Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics

W. P. Kellar,1 S. R. G. Pearse1,2 and A. M. Savill1

1

Computational Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Cambridge University Engineering Department, Trumpington St.,
Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
2
A top UK Formula 1 team

Abstract
A detailed project has been carried out to investigate the aerodynamic performance of a
Formula 1 car front wheel. Experimental drag measurements were carried out on a 40%
scale rig representing the front right-hand quarter of a generic Formula 1 car, with
features such as the front wing and car body modelled accurately to generate a suitable
oweld around the wheel. Smoke ow visualization gave valuable insights into the
major ow features and enabled understanding of how the wheel aerodynamic performance might be improved. Further visualization was carried out using a fully 3D
CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) analysis of the test rig geometry, using state-ofthe-art in-house geometry handling and CFD facilities based around an unstructured
NavierStokes solver. Drag measurements were successfully obtained for a large range
of typical car congurations, including front wing endplate variations. The experimental
and computational ow visualization enabled a new front wing geometry to be designed,
which gave a signicant reduction in the drag of the wheel.
Keywords: Formula 1, aerodynamics, CFD, ow visualization, wheels

Introduction
Governing bodies of many categories of motor
racing specify that the wheels of the racing cars
must be exposed to oncoming airow. These
stipulations act, for example, to preserve the
character of the sport, and to give safety benets
such as enabling drivers to detect brake lock. Such
regulations have a signicant effect on the aerodynamic performance of the cars, causing for example
a large increase in overall drag (Morelli 1969).
The difference between winning and losing in
Formula 1 can often come down to fractions of a
Correspondence address:
William Kellar, CFD Laboratory, Cambridge University
Engineering Department, Trumpington St.,
Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK.
Tel.: +44 (0)1223 332869. Fax: +44 (0)1223 332662.
E-mail: wpk20@eng.cam.ac.uk

1999 Blackwell Science Ltd Sports Engineering (1999) 2, 203212

percent in car performance; these small performance increments can represent signicant nancial
investment. The net drag of Formula 1 cars is
very signicant to the overall car performance
and, of this net value, the signicant component
caused by the exposed wheels is dependent on the
surrounding oweld. Changing this oweld to
improve car performance is relatively easy compared with, for example, squeezing a few more
horsepower from the engine, so there are signicant benets in both development cost and
performance to be found in the area of wheel and
front-quarter aerodynamics (Hanna 1995). The
oweld structure is highly complex and threedimensional (Sawley 1997) and, to enable insights
into this ow for design optimization, good
visualization techniques are necessary. A limited
amount of literature (Cogotti 1982, Hucho 1987)
gives further details on previous experimental
work in this area.
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Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics W. P. Kellar et al.

Experimental testing
Wind tunnel test rig
A 40% scale model of the front right-hand quarter
of a generic Formula 1 car was used for experimental testing. This model essentially conformed
to the relevant FIA (Federation Internationale
de l'Automobile) regulations of 1998 governing
the external shape and geometry of Formula 1 cars.
A solid body and suspension system was mounted
on a rigid backboard, with a false oor representing
the ground plane. A 40% Formula 1-type wheel
was free to turn on the suspension axle.
Wheel rotation was achieved through the false
oor, by a variable speed drivewheel in contact with
the tyre. The deciencies of this wheel rotation
method, compared to a more realistic rolling-road
set-up, were compensated for by calculating the
development of the boundary layer displacement
thickness along the false oor with a combined
laminar (Thwaites) and turbulent (7th power law)
method. This indicated the clearance of the wheel,
relative to the ground plane, which would best
model the correct ow in the contact patch region.
This clearance causes only a small change in wheel
drag of a few percent (Cogotti 1982) as long as the
gap is less than about 10% of the wheel radius, and
this change is well quantied.
The wheel suspension was pin-jointed, and
instrumented to measure drag via a strain gauge
bridge and signal amplier. This strain gauge
bridge was mounted on a tie-bar connecting the
wheel axle region to the backboard of the model
under the nosecone tip. The signal processing
consisted of a low-pass lter, amplier and oscilloscope; the lter removed noise due to the wheel
rotation and other vibrations. The arms of the
suspension were given removable aerofoil shrouds,
to investigate the effect of suspension prole on the
front wheel oweld. These aerofoil shrouds took
the form of symmetrical standard NACA aerofoils
with maximum thickness 22 mm and chord 80 mm,
aligned parallel to the ground plane.
The wing was designed to give similar lift
characteristics to a generic Formula 1 wing. This
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in turn would give suitable ow characteristics in

