the problems which could result from injecting untreated sea water into a reservoir rock,
and the methods used to overcome these problems.
In Section 3, I will explain the construction and operation of equipment used in the treatment of injection water.
Finally, in Section 4, we will look at a typical sea water injection system. I will take you through this hypothetical
system step by step. This will give you an overall picture of the operation and control of such a process.
Section 1 - The Reasons for Water Injection

Before we can go on to consider the equipment
used and procedures involved in water injection,
it is necessary to look at the reasons for injecting
water. This will involve a little bit of reservoir
engineering. Don't let the term put you off. We
will tackle it in a rather simple way.
This type of reservoir is known as a dome

structure. It looks rather like a number of
upturned saucers lying on top of each other.
Each saucer represents a layer of rock.
The rock layer which contains oil, water and gas
is the reservoir rock. On top of the reservoir
lies a layer of rock called the cap rock. The cap
rock forms the upper boundary of the reservoir
and stops any fluids from migrating upwards.
The whole structure is often called a reservoir
trap.
Lets start by having a look at a typical petroleum

reservoir and the way in which the oil is
produced:
Reservoirs and Rock Properties
In order for reservoir fluids to be brought to the

surface, wells are drilled into the reservoir rock.
However, in order for these fluids to enter the
wells, they must be capable of flowing through
the rock.
Look at Figure 1, which shows a

simplified cross section through a
typical reservoir structure.
A reservoir rock, therefore, must be capable of

holding fluids within itself and allowing the fluids
to move through it. The two properties of rock
which govern this are:

porosity
permeability
Porosity is the property of the rock which

enables it to hold fluids within itself. The oil, gas
and water are contained in tiny holes in the rock
called pores.
Figure 1
6
Sandstone is a common reservoir rock. It is made Figure 2 is an illustration of a porous and permeable Before we move on, complete the following Test
up of grains of sand which are cemented together rock.
Yourself question.
at the points where they touch. Between the sand
grains are void spaces - the pores.
The ratio of the volume of the pores to total rock
volume expressed as a percentage is the rock
porosity.
This means that, if you have a sandstone reservoir
with a porosity of 25% , for every 4 m3 of reservoir
rock, 1 m3 consists of holes and 3 m3 solid sand
grains.
Another common reservoir rock is limestone. This
is a rather brittle rock which contains lots of tiny
cracks and fissures. These tiny cracks give the
limestone its porosity.
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid The following example may help you to visualise
to flow through the rock from one pore to another. porosity and permeability in a reservoir.
In order for it to be able to do this, the pores must
be interconnected.
We have all seen an ordinary building brick, but
have you ever examined one carefully ? Take a
Permeability is measured in darcys, named after close look at a brick under a magnifying glass and
a French engineer who studied the flow of liquids you will see that the surface is a mass of tiny holes.
through filters. He found that the flow increased in A building brick is both porous and permeable.
proportion to the pressure increase. However he If you place one in a bowl of water you will see
also discovered that the flow was affected by the small bubbles rising from the surface. This occurs
thickness, or viscosity, of the fluid.
as water flows into brick and displaces the air. In
many ways an oil reservior rock is similar, in terms
Generally there is a wide spread of permeability of porosity and permeability, to a building brick.
values in reservoir rocks.
Test Yourself 1
a) What is the porosity of a rock whose
pore spaces occupy one fifth of its total
volume?
b) What is the likely permeability of a cap
rock?
c) Which of the following materials is likely
to be porous and permeable?

i) sponge
ii) glass
iii) sandstone
iv) slate
You will find the answers to Test Yourself

1 on page 54.
When wells are drilled into a reservoir, the fact that

the reservoir is porous and permeable enables the
reservoir fluids to flow towards the wellbores. But
what causes this fluid flow ?
The presence or absence of pressure within the
reservoir has a great deal to do with its ability to
produce fluids. It was recognised in the early days of
the petroleum industry that, when pressure was high,
oil was easily produced. When pressure dropped,
however, assistance was needed to help the wells
produce.
The fact that pressure is required to drive oil to the
wellbore is important but it doesnt fully explain how oil
is produced. A complex set of circumstances causes
this flow through the pores of the reservoir rock.
Most of the oil is driven to the wells by one of three
basic mechanisms which utilise existing energy forces
within the reservoir. They are referred to as drive
mechanisms. We will look at these mechanisms
shortly. Before we do this, however, have a look at the
list of terms highlighted opposite. They are common
terms used when discussing oil reservoirs.
Gas / oil ratio - This is a term which relates

the volume of gas produced from a well to the
volume of oil production. It is usually abbreviated
to G.O.R. and has often been expressed in units
of cubic feet of gas per barrel of oil (cu.ft. / bbl).
It is now more common to use the SI Units
of cubic metres of gas per cubic metre of oil
(m3/m3).
Oil in place - is an estimate of the total amount
of oil in the reservoir.
Recoverable oil - is an estimate of the amount of
oil which may be produced from the reservoir and
recovered for sale.
Recovered oil - means the actual amount of oil
which has been removed from the reservoir.
When you are familiar with the terms above we

can move on to the drive mechanisms.
Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

The three basic mechanisms are:

dissolved gas drive
gas cap drive
water drive
They are considered to be natural drive mechanisms.

No outside assistance is introduced.
Lets consider each of them in turn.
Dissolved Gas Drive

Figure 3 is an illustration of a reservoir with a
dissolved gas drive.
In this type of reservoir, the energy to drive the oil to
the wellbores comes from gas dissolved within the oil.
This gas is liberated from the liquid as bubbles when
the pressure in the reservoir declines. Being highly
expansive, the bubbles of gas provide the energy
to push the oil towards the wells as the pressure
continues to decline.
Reservoirs behave characteristically during their
producing lives. The trends of these characteristics for
a dissolved gas drive reservoir have been included in
the table opposite.
Characteristics
Trends
Reservoir Pressure
Declines rapidly and continuously
G.O.R.
Low initially then rises rapidly to a maximum and finally falls
Water production
Very little
Recoverable oil
5 to 30 percent of original oil in place

Table 1 - Dissolved gas drive reservoirs
Gas Cap Drive

Let's move on to gas cap drives. Figure 4 is an
illustration of such a reservoir.
In many situations, oil has accumulated where there
are considerable volumes of gas present. In such
situations, all of the gas may not dissolve in the oil
at the temperature and pressure of the reservoir. The
undissolved gas will then migrate to the top of the
reservoir, forming a layer of free gas above the oil.
This layer of gas is called a gas cap.
The gas cap is usually in a compressed state. As such
it becomes a source of energy to drive the oil to the
well bore and lift it to the surface.
The characteristic trends of a gas drive reservoir are
given in the table opposite.
Characteristics
Trends
Reservoir Pressure
Falls slowly and continuously
G.O.R.
Rises continuously in wells higher in the reservoir
Water production
Low
Recoverable oil

Table 2 - Gas cap drive reservoirs
10
Water Drive
Finally let's look at water drive mechanisms, as
illustrated in Figure 5.
The greatest natural source of energy available to
produce oil is the water which underlines the oil in
certain reservoirs. In these reservoirs, the porous
rock occupies tremendous volumes. However, the oil
bearing part of the rock will be only a relatively small
proportion of the total. The water occupies a very large
volume compared with the oil.
We generally consider water to be incompressible. It
can be compressed to a very small extent, however,
and when such tremendous volumes are involved, this
compressed water can have quite an influence on the
behaviour of the oil reservoir.
As oil is produced, the pressure in the reservoir
tends to decline. This decline is counteracted by the
expansion of the water, as it moves to replace the
produced oil.
These types of reservoir are usually the most efficient.
Once again I have included a table which shows the
characteristics of water drive reservoirs.
Characteristics
Trends
Reservoir Pressure
Remains high
G.O.R.
Remains low
Water production
Increases gradually to significant amounts
Recoverable oil
Table 3 - Water drive reservoirs

Of course, in the natural world, reservoirs are seldom found which fit exactly into one of the classifications
we have just been looking at. Combinations must occur which further complicate the picture.
Before moving on, have a go at the Test Yourself question on the following page.
11
Oil Recovery
Test Yourself 2
Identify the type of drive mechanism present of the
following reservoirs :
1.

There is very little water production and we

expect to recover up to 35 percent of the
original oil in place.
2.

The G.O.R. was 0.5 m3 of gas per m3 of oil

when oil production began. It rose to 3 m3 per
m3 after 10 years and is now 1 m3 per m3.
3.

The reservoir pressure has declined

continuously, there is little water production
and we expect to recover only 18 percent of
the original oil in place.
4.

