Journal of Wind Engineering

and Industrial Aerodynamics 85 (2000) 1}30

Using singular systems analysis to characterise the

#ow in the wake of a model passenger vehicle
C.T. Shaw!,*, K.P. Garry", T. Gress"
!School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
"College of Aeronautics, Cranxeld University, Cranxeld, Bedford, MK43 0AL, UK
Received 23 June 1998; received in revised form 4 August 1999

Abstract
As the time-dependent #uid dynamics of wakes becomes important in industrial applications
such as vehicle design, so techniques need to be found that enable these dynamics to be
characterised. Whilst laser Doppler anemometry and particle image velocimetry are becoming
widespread in their application, they are not necessarily suitable for this application due to their
low rate of data capture when air is the working #uid. In this paper, a methodology that has
already been applied successfully to low Reynolds number #ows is applied to a turbulent wake.
This involves the use of hot-wire anemometry to capture a large number of time series of velocity
throughout the wake of a model road passenger vehicle. These time series are then analysed by
a mathematical analysis tool known as singular systems analysis, which enables the lowfrequency components of a noisy signal to be determined. This is done in the framework of nonlinear dynamical systems theory so that the underlying dynamics of the wake can be determined.
From this it is possible to characterise those areas of the wake where coherent dynamical
structures are present and to explore the mechanism responsible for the oscillation of the wake.
The paper reviews the background to singular systems analysis systems analysis and describes
the application of the technique to the characterisation of the dynamics of the wake of a model
vehicle placed in an open jet wind tunnel. Results are presented for three cross-#ow planes in
the wake where the structure of the wake is revealed in a new light. In particular, it is clear that the
traditional picture of the vortex core appear to be present around the periphery of the vortex and
in other areas where shear is apparent in the mean #ow. The analysis technique allows the motion
of these to be tracked downstream through the wake, whereas simpler analysis techniques do not
allow such tracking to be carried out. ( 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wakes; Hot-wire anemometry; Vehicle aerodynamics; Unsteady #ow; Non-linear dynamics

* Corresponding author. Tel.: #44-1203-523-141; fax: #44-1203-418-922.

E-mail address: cts@eng.warwick.ac.uk (C.T. Shaw)
0167-6105/00/$ - see front matter ( 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 6 1 0 5 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 1 0 4 - X

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

1. Introduction
1.1. Background
At present there is a trend for road passenger vehicles to become lighter and
more streamlined in an attempt to reduce fuel consumption and so increase the
e$ciency of such vehicles, as well as to assist in materials recycling [1}3]. These
changes in vehicle design have a negative consequence in that future vehicles might
well be more susceptible to any aerodynamic forcing of the vehicle body due to
oscillations of the vehicle wake. Because of this, there is now an increased interest in
the prediction of the dynamic stability of a vehicle at an early stage in the design
process.
As the low-frequency oscillation of the vehicle wake can a!ect the stability of the
driver}vehicle combination, a more detailed understanding of the oscillatory nature of
a wake is necessary, if appropriate design decisions are to be made. Traditionally,
information on the #ow behaviour in the wake has been gathered using some form of
anemometry, usually using either laser Doppler anemometry (LDA) [4] or hot-wire
anemometry (HWA) [5], to obtain time series of the #ow velocity in the wake.
Recently, particle image velocimetry (PIV) [6] has also become available and has been
used to look at vehicle wakes [7].
Unfortunately, previous work has often assumed that the #ow in the wake behind
a vehicle is steady or quasi-steady. It is from this assumption that the traditional
picture of a vehicle wake with two contra-rotating vortices emerges [8]. Following
close behind a road vehicle in the rain enables the wake motion to be made visible, as
spray coming o! the vehicle moves through the wake. In these circumstances the wake
is seen to have a large time-dependent component demonstrating that the idealised model of two vortices which are steady in time is not true. Recent PIV studies [7]
have con"rmed this by showing large-scale vortical structures distributed throughout
the wake that not only move with time but are also created and destroyed as time
evolves.
Determining the dynamics of the wake using either LDA or PIV methods is di$cult
at present, however. For example, LDA methods measure the velocity of particles in
the #ow as they pass in a random way through the measurement volume. This
means that the time series generated is not evenly spaced in time and can also have
a poor frequency resolution due to the low sampling rate, typically around 200 Hz for
#ows involving air. Equally the time resolution of PIV is normally very poor, around
15 Hz. Hence, there is still a place for HWA techniques, which have frequency
resolution in the kilohertz range, to provide a means of determining the dynamics of
the wake.
Work has been going on for some time using singular systems analysis (SSA) to
analyse the wake of the #ow behind a cylinder at low Reynolds numbers, both before
and after transition of the wake from laminar to turbulent #ow. This work [9}11] has
shown that the #ow structure of the wake is quite clearly made visible from the data
obtained with SSA, and also that the dynamics of the #ow can be determined by
careful analysis of the time-series data.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

