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Social
Mainarticle:Socialpsychology
Seealso:Socialpsychology(sociology)
Socialpsychologyisthestudyofhowhumansthinkabouteach
otherandhowtheyrelatetoeachother.Socialpsychologistsstudy
suchtopicsastheinfluenceofothersonanindividual'sbehavior
(e.g.conformity,persuasion),andtheformationof
beliefs,attitudes,andstereotypesaboutotherpeople.Social
cognitionfuseselementsofsocialandcognitivepsychologyin
ordertounderstandhowpeopleprocess,remember,ordistort
socialinformation.Thestudyofgroupdynamicsreveals
informationaboutthenatureandpotentialoptimizationof
leadership,communication,andotherphenomenathatemergeat

Socialpsychologystudiesthe
natureandcausesofsocialbehavior.

leastatthemicrosociallevel.Inrecentyears,manysocial
psychologistshavebecomeincreasinglyinterestedinimplicitmeasures,mediationalmodels,andthe
interactionofbothpersonandsocialvariablesinaccountingforbehavior.Thestudyofhumansocietyis
thereforeapotentiallyvaluablesourceofinformationaboutthecausesofpsychiatricdisorder.Some
sociologicalconceptsappliedtopsychiatricdisordersarethesocialrole,sickrole,socialclass,life
event,culture,migration,social,andtotalinstitution.

Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysiscomprisesamethodofinvestigatingthemindandinterpretingexperienceasystematized
setoftheoriesabouthumanbehaviorandaformofpsychotherapytotreatpsychologicaloremotional
distress,especiallyconflictoriginatingintheunconsciousmind.[93]Thisschoolofthoughtoriginatedinthe
1890swithAustrianmedicaldoctorsincludingJosefBreuer(physician),AlfredAdler(physician),Otto
Rank(psychoanalyst),andmostprominentlySigmundFreud(neurologist).Freud'spsychoanalytictheory
waslargelybasedoninterpretivemethods,introspectionandclinicalobservations.Itbecameverywell
known,largelybecauseittackledsubjectssuchassexuality,repression,andtheunconscious.These
subjectswerelargelytabooatthetime,andFreudprovidedacatalystfortheiropendiscussioninpolite
society.[51]Clinically,Freudhelpedtopioneerthemethodoffreeassociationandatherapeuticinterest
indreaminterpretation.[94][95]
SwisspsychiatristCarlJung,influencedbyFreud,elaboratedatheoryofthecollectiveunconsciousa
primordialforcepresentinallhumans,featuringarchetypeswhichexertedaprofoundinfluenceonthe
mind.Jung'scompetingvisionformedthebasisforanalyticalpsychology,whichlaterledto
thearchetypalandprocessorientedschools.Otherwellknownpsychoanalyticscholarsofthemid20th
centuryincludeErikErikson,MelanieKlein,D.W.Winnicott,KarenHorney,ErichFromm,JohnBowlby,and
SigmundFreud'sdaughter,AnnaFreud.Throughoutthe20thcentury,psychoanalysisevolvedintodiverse
schoolsofthoughtwhichcouldbecalledNeoFreudian.Amongtheseschoolsareegopsychology,object
relations,andinterpersonal,Lacanian,andrelationalpsychoanalysis.
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PsychologistssuchasHansEysenckandphilosophers
includingKarlPoppercriticizedpsychoanalysis.Popperarguedthat
psychoanalysishadbeenmisrepresentedasascientific
discipline,[96]whereasEysencksaidthatpsychoanalytictenetshad
beencontradictedbyexperimentaldata.Bytheendof20th
century,psychologydepartmentsinAmericanuniversitiesmostly
marginalizedFreudiantheory,dismissingitasa"desiccatedand
dead"historicalartifact.[97]However,researchersintheemerging
fieldofneuropsychoanalysistodaydefendsomeofFreud'sideas
Groupphoto1909infrontofClark
University.Frontrow:Sigmund
Freud,G.StanleyHall,CarlJungback
row:AbrahamA.Brill,Ernest
Jones,SndorFerenczi.

onscientificgrounds,[98]whilescholarsof
thehumanitiesmaintainedthatFreudwasnota"scientistatall,but
...aninterpreter."[97]

Existentialhumanistictheories

Humanisticpsychologydevelopedinthe1950sasa
movementwithinacademicpsychology,inreactiontoboth
behaviorismandpsychoanalysis.[100]Thehumanistic
approachsoughttoglimpsethewholeperson,notjust
fragmentedpartsofthepersonalityorisolated
cognitions.[101]Humanismfocusedonuniquelyhumanissues,
suchasfreewill,personalgrowth,selfactualization,self
identity,death,aloneness,freedom,andmeaning.It
emphasizedsubjectivemeaning,rejectionofdeterminism,and
concernforpositivegrowthratherthan
pathology.[citationneeded]Somefoundersofthehumanistic
schoolofthoughtwereAmericanpsychologistsAbraham
Maslow,whoformulatedahierarchyofhumanneeds,andCarl

PsychologistAbrahamMaslowin1943
positedthathumanshaveahierarchyof
needs,anditmakessensetofulfillthebasic
needsfirst(food,wateretc.)beforehigher
orderneedscanbemet.[99]