The expected oil recovery is only 55 percent of

the original oil in place.
5.

Water production is low and the G.O.R. has

been rising especially in wells which are
completed higher in the reservoir.
You will find the answers to Test Yourself 2 on page 54.
Look again at the expected oil recovery from the three types of drive mechanism.

dissolved gas drive
expected recovery 5 to 30 % of original oil in place
gas cap drive
water drive
Even the most efficient natural drive is likely to leave

more than 35% of original oil in place in the
reservoir ! It would make sense to try to improve the
recovery of oil in these circumstances.
So, how could we get more oil from a reservoir than is
possible when relying on natural drive
mechanisms ?
We have seen that, with high reservoir pressure,
oil production is improved. If the reservoir pressure
could be maintained we could expect an increase in
recoverable oil.
This could be done by one of two ways.

inject gas into a gas cap
inject water into the water layer
12
We have also seen that the most efficient natural drive

mechanism is the water drive. It would seem reasonable
to assume, therefore, that pressure maintenance by
water injection would be beneficial.
In days gone by, water was injected later on in the
life of a reservoir after maximum recovery had been
obtained by natural drive mechanisms. It was referred
to as secondary recovery. Nowadays water injection
is planned to start as soon as the field comes into
production and is an integral part of many production
facilities.
Pressure Maintenance By
Water Injection
Figure 6 is an illustration of an artificial water drive
being used on an oil reservoir.
As the oil is removed from the reservoir via the oil
production wells, water is injected into the water layer
beneath the oil. The water layer is often called the
aquifer. The injection of water into the aquifer helps to
maintain the reservoir pressure, many of the problems
which decrease the efficiency of the reservoir are
avoided.
It is usually necessary to inject more water than the
volume of oil being removed - in some cases as much Some reservoirs produce oil at over 16,000 m3 per day and water may be injected at a rate of over
30,000 m3 per day. Imagine. This amount of water being forced through the reservoir rock, every day for
as 2 m3 injected per m3 produced.
the life of the reservoir.
13
Summary of Section 1
In this section we have looked at the nature of oil and
gas reservoirs. We started by considering the shape of
a basic dome type reservoir. From there we saw that the
two rock properties which influence the way in which oil
and gas are produced are:
porosity
permeability
We then considered reservoir drive mechanisms. Here
you saw there are three basic mechanisms which utilise
natural forces to drive fluids through a reservoir towards
a well. These are:

dissolved gas drive
gas cap drive
water drive
You saw that relying on these drives can be inefficient

in terms of oil recovery. Even the best drive is likely to
leave behind more than 35% of the original oil in place.
It would make sense to try to improve the ultimate
recovery. One way of improving this recovery would be
to maintain the pressure in the reservoir for as long as
possible. This could be done by injecting gas into the
gas cap or water into the water layer.
I pointed out that the most efficient drive mechanism is
water drive. Here the reservoir pressure tends to remain
high and oil recovery is maximised.
It would appear, then, that to simulate a natural water
drive by injecting water into the aquifer could prove
beneficial.
In the next section we will see where this water comes

from and why it is necessary to treat it before injection.
14
Section 2 - Reasons for Treating Injection Water

In Section 1 you saw that the injection of water
into an aquifer could increase the recoverable
oil from a reservoir. It may be necessary to inject
considerable amounts of water. I gave an example
of over 30,000 m3 of water being injected daily.
The actual amounts required will depend on the
size of the field and the extent of the natural water
drive. But in any case we will still be looking at a
very large amount being injected continuously.
Where do we get all this water ? In some land
locations water supply can be a problem. Surface
supplies such as lakes or rivers can be used if
available. If not, water wells may have to be drilled
or produced water used.
Offshore, there is no problem of supply. Oceans
full of sea water are available. In fact, sea
water may be pumped to land locations for
injection purposes. As this is the most common
type of water injected into oil reservoirs,
we will concentrate on sea water treatment
throughout the rest of this unit.
If we were to take raw sea water, however, and
inject it directly into the reservoir, we would
very quickly find ourselves in trouble. Sea water
requires a great deal of treatment before we can
inject it and this is what we are going to look
at in this section. We will look at the problems
associated with the injection of sea water and the
reasons for treating it.
So lets first look at the make-up of sea water,
and what it is. It is basically everyday water which

contains the following

bacteria
suspended solids
dissolved gases
dissolved solids
Each of the above substances poses its own

particular problem in water injection systems. Lets
consider each in turn and think of ways in which
the problem may be overcome.
Bacteria
Sea water contains tiny micro-organisms called
bacteria. They are very simple life-forms which are
split into two categories. They are

aerobic bacteria
anaerobic bacteria
Aerobic bacteria require oxygen in order to

survive. They are responsible for producing the
green slimes which we see on sea walls, weirs
and other highly oxygenated areas of water. This
type of bacteria does not cause serious problems
in itself. However, it consumes oxygen and creates
anaerobic conditions which can lead to the growth
of anaerobic bacteria.
Anaerobic bacteria thrive in conditions where
there is no oxygen. They are responsible for
producing the black slimes which we see in
sewers and other dark and dank places where the
oxygen content may be low or zero.
A special type of anaerobic bacteria is called
sulphate reducing bacteria. These bacteria
reduce the sulphates present in the water. (The
term reduce means to remove oxygen or add
hydrogen.) In the case of sulphate reduction, the
result is the production of hydrogen sulphide. This
gas, which has the formula H2S, is very corrosive
and extremely toxic. It is essential to try to limit the
production of H2S in oilfield operations.
Certain bacteria are slime forming as you saw
earlier. These slimes can cause fouling in pipework
and, if injected, cause plugging in the reservoir.
In view of this, I think you will agree that it is
necessary to maintain relatively low numbers of
bacteria. In particular, it is necessary to control the
growth of sulphate reducing bacteria.
15
In addition to bacteria, other marine organisms

can enter the system. Hard shell creatures such
as barnacles and mussels enter as embryo. These
can accumulate and grow on pipes, restricting flow.
Dead shell debris can be carried to the reservoir
once again to plug the reservoir pores.
The only way of preventing the problems associated
with the growth of bacteria and other organisms
is to kill them with some form of chemical. The
chemical which is used to do this is called a
biocide.
Suspended Solids
If we look closely at sea water we can see with the
naked eye a whole variety of suspended solids.
In areas of clear water we may see small fishes,
shrimps, jelly fish and other life forms. In areas
of muddy water we can see very fine particles of
sand and clay. All of these items are classed as
suspended solids.
Bearing in mind what we have already said about
the properties of reservoir rocks Im sure you can
visualise what would happen if we tried to inject
water containing suspended solids into the rock.
Test Yourself 3
Explain what the consequences would be
of injecting water containing sand or clay
particles into a reservoir rock.
You will find the answer to Test Yourself

3 on Page 54.
To prevent the problem which you saw in the

answer to Test Yourself 3, the suspended solids
must be removed. This is done by filtering the sea
water to ensure that all but the very tiniest particles
of suspended solids are taken out.
Dissolved Gases
Sea water contains dissolved gases, the main
one of which is air. The air is made up mainly of
oxygen and nitrogen. It is the oxygen from the air
dissolved in the sea water which provides fish and
other living organisms with the means to live.
The combination of sea water and oxygen is,

however, very corrosive. It will cause corrosion
problems in the pipes and flowlines used to inject
water into the reservoir. Corroded equipment
will require expensive replacement or repair. In
addition, the products of corrosion, i.e. rust, may
enter the reservoir as small particles and block the
pores in the reservoir rock.
It is necessary then to remove the oxygen from
the sea water. This can be done by mechanically
deaerating the water, injecting oxygen
scavenging chemicals, or both.
Test Yourself 4
We have said that it is necessary to
remove oxygen from injection water. This
in itself could create further problems.
What problems are these?
4 on Page 55.
16
Dissolved Solids
Other Chemical Treatment
A large number of chemical compounds are

dissolved in sea water. We only have to taste sea
water to decide that one of the dissolved solids
is common salt. It is this salt, sodium chloride,
which gives sea water its distinctive taste.
In addition to the biocide and scale inhibitor

which may be added to the sea water, it may be
necessary to inject other chemicals. We will look at
some of these in more detail in a later section but
let me just mention one or two at this point.
Elements such as potassium, calcium and

magnesium are also present as compounds which
are dissolved in the water. These compounds are
called dissolved solids.
Oxygen scavengers I mentioned earlier

