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INTRODUCTION

1.1 High Temperature Materials:A metal or alloy or composite material which serves above about 1000F (540C).More
specifically, the materials which operate at such temperatures consist principally of some
stainless steels, superalloys, refractory metals, and certain composite materials. The giant class of
alloys called steels usually sees service below 1000F. The most demanding applications for
high-temperature materials are found in aircraft jet engines, industrial gas turbines, and nuclear
reactors. However, many furnaces, ductings, and electronic and lighting devices operate at such
high temperatures.
In order to perform successfully and economically at high temperatures, a material must
have at least two essential characteristics: it must be strong, since increasing temperature tends to
reduce

strength,

and

it

must

have

resistance

to

its

environment,

since oxidation and corrosion attack also increase with temperature.

High-temperature materials, always vital, have acquired an even greater importance
because of developing crises in providing society with sufficient energy. The machinery which
produces electricity or some other form of power from a heat source operates according to the
basic Carnot cycle law, where the efficiency of the device depends on the difference between its
highest operating temperature and its lowest temperature. Thus, the greater this difference, the
more efficient is the device a result giving great impetus to create materials that operate at very
high temperatures.
1.2 What is High Temperature?
A definition of high temperature can be confusing. One often used definition in materials
science and technology is that it is a temperature equal to, or greater than, about two-thirds of the
melting point of a solid. Another definition, attributed to Leo Brewer, is that high temperatures
are those at which extrapolations of a materials properties, kinetics, and chemical behavior from
1

near ambient temperatures are no longer valid. For example, chemical reactions not favorable at
room temperature may become important at high temperatures thermodynamic properties rather
than kinetics tend to determine the high temperature reactivity of a material. Vaporization
processes and species become increasingly important at high temperatures. Unusual compounds
and vapor species, which do not conform to the familiar oxidation states of the elements, may
form. For example, in the vaporization of Al2O3, common high temperature gas species can
include Al2O, AlO, and AlO2.The complexity of the vapor phase also increases with temperature;
BeO vapor species include not only the elemental vapors, but at high temperatures, also
significant (BeO)n species, with n = 1 to 6. While the vaporization of BeO in air to the elements is
suppressed by the oxygen, the (BeO) n vapor pressures are independent of air, and can produce
much larger active corrosion rates than those calculated using only the elemental gas species.
With increasing temperatures, ordered defect structures become disordered, and solid solution
ranges increase significantly. For example, stoichiometric solids such as MgAl 2O4 may develop
significant composition ranges at high temperatures. Physical properties of materials that
correlate with the above high temperature chemical behavior is also unpredictable from
extrapolations of low temperature properties. Examples of High Temperature Activities and
Materials High temperature materials provide the basis for a wide variety of technology areas,
including energy, electronic, photonic and chemical applications. While some applications
involve the use of these materials at high temperatures, others require materials processed at high
temperatures for room temperature uses. In electrochemistry, the interaction of these materials
with each other, the atmosphere, and the movement of electrons are of high importance.
The high value of a cross-cutting technology such as high temperature materials to a wide
variety of technical arenas is reflected by the number of science and engineering disciplines
involved in the study of processing and properties of these materials, including ceramic science,
chemistry, chemical engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and
physics. The diversity of interests ranges from experimental observations to predicting behavior,
from scientific principles to engineering design, from atomic scale models to performance while
in use. Materials are selected on the basis of service requirements, notably strength, so corrosion
resistance (stability) may not be the primary design consideration. Assemblies need to be strong
and resilient to the unique loads and stresses imparted on them, which can include signicant
2