Rogers,whocreatedanddevelopedclientcenteredtherapy.
Later,positivepsychologyopeneduphumanisticthemestoscientificmodesofexploration.
TheAmericanAssociationforHumanisticPsychology,formedin1963,declared:
Humanisticpsychologyisprimarilyanorientationtowardthewholeofpsychologyratherthana
distinctareaorschool.Itstandsforrespectfortheworthofpersons,respectfordifferencesof
approach,openmindednessastoacceptablemethods,andinterestinexplorationofnew
aspectsofhumanbehavior.Asathirdforceincontemporarypsychology,itisconcernedwith
topicshavinglittleplaceinexistingtheoriesandsystems:e.g.,love,creativity,self,growth,
organism,basicneedgratification,selfactualization,highervalues,being,becoming,
spontaneity,play,humor,affection,naturalness,warmth,egotranscendence,objectivity,
autonomy,responsibility,meaning,fairplay,transcendentalexperience,peakexperience,
courage,andrelatedconcepts.[102]
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Inthe1950sand1960s,influencedbyphilosophersSrenKierkegaardandMartinHeideggerand,
psychoanalyticallytrainedAmericanpsychologistRolloMaypioneeredanexistentialbranchofpsychology,
whichincludedexistentialpsychotherapy:amethodbasedonthebeliefthatinnerconflictwithinapersonis
duetothatindividual'sconfrontationwiththegivensofexistence.SwisspsychoanalystLudwig
BinswangerandAmericanpsychologistGeorgeKellymayalsobesaidtobelongtotheexistential
school.[103]Existentialpsychologistsdifferedfrommore"humanistic"psychologistsintheirrelativelyneutral
viewofhumannatureandtheirrelativelypositiveassessmentofanxiety.[104]Existentialpsychologists
emphasizedthehumanisticthemesofdeath,freewill,andmeaning,suggestingthatmeaningcanbe
shapedbymyths,ornarrativepatterns,[105]andthatitcanbeencouragedbyanacceptanceofthefreewill
requisitetoanauthentic,albeitoftenanxious,regardfordeathandotherfutureprospects.
AustrianexistentialpsychiatristandHolocaustsurvivorViktorFrankldrewevidenceofmeaning's
therapeuticpowerfromreflectionsgarneredfromhisowninternment.[106]Hecreatedavariationof
existentialpsychotherapycalledlogotherapy,atypeofexistentialistanalysisthatfocusesonawillto
meaning(inone'slife),asopposedtoAdler'sNietzscheandoctrineofwilltopowerorFreud'swillto
pleasure.[107]

Themes
Personality
Personalitypsychologyisconcernedwithenduringpatternsofbehavior,thought,andemotioncommonly
referredtoaspersonalityinindividuals.Theoriesofpersonalityvaryacrossdifferentpsychological
schoolsandorientations.Theycarrydifferentassumptionsaboutsuchissuesastheroleofthe
unconsciousandtheimportanceofchildhoodexperience.AccordingtoFreud,personalityisbasedonthe
dynamicinteractionsoftheid,ego,andsuperego.[108]Traittheorists,incontrast,attempttoanalyze
personalityintermsofadiscretenumberofkeytraitsbythestatisticalmethodoffactoranalysis.The
numberofproposedtraitshasvariedwidely.Anearlymodel,proposedbyHansEysenck,suggestedthat
therearethreetraitswhichcomprisehumanpersonality:extraversionintroversion,neuroticism,
andpsychoticism.RaymondCattellproposedatheoryof16personalityfactors.Dimensionalmodelsof
personalityarereceivingincreasingsupport,andsomeversionofdimensionalassessmentwillbeincluded
intheforthcomingDSMV.
Myriadapproachtosystematicallyassessdifferentpersonalitytypes,withtheWoodworthPersonalData
Sheet,developedduringWorldWarI,anearlyexampleofthemoderntechnique.TheMyersBriggsType
IndicatorsoughttoassesspeopleaccordingtothepersonalitytheoriesofCarlJung.Behavioristresistance
tointrospectionledtothedevelopmentoftheStrongVocationalInterestBlankandMinnesotaMultiphasic
PersonalityInventory,testswhichaskmoreempiricalquestionsandfocuslessonthepsychodynamicsof
therespondent.[109]

Unconsciousmind
Studyoftheunconsciousmind,apartofthepsycheoutsidetheawarenessoftheindividualwhich
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neverthelessinfluencedthoughtsandbehaviorwasahallmarkofearlypsychology.Inoneofthefirst
psychologyexperimentsconductedintheUSA,C.S.PeirceandJosephJastrowfoundin1884that
subjectscouldchoosetheminutelyheavieroftwoweightsevenifconsciouslyuncertainofthe
difference.[110]Freudpopularizedthisconcept,withtermslikeFreudianslipenteringpopularculture,to
meananuncensoredintrusionofunconsciousthoughtintoone'sspeechandaction.His1901textThe
PsychopathologyofEverydayLifecatalogueshundredsofeverydayeventswhichFreudexplainsinterms
ofunconsciousinfluence.PierreJanetadvancedtheideaofasubconsciousmind,whichcouldcontain
autonomousmentalelementsunavailabletothescrutinyofthesubject.[111]
Behaviorismnotwithstanding,theunconsciousmindhasmaintaineditsimportanceinpsychology.
Cognitivepsychologistshaveusedafiltermodelofattention,accordingtowhichmuchinformation
processingtakesplacebelowthethresholdofconsciousness,andonlycertainprocesses,limitedbynature
andbysimultaneousquantity,maketheirwaythroughthefilter.Copiousresearchhasshownthat
subconsciousprimingofcertainideascancovertlyinfluencethoughtsandbehavior.[111]Asignificanthurdle
inthisresearchisprovingthatasubject'sconsciousmindhasnotgraspedacertainstimulus,duetothe
unreliabilityofselfreporting.Forthisreason,somepsychologistsprefertodistinguish
betweenimplicitandexplicitmemory.Inanotherapproach,onecanalsodescribeasubliminalstimulusas
meetinganobjectivebutnotasubjectivethreshold.[112]
Theautomaticitymodel,whichbecamewidespreadfollowingexpositionbyJohnBarghandothersinthe
1980s,describessophisticatedprocessesforexecutinggoalswhichcanbeselectedandperformedover
anextendeddurationwithoutconsciousawareness.[113][114]Someexperimentaldatasuggeststhat
thebrainbeginstoconsidertakingactionsbeforethemindbecomesawareofthem.[112][115]Thisinfluence
ofunconsciousforcesonpeople'schoicesnaturallybearsonphilosophicalquestionsfreewill.John
Bargh,DanielWegner,andEllenLangeraresomeprominentcontemporarypsychologistswhodescribe
freewillasanillusion.[113][114][116]