that the removal of oxygen can be done by
mechanically deaerating the water or by injecting
oxygen scavenging chemicals. These scavengers
are chemicals which will react with oxygen to
remove it. In theory, all the oxygen could be
removed in this way but it would be a very
expensive operation. Mechanical deaeration by
itself usually leaves a small amount of dissolved
oxygen in the water and the oxygen scavenger is
used to remove this residual amount.
If we allow sea water to evaporate, the dissolved

solids will come out of solution as small crystals.
As the crystals leave the liquid, they are said to
have been precipitated from the water.
In a sea water injection system the precipitated
crystals will form a deposit known as scale. This
scale could block pipework and, if it formed in the
reservoir, could block the pores in the reservoir
rock.
To prevent the formation of scale, a chemical
known as a scale inhibitor is injected into the
sea water.
You will see where each of these chemicals is

injected into the water when we look at a typical
system in Section 4.
Corrosion inhibitors Chemicals which will

retard the effects of various types of corrosion may
be injected into the water.
Defoamers The operation of mechanical
deaeration equipment may be improved by injecting
chemicals to prevent foaming of the water.
Polyelectrolytes These chemicals are
coagulants. They cause fine particles in the water
to stick together, forming larger particles. These
are then more easily filtered from the water.
17
In this short section we have looked at
the make up of sea water which renders it
unsuitable for injection in its raw state.
You saw that:
Bacteria can cause slimes to form
which can foul the system
Bacteria can cause the formation of
hydrogen sulphide, a corrosive and
toxic gas
Suspended solids can plug the pores
of the reservoir

Dissolved solids can create scale
Dissolved gases, particularly oxygen,

can cause corrosion
In order to overcome these problems you

saw that:
Bacteria and other marine organisms
are controlled by dosing the water
with a biocide
Suspended solids are removed by
filtering the water
In the next section we will be looking at

the equipment used to treat sea water.
Before you move on, have a go at the
following Test Yourself question.
Test Yourself 5
Which of the problems associated
with the use of sea water as injection
water is tackled by each of the following
treatments?
Dissolved solids are treated by

injecting a scale inhibiting chemical
1. Passing the water through filters.
Dissolved gases are removed by

deaeration or oxygen scavenging
3. Passing the water through

mechanical deaerators.
You also saw that other chemicals may be

injected into the water to prevent foaming,
inhibit corrosion, and assist in filtration.
4. Injecting scale inhibitors.
2. Injecting oxygen scavengers.
5. Injecting polyelectrolytes.
6. Injecting biocides.
5 on Page 55.
18
Section 3 - Sea Water Treatment Equipment

We have seen that we need to do a number of
things to the sea water before we can inject it into
the reservoir. They are:
kill off all the bacteria and other marine
organisms so that they cannot create slimes
or corrosive products
remove the suspended solids so that the
pores of the reservoir rock do not get
blocked
remove the oxygen so that the sea water
does not corrode the pipework and
equipment
ensure that the sea water does not produce
scale
treat the water with other chemicals to
prevent foaming, inhibit corrosion and so on
In this section, we are going to look at some of
the equipment used to do these jobs. We will look
at bacteria control first, as this is usually the first
treatment which the sea water receives.
Bacteria Control
I stated earlier that we use a biocide to kill the
bacteria present in the sea water.
A simple domestic bleach was advertised in the
1980s as being capable of killing all known
germs dead. It sounds ideal for our purpose.
Take the time to look at the small print on a bottle
of strong domestic bleach. You will find that it
contains sodium hypochlorite. This substance is
a biocide a chemical which is capable of killing
bacteria. Sodium hypochlorite is a very powerful
biocide and is the most common one used in sea
water treatment.
The component of the bleach which does the job
is chlorine. This is a gas, however, which would
be difficult to handle. Hypochlorite is a convenient
way of storing chlorine in liquid form.
Occasionally the sodium hypochlorite may be
purchased and delivered to the injection water
treatment plant as bulk chemical. However, it can
be made from sea water on-site and this is often
much more convenient.
Let us take a look now at how this is done.
19
solution. It can be used as a biocide in this form.

Sodium hypochlorite generators may contain as
few as two chlorination cells in the smaller units to
over twenty cells in the case of large units.
One of the disadvantages of the chlorination cell
is the fact that hydrogen is produced. This is an
inevitable by-product of this process. Hydrogen
gas is of course very explosive, so it must be
safely removed.
This is done by routing the sea water plus the
products of electrolysis to a degassing tank. In the
tank, the hydrogen is liberated and excess air is
introduced to dilute it. The hydrogen can then be
safely vented.
We will look at where the biocide is used in the
next section. Lets now move on to look at the
equipment used to remove the suspended solids.
Filtration Equipment
Figure 7 shows a simplified illustration of a
sodium hypochlorite generator, where the process
takes place. It consists of a length of pipe with
a titanium coated steel tube suspended in the
centre. Electrical connections are made to the pipe
and tube. The combination of outer pipe and inner
length of tube is called a chlorination cell.
Sea water flows through the space between the

pipe and the tube. The chemical reaction takes
place as a high voltage direct current flows from
the pipe walls, through the sea water, to the central
tube and back to the power source.
As the electricity passes through the sea water
electrolysis takes place. The sodium hypochlorite
which is generated remains in the sea water as a dilute
The next treatment which the sea water has to

undergo is that of removing the suspended solids.
This is done using a filtration system.
Filtration is the process whereby solids are
removed from liquids by means of a permeable
barrier which will allow the passage of liquid but
will strain out solid particles. The equipment used
to do this are called filters.
20
The efficiency of a filter is measured by the

diameter of the largest solid particle which will
pass through it.
This is usually expressed in microns. A micron is
a measurement of length equal to one millionth of
a metre.
Most sea water treatment plants are fitted with
filter systems which are designed to remove:
all suspended solids which have a diameter
of more than 5 microns
95% of all suspended solids which have a
diameter of 5 microns or less
There are a range of filter types in common use.
We will look at some of those which you may find
in water injection systems.
Before we take a look at the different types of filter,
I want to point out two features of these pieces of
equipment.
First take a look at Figure 8 which shows three
illustrations of a glass of water and a funnel
shaped mesh screen.
The water contains solid particles of three different
sizes. The mesh screen will only filter out the
largest size of particle.
If we pour the mixture across the mesh screen once

it will filter out the largest particles. The medium
and small particles will fall through the screen.
But look what happens if we pour the medium and
small particles across the screen for a second
time. On the second pass through the screen the
larger particles assist the screen to remove the
medium sized particles.
If we then pass the water through the screen for

a third time the medium sized particles assist the
screen in removing most of the tiny particles. If we
kept passing the water through the screen we would
eventually be able to remove nearly all of them.
Before moving on, remember that the particles
which have already been filtered increase the
efficiency of the filter in removing other particles.
21
The second point to remember is that, as filtration

progresses, the filter itself will eventually become
plugged with solids. When this happens the filter
must be cleaned. As you will see, a common way of
cleaning a filter is to flush away the filtered particles
with water. This process is called backwashing.
Lets now look at the four main types of filter used for
filtering sea water and see how they work. They are:
basket filters
sand filters
dual media filters
cartridge filters
Basket Filters
Basket filters use a sheet of fine wire mesh to
remove the solids from the sea water. They are most
often used for coarse filtration, and are usually found
at the very start of the filtration process.
The sea water is pumped through the filter and the
suspended solids are trapped on the front face of
the mesh. As we have already seen, the solids build
up on the surface of the mesh and create a more
efficient filtering medium than the mesh itself.
Take time to study the illustration in Figure 9, which
shows a basket filter in normal operation.
22
In this mode, the water enters the outer casing

through the water inlet on the inside of the filter
basket. As the water flows across the basket the
solids are deposited on the inside of the mesh screen
and removed from the water. The filtered water
leaves via the filtered water outlet. Whilst filtering,
the backwash valve is in the closed position.
The pressure differential transmitter (PDT), measures
the differential pressure between the water inlet and
the filtered water outlet. As the solids build up on
the wire mesh screen of the basket the differential
pressure will rise. When this pressure reaches a preset level, the PDT will activate a filter backwash
through a backwash controller.
Figure 10 shows the flow of water through a basket
filter when it is in the filter backwash mode.
23
When the differential pressure switch activates a

filter backwash, the backwash valve opens and the
cleaning head motor starts to rotate the cleaning
head.
With the backwash valve open, filtered water from
the outside of the filter basket flows:
In our example:
the support plate is a stainless steel plate
which is drilled with holes or slots which are
smaller than the support material
back through the basket
the support material consists of layers of