1.2. Objectives
Given that the application of SSA and associated techniques in determining the
dynamics of a wake has been successful at low Reynolds numbers, this work attempts
to extend the use of these techniques to higher Reynolds numbers where a fully
turbulent wake is present. The rationale for making this extension of the procedure
is two-fold. First, in the high Reynolds number limit vortices are known to interact in
a quasi-inviscid way [12], and so variation of the #ow dynamics with Reynolds
number should be small. Second, SSA acts like a low-pass "lter and so it should be
possible to remove the turbulence noise of the system from the signals, leaving behind
the dynamical signature of the #ow. In this work, the aim is to demonstrate that these
techniques can be used: (1) to determine the dynamical structure of the #ow in
a turbulent vehicle wake and (2) to enable some aspects of the dynamics of a wake to
be determined.
1.3. Structure of the paper
In the next section, the mathematics behind SSA will be explained. The authors
acknowledge that many will be unfamiliar with this mathematical techniques and the
philosophy that lies behind it. As a consequence of this, Section 2 will focus on the
practical implementation of the method as applied to the analysis of signals taken
from a HWA in a wind tunnel. Section 3 will then describe the model set-up in the
wind tunnel and the data capture procedure. Analysis of the captured data by
conventional techniques and SSA follows in Section 4. The results are then discussed
in Section 5 with the conclusions of the study being given in Section 6.

2. Singular systems analysis

2.1. Some concepts of dynamical systems theory
As is well known, if a #uid is assumed to be a continuum and not a discrete set of
particles, then #ow problems are governed by a set of partial di!erential equations, the
Navier}Strokes equations. These relate the conservation of momentum and mass to
velocity components and pressure of a #uid at every position in the #ow. Hence, if
a solution is to be found to a #ow problem, i.e., the #ow is to be known everywhere,
then the velocity components and pressure need to be found at all points in the #ow
for all time. E!ectively this means "nding velocity and pressure at an in"nite set of
points in space and in time. Clearly, this is an impossible task for most #ows, and
because an in"nite amount of information is needed to de"ne the #ow the problem is
said, in the mathematical sense, to be of in"nite dimension.
For most situations, some discretisation process restricts the number of points in
time and space, and the dimensions of the problem are reduced to some "nite number.
For example, in a computational procedure, the mesh of points analysed will be "nite,
if large. The mathematical dimension of a #ow can be seen to be restricted by other