Motivation
Mainarticle:Motivation
PsychologistssuchasWilliamJamesinitiallyusedthetermmotivationtorefertointention,inasense
similartotheconceptofwillinEuropeanphilosophy.WiththesteadyriseofDarwinianandFreudian
thinking,instinctalsocametobeseenasaprimarysourceofmotivation.[117]Accordingtodrivetheory,the
forcesofinstinctcombineintoasinglesourceofenergywhichexertsaconstantinfluence.Psychoanalysis,
likebiology,regardedtheseforcesasphysicaldemandsmadebytheorganismonthenervoussystem.
However,theybelievedthattheseforces,especiallythesexualinstincts,couldbecomeentangledand
transmutedwithinthepsyche.Classicalpsychoanalysisconceivesofastrugglebetweenthepleasure
principleandtherealityprinciple,roughlycorrespondingtoidandego.Later,inBeyondthePleasure
Principle,Freudintroducedtheconceptofthedeathdrive,acompulsiontowardsaggression,destruction,
andpsychicrepetitionoftraumaticevents.[118]Meanwhile,behavioristresearchersusedsimple
dichotomousmodels(pleasure/pain,reward/punishment)andwellestablishedprinciplessuchastheidea
thatathirstycreaturewilltakepleasureindrinking.[117][119]ClarkHullformalizedthelatterideawith
hisdrivereductionmodel.[120]
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Hunger,thirst,fear,sexualdesire,andthermoregulationallseemtoconstitutefundamentalmotivationsfor
animals.[119]Humansalsoseemtoexhibitamorecomplexsetofmotivationsthoughtheoreticallythese
couldbeexplainedasresultingfromprimordialinstinctsincludingdesiresforbelonging,selfimage,self
consistency,truth,love,andcontrol.[121][122]
Motivationcanbemodulatedormanipulatedinmanydifferentways.Researchershavefoundthateating,
forexample,dependsnotonlyontheorganism'sfundamentalneedforhomeostasisanimportantfactor
causingtheexperienceofhungerbutalsooncircadianrhythms,foodavailability,foodpalatability,and
cost.[119]Abstractmotivationsarealsomalleable,asevidencedbysuchphenomenaasgoalcontagion:the
adoptionofgoals,sometimesunconsciously,basedoninferencesaboutthegoalsofothers.[123]Vohs
andBaumeistersuggestthatcontrarytotheneeddesirefulfilmentcycleofanimalinstincts,human
motivationssometimesobeya"gettingbegetswanting"rule:themoreyougetarewardsuchasself
esteem,love,drugs,ormoney,themoreyouwantit.Theysuggestthatthisprinciplecanevenapplyto
food,drink,sex,andsleep.[124]

Development
Mainarticle:Developmentalpsychology
Mainlyfocusingonthedevelopmentofthehumanmindthroughthelife
span,developmentalpsychologyseekstounderstandhowpeoplecometo
perceive,understand,andactwithintheworldandhowtheseprocesses
changeastheyage.Thismayfocusoncognitive,affective,moral,social,
orneuraldevelopment.Researcherswhostudychildrenuseanumberof
uniqueresearchmethodstomakeobservationsinnaturalsettingsorto
engagetheminexperimentaltasks.Suchtasksoftenresemblespecially
designedgamesandactivitiesthatarebothenjoyableforthechildand
scientificallyuseful,andresearchershaveevendevisedclevermethodsto
studythementalprocessesofinfants.Inadditiontostudyingchildren,
developmentalpsychologistsalsostudyagingandprocessesthroughout

Developmental
psychologistswouldengagea
childwithabookandthen
makeobservationsbasedon
howthechildinteractswiththe
object.

thelifespan,especiallyatothertimesofrapidchange(such
asadolescenceandoldage).Developmentalpsychologistsdrawonthefull
rangeofpsychologicaltheoriestoinformtheirresearch.

Applications
Furtherinformation:Outlineofpsychology,Listofpsychologydisciplines,Appliedpsychology,
andSubfieldsofpsychology
Psychologyencompassesmanysubfieldsandincludesdifferentapproachestothestudyofmental
processesandbehavior:

Mentaltesting
Psychologicaltestinghasancientorigins,suchasexaminationsfortheChinesecivilservicedatingbackto
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2200B.C.WrittenexamsbeganduringtheHandynasty(202B.C.A.D.200).By1370,theChinese
systemrequiredastratifiedseriesoftests,involvingessaywritingandknowledgeofdiversetopics.The
systemwasendedin1906.[125]InEurope,mentalassessmenttookamorephysiologicalapproach,with
theoriesofphysiognomyjudgmentofcharacterbasedonthefacedescribedbyAristotleinfourth
centuryB.C.Greece.PhysiognomyremainedcurrentthroughtheEnlightenment,andaddedthedoctrine
ofphrenology:astudyofmindandintelligencebasedonsimpleassessmentofneuroanatomy.[126]
WhenexperimentalpsychologycametoBritain,FrancisGaltonwasaleadingpractitioner,and,withhis
proceduresformeasuringreactiontimeandsensation,isconsideredaninventorofmodernmentaltesting
(a.k.a.psychometrics).[127]JamesMcKeenCattell,astudentofWundtandGalton,broughttheconceptto
theUSA,andinfactcoinedtheterm"mentaltest".[128]In1901,Cattell'sstudentClarkWisslerpublished
discouragingresults,suggestingthatmentaltestingofColumbiaandBarnardstudentsfailedtopredict
theiracademicperformance.[128]Inresponseto1904ordersfromtheMinisterofPublicInstruction,French
psychologistsAlfredBinetandThodoreSimonelaboratedanewtestofintelligencein19051911,usinga
rangeofquestionsdiverseintheirnatureanddifficulty.BinetandSimonintroducedtheconceptofmental
ageandreferredtothelowestscorersontheirtestasidiots.HenryH.GoddardputtheBinetSimonscale
toworkandintroducedclassificationsofmentallevelsuchasimbecileandfeebleminded.In1916(after
Binet'sdeath),StanfordprofessorLewisM.TermanmodifiedtheBinetSimonscale(renamed
theStanfordBinetscale)andintroducedtheintelligencequotientasascorereport.[129]Fromthistest,
Termanconcludedthatmentalretardation"representsthelevelofintelligencewhichisvery,verycommon
amongSpanishIndiansandMexicanfamiliesoftheSouthwestandalsoamongnegroes.Theirdullness
seemstoberacial."[130]
FollowingtheArmyAlphaandArmyBetatestsforsoldiersinWorldWarI,mentaltestingbecamepopular
intheUS,whereitwassoonappliedtoschoolchildren.ThefederallycreatedNationalIntelligenceTest
wasadministeredto7millionchildreninthe1920s,andin1926theCollegeEntranceExamination
BoardcreatedtheScholasticAptitudeTesttostandardizecollegeadmissions.[131]Theresultsof
intelligencetestswereusedtoargueforsegregatedschoolsandeconomicfunctionsi.e.thepreferential
trainingofBlackAmericansformanuallabor.Thesepracticeswerecriticizedbyblackintellectualssuch
aHoraceMannBondandAllisonDavis.[130]Eugenicistsusedmentaltestingtojustifyand
organizecompulsorysterilizationofindividualsclassifiedasmentallyretarded.[41]IntheUnitedStates,tens
ofthousandsofmenandwomenweresterilized.Settingaprecedentwhichhasneverbeenoverturned,
theU.S.SupremeCourtaffirmedtheconstitutionalityofthispracticeinthe1907caseBuckv.Bell.[132]
TodaymentaltestingisaroutinephenomenonforpeopleofallagesinWesternsocieties.[133]Modern
testingaspirestocriteriaincludingstandardizationofprocedure,consistencyofresults,outputofan
interpretablescore,statisticalnormsdescribingpopulationoutcomes,and,ideally,effectivepredictionof
behaviorandlifeoutcomesoutsideoftestingsituations.[134]