the region around the wheel. As in typical Formula
1 front wing design, a multielement spoiler was
devised; using as an upper element a constant
section Benedek B8556B wing, and as a lower element a constant section Gottinger 795 wing. The
section chords were chosen to match the scale of
the test rig, and the wing span, in line with the
relevant regulations, gave overlap between the wing
and the front wheel. These aerofoil sections were
chosen for their low-speed Reynolds number characteristics (Simons 1994), to match the wind tunnel
test conditions. The front wing design was completed by a variety of endplates, designed to mimic
typical Formula 1 practice. Two typical wing and
endplate congurations are shown in Figs 1 and 2.
The intention behind these designs in practice is
both to inuence the strongly vortical ow going

Figure 1 Test rig wing conguration with basic wing endplate.

Figure 2 Test rig wing conguration with modied wing

endplate.

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W. P. Kellar et al. Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics

onto the front wheels, and to improve the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. It should be
emphasized that no attempt was made here to
investigate in detail the actual performance of the
wing itself.
An underbody diffuser passage was designed, to
give the effect of underbody ow entrainment in the
front wheel region which occurs for a real car this
ow could be relevant in terms of wheel drag. This
design was fairly speculative as the absence of a
moving ground plane would signicantly alter the
diffuser performance. The diffuser took the form of
a diverging passage formed by a at plate on the
underside of the car body, and the ground plane.
This plate was shaped in accordance with the
relevant FIA regulations (except for the omission
of a step perpendicular to the direction of air ow),
i.e. the shape was a simplied approximation to the
plan view of the car, from the front of the cockpit
backwards, and the leading edge of the plate was
located under the front of the cockpit region. The
plate was aligned to diverge from the ground plane
towards the rear of the car, at an angle of 0.7.
On the 40% scale model described here, the leading
edge of the plate was 10 mm from the ground plane.
The sidepod ducts were lled with a honeycomb
material at a variety of angles to the duct walls. This
material was chosen to give suitable pressure losses
in the ow through the duct, and the intention was to
investigate the upstream inuence of the sidepod
ow on the wheel wake development.

Wind tunnel facilities

The experimental aerodynamics facilities at Cambridge University Engineering Department offer,
amongst many other features, a 60-m s1 maximum
speed closed-circuit wind tunnel with a working
section of 2.08 m2. With the 40% scale test rig in
place, the effects of model blockage, atmospheric
pressure and local temperature variations were
accounted for in a calibration calculation for the
tunnel over a range of operating conditions. Such a
calculation enabled the local Reynolds number of
the ow around the wheel to be determined to
within 1%. The experimental set-up then enabled
1999 Blackwell Science Ltd Sports Engineering (1999) 2, 203212

a constant ow over the wheel of Reynolds

number 0.65 106 to be achieved within the
normal operating range of the wind tunnel. This
Reynolds number was selected to give suitable ow
conditions under which to avoid upper and lower
limit transition phenomena in the wheel ow;
boundary layer turbulent transition and bursting of
the boundary layer re-attachment bubble, respectively (Fackrell & Harvey 1973). The Reynolds
number was based on the wheel diameter of
0.26 m and the local velocity, typically 38.5 m s1,
although the value chosen was dependent on the
kinematic viscosity as calculated from the atmospheric conditions. This local velocity was evaluated taking into account the model blockage as 1.3%
of the tunnel working section area.
This level of accuracy in the wind tunnel ow
conditions led to a baseline uncertainty in the
experimental drag coefcient measurements of
0.2%. Accuracy is discussed in more detail later.

Smoke ow visualization
Smoke ow was achieved over the whole 40%
model with the use of a second, open-circuit wind
tunnel. This could only be operated at very low
speed to maintain the visibility of the smoke. The
tunnel was operated at a low Reynolds number
of 25 103, based on wheel diameter. Other
limitations in the simulation were the signicant
blockage of the model in the working section,
and the absence of wheel rotation due to the
prohibitive size of the drive mechanism. These
limitations meant that the smoke ow results were
taken only as illustrative of the general features of
the oweld, rather than as denitive information
on detailed characteristics such as the ow separation points on the front wing. Use of a smoke
probe enabled fully 3D investigation of the ow as
smoke could be injected at any point in the
domain.