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

means too. In certain #ows, such as the periodic vortex shedding in the wake of
a circular cylinder of in"nite length, the mathematical dimension is very low. Looking
at the wake of a cylinder, vortices are shed from each side of the cylinder at regular
intervals. Measurement of the #ow velocity at a point in the wake would reveal
a simple repetitive pattern as the velocity changes with time. This variation with time
will be similar to that described by simple harmonic motion, and could well be
predicted by a small number of ordinary di!erential equations. In the jargon of
dynamical systems, the number of equations used in the prediction is said to be the
dimension of the dynamical problem. By attempting to "nd the underlying mathematical dimensions of a #ow situation, it might be possible to produce simple models that
describe quite complex phenomena. SSA is a technique that provides a means of
estimating the dimensionality of the dynamics of a #ow. It has been successfully
applied to both the laminar and transitional wake of a "nite length cylinder [10,11],
with the structure of these laminar and transitional #ows being exposed in considerable detail. In this work the intension is to see if SSA can illuminate the #ow structure
in a turbulent wake, that behind a model road vehicle.
2.2. Investigating a time series of velocity components
Using a single hot-wire probe, the variation of the #ow in the wake with respect to
time can be found at a given point. Samples of the combination of velocity components perpendicular to the wire are captured for a number of discrete points in time.
To capture the #ow variation in full at a point a three-wire system would be required
such that the individual Cartesian components can be extracted from the captured
data and then plotted against time. With the single wire system all of the information
is not captured. However, the missing information can be constructed in a pseudoform by using the method of delays, as developed by Takens [13]. For time series
such as those captured by a single-wire system, the method was "rst explained by
Broomhead and King [14]. They show examples where time series are generated
for a dynamical system determined by several ordinary di!erential equations. Taking
only one time series, they recreate the dynamics of the problem by creating pseudovectors of data. These are then analysed to see if the underlying dimensions of
the problem can be found. Once this is done the dynamics of the full system can
be recreated. Essentially, the method involves reconstructing the phase space of
the dynamics of the #ow as the physical point.
2.3. Using the method of delays
Imagine that a HWA system with a single wire captures a signal from the wire
against time. The time series can be said to be a collection of real numbers l(t). If
say 1000 values are captured then l(t) will be a single vector of 1000 values:
l , l l *l
. The method of delays is then used to convert this single vector into
1 2 3
1000
a multi-dimensional set of values at a number of discrete points in time. The number
of values created at each time is called the embedding dimension. For example, if the
embedding dimension is three then the set of values used at the "rst time point will be

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Ml , l , l N, at the second time point it will be Ml , l , l N and the nth time step it will
1 2 3
2 3 4
be Ml , l
,l
N.
n n`1 n`2
In the language of dynamical systems the time series l(t) is transformed into an
m-dimensional phase space position Y(t) using the transformation:
Y(t)"[l(t), l(t#q),2,l(t#(m!1)q)],

(1)

where q is the time interval between samples and m is the embedding dimension. If the
embedding dimension m is su$ciently large, then Takens' embedding theorem ensures
that the reconstructed phase space is simply a smooth non-linear transform of the true
phase space. This means that if su$cient values are used at each time point, the
recreated dynamics will re#ect the underlying dynamics of the real system that is being
reconstructed. Once the values of Y(t) are known, they can be combined for all times as
a matrix X which has as many rows as time points and has a number of columns equal
to the embedding dimension. For the example used here, with an embedding dimension of three, the matrix X is

C D

l
l
l
1
2
3
l
l
l
2
3
4
X" l
.
l
l
3
4
5
2
l
l
l
998
999
1000
Note that the number of rows shown, 998, is the maximum possible for the method
of creation described here. Also the columns of the matrix are simply the original time
series shifted up by one row each time.
2.4. Using SSA to xnd the embedding dimension and other parameters
To determine the embedding dimension, the ideas of Broomhead and King [14] are
used. Here the matrix X, the so-called trajectory matrix, formed from data at the set of
points Y(t) is used. Singular value decomposition of X is performed to produce a set of
singular values, the eigenvalues of the problem, and singular vectors, the associated
eigenvectors. To do this, the covariance matrix X TX is formed, which is a square
matrix of dimension m]m. Then the eigenvalues and eigenvectors associated with the
covariance matrix are found. The eigenvectors are the signi"cant directions through
the data and the eigenvalues are the variance of the data described by each eigenvector. If two dimensions are used, i.e., m"2, then the process is directly equivalent to
least-squares "tting of a line to the data. The eigenvector associated with the largest
eigenvalue would be the equation of the line of best "t to the data and the other
eigenvector would be a line orthogonal to it.
In the jargon of dynamical systems analysis, the singular vectors are an optimal
basis set for the reconstructed phase space, being in e!ect the dominant directions of
the m-dimensional phase space, and the singular values are a measure of the variance
accounted for by the corresponding singular vectors. Hence, not only does the method