Mentalhealthcare
TheprovisionofpsychologicalhealthservicesisgenerallycalledclinicalpsychologyintheU.S.The
definitionsofthistermarevariousanditmayincludeschoolpsychologyandcounselingpsychology.The
definitiontypicallyincludespeoplewhohavegraduatedfromdoctoralprogramsinclinicalpsychologybut
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mayalsoincludeothers.InCanada,theabovegroupsusuallyfall
withinthelargercategoryofprofessionalpsychology.InCanada
andtheUS,practitionersgetbachelor'sdegreesanddoctorates,
thenspendoneyearinaninternshipandoneyearinpostdoctoral
education.InMexicoandmostotherLatinamericanoandEuropean
countries,psychologistsdonotgetbachelor'sanddoctorate
degrees:theytakeathreeyearprofessionalcoursefollowinghigh
school.[61]Clinicalpsychologyisatpresentthelargest
specializationwithinpsychology.[135]Itincludesthestudyand
applicationofpsychologyforthepurposeofunderstanding,

Clinicalpsychologistsworkwith
individuals,children,families,couples,
orsmallgroups.

preventing,andrelievingpsychologicallybaseddistress,
dysfunctionormentalillnessandtopromotesubjectivewell
beingandpersonaldevelopment.Centraltoitspracticearepsychologicalassessmentandpsychotherapy,
althoughclinicalpsychologistsmayalsoengageinresearch,teaching,consultation,forensictestimony,
andprogramdevelopmentandadministration.[136]
CreditforthefirstpsychologyclinicintheUSAtypicallygoestoLightnerWitmer,whoestablishedhis
practiceinPhiladelphiain1896.AnothermodernpsychotherapistwasMortonPrince.[135]Forthemost
part,inthefirstpartofthtwentiethcentury,mostmentalhealthcareintheUnitedStateswasperformedby
specializedmedicaldoctorscalledpsychiatrists.Psychologyenteredthefieldwithitsrefinementsofmental
testing,whichpromisedtoimprovediagnosisofmentalproblems.Fortheirpart,somepsychiatrists
becameinterestedinusingpsychoanalysisandotherformsofpsychodynamicpsychotherapyto
understandandtreatthementallyill.[36]Inthistypeoftreatment,aspeciallytrainedtherapistdevelopsa
closerelationshipwiththepatient,whodiscusseswishes,dreams,socialrelationships,andotheraspects
ofmentallife.Thetherapistseekstouncoverrepressedmaterialandtounderstandwhythepatient
createsdefencesagainstcertainthoughtsandfeelings.Animportantaspectofthetherapeuticrelationship
istransference,inwhichdeepunconsciousfeelingsinapatientreorientthemselvesandbecomemanifest
inrelationtothetherapist.[137]
Psychiatricpsychotherapyblurredthedistinctionbetweenpsychiatryandpsychology,andthistrend
continuedwiththeriseofcommunitymentalhealthfacilitiesandbehavioraltherapy,athoroughlynon
psychodynamicmodelwhichusedbehavioristlearningtheorytochangetheactionsofpatients.Akey
aspectofbehaviortherapyisempiricalevaluationofthetreatment'seffectiveness.Inthe1970s,cognitive
behaviortherapyarose,usingsimilarmethodsandnowincludingthecognitiveconstructswhichhad
gainedpopularityintheoreticalpsychology.Akeypracticeinbehavioralandcognitivebehavioraltherapyis
exposingpatientstothingstheyfear,basedonthepremisethattheirresponses(fear,panic,anxiety)can
bedeconditioned.[138]
Mentalhealthcaretodayinvolvespsychologistsandsocialworkersinincreasingnumbers.In1977,
NationalInstituteofMentalHealthdirectorBertramBrowndescribedthisshiftasasourceofintense
competitionandroleconfusion.[36]Graduateprogramsissuingdoctoratesinpsychology(PsyD)emerged
inthe1950sandunderwentrapidincreasethroughthe1980s.Thisdegreeisintendedtotrain
practitionerswhomightconductscientificresearch.[61]
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Someclinicalpsychologistsmayfocusontheclinicalmanagementofpatientswithbraininjurythisareais
knownasclinicalneuropsychology.Inmanycountries,clinicalpsychologyisaregulatedmentalhealth
profession.Theemergingfieldofdisasterpsychology(seecrisisintervention)involvesprofessionalswho
respondtolargescaletraumaticevents.[139]
Theworkperformedbyclinicalpsychologiststendstobeinfluencedbyvarioustherapeuticapproaches,all
ofwhichinvolveaformalrelationshipbetweenprofessionalandclient(usuallyanindividual,couple,family,
orsmallgroup).Typicallytheyencouragenewwaysofthinking,feeling,orbehaving.Fourmajor
theoreticalperspectivesarepsychodynamic,cognitivebehavioral,existentialhumanistic,andsystems
orfamilytherapy.Therehasbeenagrowingmovementtointegratethevarioustherapeuticapproaches,
especiallywithanincreasedunderstandingofissuesregardingculture,gender,spirituality,andsexual
orientation.Withtheadventofmorerobustresearchfindingsregardingpsychotherapy,thereisevidence
thatmostofthemajortherapieshaveequaleffectiveness,withthekeycommonelementbeinga
strongtherapeuticalliance.[140][141]Becauseofthis,moretrainingprogramsandpsychologistsarenow
adoptinganeclectictherapeuticorientation.[142][143][144][145][146]
DiagnosisinclinicalpsychologyusuallyfollowstheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMental
Disorders(DSM),ahandbookfirstpublishedbytheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationin1952.Neweditions
overtimehaveincreasedinsizeandfocusedmoreonmedicallanguage.[147]Thestudyofmentalillnesses
iscalledabnormalpsychology.