Numerical ow visualization CFD

Computational uid dynamics (as the numerical
simulation of ow around a body in a discretized
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Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics W. P. Kellar et al.

domain) offers signicant benets to aerodynamic

designers. It allows the rapid investigation of a
large number of widely differing aerodynamic
components without the associated manufacturing
and testing costs for experimental prototypes.
Those designs indicated by the CFD analysis to
be the most worthwhile can then be taken to the
physical prototype stage. The method also offers
very detailed quantitative uid information, although this must be tempered with experimental
correlation.
CFD is used by the most progressive teams in
Formula 1 as a very powerful design tool. The
technology is still at an early stage in particular,
there can be signicant bottle-necks in the geometry handling and mesh generation stages of the
CFD analysis, which are discussed in detail in a
related paper (Kellar et al. 1999). There are also
some fundamental modelling issues still to be
addressed, in particular turbulence modelling in
automotive CFD.

developing nature of the CADCFD interface

meant that this complex geometry could not be
analysed further during the study. A hybrid form
of geometry modelling using commercial and
in-house CAD has subsequently been applied
successfully.
Domain discretization was carried out using an
unstructured surface and volume mesh generation
method (Dawes 1996). This, based on the rigorous
CAD geometry, gave a very quick and robust
algorithm with which to optimize the meshes for
CFD computation. An unstructured grid was
required to resolve the complex surfaces in the
geometry. Figure 3 shows the domain discretization used for the CFD analysis. The simulation did
not apply rotation to the wheel surfaces, and consequently the domain mesh does not contain very
high surface cell density which would be required
to fully resolve viscous surface effects.

CFD analysis facilities

The new CFD laboratory at Cambridge University
Engineering Department offers a range of tools for
a CFD analysis, from commercial CAD geometry
manipulation to in-house state-of-the-art 3D
NavierStokes solvers and postprocessing. The CFD
codes are derived from turbomachinery applications and work to develop incompressible versions
is ongoing. The present study aimed to model
accurately the wheel and wing of the test rig and to
obtain detailed information on the wheel oweld.
CAD geometry modelling was carried out using
commercial packages, and in a more basic in-house
CAD format. The use of these two routes was due
to uncertainty as to which format would interface
most easily with domain discretization procedures.
The in-house CAD successfully generated the
desired level of baseline geometry representation,
and was chosen for the full CFD analysis. This
method of geometry generation is not particularly
suitable for the investigation of highly complex
geometries, so commercial CAD was used to
generate a full car body representation, but the
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Figure 3 Domain discretization for CFD analysis. The volume

mesh is illustrated with a characteristic slice through the

domain. The surface mesh on the wheel and wing is omitted for
clarity.

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W. P. Kellar et al. Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics

The ow solution was calculated with the

unstructured tetrahedral mesh method of Dawes
(Dawes 1992), called NEWT. The ow is simulated
by solving the fully 3D viscous unsteady Reynolds
time-averaged NavierStokes equations within the
discretized domain. Turbulence closure is provided
by the k-e model, together with a modied low
Reynolds number model handling near wall regions
and transition. The main limitations of such a
turbulence modelling approach in this application
are the strongly rotating and anisotropic nature of
the turbulent separated ow regions. Second-orderaccurate discretization of the convective uxes is
achieved four stage RungeKutta time integration
is applied. In this study, the ow was simulated at
Mach 0.3. This was to avoid convergence problems
in a low speed calculation with a compressible code.
This ow condition, although representative of the
top speed of a Formula 1 car, is higher than that used
in the experimental testing. Subsequent work has
found that the general oweld features shown by
the CFD solution are very similar for a range of ow
conditions appropriate to Formula 1 (the work is at
an early stage and is not discussed in detail here).
The choice of Reynolds number for the experimental drag measurements was also made to fall within
the transition limits of the ow over the wheel; CFD
cannot be expected accurately to predict such
transition, even in the presence of a full viscous layer
volume mesh, and the choice of CFD ow conditions becomes less critical with this in mind.
The CFD analysis is thus taken in a similar
manner to the smoke ow tests, i.e. to give visualization information representative of general
features of the oweld.