ceramic balls, graded according to their
diameter
into the cleaning head
through the backwash valve to drain
The filtered solids are washed off the front face of the
wire mesh screen into the cleaning head. When the
cleaning head has rotated through 360 the whole of
the filtering surface will have been cleaned.
The main advantage of this type of filter is that
it can be backwashed whilst it is still on line and
filtering water.
Sand Filters
As the name implies, this type of filter uses grains
of sand as the filtering medium.
Figure 11 shows a simplified cross section through
a sand filter.
the top layer is garnet sand
Garnet sand is a special type of sand which will not

chip or flake easily.
Once again, as suspended solids are filtered from
the water and collect on the sand, the differential
pressure across the filter will increase. When
this pressure reaches a predetermined value, a
backwash sequence is activated. Water is pumped
in the reverse direction through the filter to remove
the filtered solid patricles.
The major drawback of this type of filter is that only
the top few inches of the filter bed are effectively
used. This means that the rate of filtration is quite
low. Therefore many filters are required for the
large volumes of water used in water injection
systems.
The water to be filtered enters the filter at the top

and filtered water leaves from the bottom.
24
Dual Media Filters

Figure 12 shows a dual media filter which uses
anthracite and garnet sand as the filter media.
The larger grains of anthracite have larger gaps

between them and filter out large particles from the
sea water. The smaller particles will pass through
the grains of anthracite to the layer of garnet sand.
The sand will then filter out the smaller particles.
This technique increases the efficiency of the filter
and reduces the frequency of backwashing.
Backwashing is carried out as for the sand filter.

In Figure 13, I have illustrated a dual media filter
with some of the ancillary valves and equipment.
In the illustration you can see that the layer of

anthracite lies on top of the layer of garnet sand.
The particles of anthracite are larger than the
grains of sand but, because they are lighter, they
lie on top of the sand.
By having a layer of large particles on top of a
layer of small particles we create two different
levels of filtration within the same filter.
25
Study the illustration carefully and identify:

Turbidity Analyser (TA)
Pressure Differential Transmitter (PDT)
Backwash Sequence Controller
Turbidity Analyser
The turbidity analyser (TA) is an instrument which
measures the turbidity of the water. Turbidity is a
measure of clearness. By measuring the level of
turbidity we have an indication of whether or not
the filter is performing properly.
Most turbidity analysers shine a light through a
stream of water, which is picked up by a receiver.
The level of light transmitted is measured. The
level of light received is also measured. The
difference between the two is a measure of the
turbidity of the water.
It should be noted that turbidity is only an indication
that a filter is operating correctly. Two or three
large particles per m3 (large enough to clog the
reservoir) may register the same level of turbidity
as 150 to 200 very fine particles per m3 (small
enough not to affect the reservoir).
Pressure Differential Transmitter

The pressure differential transmitter (PDT)
measures the pressure difference between the
inlet and outlet of the filter. As the filter becomes
blocked up with filtered particles, the differential
pressure will rise.
When this differential pressure reaches a pre-set
limit, the PDT sends a signal to the backwash
sequence controller.
The backwash sequence controller will activate
a backwash cycle, which is a series of timed
events designed to clean the filter. We will look at
the backwash cycle in a dual media filter in Section
4 of this unit.
Cartridge Filters
The cartridge filter is one of the easiest filters to
install, operate and maintain. It is also one of the
most popular filters in everyday life.
the paper bag in a vacuum cleaner. When it

is full, the cleaner bag (cartridge) is removed
and replaced with a new one.
In our examples, the cartridge is removed and
replaced with a new one. This results in an
ongoing cost and prevents the cartridge filter being
used more widely.
Because of this lack of economy, cartridge filters
are normally used where:

a back-up is required to the normal filtering

method, e.g. if an upstream filter fails, the
cartridge filter will remove the particles to the
required standard
a polishing stage of filtration is required,

e.g. the cartridge filter is used to remove
small amounts of very tiny particles to polish
water which has already been filtered by
other means
Two types of cartridge filter found in common

usage are:

the filter in the engine lube-oil system of your

car. When the filter becomes blocked, the
paper cartridge is removed and replaced
with a new one.
26
Cartridge filters are reliable because they:

guarantee a specified level of filtration
very seldom fail to filter to the required

standard

are easy to install and monitor
Figure 14 shows a cartridge filter arrangement. We

can see that normal flow through the filter is from
top to bottom. The water to be filtered:

passes through valve V1
passes through the filter cartridges
exits the filter via valve V2
Study the illustration carefully and identify the

cover plate, and the cartridges.
27
The cover plate allows the operator to

gain access to the filter, to remove the old
cartridges and replace them with new ones.
Because the cartridges are renewed, there
is no backwash requirement on a cartridge
filter.
The cartridges used for water filtration are
most often a series of cotton or synthetic
material layers wrapped around a slotted
stainless steel tube. The type of material,
and the number of layers, will decide the
particle size which the filter will remove.
Cartridges may be installed, which will filter
out all particles greater than, say, 5 microns in
diameter, regardless of the state of the water
entering the filter.
So much for filters for the time being. Before

moving on to the oxygen removal part of
this section, have a go at the following Test
Yourself question.
Oxygen Removal
In Section 2 we established that sea
water contained
dissolved oxygen and
we determined that, if the oxygen is not
removed:
Test Yourself 6
Are the following statements true or false ?
it will cause corrosion problems in the

pipes and flowlines used to inject the
sea water into the reservoir
True
False
a) A non-permeable barrier is used to

remove suspended solids in a filter.
b) A seven micron particle will pass

through a ten micron filter.
c) A common way to clean a filter is

to backwash it.
d) A basket filter uses garnet sand

as the filter medium.
The process of removing oxygen from the

water is called deaeration. This can be
accomplished by:
e) In a sand filter the flow is : through the

o
o
support plate, through the support
material and then through the sand.
increasing the temperature of the

water
f) A cartridge filter has a removable

cover plate which allows access to
the unit to replace filter elements.
You will find the answers to Test Yourself 6 on

Page 55.
it will support bacteria which

produces slimes, causing blocking of
the small pores in the reservoir rock and
rendering the rock impermeable
decreasing the concentration of oxygen

in the gas mixture in contact with the
water
reducing the total pressure in the
system
28
You will see in Section 4 that the injection water is

used as cooling water in various process systems.
This means that the water itself is heated, thus
assisting in the oxygen removal.
Decreasing the concentration of oxygen in the gas
mixture in contact with the water, can be achieved
by a process known as gas stripping.
Lets have a look at this now.
Gas Stripping
The process of stripping dissolved oxygen from
water is conducted in large stripping towers.
Inside the tower the water is spread out to increase
the surface area, and natural gas is passed
over the surface of the water. This reduces the
concentration of oxygen which is in the atmosphere
in contact with the water.
Figure 15 shows a simplified view of a gas stripper

tower.
29
The flow of liquid and gas through the gas stripper

is counter current. As the liquid falls downwards
through the column, the stripping gas flows
upwards.
In the illustration, the pre-heated sea water:

enters the stripper at the top of the column
passes through a water distribution pipe

which is often called a sparge pipe

flows downwards through a packed section
accumulates at the bottom of the stripper
The packed section contains packing rings. These

are designed to increase the surface area of the
water. A popular type of packing ring used in
stripping columns is the pall ring which may be
made from plastic or stainless steel. One of these
rings is shown alongside the stripping tower in
Figure 15.
Other features of the stripper tower which you can
see in Figure 15 include:
the distribution plate which ensures that the
sea water is evenly distributed across the
packing
leaves the stripper from the bottom of the

column
the demister pad which ensures that the gas

leaving the stripper is free from liquid droplets
and mists
The stripping gas is often hydrocarbon gas from the

oil and gas process. The flow through the tower is:
the oxygen scavenger inlet which is used

to introduce oxygen scavenging chemical to
the tower
into the stripper through the stripping gas

inlet pipe

through a gas distribution sparge pipe
upwards through the packed section
out through an gas outlet located at the top

of the tower
the vortex breaker on the deaerated water

outlet which prevents gas from being sucked
into the pump with the water
Look again at Figure 15 and try to visualise what
is going on in the gas stripper. When you have
done that we can have a look at the other type of
deaeration, i.e. vacuum deaeration.
30
Vacuum Deaeration
You should note that the term vacuum is used to
denote any pressure below atmospheric pressure.
We also speak of a deep vacuum, which is
a vacuum well below atmospheric pressure. A
shallow vacuum on the other hand, is a vacuum
which is only slightly below atmospheric pressure.
Figure 16 is a simple illustration of a two stage