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

yield the dominant directions, but it also gives a measure of the relative importance of
each of these directions. Note that in many cases the singular values do not reduce to
zero as might be expected, but that rather an ordered set of the singular values shows
that a &noise #oor' exists where "nite but small values are recorded for the singular
values.
Once the data has been reduced in this way for a number of embedding dimensions,
an estimate of the actual dimensionality of the dynamics can be determined. This is
done by looking at the relationship between the eigenvalues. As the embedding
dimension is increased so the relative size of the "rst few eigenvalues changes until an
embedding dimension is reached where the relationship stays relatively constant.
Increasing the embedding dimension beyond this has little e!ect. Once some convergence in the eigenvalue relationship is found, the sum of the "rst few eigenvalues
divided by the sum of all the eigenvalues gives the variance of the data for those
eigenvalues. This means that if the eigenvalue sum of say "ve eigenvalues is 70% then
we can say that 70% of the variance of the data is described by the "rst "ve
eigenvectors, and the dimensionality of the problems is 5 for 70% of the data.
In the analysis of the wake #ow presented later, contours of the sum of the "rst few
eigenvalues are presented as a way of showing the structure of the wake. If, say with
9 eigenvalues, the variance is high then the #ow is relatively simple and of low
dimension around 9. If, on the other hand, the variance is low then the #ow is
relatively complex and has a dimension much greater than 9.
Finally, by projecting the trajectory matrix X onto one of the singular vectors
a reconstructed time series is produced. These can then be analysed alone or in
combination with projections onto other singular vectors to determine the dynamics
of the #ow.

3. Use of hot-wire anemometry

In this example the #ow in the wake of a model vehicle is to be analysed. A suitable
model for this is shown in Fig. 1 where three views of the model are shown. The front
of the model has rounded edges with a radius large enough to ensure that the #ow
does not separate. At the rear the slant base is at an angle of 263 to the horizontal. This
ensures that a vortical #ow is produced in the wake, without separation at the start of
the slanting plane.
The model has been placed is an open return blower tunnel that has a closed
working section of dimensions 460 mm wide by 456 mm high and is powered by
a 15 kW motor. For the tests carried out here the #ow speed was set to 17 m/s giving
a Reynolds number of 2.2]105. Behind the model, at the exit of the tunnel a traverse
is placed and the wake has been surveyed using HWA for three cross-#ow (x}y)
planes, 50, 100 and 200 mm behind the rear of the model. A 20]20 grid with a spacing
of 5 mm has been used when capturing the data. The extent of the measurement area
in x is from 20 to 115 mm and in y from 43 to 138 mm. As Takens theorem is to be
used to recreate the dynamics at each sample point as described in Section 2, only
a single-wire system need be used as has been done here.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 1. The wind tunnel model and co-ordinate systems.

A TSI constant temperature anemometry system has been used which gives a
linearised output. This output has been digitised with 12-bit precision at a sampling rate of 2 kHz. This rate was chosen as dominant frequencies for this model
at this Reynolds number are known to be of the order of 200 Hz or less. Each
time series was recorded for a time of 6 s and so at each point the time series
contains 12 000 values. Full details of the experimental set-up are given by Gress
[15].

4. Analysis of the time series

4.1. Mean yow structure
By taking the mean value of the velocity recorded by the single hot-wire and
producing a contour plot of the results, some idea as to the structure of the mean #ow
can be obtained. Gress [15] con"rmed that this was the case as he compared the mean
values to contours of total pressure taken at the same locations. Fig. 2 shows the
contours of the mean velocity recorded for the three measurement planes, with the
mean taken over 4096 points of a time series in each case. Note that the vortex core is
displaced down and to the left as it moves downstream, and that it di!uses downstream too.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 2. Contours of mean velocity (m/s) in the wake (a) 50 mm downstream (b) 100 mm downstream
(c) 200 mm downstream.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 2. Continued.