The strain gauge bridge was balanced before

each run. The appropriate tunnel settings were
determined from the calibration calculations to
obtain the desired Reynolds number. A series of
stationaryrotatingstationary drag values were
then found for the current conguration, with the
mean drag value for each instance being noted for
later nondimensionalization calculations. A representative section of the experimental drag coefcient results is shown here in Fig. 4; the test rig
congurations are as follows:
A Baseline drag coefcient mean drag coefcient
over all congurations with a wing and endplate
present.
B No wing present only car wheel and body.
Aerofoil shrouding on suspension elements.
C No wing present. No aerofoil shrouding.
D Wing conguration as Fig. 1. Aerofoil shrouding on suspension elements.

Experimental results
Test programme
The test rig offered a large number of possible
experimental congurations. Baseline results were
obtainable for the wheel in isolation. The wind
tunnel programme tested all possible conguration
variations, and a drag coefcient value was obtained
for each case.
1999 Blackwell Science Ltd Sports Engineering (1999) 2, 203212

Figure 4 Drag test results. The details of the congurations A

through G can be found in the main text. The Reynolds

number for each test, based on wheel diameter of 0.26 m, is
0.65 106.

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Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics W. P. Kellar et al.

E Wing conguration as Fig. 1. No aerofoil shrouding.

F Wing conguration as Fig. 2. No aerofoil shrouding.
G New endplate design. No aerofoil shrouding.
The drag coefcient was evaluated using the
local velocity as derived from the Reynolds number
(see section on wind tunnel facilities), and the
density as derived from atmospheric conditions.

Assessment of experimental error

As stated previously, the error in measured drag
coefcient due to tunnel parameters was found to be
0.2%. The force calibration of the strain apparatus
was carried out regularly by applying a series of
known loads to the wheel and noting the oscilloscope
response, to remove errors caused by mechanical
play and deterioration in the fabric of the model.
The baseline errors in oscilloscope readings were
estimated initially as 0.6% this value rose to a
worst case of 2% towards the end of the testing due
to deterioration of the test rig. The repeatability of
the tests in general was excellent.

Smoke ow results
The smoke ow testing programme was much the
same as the experimental drag programme, in that
all possible congurations were tested systematically (here without wheel rotation). The repeatabil-

ity of the tests was excellent. The results were

recorded photographically and on video, and a
representative image is given in Fig. 5.

CFD results
A ow solution was successfully obtained for the
basic test rig geometry, i.e. the wheel and front
wing, with a at wing endplate. The domain was
discretized into 340 524 cells. The solution CPU
time was approximately 15 h on a Pentium II
233 MHz workstation (it is noted that the time
taken to generate this solution from the initial
geometry denition was signicantly reduced from
typical times; see Kellar et al. 1999). The net mass
ow error in the solution was 0.08%, illustrating good convergence in the numerical method.
Graphical postprocessing enabled scalar and vector
uid parameters to be plotted with ease in 3D, and
a representative selection of results is reproduced
here in Figs 6 and 8.

Discussion of results
Smoke visualization
The smoke tests gave very good information on the
full 3D nature of the oweld; however, it should
be reiterated that the experimental limitations
mean the results are purely representative of the
general oweld. The main characteristics of the

Figure 5 Smoke ow test results; representative plan view of wheel oweld.

Tests carried out at Reynolds number
25 103.

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W. P. Kellar et al. Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics

Figure 6 CFD visualization results; Mach no. contour solution.

Figure 7 Contour key for Fig. 6.

ow as determined by the present study are detailed

below.
A strong vortex is shed from the bottom edge of
the front wing endplate. This deects around the
inboard side of the wheel; partly due to the
inuence of the endplate shapes, partly due to
roll-up with the vorticity shed from the wing
elements themselves, and partly due to the presence
of the wheel. The resulting vortical ow rises up
along the nosecone into the sidepod region, as it
passes downstream.
The wheel wake is formed by two main characteristics. These are vortices shed from the base and
crown of the tyre, and a region of separated
recirculatory ow behind the wheel. The exact
positioning of these characteristics is inuenced by
the rotation of the wheel (illustrated by wool tufts
on the test rig during experimental measurements).
The resultant wheel wake is turbulent although the
edges are fairly distinct; the two largest vortices
from the base of the tyre remain clear quite a
distance downstream of the wheel. The turbulent
wheel wake region rises off the ground plane at a
distance of approximately one and a half wheel
diameters behind the wheel, and the recirculation
in the wake ends around this point. This effect
appears to be due to the inuence of the vorticity
shed from the front wing region.
The degree of symmetry in the wake is sensitive
to the nature of the vortical ow leaving the front
wing, i.e. dependent on the wing geometry. The
wake symmetry is also affected by the presence of
the sidepods, which interfere with the downstream
ow development. In terms of the sidepod ow
itself, the angle of the oncoming ow to these
sidepods is dependent on the wake symmetry and
therefore the wing geometry. The actual ow
through the sidepods could be signicantly affected
by separation at the pod entry walls giving highly
turbulent ow in the ducts.