Education
Mainarticles:EducationalpsychologyandSchoolpsychology
Educationalpsychologyisthestudyofhowhumans
learnineducationalsettings,theeffectivenessof
educationalinterventions,thepsychologyofteaching,
andthesocialpsychologyofschoolsasorganizations.
TheworkofchildpsychologistssuchasLev
Vygotsky,JeanPiaget,BernardLuskin,andJerome
Brunerhasbeeninfluentialin
creatingteachingmethodsandeducationalpractices.
Educationalpsychologyisoftenincludedinteacher
educationprogramsinplacessuchasNorthAmerica,
Australia,andNewZealand.
Schoolpsychologycombinesprinciples

Anexampleofanitemfromacognitiveabilitiestest
usedineducationalpsychology.

fromeducationalpsychologyandclinicalpsychologyto
understandandtreatstudentswithlearningdisabilitiestofostertheintellectualgrowthofgiftedstudentsto
facilitateprosocialbehaviorsinadolescentsandotherwisetopromotesafe,supportive,andeffective
learningenvironments.Schoolpsychologistsaretrainedineducationalandbehavioralassessment,
intervention,prevention,andconsultation,andmanyhaveextensivetraininginresearch.[148]

Work
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Industrialistssoonbroughtthenascentfieldofpsychologytobearonthestudyofscientific
managementtechniquesforimprovingworkplaceefficiency.Thisfieldwasatfirstcalledeconomic
psychologyorbusinesspsychologylater,industrialpsychology,employmentpsychology,
orpsychotechnology.[149]AnimportantearlystudyexaminedworkersatWesternElectric'sHawthorneplant
inCicero,Illinoisfrom19241932.WithfundingfromtheLauraSpelmanRockefellerFundandguidance
fromAustralianpsychologistEltonMayo,WesternElectricexperimentedonthousandsoffactoryworkers
toassesstheirresponsestoillumination,breaks,food,andwages.Theresearcherscametofocuson
workers'responsestoobservationitself,andthetermHawthorneeffectisnowusedtodescribethefact
thatpeopleworkharderwhentheythinkthey'rebeingwatched.[150]
Thenameindustrialandorganizationalpsychology(IO)aroseinthe1960sandbecameenshrinedas
theSocietyforIndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology,Division14oftheAmericanPsychological
Association,in1973.[149]Thegoalistooptimizehumanpotentialintheworkplace.Personnelpsychology,
asubfieldofIOpsychology,appliesthemethodsandprinciplesofpsychologyinselectingandevaluating
workers.IOpsychology'sothersubfield,organizationalpsychology,examinestheeffectsofwork
environmentsandmanagementstylesonworkermotivation,jobsatisfaction,andproductivity.[151]The
majorityofIOpsychologistsworkoutsideofacademia,forprivateandpublicorganizationsandas
consultants.[149]Apsychologyconsultantworkinginbusinesstodaymightexpecttoprovideexecutiveswith
informationandideasabouttheirindustry,theirtargetmarkets,andtheorganizationoftheircompany.[152]

Militaryandintelligence
Oneroleforpsychologistsinthemilitaryistoevaluateandcounselsoldiersandotherpersonnel.Inthe
U.S.,thisfunctionbeganduringWorldWarI,whenRobertYerkesestablishedtheSchoolofMilitary
PsychologyatFortOglethorpeinGeorgia,toprovidepsychologicaltrainingformilitarystaff
military.[36][153]Today,U.SArmypsychologyincludespsychologicalscreening,clinical
psychotherapy,suicideprevention,andtreatmentforposttraumaticstress,aswellasotheraspectsof
healthandworkplacepsychologysuchassmokingcessation.[154]
Psychologistsmayalsoworkonadiversesetofcampaignsknownbroadlyaspsychologicalwarfare.
Psychologicallywarfarechieflyinvolvestheuseofpropagandatoinfluenceenemysoldiersandcivilians.In
thecaseofsocalledblackpropagandathepropagandaisdesignedtoseemlikeitoriginatesfroma
differentsource.[155]TheCIA'sMKULTRAprograminvolvesmoreindividualizedeffortsatmindcontrol,
involvingtechniquessuchashypnosis,torture,andcovertinvoluntaryadministrationofLSD.[156]TheU.S.
militaryusedthenamePsychologicalOperations(PSYOP)until2010,whenthesewerereclassifiedas
MilitaryInformationSupportOperations(MISO),partofInformationOperations(IO).[157]

Health,wellbeing,andsocialchange
Medicalfacilitiesincreasinglyemploypsychologiststoperformvariousroles.Aprominentaspectofhealth
psychologyisthepsychoeducationofpatients:instructingtheminhowtofollowamedicalregimen.Health
psychologistscanalsoeducatedoctorsandconductresearchonpatientcompliance.[158]
Psychologistsinthefieldofpublichealthuseawidevarietyofinterventionstoinfluencehumanbehavior.
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Theserangefrompublicrelationscampaignsandoutreachtogovernmentallawsandpolicies.
Psychologistsstudythecompositeinfluenceofallthesedifferenttoolsinanefforttoinfluence
wholepopulationsofpeople.[159]
BlackAmericanpsychologistsKennethandMamieClarkstudiedthepsychologicalimpactofsegregation
andtestifiedwiththeirfindingsinthedesegregationcaseBrownv.BoardofEducation(1954).[160]
Positivepsychologyisthestudyoffactorswhichcontributetohumanhappinessandwellbeing,focusing
moreonpeoplewhoarecurrentlyhealth.In2010ClinicalPsychologicalReviewpublishedaspecialissue
devotedtopositivepsychologicalinterventions,suchasgratitudejournalingandthephysicalexpression
ofgratitude.Positivepsychologicalinterventionshavebeenlimitedinscope,buttheireffectsarethoughtto
besuperiortothatofplacebos,especiallywithregardtohelpingpeoplewithbodyimageproblems.

Researchmethods
Mainarticles:PsychologicalresearchandListofpsychologicalresearchmethods
Quantitativepsychologicalresearchlendsitselftothestatisticaltestingofhypotheses.Althoughthefield
makesabundantuseofrandomizedandcontrolledexperimentsinlaboratorysettings,suchresearchcan
onlyassessalimitedrangeofshorttermphenomena.Thus,psychologistsalsorelyoncreativestatistical
methodstogleanknowledgefromclinicaltrialsandpopulationdata.[161]TheseincludethePearson
productmomentcorrelationcoefficient,theanalysisofvariance,multiplelinearregression,logistic
regression,structuralequationmodeling,andhierarchicallinearmodeling.Themeasurement
andoperationalizationofimportantconstructsisanessentialpartoftheseresearchdesigns.