temperature changes and thermal gradients for many high-temperature applications. In making a
choice, it is necessary to know what materials are available and to what extent they are suited to
the specic application. The decision is quite involved and the choice is signicantly affected by
the environment and the intended use, be it a reactor vessel, tubes, supports, shields, springs, or
others. Some problems may occur because of distortion and cracking caused by thermal
expansion/contraction; typically, a high-temperature alloy might change 4 in. /ft from ambient to
1,000C (1,832F). The user or designer needs to properly understand that the environment
indicates the materials selection process at all stages of the process or application. For example,
an alloy that performs well at the service temperature may corrode because of aqueous (dew
point) corrosion at lower temperatures during off-load periods, or through some lack of design
detail or poor maintenance procedures that introduce local air draughts that cool the system (e.g.,
at access doors, inspection ports, etc.).To provide as optimum performance as possible, it is
necessary for a supplier to be aware of the application, and for the user to be aware of the general
range of available materials. Otherwise, severe problems can result. For example, a catastrophic
failure occurred within weeks for an ignitor, made with Type 304 stainless steel (UNS S30400,
iron, 19% Cr, 9% Ni, 0.08% C).Type 304 stainless steel would have been suitable for clean
oxidizing conditions to about 900C (1,650F) in continuous service, or 845C (1,550F) in
intermittent (temperature cycling) service.
The failure occurred because of overheating with contributions from suldation (hot
corrosion). The true cause of failure was a material mix-up, because Type 304 was not specied
but was inadvertently used Mechanical limits of materials in considering traditional alloys, it is
important for the designer and user to be fully aware of the mechanical limits of a material. For
example, the ASME Pressure Vessel Codes advise that the maximum allowable stress shall not
exceed whichever is the lowest of (i) 100% of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%
in 1,000 h (ii) 67% of the average stress to cause rupture after 100,000 h and (iii) 80% of the
minimum stress to cause rupture after 100,000 h. These recommendations may be better
appreciated by extracting typical data for Type 304 intended for use in a pressure vessel up to
815C (1,500F). Based upon ASME tables,for a load of 17 MPa (2.5 ksi) at 760C (1,400F),
the expected design life would be 24 yr at 788C (1,450F), the life falls to 7 yr and at 815C
(1,500F), it is only 2.2 yr.Thus a short-term temperature excursion can have a signicant effect
3

on equipment life. Also to be noted is that a small increase in loading, for example, from 2.5 to 3
ksi at 760C (1,400F), can markedly reduce the life expectancy, here, from 24 to 9 yr.
Overheating is the most common cause of high-temperature corrosion failure, but the temperature
inuence on mechanical properties is of equal or even more signicance in that many failures
occur because of creep deformation (creep voids) and thermal fatigue. Overheating can arise for
various reasons, including an unexpected accumulation of tenacious deposits that can foul tubes
in a heat exchanger.
1.3. Engineering Application of High Temperature Materials:
Applications of High temperature materials are categorized below:
Aircraft gas turbines: disks, combustion chambers, bolts, casings, shafts, exhaust systems,
cases, blades, vanes, burner cans, afterburners, thrust reversers.
Steam turbine power plants: bolts, blades, stack gas re-heaters.
Reciprocating engines: turbochargers exhaust valves, hot plugs, valve seat Inserts.
Metal processing: hot-work tools and dies, casting dies.
Medical applications: dentistry uses, prosthetic devices.
Space vehicles: aerodynamically heated skins, rocket engine parts.
Heat-treating equipment: trays, fixtures, conveyor belts, baskets, fans, furnace mufflers.
Nuclear power systems: control rod drive mechanisms, valve stems, springs, ducting.
Chemical and petrochemical industries: bolts, fans, valves, reaction vessels, piping, pumps.

Pollution control equipment: scrubbers.

Metals processing mills: ovens, afterburners, exhaust fans.
Coal gasification and liquefaction systems: heat exchangers, re-heaters, piping.

Fig. 1.3.1 Effective use of advanced High Temperature materials to cut CO 2 emissions from jet
engines and land based gas turbines.

1.4. CARBON-CARBON COMPOSITES

Carbon is a unique element that can exhibit different properties in
different forms. Some forms of carbon are extremely hard, like diamond,
while some forms are extremely soft and ductile. Thus, in addition to
its well defined allotropic forms (diamond and graphite), carbon can take
any number of quasi-crystalline forms ranging from amorphous or glassy
carbon

to

highly crystalline graphite.

5

The latest form of carbon (C60),

discovered recently, is called Fullerene. Fullerene is the roundest of all

round molecules, more like a soccer ball, and has properties, like high
strength, low density, ferromagnetic properties, Superconductivity and is an
excellent semiconductor. For a long time, carbon has been known for its
high temperature properties and is widely used in heating elements. But
its application in structures was limited because of its failure even at low
strains, thermal shock sensitivity, anisotropy and processing difficulties
for

large

and complex

shapes.

The advent of carbon-carbon (CC)

composites changed the scene drastically.

1.4.1 Unique Features Of CC Composite:
Carbon-Carbon Composites are a new class of engineering materials that are the best
among all high temperature materials because they are thermally stable and do not melt
up to 3000C, have high thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion (thus having
high resistance to thermal shock) and retain their mechanical strength to the end. Also,
these composites maintain good frictional properties over the entire temperature range with
low wear. They have high fracture toughness and do not fracture in a brittle manner like
conventional ceramics.
1.4.2 CC composites, their nature and position within the family of carbon materials:
Carbon-carbon
reinforced

carbon

composites,
composites,

or

more

consist of

precisely carbon

synthetic

pure

fiber

elemental

carbon. Carbon, as a solid, is the unique solid substance that can be

made to exhibit the broadest variety of different, even controversial,
structures and properties. Some carbons can be extremely strong, hard
and stiff, while other forms can be soft and ductile. Many carbons are
highly porous, exhibit a large surface area, some others are impervious
to liquids and gasses. These variations are not caused by alloying
additions

as they

might

be

in

metals.
6

Instead,

they

result

from

structural effects, such as the number of defects, geometry and amount

of carbon phases with modified extent of crystalline order. Monolithic
carbons can be extremely brittle.