Looking at Fig. 2(a), taken at 50 mm downstream, the vortex is seen to coexist with
a shear layer which is horizontal from the vehicle centreline and runs below the vortex
before turning vertically down outboard of the vortex centre. Also there is an
island-like structure to the right of the vortex. Moving to Fig. 2(b), taken at 100 mm
downstream, the shear layer has disappeared from view but the island-like structure
now appears to the left of the vortex as if it has been convected around the vortex from
the position it held at 50 mm downstream. Similarly, in Fig. 2(c) at 200 mm downstream, the shear layer has also disappeared but the island-like structure is now above
the vortex. Measuring the angular position of the centre of the island structure at each
plane shows that from 50 to 100 mm it has moved by approximately 1353 and that
from 100 to 200 mm it has moved approximately 2603. This is consistent with
a constant angular rotation with distance downstream.
To provide some physical understanding of the dynamical structure obtained,
a detailed #ow visualisation experiment has also been carried out. This has been
achieved using a laser light sheet placed at the same measurement planes behind the
model. The #ow has been made visible using smoke particles injected into the vortex
core. Photographs of the vortex con"rm the mean #ow structure as shown in Fig. 2,
but give no information about the time dependence of the #ow. The only information
about the motion of the vortex available from the smoke #ow is that the vortex
oscillates laterally rather than vertically.

10

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 3. Contours of the root mean square of the #uctuating velocity (m/s) in the wake (a) 50 mm
downstream (b) 100 mm downstream (c) 200 mm downstream.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

11

Fig. 3. Continued.

4.2. Fluctuating yow structure

The root mean square (RMS) of the #uctuating component of the velocity
time series, i.e., the time series with the mean value of the signal subtracted, can
also be computed. Contours of this are shown in Fig. 3. Note that by comparing
Fig. 3(a) with Fig. 2(a), the high values of the RMS value occur where there is
high shear around the vortex and in the shear layer. Also comparing the equivalent
"gures for the 100 and 200 mm planes, some correspondence can also be seen, in
particular in those areas which have the island-like structure. At 50 mm this
correspondence is con"rmed by "nding that the correlation coe$cient for the
gradient of velocity and RMS values over the plane is 0.51. Better correlation, equal
to 0.75, is achieved by using a non-dimensionalised shear where the shear value
is divided by the local mean velocity. At the 100 mm plane the correlation coe$cients
are lower at 0.11 and 0.13, respectively, as they are at the 200 mm plane where
the values are 0.16 and 0.30, respectively. Hence, the unsteadiness is generated in
the areas of high shear in the wake but the unsteadiness is di!used downstream.
4.3. Dominant frequencies
Contours of the dominant frequency can also be produced and these are shown in
Fig. 4. Now the picture obtained is much less clear, but the higher frequencies can be

12

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 4. Contours of dominant frequency (Hz) in the wake (a) 50 mm downstream (b) 100 mm downstream
(c) 200 mm downstream.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

13

Fig. 4. Continued.

seen to be scattered around the periphery of the vortex. Plotting the dominant
frequency against the non-dimensionalised shear, for say the plane 50 mm
downstream, produces the scatter plot shown in Fig. 5. In this "gure, a large
number of points occur with very low frequency for a range of shear values. It can
be presumed that these points are where the #ow is predominantly turbulent with
the dominant frequency being characteristically low. However, there is also a twolobed structure evident, leading to the conclusion that high shear rates are related
to low, but "nite, dominant frequencies and that high dominant frequencies are
related to low shear rates. Similar scatter plots are obtained at the other two
measurements planes.
4.4. SSA of the time series
By looking at the overall #ow characteristics in terms of the mean velocity recorded
by the hot-wire, the RMS values of the velocity #uctuations and the dominant
frequency of the #ow a broad picture of the #ow structure can be produced. However,
the expectation is that the use of SSA will provide more information on the dynamics
of the #ow and its structure.
As a "rst step in this procedure the embedding dimension m must be chosen.
Various means of doing this are available. For example, one method is to simply take