Controlledexperiments
Mainarticle:Experiment
Atrueexperimentwithrandomallocationofsubjectsto
conditionsallowsresearcherstomakestronginferencesabout
causalrelationships.Inanexperiment,theresearcheralters
parametersofinfluence,calledindependentvariables,and
measuresresultingchangesofinterest,calleddependent
variables.Prototypicalexperimentalresearchisconductedina
laboratorywithacarefullycontrolledenvironment.
Repeatedmeasuresexperimentsarethosewhichtakeplace
throughinterventiononmultipleoccasions.Inresearchonthe
effectivenessofpsychotherapy,experimentersoftencompare
agiventreatmentwithplacebotreatments,orcompare
differenttreatmentsagainsteachother.Treatmenttypeisthe
independentvariable.Thedependentvariablesareoutcomes,
ideallyassessedinseveralwaysbydifferent
professionals.[164]Usingcrossoverdesign,researcherscan
furtherincreasethestrengthoftheirresultsbytestingbothof

Flowchartoffourphases(enrollment,
interventionallocation,followup,anddata
analysis)ofaparallelrandomizedtrialoftwo
groups,modifiedfromtheCONSORT2010
Statement[162]

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twotreatmentsontwogroupsofsubjects.
Quasiexperimentaldesignrefersespeciallytosituationsprecluding
randomassignmenttodifferentconditions.Researcherscanuse
commonsensetoconsiderhowmuchthenonrandomassignment
threatensthestudy'svalidity.[165]Forexample,inresearchonthe
bestwaytoaffectreadingachievementinthefirstthreegradesof
school,schooladministratorsmaynotpermiteducational
psychologiststorandomlyassignchildrentophonicsandwhole
languageclassrooms,inwhichcasethepsychologistsmustwork
withpreexistingclassroomassignments.Psychologistswill
comparetheachievementofchildrenattendingphonicsandwhole
languageclasses.
Experimentalresearcherstypicallyuseastatisticalhypothesis
testingmodelwhichinvolvesmakingpredictionsbeforeconducting
theexperiment,thenassessinghowwellthedatasupportsthe
predictions.(Thesepredictionsmayoriginatefromamoreabstract
scientifichypothesisabouthowthephenomenonunderstudy
actuallyworks.)Analysisofvariance(ANOVA)statisticaltechiques
areusedtodistinguishuniqueresultsoftheexperimentfrom
thenullhypothesisthatvariationsresultfromrandomfluctuationsin
data.Inpsychology,thewidelyusdstandardascribesstatistical
significancetoresultswhichhavelessthan5%probabilityofbeing
explainedbyrandomvariation.[166]

Otherformsofstatisticalinference

Theexperimenter(E)ordersthe
teacher(T),thesubjectofthe
experiment,togivewhatthelatter
believesarepainfulelectricshockstoa
learner(L),whoisactuallyanactor
andconfederate.Thesubjectbelieves
thatforeachwronganswer,thelearner
wasreceivingactualelectricshocks,
thoughinrealitytherewerenosuch
punishments.Beingseparatedfromthe
subject,theconfederatesetupatape
recorderintegratedwiththeelectro
shockgenerator,whichplayedpre
recordedsoundsforeachshocklevel
etc.[163]

Statisticalsurveysareusedinpsychologyformeasuringattitudes
andtraits,monitoringchangesinmood,checkingthevalidityofexperimentalmanipulations,andforother
psychologicaltopics.Mostcommonly,psychologistsusepaperandpencilsurveys.However,surveysare
alsoconductedoverthephoneorthroughemail.Webbasedsurveysareincreasinglyusedto
convenientlyreachmanysubjects.
Neuropsychologicaltests,suchastheWechslerscalesandWisconsinCardSortingTest),aremostly
questionnairesorsimpletasksusedwhichassessaspecifictypeofmentalfunctionintherespondent.
Thesecanbeusedinexperiments,asinthecaseoflesionexperimentsevaluatingtheresultsofdamageto
aspecificpartofthebrain.[167]
Observationalstudiesanalyzeuncontrolleddatainsearchofcorrelationsmultivariatestatisticsare
typicallyusedtointerpretthemorecomplexsituation.Crosssectionalobservationalstudiesusedatafroma
singlepointintime,whereaslongitudinalstudiesareusedtostudytrendsacrossthelifespan.Longitudinal
studiestrackthesamepeople,andthereforedetectmoreindividual,ratherthancultural,differences.
However,theysufferfromlackofcontrolsandfromconfoundingfactorssuchasselectiveattrition(thebias
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introducedwhenacertaintypeofsubjectdisproportionatelyleavesastudy).
Exploratorydataanalysisreferstoavarietyofpracticeswhichresearcherscanusetovisualizeand
analyzeexistingsetsofdata.InPeirce'sthreemodesofinference,exploratorydataanlysiscorresponds
toabduction,orhypothesisformation.[168]Metaanalysisisthetechniqueofintegratingtheresultsfrom
multiplestudiesandinterpretingthestatisticalpropertiesofthepooleddataset.[169]

Technologicalassays
Aclassicandpopulartoolusedtorelatementalandneuralactivity
istheelectroencephalogram(EEG),atechniqueusingamplified
electrodesonaperson'sscalptomeasurevoltagechangesin
differentpartsofthebrain.HansBerger,thefirstresearchertouse
EEGonanunopenedskull,quicklyfoundthatbrainsexhibit
signaturebrainwaves:electricoscillationswhichcorrespondto
differentstatesofconsciousness.Researcherssubsequently
refinedstatisticalmethodsforsynthesizingtheelectrodedata,and
identifieduniquebrainwavepatternssuchasthedelta
waveobservedduringnonREMsleep.[170]
Newerfunctionalneuroimagingtechniquesincludefunctional
magneticresonanceimagingandpositronemissiontomography,

AratundergoingaMorriswater
navigationtestusedinbehavioral
neurosciencetostudytheroleof
thehippocampusinspatiallearningand
memory.

bothofwhichtracktheflowofbloodthroughthebrain.These
technologiesprovidemorelocalizedinformationaboutactivityin
thebrainandcreaterepresentationsofthebrainwithwidespreadappeal.Theyalsoprovideinsightwhich
avoidstheclassicproblemsofsubjectiveselfreporting.Itremainschallengingtodrawhardconclusions
aboutwhereinthebrainspecificthoughtsoriginateorevenhowusefullysuchlocalizationcorresponds
withreality.However,neuroimaginghasdeliveredunmistakableresultsshowingtheexistenceof
correlationsbetweenmindandbrain.Someofthesedrawonasystemicneuralnetworkmodelratherthan
alocalizedfunctionmodel.[171][172][173]
Psychiatricinterventionssuchastranscranialmagneticstimulationandofcoursedrugsalsoprovide
informationaboutbrainmindinteractions.Psychopharmacologyisthestudyofdruginducedmental
effects.