However,

carbon

fiber

rein-forced

carbons can exhibit a high fracture toughness and pseudo-plasticity. In

this sense, carbon-carbon composites can be compared to the fiber
reinforced plastics,

which

are

tailored

materials,

exhibiting properties

designed to fit the need of the user. Carbon-carbon composites can be

classified in the intermediate range of conventional synthetic graphite
materials, i.e., the polygranular electrode materials or pyrolytic graphic,
and carbon fiber reinforced polymers, the most likely candidates for
future

lightweight

composites

can

be

aerospace
described

materials.
as

Because

being intermediary

carbon-carbon
materials,

they

exhibit properties taken from each extreme materials grouping, with

fabrication technology being derived from each grouping as well.
1.4.3 The analogy of carbon-carbon composites with conventional graphite materials:
As conventional graphite materials, carbon-carbon composites, are high temperature
materials par excellence. The preconditions for a material to be
Called a high temperature material are the following.
i. Thermal stability as a solid
ii. High resistance against thermal shock due to high thermal conductivity and low
thermal expansion behavior
iii. High strength and stiffness in high temperature applications.
These demands are well met by conventional graphite materials.
Described as the best of the refractory materials, synthetic carbons
possess a thermo stability guaranteed up to 3000 K, exhibiting only
one major disadvantage;

that

is,

a sensitivity

oxidation.
1.4.4 Mechanical and Thermal properties of the CC composites:
7

to

high

temperature

Thermal expansion:
The carbon fiber itself has nearly zero thermal expansion in the fiber direction. and
approximately 10.10-6/k perpendicular to the fiber axis. This system works like a single
crystal, with partial compensation of the expansion perpendicular to the carbon layers.
Carbon fiber bundles with rod-like prepregs, can compensate for the thermal expansion of
the

single

fibers

by

pore structure

within

the

matrix

which

combines

these

monofilaments. Fig. 1.4.4.1 shows an experimental result with four-dimensional reinforced

carbon carbon composites. The thickness of the rod-like prepreg will also influence the
bulk behavior. If the fixed position of the reinforcing yarn bundles and the porous matrix
between them in multidirectional reinforcement is considered. one can imagine that it is
possible to arrange tailored thermal bulk expansion behavior through the selected position
of the fiber sticks. A similar technique is also applied to carbon fiber reinforced polymers
in advanced composites (CFRPs).

Fig. 1.4.4.1 Thermal expansion behavior of different rod-like prepregs.

Influence on fracture behavior:

Additional advantageous behavior of carbon-carbon composites, which is caused by

the pore structure, is found in their fracture behavior.Three-dimensional reinforcement
gives fractured surfaces pullout, and thus a pseudoplastic fracture behavior. The formation
of stepwise cracks is shown in a stress-strain diagram, presented in Fig. 1.4.4.2. A
surprisingly good fracture toughness can be achieved in 3-D reinforced composites as
shown in Fig. 1.4.4.3 Quantitative Information on fracture behavior by means of the stress
intensity factor is shown in Fig. It is essential to consider the fatigue behavior of carboncarbon composites in any discussion of their physical properties.

Fig. 1.4.4.2 Pseudoplastic fracture behavior of CFRC, especially if 3D reinforced.

Fig. 1.4.4.3 Fracture behavior by means of the stress intensity factor.

1.5 About Gas Turbine:

Of the various means of producing mechanical power the turbine is in many respects the
most satisfactory. The absence of reciprocating and rubbing members means that balancing
problems are few, that the lubricating oil consumption is exceptionally low, and that reliability
can be high. The inherent advantages of the turbine were first realized using water as the working
fluid, and hydro-electric power is still a significant contributor to the world's energy resources.
Around the turn of the twentieth century the steam turbine began its career and, quite apart from
its wide use as a marine power plant, it has become the most important prime mover for
electricity generation. Steam turbine plant producing well over 1000 MW of shaft power with an
efficiency of 40 per cent is now being used.
In spite of its successful development, the steam turbine does have an inherent
disadvantage. It is that the production of high-pressure high-temperature steam involves the
installation of bulky and expensive steam generating equipment, whether it be a conventional
boiler or nuclear reactor. The significant feature is that the hot gases produced in the boiler
furnace or reactor core never reach the turbine; they are merely used indirectly to produce an
intermediate fluid, namely steam. A much more compact power plant results when the water to
10

