The inclusion of faunal remains in Bronze Age funerary practices in Southern

Portugal. Montinhos 6 - a case study

Cludia Costa1 & Lidia Baptista2
1
2

Universidade do Algarve, FCSH; ccordeirocosta@gmail.com.

FLUP CEAUCP-CAM. PhD scholarship from FCT. lidiabap@gmail.com

Abstract
Montinhos 6 is located in Serpa (Beja, south Portugal) and was excavated under the direction of one of the authors (LB)
during an emergency intervention within the Alqueva Project. The site was characterized by negative structures of
different types, chronologies and fills. In this paper the authors wish to focus on the structures related to the burial
practices from the Bronze Age: both hypogea and pits with burials from one individual to a maximum of five. Only six
hypogea revealed faunal remains associated with funerary rituals, consisting mainly of bones from the forelimbs of Bos
taurus and Ovis/Capra and a partial skeleton of Oryctolagus cuniculus. Most parts of the faunal assemblage were
deposited in articulation, but isolated radius are also present. An analysis of how these elements are used in these
practices can contribute some information to our understanding of the burial practices of the Bronze Age.
Key-words: Bronze Age; funerary practices; faunal remains.
hercynian substrate partially covered by quaternary and
tertiary deposits which form the Alentejan peneplain, an
extensive flat area with gentle undulations (Duque &
Almeida 1998). The closest mountainous areas are the
Serra de Serpa to the south, the Serra de Portel to the
north and the Serra de Ficalho to the east.

Introduction
The site Montinhos 6 was identified and excavated under
the auspices of the Project for the minimization of
Impact on cultural heritage arising from the execution of
the Brinches-Enxo irrigation block Work Phase
(Projeto de minimizao de Impactes sobre o Patrimnio
Cultural decorrentes da execuo do Bloco de Rega
Brinches-Enxo Fase de Obra) undertaken by the
company EDIA, SA. The execution of the project, which
focused on an extensive area of the county of Serpa, and
specifically the parishes of Brinches and Salvador,
involved the opening of irrigation channels and in some
case more ample areas (where reservoirs or pumping
stations were to be installed). Excavation was carried out
by teams from the companies Arqueologia e Patrimnio,
Lda., and
Histrias e Tempus, Lda, under the
coordination of Lidia Baptista. Various excavations were
carried out which allowed the identification and study of
contexts that contributed to a greater understanding of the
past of the county of Serpa. The results obtained in the
different emergency excavations allowed us to convert a
series of negative impacts on our cultural heritage into an
opportunity to know and study many archaeological sites
(Baptista & Gomes 2012). Of the 38 sites identified just
Montinhos 6, which revealed important archaeological
contexts from various chronologies was extensively
excavated in terms of area, as its location coincided with
the future site of a reservoir.

In terms of lithology, this is an area characterised by the

presence of metamorphic, sedimentary and igneous rock
aged to between the Precambrian and the late Palaeozoic
period, and large quantities of igneous rock, such as
diorites, gabbros, granite and porphyries can be found in
the area (Hidroprojecto et alli 1998: 5).
Montinhos 6 is situated on two small hills separated by a
light depression where the substrate is made up of calio
(a form of limestone) of a whitish colour which
corresponds to a decomposition of gabbro-diorites which
are very easy to carve. The site of Montinhos 6 has a line

Summary of the excavation results

Location
Montinhos 6 (Baptista & Gomes 2011; Rodrigues 2011)
is made up exclusively by negative structures of varying
morphologies and chronology (from the Chalcolithic until
Late Antiquity). The site is situated in the catchment area
of the river Guadiana, which geologically is made up of a

Figure 1. Localization of Montinhos 6 in the Iberian

Pennsula and in the county of Serpa.

33

Figure 2. Distribution of the negative structures over the two hills.

Figure 3. Distribution of the negative structures in the northeast hill.

34

Figure 4. Distribution of the negative structures in the southwest hill.

categories of artefact participate. Ceramics are the most
commonly recurring element, sometimes associated with
faunal remains and stone elements and the identification
of some refits between several of the ceramic fragments
from different deposits and structures has sparked
discussion about the biographies of the artefacts. For
example, there exist various cases in which separate
halves of the same vessels have been deposited in
different areas within the same pit and the refitting of
these fragments has allowed us to consider temporal
relations between structures and to think of the filling of
the structures themselves as architecture (Garrow et alli
2005; McFadyen 2006).

of site to the distant horizon in the north, west and south

and the surrounding landscape is dotted by gentle hills
cut in places by small ravines. The view is somewhat
limited to the east where there are some slightly bigger
hills. This expanse gives us a view of the catchment area
of both the Ribeira do Enxo to the south and the Ribeira
de Grafanes to the north (figure 1).
Structures and chronology
The site was identified during the construction of a
reservoir which entailed the stripping of an area of 77713
m. In this area more than 200 negative structures were
discovered, without any type of ditch or trench
delineating the area of this large number of structures
(figures 2, 3 e 4).

Funerary contexts of the Bronze Age in Montinhos 6

Hypogea

Dating to the 3rd millennium BC, two architectural types

have been identified: Pits with a subcircular form in plan
and 55 structures which in plan roughly take the form of a
long bone (Baptista & Gomes 2013). It is however the
Bronze Age contexts that are the most numerous. This
category is made up of 14 hypogea, 130 pits of
subcircular plan, 2 small pits/depressions and an
occupation area. Human burials were found in all of the
hypogea, in the 2 small pits/depressions and in 7 of the
pits.