vacuum deaerator. You will probably notice that it
looks similar to the gas stripping deaerator.
However, it does have a number of different
features. The first thing we should note is that there
are two separate sections of packing. The upper
section operates under a shallow vacuum. The
lower section operates under a deeper vacuum.
This, then, is a two stage vacuum deaerator. Single
stage and three stage deaerators have been used
but two stages are the most common.
In this vessel, the sea water from the process heat
exchangers enters the deaerator through a sparge
pipe and flows downwards over the upper section
of packing.
Oxygen and water vapour are sucked out of the
vessel via an overhead vapour line, creating a
shallow vacuum in the vessel.
Figure 16
31
When the water reaches the bottom of the upper

section of packing, it flows through a set of seal
chimneys. These operate in a similar manner to the
U' bend under a sink. The water has to flow upwards
and over a weir before it can reach the lower section
of packing. The pressure difference between the two
sections is maintained by the height of the chimney
weirs.
A simplified sketch of a seal chimney is shown
alongside the deaerator in Figure 16.
After the sea water leaves the seal chimneys it is
re-distributed and flows downwards over the lower
section of packing. Oxygen and water vapour are
again sucked out of the vessel via a vapour line which
goes to the deep vacuum section.
The deaerated water leaves the lower section of
packing, falls into the bottom of the column, and
leaves via the deaerated water outlet.
Vacuum deaerators are very efficient. Most two
stage vacuum deaerators can achieve an oxygen
concentration as low as 0.1 to 0.15 ppm (parts per
million) in the deaerated sea water outlet.
We have seen how a vacuum deaerator works. Now
lets take at look at two items of equipment which may
be used to create the vacuum in the deaerator.
Figure 17 is a simplified drawing of a vacuum pump.

(An actual pump would look very different from this.
However, the illustration is intended to explain the
principles of operation.)
If you look at the first part of Figure
17 you will see that I have drawn a
shaft, fitted with four vanes, rotating
inside an empty casing. I have
positioned the shaft and vanes
central to the casing.
In the second drawing of Figure 17, I
have shown a water inlet and outlet
which introduces service water into
the casing at the near end and
removes it from the far end. The
spinning action of the shaft and the
vanes imparts a centrifugal force
to the water. The water is thrown
against the inside wall of the casing
due to this force.
The water forced against the casing
in this way is the liquid ring which
gives the compressor its name. The
central part of the casing is filled
with air.
The most common method of creating this vacuum is by

the use of a liquid ring compressor. These are also
called vacuum pumps, which is the term I shall use.
32
Now take a look at Figure 18 and see if you can

detect the difference in the position of the shaft
and vanes.
You will notice that I have drawn the shaft and

vanes offset from the centre of the casing. Service
water is again introduced into the casing and again
forced outwards to form the liquid ring.
The differing sizes of these void spaces means

that the pressure in each will change as the shaft
and vanes rotate. The pressure will:
You should notice that:
decrease when the void space increases
increase when the void space decreases
although the shaft and vanes are

offset the water still forms a uniform
liquid ring against the casing
the offset shaft and the uniform
liquid ring combine to form different
sized void spaces
If we control the flow of air into the unit so that it

enters a void space at the low pressure side and
leaves at the high pressure side, we have created
a liquid ring compressor. The compressor will
in fact suck the air into the low pressure side and
create a vacuum.
In real vacuum pumps, slide valves control the air
inlet and outlet.
Vacuum pumps are only capable of creating a
limited amount of vacuum. Therefore, in order
to create the deeper vacuum required in the
second stage of deaeration, the vacuum pump is
augmented by an ejector. This piece of equipment
is also called an eductor or venturi.
Figure 19, on the next page, shows how such a
unit works.
33
Test Yourself 7
Do the following statements apply to : gas stripping
deaerators, vacuum deaerators, both types of
deaerator or neither of them?
a) Water enters the column at the top and is
distributed through a sparge pipe.
b) A vortex breaker ensures that gas is not drawn
out of the vessel with the deaerated water.
c) The upper packing support plate accommodates
seal chimneys.
d) The concentration of the oxygen in the gas
mixture in contact with the water is reduced.
e) Pall rings may be used as packaging.
The discharge side of the ejector is connected
to the suction of the vacuum pump. A line
connects the nozzle of the unit to the deep
vacuum section of the deaerator.
As the vacuum pump draws atmospheric
air through the nozzle of the ejector the air
speeds up. This creates an area of very low
pressure at the nozzle which in turn pulls a
deep vacuum on the deaerator.
f) Renewable cartridges help to maintain the

water quality.
You should by now have a good idea of how
oxygen is removed from the injection water.
Check your understanding now by having a
go at Test Yourself 7.
g) A liquid ring compressor is connected to the

upper outlet.
h) Water flows through a distribution plate located
above the packing.
You will find the answers to Test Yourself 7 on
Page 56.
34
In this section we have been looking at the equipment and processes which are used to treat sea water.
This equipment ensures that the water is rendered suitable for injection into a reservoir.
We started by considering the equipment used
to make sodium hypochlorite from sea water.
You saw that the process is one of electrolysis
using a chlorination cell.
From there we went on to look at the different
types of filter which could be used to reduce the
suspended solids content of the injection water.
The types which we looked at were:
You saw that injection water filters are typically

designed to remove all suspended solids which
have a diameter of more than 5 microns. In
addition they will remove 95% of suspended
solids which have a diameter of 5 microns or
less. I pointed out that equipment is provided to
backwash the filters when they become plugged
with solids.
basket
sand
In the final part of the section we had a look at

the equipment used to remove dissolved oxygen
from the sea water. I said that the process of
removing oxygen can be accomplished by:
dual media
cartridge
decreasing the concentration of the

oxygen in the gas mixture which is in
contact with the water

increasing the temperature of the water
The temperature is increased because the

water is used as a cooling medium in heat
exchangers.
The remaining two methods use a deaeration
tower.
In the first method, gas stripping reduces
the concentration of oxygen. In the second, a
vacuum is created in the tower by a vacuum
pump augmented by an ejector.
In the next section we will see how this equipment

is used in a typical sea water injection system.
Before you move on to that, however, try the
following Test Yourself question to check your
understanding of Section 3.
reducing the total pressure in the system
35
Test Yourself 8
To which piece of injection water treatment equipment or system do the following
components belong ?
If the piece of equipment is a filter, state which type. You should indicate if the
components belong to more than one piece of equipment or system.
sparge pipe ......................................................
backwash controller..................................................
degassing tank..................................................
cleaning head motor..................................................
support material ...............................................
demister pad.............................................................
vortex breaker...................................................
vacuum pump............................................................
ejector................................................................
seal chimney.....................................................
cartridges...........................................................

You will find the answers to Test Yourself 8 on Page 56.
36
Section 4 - A Typical Injection WaterTreatment System

In this, the final section of our study of injection
water treatment, we are going to look at a typical
system which you might find on an offshore oil
production platform.
However, you should remember that each water
treatment system is unique to itself. Each one
will differ, in types of equipment used, process
layout and so on. The sea water treatment system
which I will describe is not meant to represent any
particular facility. It is simply a hypothetical system
which will give you a feel for the full sea water
treatment process.
Look first at Figure 20. This is a simple block

diagram which shows the flow through our system.
From the diagram you can see that the sea water
is pumped:
Familiarise yourself with the basic process before

moving on.
from the sea, via the sea water transfer

pumps, through the coarse filters, to the sea
water reservoir

from the sea water reservoir, via the sea

water supply pumps, through the fine filters,
crude oil coolers and the vacuum deaerator
to the surge vessel
from the surge vessel, via the booster

pumps and injection pumps, to the injection
wells and then into the reservoir
Figure 20
37
We are going to follow the flow through the system in

more detail now. In order to make the task simpler, I
will guide you through it section by section.
Sea Water Intake and Coarse Filters