steam step is eliminated and the hot gases themselves are used to drive the turbine. Serious
development of the gas turbine began not long before the Second World War with shaft power in
mind, but attention was soon transferred to the turbojet engine for aircraft propulsion. The gas
turbine began to compete successfully in other fields only in the mid nineteen fifties, but since
then it has made a progressively greater impact in an increasing variety of applications.
In order to produce an expansion through a turbine a pressure ratio must be provided and
the first necessary step in the cycle of a gas turbine plant must therefore be compression of the
working fluid. If after compression the working fluids were to be expanded directly in the
turbine, and there were no losses in either component, the power developed by the turbine would
just equal that absorbed by the compressor. Thus if the two were coupled together the
combination would do no more than turn itself round. But the power developed by the turbine
can be increased by the addition of energy to raise the temperature of the working fluid prior to
expansion. When the working fluid is air a very suitable means of doing this is by combustion of
fuel in the air which has been compressed. Expansion of the hot working fluid then produces a
greater power output from the turbine, so that it is able to provide a useful output in addition to
driving the compressor. This represents the gas turbine or internal-combustion turbine in its
simplest form. The three main components are a compressor, combustion chamber and turbine,
connected together as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.5.1. In practice, losses occur in both the
compressor and turbine which increase the power absorbed by the compressor and decrease the
power output of the turbine.
A certain addition to the energy of the working fluid, and hence a certain fuel supply, will
therefore be required before the one component can drive the other. This fuel produces no useful
power, so that the component losses contribute to a lowering of the efficiency of the machine.
Further addition of fuel will result in a useful power output, although for a given flow of air there
is a limit to the rate at which fuel can be supplied and therefore to the net power output. The
maximum fuel/air ratio that may be used is governed by the working temperature of the highly
stressed turbine blades, which temperature must not be allowed to exceed a certain critical value.
This value depends upon the creep strength of the materials used in the construction of the
turbine and the working life required. These then are the two main factors affecting the
11

performance of gas turbines: component efficiencies and turbine working temperature. The
higher they can be made, the better the all-round performance of the plant. It was, in fact, low
efficiencies and poor turbine materials which brought about the failure of a number of early
attempts to construct a gas turbine engine. For example, in 1904 two French engineers,
Armengaud and Lemale, built a unit which did little more than turn itself over: the compressor
efficiency was probably no more than 60 per cent and the maximum gas temperature that could
be used was about 740 K.The overall efficiency of the gas turbine cycle depends also upon the
pressure ratio of the compressor. The difficulty of obtaining a sufficiently high pressure ratio with
adequate compressor efficiency was not resolved until the science of aerodynamics could be
applied to the problem. The development of the gas turbine has gone hand in hand with the
development of this science, and that of metallurgy, with the result that it is now possible to find
advanced engines using pressure ratios of up to 35:1, component efficiencies of 85-90 per cent,
and turbine inlet temperatures exceeding 1650 K.

Fig.1.5.1 Simple gas turbine system

In the earliest days of the gas turbine, two possible systems of combustion were proposed:
one at constant pressure, the other at constant volume. Theoretically, the thermal efficiency of the
constant volume cycle is higher than that of the constant pressure cycle, but the mechanical
difficulties are very much greater. With heat addition at constant volume, valves are necessary to
isolate the combustion chamber from the compressor and turbine. Combustion is therefore
intermittent, which impairs the smooth running of the machine. It is difficult to design a turbine
to operate efficiently under such conditions and, although several fairly successful attempts were
made in Germany during the period 1908-1930 to construct gas turbines operating on this system,
12