Numerical visualization
Figure 8 CFD visualization results; representative streamline

plot.

1999 Blackwell Science Ltd Sports Engineering (1999) 2, 203212

The CFD solution gave a comprehensive

representation of the wheel oweld, in terms of
ow patterns and uid parameters. The streamline
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Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics W. P. Kellar et al.

views were clearly similar to the smoke ow results,

despite the differences in testing conditions. This
point is very supportive of the use of CFD as a
visualization tool in this instance. It was not
possible directly to evaluate global forces such as
the wheel drag from the CFD results, although an
attempt was made to estimate the effective wing
downforce to conrm that the design was working
effectively. However, to have any signicant
condence in the CFD as a quantitative tool would
have required much more extensive experimental
corroboration, and the intention here was only to
gain qualitative visualization information. The
main features of the CFD oweld, as determined
by the present study, are as follows.
There is strongly vortical ow leaving the front
wing, as seen in the smoke ow results, and the
pattern was much the same in each instance. The
origin of this ow was shown to be strongly linked
to the geometry of the wing endplate, particularly
the lower endplate edge. The shed vorticity is
deected by the wheel, affecting the stagnation
conditions on the front of the wheel, and has a
signicant effect on the wheel wake. The inuence
of the suspension elements on the wake appears to
be slight, but there was a clear interaction between
the two.
The wheel wake region is asymmetrical, shown
by a high pressure region bending inboard downstream of the wheel. This effect was misleading
in the given CFD simulation due to the absence of
the body (although not excessively so as pressure
tends to be low under the nosecone); however, the
general trend matched the smoke ow results. The
major inuence on this wake asymmetry appeared
to be the wing vortex. The high pressure region
behind the wheel is indicative of the recirculatory
separated ow in the wheel wake shown in the
smoke tests. The accuracy of the detail in the
separated ow regions is limited by fundamental
features of the turbulence modelling used in this
study.
The ow conditions on the wheel itself are
characterized by high pressure in the stagnation
region in front of the wheel; low pressure at the
wheel crown as the ow accelerates; and a slight
210

recovery from this crown pressure (in the turbulent

wake) acting as base pressure on the downstream
side of the wheel.
The CFD results show the wing design to be
acting appropriately: static pressure contours
show, for example, approximately constant relatively high and low pressures on the upper and
lower surfaces, respectively, of the wing. A simple
integration of the pressure distribution conrmed
that the effective lift coefcient was approximately the same as that assumed in the design. The
effective lift distribution was also found to be
realistic.

Drag measurements
The overall set of experimental drag measurements
shows signicant variation between the different
congurations tested; this in conjunction with the
oweld changes noted previously shows the
importance in terms of drag of the car front quarter
geometry changing the wheel oweld. The most
signicant points from the results are as follows.
The tests carried out in the absence of a front
wing gave relatively high drag results. This was due
to the symmetry of the wheel ow being affected
only by the body without the tempering effect of
wing vorticity. These two tests were essentially
carried out to satisfy experimental curiosity as a
Formula 1 car would never be expected to run
under normal conditions without a wing; the
discussion hereafter relates only to those results
taken with a wing present on the rig.
The mean drag coefcient over all congurations
with a wing and endplate present is 0.456 0.003 for
a stationary wheel and 0.470 0.003 for a rotating
wheel. These values are taken as the generic baseline
results for this series of experiments. These results
compare well with those of previous studies (Fackrell
& Harvey 1973, Cogotti 1982), taking into account
that here we modelled the entire front quarter
of the car rather than a wheel in isolation.
In general, the introduction of a front wing and
endplate decreases wheel drag. This appears to be
due to the strong vorticity from the front wing
and endplate causing the wheel wake to straighten,
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W. P. Kellar et al. Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics

along with a complex interaction of this wake ow

with the car body.
The aerofoil shrouding of the suspension arms
shows, as expected, a reduction in the measured
drag. Results D and E illustrate this for the
conguration of Fig. 1. However, strictly speaking
this is a reduction of the drag of the wheel and
suspension assembly as a whole; the effect of the
shrouds themselves on the wheel oweld is not
clear. The magnitude of this benecial effect was
much the same for different wing congurations
(hence, results E, F and G were tested without
aerofoil suspension shrouding, for reasons of experimental convenience).
The different wing and endplate congurations
have a variety of effects. The signicance in terms
of drag is that those endplates which most deect
the vortical ow around the wheel appear to cause
the least wheel drag; the deected vortex then
seems to straighten the wake downstream. Those
endplates which generate the least vorticity seem to
be benecial in terms of drag, by virtue of the effect
of the shed vortex being limited by its reduced
strength (although a certain measure of vorticity is
benecial; note the high drag results taken with no
wing present).
The least successful conguration in terms of
drag (of those congurations tested with a wing
and endplate present) is an endplate which strengthened the wing vortex without deecting it around
the wheel (result F); thus, by the above arguments,
being worse in two respects.

A new endplate design drag reduction

Bearing in mind the conclusions drawn about the
effects of wing geometry and wake symmetry, a
speculative new wing endplate was designed with
the intention of reducing wheel drag. The new
geometry essentially consisted of an inboard bend
modication at the lower downstream corner of the
basic wing endplate of Fig. 1. The axis of the bend
was aligned with the lower edge of the upper wing
element, and the lower rearmost corner of the
endplate was moved inboard by 25 mm on the scale
model described here, giving an angled triangular
1999 Blackwell Science Ltd Sports Engineering (1999) 2, 203212

region on the endplate. Both the modied triangle

and the original section of the endplate remained
planar. This region of the endplate was indicated
by the initial visualization results (experimental and
computational) to be directly responsible for the
direction of the ow onto the lower front wheel,
and there was also signicant ow separation and
vorticity in this area.
Smoke ow testing on this new conguration
suggested that the desired objectives of weakened
wing vortex and increased vortex deection were
achieved. The deection was caused by the basic
orientation of the endplate corner region, and the
weakened vorticity was obtained by reducing the
separation from the lower endplate edge. The new
design gave a signicant reduction in drag (see
result G) and, with the anticipated effects of aerofoil suspension shrouds included, gave the lowest
drag of any conguration tested.

Conclusions
The wake of a Formula 1 car wheel was found to
consist of a signicant region of separated ow.
This region is formed by ow separating from the
crown and sidewalls of the wheel, which recirculates into the convergent region of the lower
downstream portion of the wheel. The shape of
the wake is inuenced by horseshoe vortices shed
from the wheel, and the overall wake symmetry is
affected by aerodynamic features of the car as a
whole.
The aerodynamic drag of the wheel is signicantly
affected by the symmetry characteristics of the wheel
wake. A more symmetrical wake appears to give a
reduced drag. This symmetry is strongly dependent
on the vortical ow shed from the front wing.
The exact design of the car front wing and
associated endplate could signicantly affect the
nature of the vortical ow leaving the front wing,
and thus also the wheel drag.
Flow visualization, both experimental and numerical, gives invaluable insights into the wheel
oweld characteristics. This enabled the oweld
to be manipulated by a new wheel forebody design,
which signicantly reduced wheel drag.
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Formula 1 car wheel aerodynamics W. P. Kellar et al.

Future work could hope to address the significance of the geometry changes considered here
on the performance of the wing itself. The effects
of wheel yaw under steering could also be considered.

5 Fackrell, J.E. & Harvey, J.K. (1973) The Floweld and

Pressure Distribution of an Isolated Road Wheel, pp. 155
165. BRHA Fluid Engineering, Craneld.
Hanna, R.K. (1995) The role of unstructured CFD in the
development process for Formula 1 racing cars. Autotech
6 C498/36/244, IMechE, London, UK.
Hucho, W.-H. (1987) Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles.
7 Butterworths, London, UK.
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