Take a look at Figure 21 which shows the sea water
transfer pumps and the coarse filter system. You
will see that I have only shown one pump and one
filter. In practice there would probably be three of
each but I have eliminated the rest for simplicity.
The sea water transfer pumps are positioned
inside caissons. These are long pipes which are
open to the sea and extend below the platform. The
pumps are selected and started manually by the
operator.
At each pump suction there is fitted a simple filter
to prevent larger marine organisms from entering
the system. It is also at this point that the first
treatment, the introduction of sodium hypochlorite,
takes place.
from NaOCI generator
The sea water leaving the sea water transfer

pumps is analysed by an instrument called an
analyzer indicator controller (AQIC). This monitors
the sea water to ensure that there is a sufficient
concentration of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) to kill
all of the bacteria. If the NaOCI concentration is too
low the controller opens valve AV1 further to allow
more NaOCI to flow into the suction of the pumps.
38
The sea water then flows to the coarse

filters where the first stage of filtration takes
place. The coarse filters are basket filters
which can be backwashed whilst they are on
line. A pressure differential switch high
(PDSH1) monitors the differential pressure
across the filters.
If the differential pressure exceeds a pre-set
limit, for example 1 barg differential pressure,
PDSH1 sends a signal to the backwash
sequence controller. The controller starts
a backwash cycle which backwashes each
filter in turn. We will look at a backwash
sequence controller in more detail when we
come to the fine filters.
The filtered water now flows to the sea water
reservoir. You will notice however that a
portion of it is taken as a side stream to be
used as feed for the NaOCI generator. Lets
leave the main flow for a time and see how
the NaOCI generator fits into the overall
system.
Chlorination Facilities
Figure 22 shows the main pipelines
and controls to be found on the NaOCI
generator.
39
Follow the line which enters the Figure at the top

left. You will see that the feed from the coarse
filters enters the NaOCI generator via:

a flow switch low-low (FSLL1)
an emergency valve (XV1)
a pressure control valve (PCV1)
The flow switch is required to prevent the NaOCI

generator from being damaged due to a low flow
of sea water through the system.
If this switch is activated, the local control system
will close the emergency valve, shut off the
electrical supply and send an alarm to the operator
to warn him of the problem.
The pressure control valve (PCV1) maintains a
constant pressure on the chlorination cells during
normal operation.
The NaOCI generator is a skid mounted unit
which is contained within its own housing. If there
is a leak of water within the housing, an operator
could be in severe danger of electrocution. To
prevent this danger from arising, the area under
the chlorination cells is monitored by a level
switch. This switch is designated LSHH1 on the
drawing. It is activated by a rising water level. If the
level switch is activated, the local control system
will again close XV1 , shut off the electrical supply
and send an alarm to the operator to warn him of
the problem.
The NaOCI, sea water and hydrogen mixture

leaving the chlorination cells enters a hydrogen
removal tank. You will remember from Section 3
that the hydrogen removal tank is kept constantly
purged with air from an air blower.
The hydrogen is diluted with the air which is then vented
from the hydrogen removal tank to the atmosphere. To
minimise the danger of an explosion, a flame arrestor
is fitted in the vent line to prevent the backward
movement of a flame should the vent ever ignite.
If the supply of air from the blowers was to fail,
a dangerous concentration of hydrogen would
rapidly build up in the hydrogen removal tank. To
guard against this, a pressure switch (PSLL1) is
installed in the discharge line from the air blowers.
The switch will sense a lack of air and activate a
shutdown of the chlorination facilities via the control
system.
The liquid in the hydrogen removal tank is, of
course, a mixture of NaOCI and sea water.
The liquid level, is maintained by a controller
(LIC1) operating valve LV1.
The sodium hypochlorite and sea water mixture, in
the line after LV1, goes either :
A dosing pump increases the pressure of the

NaOCI and sea water so that it can be injected into
a higher pressure area.
You should note from Figure 21 that the injection
point to the main sea water line is downstream
of the take-off point to the NaOCI generator.
If the injection point was upstream of this take
off, then NaOCI would be re-circulated back to
the generator resulting in high and dangerous
concentrations of NaOCI.
Another line from the hydrogen removal tank
takes the NaOCI / sea water mix to the transfer
pump caissons. This is a simple gravity feed via
the valve AV1 to the pump suctions. Look back to
Figure 21 and identify this injection point.
You will note that there is a signal to the chlorination
control system from a chlorine analyser at the inlet
to the sea water reservoir. If there is insufficient
NaOCI at this point, then AIC2 will signal the
NaOCI generator to increase the amount of
NaOCI being produced and injected into the
discharge of the coarse filters.
Before moving on to the next part of our system,
try Test Yourself 9, on the next page.
into the main sea water line just downstream

of the coarse filters
to the shock dosing connections. ( We will
be looking at these later )
40
Sea Water Reservoir
Test Yourself 9
State the function of the following
equipment in the sea water intake, coarse
filters and chlorination facilities.
a) The analyser indicator controller at the
discharge from the transfer pumps.
b) The differential pressure switch
connected across the coarse filters.
c) The low flow switch at the inlet to the
NaOCI generator.
d) The air blower in the chlorination
facilities.
You will find the answers to Test Yourself

9 on Page 57.
The sea water from the coarse filters (which is now

chlorinated) flows towards the sea water reservoir.
Take a look now at Figure 23, on page 42, which
shows this part of the system. The main sea water
line is a continuation of the one leaving the coarse
filters which you saw in Figure 21. Follow the flow
through this part of the system starting at the
bottom left hand side of Figure 23.
You can see that the sea water flows towards the
sea water reservoir via a level control valve
and an analyser indicator controller. These are
designated LV2 and AIC2 respectively.
LV2 maintains the correct level in the reservoir and
is operated by a signal from a level controller
which is marked LIC2 in the drawing.
The pre-service flush line, allows injection water

to be circulated through the fine filters and back to
the reservoir prior to starting the system. You will
see this when you move on to the next part of this
section.
However the shock dosing connection requires a
little more explanation at this point.
As a general rule the NaOCI is injected at a
reasonably steady rate during operations. NaOCI
is extremely effective but, after a number of weeks,
a few of the bacteria may become resistant to the
effects of NaOCI. When this occurs the regular
dosage rate becomes insufficient and a shock
dose, i.e. a large amount, of concentrated NaOCI
is injected into the system over a short period of
time. This usually kills off any resistant strains of
bacteria. This shock dose can be injected at the
connection upstream or, as you can see in the
Figure, downstream of the reservoir.
As we have already seen, AIC2 controls the

amount of NaOCI injected into the sea water as it
leaves the coarse filters.
The sea water reservoir has two outlets. They are:

an outlet to the sea water supply pumps
Note that, just before entering the reservoir, two

lines join the main sea water line. They are:
an outlet to the fine filter backwash pumps
a pre-service flush line from the fine filters
a shock dosing connection for NaOCI injection
The outlet to the sea water supply pumps is the

main outlet from the sea water reservoir. The
pumps transfer the water through fine filters.
41
NaOCI
shock dosing
The backwash pumps provide water to clean the

fine filters. We will look at these in more detail
when we move on to the fine filter system shortly.
You will notice that there are four connections
to the discharge line of the sea water supply
pumps. These come from a chemical dosing
skid and are:
a biocide connection
a scale Inhibitor connection
a ferric chloride connection
a polyelectrolyte connection
Lets take the time to have a look at why we need

these chemicals before moving on to the fine
filter section.
42
I pointed out earlier that a shock dose of

concentrated NaOCI usually kills off any resistant
strains of bacteria. However, if this shock dose of
NaOCI fails to do the trick, then a dose of another
biocide is used. The biocide connection is one of
the points where such an alternative biocide would
be injected.
If you look again at Figure 23 you will see that the

main flow line passes from the sea water supply
pumps to the fine filters. We are now going to look
at this system but before we do, trace the lines
again and identify the equipment associated with
the sea water reservoir part of the overall system.
In Section 1, I stated that the sea water may start

to precipitate dissolved solids as scale if it was
not treated. The scale inhibitor is injected at this
point to ensure that there is no scale precipitation
later in the process.
Fine Filtration
You will remember from Section 2, that

polyelectrolytes are coagulants. They could
also be termed flocculants. The word flocculant
comes from flocking or gathering together.
These chemicals assist in gathering together tiny
particles of material and converting them into
larger particles. These larger particles are easier
to filter out.
Figure 24, on the next page, shows one of the

fine filters and its associated pipework. The
main flowline from the sea water supply pumps
continues into this drawing at the top left hand
side. In our example the fine filters are dual media
filters. Figure 24 is quite complicated. However, if
you follow the lines carefully, together with the
explanation, I dont think you should have any
problems with it. Once again I have only shown
one filter with its associated controls. In fact there
would probably be a number of fine filters working
in parallel.
Ferric chloride does a similar type of job. It

produces small electrically charged particles which
attract other particles to them. The combined
particles are large enough to be removed by the
filters.
Both of these substances, then, are aids to
filtration. They are injected into the water at this
point, which is upstream of the fine filters.
43
44
Before looking at the valve and control arrangements

in Figure 24, locate the two turbidity analyzers.
One measures the turbidity in the main sea
water line before the filter. The other monitors the
turbidity of the water leaving the filter.
Think about the location of the two analysers, then
attempt the following Test Yourself question.
Test Yourself 10
What is the significance of having two
turbidity analysers in the system?
You will find the answer to Test Yourself 10