the development of the constant volume type has been discontinued. In the constant pressure gas
turbine, combustion is a continuous process in which valves are unnecessary and it was soon
accepted that the constant pressure cycle had the greater possibilities for future development. It is
important to realize that in the gas turbine the process of compression, combustion and expansion
do not occur in a single component as they do in a reciprocating engine.
They occur in components which are separate in the sense that they can be designed,
tested and developed individually, and these components can be linked together to form a gas
turbine unit in a variety of ways. The possible number of components is not limited to the three
already mentioned. Other compressors and turbines can be added, with intercoolers between the
compressors, and reheat combustion chambers between the turbines. A heat exchanger which
uses some of the energy in the turbine exhaust gas to preheat the air entering the combustion
chamber may also be introduced. These refinements may be used to increase the power output
and efficiency of the plant at the expense of added complexity, weight and cost. The way in
which these components are linked together not only affects the maximum overall thermal
efficiency, but also the variation of efficiency with power output and of output torque with
rotational speed. One arrangement may be suitable for driving an alternator under varying load at
constant speed, while another may be more suitable for driving a ship's propeller where the power
varies as the cube of the speed. Apart from variations of the simple cycle obtained by the addition
of these other components, consideration must be given to two systems distinguished by the use
of open and closed cycles. In the much more common open cycle gas turbine which we have
been considering up to this point, fresh atmospheric air is drawn into the circuit continuously and
energy is added by the combustion of fuel in the working fluid itself. In this case the products of
combustion are expanded through the turbine and exhausted to atmosphere. In the alternative
closed cycle shown in Fig.1.5.2 the same working fluid, be it air or some other gas, is repeatedly
circulated through the machine. Clearly in this type of plant the fuel cannot be burnt in the
working fluid and the necessary energy must be added in a heater or 'gas-boiler' wherein the fuel
is burnt in a separate air stream supplied by an auxiliary fan. The closed cycle is more akin to that
of steam turbine plant in that the combustion gases do not themselves pass through the turbine. In
the gas turbine the 'condenser' takes the form of a precooler for cooling of the gas before it reenters the compressor.

13

Fig.1.5.2 Simple Closed Cycle

14

1.6. Failure Modes in Gas Turbine Blading:

Blade failures have plagued designers and operators since the inception of turbomachinery.
Turbine Blades are subjected to significant rotational and gas bending stresses at extremely high
temperature, as well as severe thermo mechanical loading cycles as a consequence of normal startup and shutdown operation and unexpected trips. The most difficult and challenging point is the
one located at the turbine inlet because there are several difficulties associated to it like extreme
temperature, high pressure, high rotational speed,vibration,small circulation area and so on. These
effects produced in the blades are shown on the Table .
Table 1.6.1 Severity of the different surface related problems for gas turbine applications.
(Effects)

Oxidation

(Applications)
Aircraft

Hot

Interdiffusion

corrosion

Thermal
Fatigue

Severe

Moderate

Severe

Severe

Moderate

Severe

Moderate

Light

Moderate

Severe

Light

Moderate

Land-based Power
Generator
Marine Engines

In order to overcome those barriers, gas turbine blades are made using advanced materials
and modern alloys (super alloys) that contains up to ten significant alloying elements, but its
microstructure is very simple; consisted of rectangular blocks of stone stacked in a regular array
with narrow bands of cement to hold them together. This material (cement) has been changed
because in the past,intermetallic form of titanium was used in it, but now a days, it has been
15

replaced by titanium.The change gave improved high temperature strength and also improved
oxidation resistance.
In the past, the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) test and the MansonCoffin equation were widely
used to evaluate the reliability of the substrates of gas turbine blades. However, the LCF test,
which only can simulate fatigue conditions under high isothermal temperatures, cannot model
actual operating conditions. For that reason, thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) tests, which can
simulate both mechanical fatigue and thermal fatigue simultaneously, are preferred. TMF tests are
the most appropriate for simulating actual combined loading conditions during service. In
particular, the leading edge (LE) of the airfoil in a blade is under out-of-phase (OP) thermomechanical fatigue. Therefore, it is very important to evaluate the TMF characteristics [16]. In this
study, LCF and TMF tests for the life prediction of Ni-base superalloy were carried out using the
furnace. In particular, in the thermo-mechanical fatigue tests, both IP (in-phase) and OP (out ofphase) TMF tests were conducted.
Predominant failure mechanisms and commonly affected components are:
Low cycle fatigue-compressor and turbine blades and disks.
High cycle fatigue-compressor and turbine blades, disks, compressor stator vanes.
Thermal fatigue-nozzles, combustor components.
Environmental attack (oxidation, sulphidation, hot corrosion, standby corrosion)-hot section
blades and stators, transition pieces, and combustors.
Creep damage-hot section nozzles and blades.
Erosion and wear.
Impact overload damage (due to foreign object damage (FOD), domestic object damage
(DOD) or clash/clang of compressor blades due to surge).
Thermal aging.

16

Fig1.6.1.Pictorial overview of turbine blades section.

Table 1.6.2
FAILURE MODES AND CAUSES OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF A TURBINE SECTION.
Component

Failure Mode

Cause

Turbine Rotor

Low cycle and High

Centrifugal and temperature stress,

A.