14

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 5. Scatter plot of non-dimensionalised shear (y-axis) against dominant frequency (x-axis) at 50 mm
downstream.

the ratio of the sampling frequency to the maximum frequency of interest that in this
case gives a value of 8}10 for frequencies of interest in the range 200}250 Hz. Equally,
Takens [13] suggests that the embedding dimensions m is given by
m'2n#1,

(2)

where n is the dimension of the attractor that describes the dynamics. Gress [15] has
shown that a reasonable estimate for the value of the attractor dimension n is around
10. To do this Gress looked at the structure of the eigenvalues returned by the singular
value decomposition and determined that the relative magnitudes of the "rst 10 values
were much the same regardless of the embedding dimension when this was greater
than 20. Using the value of 20 for the embedding dimension m in Eq. (2) predicts that
the attractor dimension n is close to 10. As a result of this the embedding dimension
used for the analysis has been set to the slightly more conservative value of 30. Also,
the length of each time series is 4096 points and 3000 trajectory points have been used
to create the trajectory matrix.
In the initial exploration of the data, SSA was used to produce the singular values
for the system and these were normalised by the sum of the singular values at each
point, before computing the contours for the largest singular value alone and for the
sum of the largest three singular values. Clearly, di!erent contours were produced in

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

15

each case. Also, it was noted that there was little correlation between any of the
values of shear, RMS #uctuation and dominant frequency and the largest singular
value. However, the correlation between the RMS value and the sum of the largest
three singular values was high for all three measurement planes, being 0.70 at 50 mm,
0.66 at 100 mm and 0.61 at 200 mm. Clearly, the dynamics of the #ow is being
described by both of these parameters, with large #uctuating velocity values being
correlated to high values of the sum of the three singular values, i.e., a low-dimensional
#ow.
To determine the structure of the dynamics in a systematic way, contours of the sum
of the largest two, four, six, eight and ten singular values are plotted in Figs. 6}8 for
the three measurement planes. Note that the "gures show that as more singular values
are summed so a convergence in the dynamical structure is achieved. Clearly, if the
summation is carried out over all of the singular values then the sum will be unity, and
so there must be some optimum number over which to carry out the summation. In
the cases shown here there is some evidence that this optimum is eight values, as the
contours are less detailed when ten values are summed.
Concentrating on Fig. 6, and comparing this to the contours of mean value and
RMS value shown in Figs. 2(a) and 3(a), the SSA produces a di!erent structure to both
of the previous, more simplistic, analyses. Now, the island-structure is much more
wide ranging around the vortex, and also more complex. To interpret these pictures it
should be remembered that where the sum of singular values is high, the dynamics is
described by very few singular vectors and so is relatively simple. Conversely, where
the sum of singular values is low, the dynamics is described by many singular values
and so is relatively complex. Looking at Fig. 6(e), it can be seen that the islands to the
left of the vortex are denoted by lower numbers than those to the right of the vortex.
Hence, the islands to the left have more complex dynamics than those on the right.
Similar structures can also be seen in Figs. 7 and 8.
Note that the contours derived from the SSA shown in Figs. 6}8 illustrate a much
more detailed #ow structure than those shown in Figs. 2}4 derived from a simpler
analysis. This is especially true for the planes at 100 and 200 mm downstream. Hence,
it is clear that the SSA provides a more discriminating technique.
4.5. Using SSA to determine frequency content
Carrying out a detailed frequency content analysis of the raw data shows that the
#ow can be said to be turbulent everywhere. At all points the spectrum is broadband.
However, the SSA can be used to extract a spectrum with the noise reduced and the
signature of the #ow dynamics remaining. This has been done at all points in the 12th
horizontal line through the measurement planes (where y is 98 mm), as this corresponds to a line through the centre of the vortex 50 mm downstream. The sum of the
frequency content from the "rst "ve singular vectors has been taken. Again the
frequency content is very complicated, with a rich variation in the frequency spectra
obtained. One thing is noticeable, however that the spectra contain only frequencies
below 200 Hz, as the SSA e!ectively acts as a noise "lter, removing the signals of
greater frequency.