on Page 57.
The main flow is shown entering the system near

the top left hand part of the drawing. Follow this bold
line now. As you can see, the flow passes through
the filter and continues towards the deaerator. This
line then is very straightforward. The rest of the
lines are part of the filter control system. Lets
spend some time identifying the lines and controls,
to see what their function is.
The total flow of sea water to the fine filters
passes through flow element 2 (FE2) which
measures the water flowrate at this point. A signal
from FE2 is fed to flow relay 2 (FY2).
FY2 determines how much water should be flowing
through each filter. It then sends a signal to a flow
indicator controller located on each of the fine
filters. In this case it is designated FIC3. This
signal tells the FIC how much water should be
flowing through its own filter. It is called a set point
signal. The actual amount of water passing this
filter is measured by the second flow element FE3.
A signal from this element is also fed to FIC3. The
controller compares the actual flow rate with the
flow rate determined by the flow relay. If there is a
discrepancy between the two it sends a correcting
signal to the flow control valve FV3. The valve
responds by opening or closing to maintain the
correct flow.
The filtered sea water leaves the fine filter via valve
XV3. This valve operates as part of the backwash
sequence which we will look at shortly. The water
then joins the water discharged from the other
filters before being fed to the deaerator via the
crude oil coolers.
Before continuing, go over the last few paragraphs
again, together with the drawing. Make sure that
you understand the way in which the total flow is
distributed between the filters.
Look now at two other devices which are fitted to
the fine filter. They are:

pressure safety valve (PSV1). This is a

valve which will open and release excess
pressure from the filter should the pressure
exceed a predetermined maximum value.
pressure differential switch high

(PDSH2). This compares the pressures
upstream and downstream of the filter. If
the differential pressure exceeds a preset limit, PDSH2 will automatically activate a
backwash sequence, through a controller.
45
We can now see how the backwash is carried

out. Lets start from the point where the filter is
operating normally.
This opens lines to dispose of the water in the filter

via a dirty water sewer. It causes the water level in
the filter to fall to just above the filter bed.
At this point you may be looking for FIC4 on Figure

24. In fact it appears on the previous Figure we
were looking at, Figure 23.
The flow of water would then be along the following

path:
After five minutes has elapsed the backwash

sequence controller will:
Through valve FV3 - through the filter - through

flow element FES - through valve XV3 - across the
turbidity analyzer - on towards the deaerator.
5. Close valve XV7.
Go back to Figure 23 for a moment and look at

the second line leaving the sea water reservoir.
This line goes to the backwash pump then through
a strainer. The strainer ensures that reasonably
clean water is available for backwashing.
As the water is filtered, the differential pressure,

as measured by PDSH2, would start to increase.
When it reaches, say, 1 barg, the backwash
sequence would be activated. The sequence of
events from now would be as follows:
7. Start the air scour blower.
The backwash sequence controller will send a

backwash sequence in progress alarm to the
operator, and then:
1. Send a zero flow signal to FIC3 to ensure that

FIC3 closes FV3.
2. Close valve XV3.
The fine filter is now isolated from the main sea
water line. The backwash sequence controller
will now:
3. Open valve XV6.
6. Open valve XV9.
The air scour blower blows air through the filter.

This violently agitates the filter bed to knock off
any tiny particles which may be stuck to the grains
of garnet sand.
After ten minutes has elapsed the backwash
8. Stop the air scour blower.
9. Close valve XV9.
10. Start the sea water filter backwash pump.
11. Open valve XV10 to direct the water back

through the filter and to disposal via XV6.
12. Send a flow signal to FIC4 to regulate the

amount of water being pumped.
After the strainer, the water flows past a flow

indicator controller (PIC4) and through a flow control
valve (FV4). This system controls the amount of
water to be pumped to the filter as backwash
water, the actual amounts being determined by the
backwash sequence controller.
Now back to Figure 24 and the sequence of events.
After twenty minutes has elapsed the backwash
13. Reduce the flow signal to FIC4.
14. Open valve XV5.
15. Close valve XV6.
The flow is reduced to allow the filter bed to settle
down as the filter is re-filled. The water will now
flow back to the sea water reservoir instead of to
the dirty water sewer.
46
After a further five minutes, the backwash

16. Open valve XV8.
17. Open valve XV4.
The fine filter is now back in service. A backwash

sequence completed signal will be sent to the
operator. He will then check the outlet turbidity meter
to ensure that the filter is operating efficiently.
There is just one line which I havent mentioned up to

now which appears in Figure 24. That is the spill back
line at the top right hand of the drawing. Disregard
that for the moment. We will come back to it shortly.
The backwash sequence which I have just

described takes approximately sixty minutes to
complete.
At this point you may want to follow the sequence a

couple more times to ensure that you can visualise
what is going on. When you have done that, have a
go at the following Test Yourself question.

20. Increase the flow signal to FIC4 to maximum.
The filter is now in a pre-service flush sequence.
The water is flowing through the filter in the normal
way, then back to the sea water reservoir.
After a further fifteen minutes, the backwash
23. Remove the flow signal to FIC4.
24. Stop the sea water filter backwash pump.
25. Remove the zero flow signal to FIC3,

which opens FV3.
26. Open valve XV3.
Test Yourself 11
The following steps, which are out of order, are the first part of a typical backwash sequence.
Place the steps in the correct order. Start with inlet valve closes and finish with filter is now
being backwashed.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

inlet valve closes.

lower valve to dirty water sewer closes.
air scour blower starts.
sea water backwash pump starts.
valves open to dirty water sewer.
air scour blower stops.
signal sent to controller on discharge of
backwash pump to regulate flow of
backwash water.
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
controller closes outlet valve from filter.

valve in line from air scour blower opens.
valve in line from backwash pump opens.
valve in line from air scour blower closes.
filter is now being backwashed.
You will find the answers to Test Yourself 11 on Page 57.
47
Deaeration
The deaerator column in our system is a
vacuum deaerator. Figure 25 shows the main
components of the system and the associated
controls. Take a few minutes to study this Figure
before moving on. First of all try to establish the
main flow of sea water through the deaerator
column to the surge vessel and on towards the
booster pumps.
Figure 25
48
The sea water leaving the fine filters first flows

through a turbidity analyser then a pressure
indicator controller (PIC3). The turbidity analyser
measures the turbidity of the combined flow of sea
water from all of the fine filters. The PIC works
together with a pressure control valve, PV3, to
prevent excess pressure building up in the line to
the deaerator.
The sea water is then passed across crude oil
coolers. These coolers are not really part of the
injection water treatment system. They simply
use the cold sea water as a cooling medium in
heat exchangers to reduce the temperature of oil.
However the sea water itself is heated up in the
exchanger and , as you saw Section 3, heating up
the water will assist in the deaeration process.
The sea water then flows through a level control
valve (LV3) which is activated by a level indicator
controller (LIC3). LIC3 controls the level of water
in the bottom of the deaerator column.
If LV3 closes too far, the pressure on the filter side
of LV3 will rise. This will activate PIC3 which will
open PV3. Water from the filters will be spilled
back to the sea water reservoir. This is the line
that joins the pre-service flush line from the fine
filters, which you saw in Figure 24.
The spill-back line :

protects the sea water supply pumps from
damage if the flow to the deaerator column
is stopped
After being injected with anti-foam agent, the sea

water passes into the dearator column where it
gives up its dissolved oxygen. It then accumulates
at the bottom of the column, the water level there
being controlled by LIC3 and LV3.
allows the fine filters to be brought on line

without flowing sea water to the deaerator
column
At this point it can be treated with:

a non-hypochlorite biocide
allows the filtered sea water to be diverted

back to the sea water reservoir if the fine
filters ever go off specification
an oxygen scavenger
Back to the flow through the system

After passing through LV3 the filtered sea water is
injected with an anti-foam chemical.
The anti-foam chemical is injected at this point
because, as the sea water passes across LV3, it
may be subjected to a large pressure drop. The
pressure drop would cause a lot of the dissolved
air to come out of solution.
The changing conditions may cause the water to
foam. If foam is produced, the deaerator column
cannot operate correctly. A lot of water will be
lost with the vapour and a lot of oxygen will pass
through the column with the water. The anti-foam
chemical breaks down the bubbles in the foam.
You should be able to remember how a vacuum

deaerator works. If you need to refresh your
memory, however, I suggest that you go back to
the relevant part of Section 3.
The deaerated water leaves the column and flows
to a surge vessel. This is in effect a storage tank
from which booster pumps can take their suction.
A balance line connecting the surge vessel to the
deaerator column ensures that the water level in
each remains the same.
You will notice a line entering the surge vessel at
the top, from the booster and injection pumps. This
is part of the pump protection equipment which we
will look at shortly.
Now let's take a look at the remaining instruments
and equipment which service the deaerator
column and surge vessel.
49
The first thing to notice is that there are two pressure

relief valves on the column. PSV4 is located on
the top of the column and PSV5 is located on the
outlet line at the bottom of the column. Both PSV's
are set to open at the maximum working pressure
of the column (say, 1 barg).
If the deaerator column ever completely filled with
water, the pressure at the bottom of the column
could exceed its maximum working pressure.
A pressure alarm high (PAH4) is positioned just
above the top layer of packaging and is set to
initiate an alarm if the pressure exceeds, typically,
35 millibar. This could occur if:
the level of water reached more than 0.35 m
above PAH4
the level of water was below PAH4 and
the internal gas pressure was greater than
35 millibar.
PAH4 would activate and alert the operator to the
fact that a pressure problem has occurred in the
deaerator column. In both instances the alarm
would activate before the maximum pressure at
the bottom of the column was reached.
The only lines that we haven't identified on Figure