Blades

cyclefatigue,creep,corrosion,sulp

vibratory stress, environmental, fuel

hidation, erosion

problems, excessive temperature spreads,

cooling problems

Turbine Stator

Creep rupture

Cooling problems, Improper temperature

Blades

corrosion,sulphidation,

profile

bowing,fatigue,thermal fatigue
Turbine Rotor

Creep-rupture, low cycle fatigue

Disc

Improper wheel space cooling, Thermal

stresses

atigue
Fatigue accounts for a significant number of turbine and compressor blade failures and is
promoted by repeated application of fluctuating stresses. Stress levels are typically much lower
than the tensile stress of the material. Common causes of vibration in compressor blades
include stator passing frequency wakes, rotating stall, surge, choke, inlet distortion, and blade
flutter. In the turbine section, airfoils have to function not only in a severe vibratory
environment, but also under hostile conditions of high temperature, corrosion, creep, and
thermomechanical fatigue.Ewins (1976) provides a detailed treatment of blade vibration.
B.

Low Cycle Fatigue

Low cycle fatigue (LCF) occurs

as a result of turbine start/stop cycles

17

and

is

predominant in the bores and bolt hole areas of compressor and turbine disks that operate
under centrifugal stresses. It is typically a problem associated with machines that have been
in operation for several years. In this situation, minute flaws grow into cracks that, upon
attaining critical size, rupture. Cracks also develop in the nozzle sections. To some extent, this is
to be expected under normal operation and cycling service.
C.Thermomechanical Fatigue
Thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) is associated with thermal stresses, e.g., differential
expansion of hot section components during startup and shutdown, and is particularly
severe during rapid starts and full load emergency trips. The stress levels induced may initiate
cracks, if they exceed the material yield stress. Temperature variations as high as 360F
(200C) per minute are often experienced in hot section blading. This is the reason why
full load trips are so detrimental in terms of life reduction, consuming as much as 200
equivalent hours per trip.

18

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Dian-sen Li, et.Al.- High temperature compression properties and failure mechanism of
3D needle-punched carbon/carbon composites-Elsevier, 31 October 2014.
This paper reports the high temperature compression properties and failure mechanism of
3D needle punched C/C composites. The results show that the stressstrain curves show non-linear
and plasticity failure feature after 600 0C. The compression properties decrease significantly with
increasing the temperature due to material oxidation. The composite exhibits shear fracture at the
angle of 450 the major damage patterns are the tearing of 90 0 oriented fibers and shear failure of 0 0
oriented fibers on the shear surface. After 6000C, the local and plastic failure feature becomes more
obvious.
2.2 Ruiying Luo, et. Al.- Thermo physical properties of carbon/carbon composites and
physical mechanism of thermal expansion and thermal conductivity-Elsevier, 14 August
2004.
Five different carbon/carbon composites (C/C) have been prepared and their thermo
physical properties studied. These were three needled carbon felts impregnated with pyrocarbons
(PyC) of different microstructures, chopped fibers/resin carbon +PyC, and carbon cloth/PyC. The
results show that the XY direction thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) is negative in the range
0100 0C with values ranging from -0.29 to -0.8510 6 /K. In the range 0900 0C, their CTE is also
very low, and the CTE vs. T curves have almost the same slope. In the same temperature range
composites prepared using chopped fibers show the smallest CTE values and those using the felts
show the highest. The microstructure of the PyC has no obvious effect on the CTE for composites
with the same preform architecture. Their expansion is mainly caused by atomic vibration, pore
shrinkage and volatilization of water. However, the PyC structure has a large effect on thermal
conductivity (TC) with rough laminar PyC giving the highest value and isotropic PyC giving the
lowest. All five composites have a high TC, and values in the XY direction (25.6174 W/mK) are
much larger than in the Z direction (3.550 W/mK). Heat transmission in these composites is by
phonon interaction and is related to the perform and PyC structures.
19