Computersimulation
Computationalmodelingisatoolusedinmathematical
psychologyandcognitivepsychologytosimulatebehavior.[174]This
methodhasseveraladvantages.Sincemoderncomputersprocess
informationquickly,simulationscanberuninashorttime,allowing
forhighstatisticalpower.Modelingalsoallowspsychologiststo
visualizehypothesesaboutthefunctionalorganizationofmental
eventsthatcouldn'tbedirectlyobservedina

Artificialneuralnetworkwithtwo
layers,aninterconnectedgroupof
nodes,akintothevastnetworkof
neuronsinthehumanbrain.

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human.Connectionismusesneuralnetworkstosimulatethebrain.
Anothermethodissymbolicmodeling,whichrepresentsmanymentalobjectsusingvariablesandrules.
Othertypesofmodelingincludedynamicsystemsandstochasticmodeling.

Animalstudies
Animalexperimentsaidininvestigatingmanyaspectsofhuman
psychology,includingperception,emotion,learning,memory,and
thought,tonameafew.Inthe1890s,RussianphysiologistIvan
Pavlovfamouslyuseddogstodemonstrateclassical
conditioning.Nonhumanprimates,cats,dogs,pigeons,rats,and
otherrodentsareoftenusedinpsychologicalexperiments.Ideally,
controlledexperimentsintroduceonlyoneindependentvariableata
time,inordertoascertainitsuniqueeffectsupondependent
variables.Theseconditionsareapproximatedbestinlaboratory
settings.Incontrast,humanenvironmentsandgenetic

Thecommonchimpanzeecan
usetools.Thischimpanzeeisusinga
stickinordertogetfood.

backgroundsvarysowidely,anddependuponsomanyfactors,
thatitisdifficulttocontrolimportantvariablesforhumansubjects.
Ofcourse,therearepitfallsingeneralizingfindingsfromanimalstudiestohumansthroughanimal
models.[175]
Comparativepsychologyreferstothescientificstudyofthebehaviorandmentalprocessesofnonhuman
animals,especiallyastheserelatetothephylogenetichistory,adaptivesignificance,anddevelopmentof
behavior.Researchinthisareaexploresthebehaviorofmanyspecies,frominsectstoprimates.Itis
closelyrelatedtootherdisciplinesthatstudyanimalbehaviorsuchasethology.[176]Researchin
comparativepsychologysometimesappearstoshedlightonhumanbehavior,butsomeattemptsto
connectthetwohavebeenquitecontroversial,forexampletheSociobiologyofE.O.Wilson.[177]Animal
modelsareoftenusedtostudyneuralprocessesrelatedtohumanbehavior,e.g.incognitive
neuroscience.

Qualitativeanddescriptiveresearch
Researchdesignedtoanswerquestionsaboutthecurrentstateofaffairssuchasthethoughts,feelings,
andbehaviorsofindividualsisknownasdescriptiveresearch.Descriptiveresearchcanbequalitativeor
quantitativeinorientation.Qualitativeresearchisdescriptiveresearchthatisfocusedonobservingand
describingeventsastheyoccur,withthegoalofcapturingalloftherichnessofeverydaybehaviorandwith
thehopeofdiscoveringandunderstandingphenomenathatmighthavebeenmissedifonlymorecursory
examinationshavebeenmade.
Qualitativepsychologicalresearchmethodsincludeinterviews,firsthandobservation,andparticipant
observation.Creswell(2003)identifiesfivemainpossibilitiesforqualitativeresearch,including
narrative,phenomenology,ethnography,casestudy,andgroundedtheory.Qualitative
researchers[178]sometimesaimtoenrichinterpretationsorcritiquesofsymbols,subjectiveexperiences,
orsocialstructures.Sometimeshermeneuticandcriticalaimscangiverisetoquantitativeresearch,as
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inErichFromm'sstudyofNazivoting[citationneeded]orStanleyMilgram'sstudiesofobediencetoauthority.
JustasJaneGoodallstudiedchimpanzeesocialandfamilylifebycareful
observationofchimpanzeebehaviorinthefield,psychologists
conductnaturalisticobservationofongoinghumansocial,professional,and
familylife.Sometimestheparticipantsareawaretheyarebeingobserved,
andothertimestheparticipantsdonotknowtheyarebeingobserved.Strict
ethicalguidelinesmustbefollowedwhencovertobservationisbeingcarried
out.

Contemporaryissuesinmethodologyand
practice
In1959statisticianTheodoreSterlingexaminedtheresultsofpsychological
studiesanddiscoveredthat97%ofthemsupportedtheirinitialhypotheses,
implyingapossiblepublicationbias.[180][181][182]Similarly,Fanelli
(2010)[183]foundthat91.5%ofpsychiatry/psychologystudiesconfirmedthe
effectstheywerelookingfor,andconcludedthattheoddsofthishappening
(apositiveresult)wasaroundfivetimeshigherthaninfieldssuchasspace
orgeosciences.Fanelliarguesthatthisisbecauseresearchersin"softer"
scienceshavefewerconstraintstotheirconsciousandunconsciousbiases.