16

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 6. Contours of the normalised sum of the dominant singular values (eigenvalues) at 50 mm downstream (a) "rst two eigenvalues (b) "rst four eigenvalues (c) "rst six eigenvalues (d) "rst eight eigenvalues
(e) "rst ten eigenvalues.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 6. Continued.

17

18

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 6. Continued.

In previous work [11] it has been found useful to compare the energy content
of spectra by summing the contents of frequency bins over several bins. Here this
has been done by adding the content of the frequency bins from 0 to 50 Hz, then
from 50 to 100 Hz, 100 to 150 Hz and from 150 to 200 Hz. Fig. 9 shows the
energy content across the line without normalisation and then Fig. 10 shows the
energy content normalised by the total energy in the four frequency ranges at a given
point.
To develop understanding of the energy transfer that takes place along the line, it is
useful to compare the contours in Fig. 6 with the energy shown in Figs. 9 and 10.
Along the 12th horizontal line of data the sum of the singular values falls steadily from
left to right with a minimum at the eighth position. Then the sum rises through the
vortex core to a local maximum at the centre of the core (positions 10}12) before
falling to position 13, rising to position 14, falling to position 15, rising to position
17}18 and "nally falling. Figs. 9(a) and (b) also show exactly this trend. Consequently,
the SSA has created contours which correspond to the sub-100 Hz energy content of
the #ow dynamics. This means that where the dynamics of the #ow is complex (lower
sums of singular values) the energy content is smaller in the sub-100 Hz region.
Equally, areas where the #ow us simpler (higher sums of singular values) there is
a larger energy content in the sub-100 Hz region. Fig. 9(c) shows broadly similar
trends for the energy content in the 100}150 Hz region. However, Fig. 9(d) shows that
the energy content in the 150}200 Hz region is somewhat di!erent. In particular, the

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

19

Fig. 7. Contours of the normalised sum of the dominant singular values (eigenvalues) at 100 mm downstream (a) "rst two eigenvalues (b) "rst four eigenvalues (c) "rst six eigenvalues (d) "rst eight eigenvalues
(e) "rst ten eigenvalues.

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C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 7. Continued.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

21

Fig. 7. Continued.

energy content in this band is higher where the sum of singular values is both
a maximum and a minimum.
Looking at the variation of the normalised energy content along this horizontal
line, as shown in Fig. 10, di!erent trends cans be seen. Where the dynamics are
complex, the lowest amounts of energy are held in the sub-100 Hz bands and
the highest amounts in the bands over 100 Hz. Equally, where the dynamics are relatively simple, the percentages of energy in the bands over 100 Hz are dramatically
reduced (positions 10}12) compared to an increase in the energy content at lower
frequencies.

5. Discussion
As was stated in Section 1, the aim of this work has been to demonstrate the use of
SSA in (1) determining the dynamical structure of the #ow in a turbulent vehicle wake
and (2) determining some aspects of the dynamics of a wake. Before SSA has been
carried out the raw data gathered using the HWA has been analysed in terms of
mean and RMS values, together with the calculation of dominant frequencies and
mean shear. The contours of mean #ow velocity show the traditional picture of
a vortex behind a vehicle with island-like structures that are convected around the vortex.
High RMS values are also found to be generated in areas of high shear close to the

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Fig. 8. Contours of the normalised sum of the dominant singular values (eigenvalues) at 200 mm downstream (a) "rst two eigenvalues (b) "rst four eigenvalues (c) "rst six eigenvalues (d) "rst eight eigenvalues
(e) "rst ten eigenvalues.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 8. Continued.