2.3 Wenfei Luo, et.al.- Effects of different loading methods on thermal

expansion behaviors of 2D cross-ply
carbon/carboncompositesfrom850 1C to2300 1C-Elsevier, 27 March 2014.
2D cross-ply cc composites were prepared by isothermal chemical vapor infiltration process.
Thermal expansion behavior of 2D cc composites and effects of static loading and fatigue loading
conditions on coefficient of thermal of the composites from 850 0C to 2300 0C. In static test cases,
different damage levels were produced inside samples by displacement controlled three-point
bending moment. Afterwards, the thermal expansion behaviors were investigated.
It showed that CTE of the C/C composites after static loading and fatigue
loading had a decrease compared with CTE of the as-prepared C/C composites.
After static loading, there was a larger decrease in CTE for the C/C composites
with more severe damage levels. Moreover, the infuence of damage on CTE
reached to the greatest at around 15500 C.
2.4 Xiaoling Liao, et.al.- Effects of tensile fatigue loads on flexural
behavior of 3D braided C/C composites- Elsevier, 06 November 2007.
3D braided C/C composites have been prepared by an isothermal
chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) process, and the evolution of fexural behavior
perpendicular to the fiber direction after tensile fatigue loads was examined.
The results show that the fexural property of C/C composites was enhanced
with the increase in fatigue cycles, and the fracture mode also evolved from
brittle of original samples to pseudo-plastic of fatigued samples. It is
suggested that the weakened interface and reduced residual thermal stresses
by fatigue loads play important roles in enhancing the property of C/C
composites.
2.5 Yanhui Chu,et.al.- Thermal fatigue behavior of C/C composites
modified by SiCMoSi2CrSi2 coating- Elsevier,26 May 2011.
Carbon/carbon (C/C) composites were modified by SiCMoSi2CrSi2
multiphase coating by pack cementation, and their thermal fatigue behavior
under thermal cycling in Ar and air environments was investigated. The
20

modified C/C composites were characterized by scanning electron microscopy

and X-ray diffraction. Results of tests show that, after 20-time thermal cycles
between 1773 K and room temperature in Ar environment, the fexural
strength of modified C/C samples decreased lightly and the percentage of
remaining strength was 94.92%.
2.6 Jing Cheng, et.al.- Internal friction behavior of unidirectional
carbon/carbon composites after different fatigue cycles- Elsevier,15
February 2014.
Internal friction behavior was utilized as an indirect metric to study
structural change in carbon/carbon composites after fatigue tests. In this work,
two kinds of unidirectional carbon/carbon composites with different densities
were prepared by isothermal chemical vapor infiltration. The internal friction
behavior of the composites after different fatigue cycles was studied. After the
initial 104 fatigue cycles, since the matrix began to break and shed, frictional
damping that happened between the fiber and matrix interfaces increased and
the bulk internal friction increased rapidly. Between 10 4 and 5105 fatigue
cycles.
2.7 A. Ozturk- The influence of cyclic fatigue damage on the fracture toughness of
carbon-carbon composites- Elsevier,21 February 1996.
The influence of cyclic loads on the fracture toughness of a tightly woven carbon-carbon
composite was investigated as a function of stress levels. Results of fracture toughness tests were
correlated with microstructural examination using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Values for
the stress intensity factor, Krc, were determined using the ASTM single-edge notched bend test.
Results were discussed in terms of the effects of applied cyclic stress levels and the relationship of
the load-displacement curves. The fracture toughness of the composite remained unaffected when
the maximum tensile load in the fatigue cycle was up to 80% of the static tensile strength.
2.8 Torsten Windhorst, et.al,- Carbon-carbon composites: a summary of recent
developments and applications- Elsevier, 21 April 1997.
21

Carbon Fibre Reinforced Carbon (CFRC), or Carbon-carbon, is a unique composite

material consisting of carbon fibres embedded in a carbonaceous matrix. Originally
developed for aerospace applications, its low density, high thermal conductivity and
excellent mechanical properties at elevated temperatures make it an ideal material for
aircraft brakes, rocket nozzles and re-entry nose tips. It withstands temperatures in
excess of 2000C without major deformation. The properties are very much dependent on
the manufacturing methods used for production. Although the general production
technology is known, the combination of processes to achieve specially tailored
properties remains the expertise of particular manufacturers.
2.9 G. Rohini Devi, et.al.- Carbon-Carbon Composites -An Overview- Defence
Science Journal, Vol 43, No 4, October 1993.
Carbon-carbon composites are a new class of engineering materials that are
ceramic in nature but exhibit brittle to pseudo plastic behaviotir. Carbon-carbon is a
unique all-carbon composite with carbon fiber embeded in carbon matrix and is known as
an inverse composite. Due to their excellent thermo-structural properties, carbon-carbon
composites are used in specialized application like re-entry nose-tips, leading edges,
rocket nozzles, and aircraft brake discs apart from.several industrial and biomedical
applications. The multidirectional carbon-carbon product technology is versatile and offers
design flexibility. This paper describes the multidirectional preform and carbon-carbon
process technology and research and development activities within the country .Carboncarbon product experience at DRDL has also been discussed. Development of carboncarbon brake discs process technology using the liquid impregnation process is
described- Further the test results on material characterization, thermal, mechanical and
tribological properties are presented.
2.10 Ying-bo Fei,et.al.- Influence of heat treatment temperature on
microstructure and thermal expansion properties of 2D
carbon/carbon composites- Elsevier ,21 October 2013.
The infuence of heat treatment from 1900 to 2650 0C on microstructure
and thermal expansion properties of thermal gradient chemical vapor
infiltration (TCVI)-infiltrated 2D carbon/carbon composites was investigated.
22