25 are the ones the ejector and vacuum pump.
We can do that now.
The top line to the vacuum pump is connected to
the deaerator above the top packing. The other
line is connected above the lower packing. It leads
to the ejector and , from there, joins the upper line
before the vacuum pump. From the pump the line
goes to an air / water separator. From here, the
air is vented to the atmosphere and the water is
disposed of via the dirty water sewer.
Note the location of a hydrocarbon detector
(HD). If the crude oil coolers leak, crude could
enter the sea water and cause severe problems
with the deaerator column and other equipment.
HD will detect the presence of hydrocarbons in the
air leaving the air / water separator and activate
an alarm to warn the operator that there is a
problem.
Water Injection Pumps

If we move on to Figure 26, on the next page, we
can see that the main flow from the surge vessel
is through the booster pumps and the injection
pumps to the sea water injection wells via a
header.
The booster pumps, as their name suggests,
boost or increase the pressure of the treated sea
water. The pressure is increased from that of
the surge vessel to the pressure required at the
suction of the injection pumps.
We are almost at the end of the system now. All

that remains is to have to look at the injection
pumps and injection wells.
A pressure relief valve also protects the surge

vessel from over pressure. On the drawing it is
designated PSV6.
50
The combined discharge of the booster pumps is fitted

with:

an oxygen analyser (AE Os)
a chlorine analyser (AE CI;)
a pH analyser (AE pH)
The oxygen analyser ensures that the oxygen content

of the water is still below the maximum permitted level.
The chlorine analyser ensures that there is a sufficient
amount of Na0CI in the injection water. The pH analyser
measures the acidity or alkalinity of the injection water.
If you remember, we injected the scale inhibitor into the
discharge of the sea water supply pumps just before
the water entered the fine filters. The level of pH is an
indication of the tendency of the sea water to form scale
deposits. As a general rule, if the water has a high pH
(above 7.0) it is more prone to forming scale. The level
of pH is monitored at this point and the rate at which the
scale inhibitor is injected is adjusted accordingly.
The injection pumps will increase the water pressure
to that required for injection into the reservoir. This could
be well over 200 barg in many cases.
The discharge lines of both the booster pumps
and injection pumps are fitted with minimum flow
controllers. They are FIC5 and FIC6 respectively.
51
All centrifugal pumps require protection to

prevent them from pumping at too low a flow
rate. The minimum flow controllers measure
the flow from the pumps. If this flow falls below
a predetermined level, the controllers open their
respective control valves (FV5 and FV6) and
allow the water to recycle back to the surge
vessel. When sufficient water is flowing through
the pumps, FV5 and FV6 are fully closed.
The treated sea water then flows across:
The treated sea water leaves the injection

pumps and enters a common water injection
header. The flow lines to the individual water
injection wells are then taken from this header.
and down into the reservoir.
Water Injection Wells

There may be as few as two or three water
injection wells in small oil reservoirs, or as
many as twenty or more in larger ones. In
Figure 27, I have shown a schematic drawing
of a typical well.
The flow of treated sea water is measured by
a flow element (FE7) which is upstream of a
choke valve. A choke is a specially designed
valve which allows the flow of high pressure
injection water to be controlled. In our example
the choke is controlled manually and would be
adjusted by the operator to give the required
flow rate, as measured by FE7.
wing valve (XV20)

upper master gate valve (XV21)
lower master gate valve (LMV7)
sub-surface safety valve (XV22)
The injection well is completed in an almost

identical way to the oil and gas producing
wells. Our open learning packages on Oilwell
Drilling Technology and Oilwell Production
Technology explain the construction of these
wells in great detail.
You have almost completed this unit on injection

water treatment but before going through the
summary, have a go at the final Test Yourself
question.
52
Test Yourself 12
Make a simple block diagram of a water
injection system similar to the one at the start
of Section 4. In addition, your diagram should
show:
1.
The chemical injection points.
2.

Where the water is taken from for the

filter backwashing.
3.
Where water analysers may be located.
In this section we have looked at the operation
of a typical sea water treatment system
which uses:
We looked at the operation of the coarse

filters and fine filters and saw how they are
backwashed.
sodium hypochlorite as a biocide
basket filters as coarse filters
We saw how the vacuum deaerator is

operated and controlled, and how:
dual media filters as fine filters
vacuum deaeration to remove oxygen

from the sea water
We considered how the sodium hypochlorite
is generated and injected into the sea water
during treatment. We also saw how a different
biocide may be used to shock dose the
system to prevent resistant bacteria from
surviving the sodium hypochlorite injection.
You will find the answer to Test Yourself 12

on Page 58.
We saw how scale inhibitor is injected into the

sea water and how the efficiency of the scale
inhibitor was measured by a pH Analyser.
anti-foam agent is injected into the

deaerator feed to prevent foaming
oxygen scavenger is injected into the
system to remove the last few traces of
oxygen
We then looked at the booster pumps and
the injection pumps and saw how they were
operated and controlled.
Finally we looked at a typical water injection
well and located the various valves and
controls.
Now go back to the training targets on page
4 and make sure that you have met those
targets.
53
Check Yourself 1
Check Yourself 2
Check Yourself 3
a)

One fifth is 20%.

So the porosity is 20%.
1.
Gas cap drive.
2.
Dissolved gas drive.
The particles of sand or clay would block the

pores of the reservoir rock, reducing permeability
and hence productivity.
b)

A cap rock prevents oil migration so its

permeability is likely to be zero.
3.
Dissolved gas drive.
4.
Water drive.
5.
Gas cap drive.
c)
Sponge
Sandstone
54
Check Yourself 4
Check Yourself 5
Check Yourself 6
Removing oxygen creates conditions

which are ideal for the growth of anaerobic
bacteria.
1.
Removal of suspended solids.
a)
FALSE - a permeable barrier is used.
2.

Removal of dissolved gases (i.e. oxygen,

which makes the water corrosive).
b)
TRUE.
3.
Removal of dissolved gases.
c)
TRUE.
4.

Reduces scale deposition caused by

dissolved solids being precipitated.
d)
FALSE - a basket filter uses a fine mesh
5.
Assists in removal of suspended solids.
6.
Preventing growth of bacteria.

e)
FALSE - the flow is in the opposite

f)
screen.
direction.
TRUE.
55
Check Yourself 7
a)
Both.
b)
Both (air is a gas).
c)
Vacuum deaerator.
d)
Gas stripping deaerator.
e)
Both.
f)
Neither.
g)
Vacuum deaerator.
h)
Both
Check Yourself 8
sparge pipe...................... deaerators
degassing tank................ NaOCI generator
support material............... filters (sand & dual media)
vortex breaker.................. deaerators
ejector.............................. vacuum deaerator
seal chimney................... vacuum deaerator
cartridges......................... cartridge filter
backwash controller......... filters (basket, sand, dual media)
cleaning head motor........ basket filter
demister pad.................... deaerators
vacuum pump.................. vacuum deaerator
56
Check Yourself 9
Check Yourself 10
a)

To monitor sea water, in order to ensure

a sufficient concentration of NaOCI to kill
bacteria.
By checking the water turbidity upstream and

downstream of the filter, the efficiency of the
filter can be monitored.
b)

To monitor differential pressure. When

this pressure exceeds a pre-set maximum,
the differential pressure switch initiates
a backwash, through a backwash
sequence controller.
c)

To protect the NaOCI generator from

being damaged due to a low flow of sea
water.
d)

To purge the hydrogen removal tank with

air.
Check Yourself 11
The correct sequence would be
(a)
(h)
(e)
(b)
(i)
(c)
(f)
(k)
(d)
(j)
(g)
(I)
57
Check Yourself 12
58

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