23

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C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 8. Continued.

vehicle. Similarly, the highest dominant frequencies are generated around the vortex
core, particularly in areas where the mean shear is low. This pre-analysis is useful in
its' own right and sheds some light on the dynamics of the wake, in particular the
generation of unsteadiness.
Moving to the SSA, the #ow is seen to have a rich structure as determined by the
contours of sums of singular values, which are measures of the complexity of the #ow.
However, whilst the contours of the sums of singular values show those areas of the
#ow where the dynamics are relatively simple or relatively complex, they do not
give any more information about the #ow dynamics. To understand the dynamics in
more detail the energy content of the #ow between 0 and 200 Hz has been analysed in
four frequency ranges each of 50 Hz width. This has been compared to the sums of
singular values.
This analysis shows that the areas in the #ow, which the SSA identi"es as being of
simpler dynamics, have a large energy content in all four frequency ranges. Equally,
those area identi"ed as being of more complex dynamics have low-energy content in
the ranges 0}50, 50}100 and 100}150 Hz, but high-energy content in the 150}200 Hz
range. These "ndings come from an analysis of the magnitude of the #uctuating
energy. However, it is also useful to consider the energy content in each frequency
range as a percentage of the total #uctuating energy at a point. Such a comparison
shows that areas of #ow complexity are characterised by a high percentage content in
the 100}150 Hz and 150}200 Hz ranges and a much lower percentage content in the

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

25

Fig. 9. Energy content (y-axis, notional units) at 50 mm downstream for y"98 mm (a) Up to 50 Hz
(b) From 50 to 100 Hz (c) From 100 to 150 Hz (d) From 150 to 200 Hz.

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Fig. 9. Continued.

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27

Fig. 10. Normalised energy content (y-axis) at 50 mm downstream for y"98 mm (a) Up to 50 Hz
(b) From 50 to 100 Hz (c) From 100 to 150 Hz (d) From 150 to 200 Hz.

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C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

Fig. 10. Continued.

C.T. Shaw et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 85 (2000) 1}30

29

two lower-frequency ranges. Hence, as #ow complexity increases there is a transfer of

energy from low frequencies to higher frequencies.
From this energy analysis, it can be seen that SSA has identi"ed the complexity of
the #ow dynamics in the wake in a way which is consistent with the energy content of
the #uctuations in the #ow. Areas of simple dynamics have the energy concentrated in
frequencies below 100 Hz and area of complex dynamics have the energy concentrated in frequencies above 100 Hz. The contours of sums of singular values in
Figs. 6}8 show that the #ow has simple dynamics (high contour values) in the vortex
core, in horizontal and vertical shear layers inboard and below the vortex core and
outboard and below the core, respectively, and also in islands around the vortex core.
This is true for all three planes analysed here. Also the motion of these areas can be
seen as the wake develops downstream. As the vortex moves downwards so the
horizontal shear layer is distorted and the islands are convected around the core.
Hence, a model of the #ow structure can be postulated, despite the noise in the
system. The basic #ow structure generated by the model consists of a vortex and two
shear layers. In these areas the #ow has simple dynamics, with the oscillations in the
wake generated in these regions at low frequencies. Also islands of #ow are found
around the vortex with simple dynamics. As the wake develops these areas are
in#uenced by the overall mean #ow and the dynamical structure is convected around
the main vortex system.
It is the use of SSA that has enabled this picture of the #ow structure to be
determined as the use of simpler measures such as mean and RMS velocitites, and
dominant frequency, does not show this structure in the second and third planes
downstream where contours of these quantities become very blurred. It is as if the SSA
is a more discriminating technique, capable of resolving the dynamics despite the
levels of noise present in the system.

6. Conclusions
Detailed hot-wire measurements are necessary to resolve the frequency variation in
the time-dependent wake of a model passenger vehicle. Whilst simple measures of the
hot-wire data shed some light on the #ow structure near the vehicle, they do not in
planes further downstream. By using SSA to analyse the #ow, areas of simple #ow
dynamics and complex #ow dynamics are found for the three planes analysed here.
This enables a model of the wake dynamics to be postulated, despite the high levels of
noise in the turbulent wake. In this model areas of relatively simple dynamics are
moved under the in#uence of the main vortex.

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