PhineasP.Gagesurvived
anaccidentinwhichalarge
ironrodwasdriven
completelythroughhishead,
destroyingmuchofhisbrain's
leftfrontallobe,andis
rememberedforthatinjury's
reportedeffectsonhis
personalityand
behavior.[179]

Somepopularmediaoutletshaveinrecentyearsspotlightedareplication
crisisinpsychology,arguingthatmanyfindingsinthefieldcannotbereproduced.Repeatsofsome
famousstudieshavenotreachedthesameconclusions,andsomeresearchershavebeenaccusedof
outrightfraudintheirresults.Focusonthisissuehasledtorenewedeffortsinthedisciplinetoretest
importantfindings.[184][185][186]
Somecriticsviewstatisticalhypothesistestingasmisplaced.PsychologistandstatisticianJacob
Cohenwrotein1994thatpsychologistsroutinelyconfusestatisticalsignificancewithpracticalimportance,
enthusiasticallyreportinggreatcertaintyinunimportantfacts.[187]Somepsychologistshaverespondedwith
anincreaseduseofeffectsizestatistics,ratherthansolerelianceontheFisherianp<
.05significancecriterion(wherebyanobserveddifferenceisdeemed"statisticallysignificant"ifaneffectof
thatsizeorlargerwouldoccurwith5%orlessprobabilityinindependentreplications,assumingthetruth
ofthenullhypothesisofnodifferencebetweenthetreatments).[citationneeded]
In2010,agroupofresearchersreportedasystemicbiasinpsychologystudiestowardsWEIRD("western,
educated,industrialized,richanddemocratic")subjects.[188]Althoughonly1/8peopleworldwidefallinto
theWEIRDclassification,theresearchersclaimedthat6090%ofpsychologystudiesareperformedon
WEIRDsubjects.ThearticlegaveexamplesofresultsthatdiffersignificantlybetweenWEIRDsubjectsand
tribalcultures,includingtheMllerLyerillusion.
Someobserversperceiveagapbetweenscientifictheoryanditsapplicationinparticular,theapplication
ofunsupportedorunsoundclinicalpractices.[189]Criticssaytherehasbeenanincreaseinthenumberof
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mentalhealthtrainingprogramsthatdonotinstillscientific
competence.[190]Oneskepticassertsthatpractices,suchas
"facilitatedcommunicationforinfantileautism"memoryrecovery
techniquesincludingbodyworkandothertherapies,such
asrebirthingandreparenting,maybedubiousorevendangerous,
despitetheirpopularity.[191]In1984,AllenNeuringermadeasimilar
point[vague]regardingtheexperimentalanalysisof

PsychologyWikisnapshot

behavior.[192]Psychologists,sometimesdividedalongthelinesof
laboratoryvs.clinic,continuetodebatetheseissues.[193]

Ethics
Ethicalstandardsinthedisciplinehavechangedovertime.Somefamouspaststudiesaretoday
consideredunethicalandinviolationofestablishedcodes(EthicsCodeoftheAmericanPsychological
Association,theCanadianCodeofConductforResearchInvolvingHumans,andtheBelmontReport).
Themostimportantcontemporarystandardsareinformedandvoluntaryconsent.AfterWorldWarII,
theNurembergCodewasestablishedbecauseofNaziabusesofexperimentalsubjects.Later,most
countries(andscientificjournals)adoptedtheDeclarationofHelsinki.IntheU.S.,theNationalInstitutesof
HealthestablishedtheInstitutionalReviewBoardin1966,andin1974adoptedtheNationalResearch
Act(HR7724).Allofthesemeasuresencouragedresearcherstoobtaininformedconsentfromhuman
participantsinexperimentalstudies.Anumberofinfluentialstudiesledtotheestablishmentofthisrule
suchstudiesincludedtheMITandFernaldSchoolradioisotopestudies,theThalidomidetragedy,the
Willowbrookhepatitisstudy,andStanleyMilgram'sstudiesofobediencetoauthority.

Humans
Universitypsychologydepartmentshaveethicscommitteesdedicatedtotherightsandwellbeingof
researchsubjects.Researchersinpsychologymustgainapprovaloftheirresearchprojectsbefore
conductinganyexperimenttoprotecttheinterestsofhumanparticipantsandlaboratoryanimals.[194]
TheethicscodeoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationoriginatedin1951as"EthicalStanardsof
Psychologists."ThiscodehasguidedtheformationoflicensinglawsinmostAmericanstates.Ithas
changedmultipletimesoverthedecadessinceitsadoption.In1989theAPAreviseditspolicieson
advertisingandreferralfeestonegotiatetheendofaninvestigationbytheFederalTradeCommission.
The1992incarnationwasthefirsttodistinguishbetween"aspirational"ethicalstandardsand"enforceable"
ones.Membersofthepublichavea5yearwindowtofileethicscomplaintsaboutAPAmemberswiththe
APAethicscommitteemembersoftheAPAhavea3yearwindow.[195]
Someoftheethicalissuesconsideredmostimportantaretherequirementtopracticeonlywithinthearea
ofcompetence,tomaintainconfidentialitywiththepatients,andtoavoidsexualrelationswiththem.
Anotherimportantprincipleisinformedconsent,theideathatapatientorresearchsubjectmust
understandandfreelychooseaproceduretheyareundergoing.[195]Someofthemostcommoncomplaints
againstclinicalpsychologistsincludesexualmisconduct,andinvolvementinchildcustodyevaluations.[195]
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Otheranimals
Currentethicalguidelinesstatethatusingnonhumananimalsforscientificpurposesisonlyacceptable
whentheharm(physicalorpsychological)donetoanimalsisoutweighedbythebenefitsofthe
research.[196]Keepingthisinmind,psychologistscanusecertainresearchtechniquesonanimalsthat
couldnotbeusedonhumans.
AnexperimentbyStanleyMilgramraisedquestionsabouttheethicsofscientificexperimentation
becauseoftheextremeemotionalstresssufferedbytheparticipants.Itmeasuredthewillingnessof
studyparticipantstoobeyanauthorityfigurewhoinstructedthemtoperformactsthatconflictedwith
theirpersonalconscience.[197]
HarryHarlowdrewcondemnationforhis"pitofdespair"experimentsonrhesusmacaquemonkeysat
theUniversityofWisconsinMadisoninthe1970s.[198]Theaimoftheresearchwastoproducean
animalmodelofclinicaldepression.Harlowalsodevisedwhathecalleda"raperack",towhichthe
femaleisolatesweretiedinnormalmonkeymatingposture.[199]In1974,AmericanliterarycriticWayne
C.Boothwrotethat,"HarryHarlowandhiscolleaguesgoontorturingtheirnonhumanprimatesdecade
afterdecade,invariablyprovingwhatweallknewinadvancethatsocialcreaturescanbedestroyed
bydestroyingtheirsocialties."HewritesthatHarlowmadenomentionofthecriticismofthemoralityof
hiswork.[200]

Seealso
Mainarticle:Outlineofpsychology

Psychologyportal

Grouppsychotherapy
Listofimportantpublicationsinpsychology

MindandBrainportal

Listofpsychologists

Philosophyportal

Listofpsychologyorganizations
Mediapsychology
Outlineofhumanintelligence
Outlineofthought
Philosophyofpsychology
PsychologyWikipediabook
Socialwork

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