The structure evolution was characterized by polarized light microscopy, X-ray

diffractometer, Raman spectroscopy and thermal expansion behavior was
studied by thermal dilatometer. The results revealed that with the increasing
heat treatment temperature, successive micro structural changes in carbon
matrix and fibers occurred, and cracks and pores in the composites increased.
These resulted in a 35.6% decrease of CTE in Z direction and a 13.9%
decrease in XY direction in the composites heat-treated at 2650 0C compared
with as-deposited composites. The CTE mainly depended on the thermal
expansion of matrix in Z direction while it relied on that of the fibers in XY
direction.

23

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

3.1. The High-temperature Materials Problem

The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature. Since the mobility of atoms
increases rapidly with temperature, it can be appreciated that diffusion-controlled processes can
have a very significant effect on high temperature mechanical properties. High temperature will
also result in greater mobility of dislocations by the mechanism of climb. The equilibrium
concentration of vacancies likewise increases with temperature. New deformation mechanisms
may come into play at elevated temperatures. In some metals the slip system changes, or additional
slip systems are introduced with increasing temperature. Deformation at grain boundaries becomes
an added possibility in the high-temperature deformation of metals. Another important factor to
consider is the effect of prolonged exposure at elevated temperature on the metallurgical stability
of metals and alloys. For example, cold-worked metals will recrystallize and undergo grain
coarsening, while age-hardening alloys may overage and lose strength as the second-phase
particles coarsen. Another important consideration is the interaction of the metal with its
environment at high temperature. Catastrophic oxidation and intergranular penetration of oxide
must be avoided.
Thus, it should be apparent that the successful use of metals at high temperatures involves a
number of problems. Greatly accelerated alloy-development programs have produced a number of
materials with improved high-temperature properties, but the ever-increasing demands of modern
technology require materials with even better high-temperature strength and oxidation resistance.
For a long time the principal high-temperature applications were associated with steam power
24

plants, oil refineries, and chemical plants. The operating temperature in equipment such as boilers,
steam turbines, and cracking units seldom exceeded 1000F. With the introduction of the gasturbine engine, requirements developed for materials to operate in critically stressed parts, like
turbine Applications to Materials Testing buckets, at temperatures around 1500F. The design of
more powerful engines has pushed this limit to around 1800F. Rocket engines and ballisticmissile nose cones present much greater problems, which can be met only by the most ingenious
use of the available high-temperature materials and the development of still better ones. There is
no question that the available materials of construction limit rapid advancement in hightemperature technology.
An important characteristic of high-temperature strength is that it must always be
considered with respect to some time scale. The tensile properties of most engineering metals at
room temperature are independent of time, for practical purposes. It makes little difference in the
results if the loading rate of a tension test is such that it requires 2 hr or 2 min to complete the test.
Further, in room-temperature tests the elastic behavior of the material is of little practical
consequence. However, at elevated temperature the strength becomes very dependent on both
strain rate and time of exposure. A number of metals under these conditions behave in many
respects like viscoelastic materials. A metal subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated
temperature will creep and undergo a time-dependent increase in length.
The tests which are used to measure elevated-temperature strength must be selected on the
basis of the time scale of the service which the material must withstand. Thus, an elevatedtemperature tension test can provide useful information about the high-temperature performance of
a short-lived item, such as a rocket engine or missile nose cone, but it will give only the most
meagre information about the high-temperature performance of a steam pipeline which is required
to withstand 100,000 hr of elevated-temperature service. Therefore, special tests are required to
evaluate the performance of materials in different kinds of high-temperature service.

Test

measures the dimensional changes which occur from elevated-temperature exposure, it also
measures the effect of temperature on the long-time load-bearing characteristics.

25

METHODOLOGY

26

`
COMPRESSOR/PUMP

Prelimina
ry
Analysis
TURBINE

CASING

STEAM

HYDRAULIC
BEARING

SHAFT

GAS

DISC

BLADE

STRENGTH

EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION

WEIGHT

HIGH TEMP.
PROPERTY MATERIAL
SUPERALLOYS

INCLUSIVE PROPERTY
MATERIAL
COMPOSITE
MATERIALS

CARBONCARBON
COMPOSITE

CAUSES OF
FAILURE

LCF
HCF

ANALYSIS

TEST

THERMAL
FATIGUE
CREEP

EROSION

27