The human burials associated with the Bronze Age occur

in 14 of the hypogea and 7 of the pits. The structures
referred to here as hypogea are diverse in orientation and
dimension, but are defined as composite structures dug
out of the substrata and consisting of a oval/circular or
square/rectangular antechamber with one or two funerary
chambers of circular plan (figure 5).
When we consider the relations between the fill, the
burial levels, and the different spaces that make up the
hypogea, there are several thing to note: 1) the majority
of the fill deposits from the hypogea show similar
characteristics to the substrata in which the structures

In addition to the funerary contexts, other acts of

deposition exist within the pits in which various
35

were opened, do not normally contain any artefacts, and

when they do they are very fragmented and eroded; 2) the
antechambers were intentionally filled in within a short
time, probably with the earth taken from the excavation
of the structure; 3) in the majority of cases, the roofs of
the funerary chambers had fallen in, probably during prehistory. This hypotheses is supported by the exclusive
presence of manual ceramic fragments, the majority of
which were badly eroded in the sediments that covered
the in inhumations; 4) when the roofs of the chambers fell
in without allowing sediment to enter the chamber we can
see a different and adverse effect on the individual
skeletons present in the chamber in the form of more
pronounced
fragmentation;
5)
beneath
some
antechambers pre-existing pits were discovered which
were incorporated in the construction of the hypogea
themselves; 6) the characteristics of the deposits which
fill the pre-existing pits are very distinct from the fill of
the hypogea and contain some artefacts; 7) the function of
these pits, some of considerable depth (the average depth
is 2,07m, the deepest being 2,42m deep and the
shallowest 1,06m) perhaps allowed an evaluation of the
substrata with a view to constructing the hypogeum. In
other words, these pits could have been used as test pits
to determine the opening of a funerary chamber; 8) the
entrance to the funerary chambers were found untouched.

adults and just 4 sub-adults buried in the hypogea.

The analysis of the positions of the skeletons found in
primary position revealed that 10 of the skeletons were
found lying on their right side, 7 on their left side, two in
a supine position with their limbs bent to the left side and
just one skeleton lying prone. Given that in a total of 14
hypogea, there are 17 funerary chambers, the number of
individuals per chamber is as follows: 9 chambers
contained individual inhumations, the other 8 holding
between 2 and 5 individuals.
In 4 chambers funerary offerings were not recovered,
those were the chamber of H102, which contained 5
individuals, chamber 2 of H118, which contained one
sub-adult, the chamber of H156, containing one adult,
and chamber 2 of H159 which contained 3 individuals. In
the other 13 chambers various artefactual elements, such
as ceramic vessels and metallic objects were found.
Regarding the animal remains that constituted offerings,
they corresponded to specific anatomical parts of a
unique animal, in some cases the bones being found
complete and in others still articulated. Ceramics were the
most common offering, represented by a collection of 31
morphologically diverse vessels, with open and closed
forms. The metal objects found were awls and daggers,
probably in copper.

Regarding the burial levels themselves (figure 6), a first

look at the data shows that the primary burials are of 18
adults: 5 males, 9 females, 4 individuals of undetermined
sex; and 2 sub-adults. The secondary burials are of 12
adults: 2 males, 4 females, 6 individuals of an
undetermined sex; and 2 sub-adults. In total there were 30

Faunal remains were detected in just 6 chambers

associated with single burials, with the exception of
chamber H59 where 2 associations were identified. One
was a human skeleton in primary position, the second and

Figure 5. Types of hypogea identified in Montinhos 6.

36

Figure 6. Summary of all burials in Hypogea (all drawing are of the same scale, oriented to the north).
ossuary. Besides this, a fragment of human bone, a right
ulna (the proximal half) of a sub adult was found
associated with an adult in chamber 1 of H118. The
fragment belonged to a sub-adult which was found in
another chamber of the same hypogeum.

associated complete ceramic and metallic objects. The

faunal remains correspond to complete parts of the
forelimbs of sheep/goats and domesticated cattle, the
sheep represented by their right side, the cattle, the left,
with the exception of the partial skeleton of the rabbit.
Individual and collective burials of numerous
combinations were also found

The faunal remains were made up of the forelimbs of Bos

taurus (domestic cattle) and Ovis/Capra (sheep/goat) and
the partial skeleton of a rabbit. With the exception of the
skeleton in H169, the faunal remains were mostly
associated with female skeletons. The spatial associations
of the faunal remains in relation to the human elements
are diverse and they may appear at the feet of a human
skeleton (as in H59), with the human skull (as in H155
and H169) or between the thoracic region of the human
skeleton and the wall opposite the entrance of the
hypogeum (as in chamber 2 of H118 and chamber 2 of
H159). There is also an association of faunal remains and
an ossuary in H59, making it the only hypogeum where
within the same chamber two faunal associations were
found. The remains of the rabbit were found in the
interior of chamber H153, along with the other bones, the
majority of which belonged to an adult female. These
bones were found disarticulated and scattered over the
base of the chamber indicating post-mortem events that
are difficult to explain.

Pits
Out of the large number of 130 pits, just 7 contain human
burials from which 9 individuals were exhumed (figure
7). Within the group of pit burials (FE) the occurrence of
one or two individuals in varied positions was noted. The
dimensions of the pit (diameter of the opening, maximum
diameter and depth) are variable; all have sub-circular
plans and have open and closed forms, and in the
majority of cases have cylindrical bodies and a flat base;
in 3 examples they contain small niches. Just 3 pits with
burials have faunal remains in their interior (FE77, FE144
and FE152), which correspond to the pits with niches,
and FE77 which is the only closed structure made up of
fragments of quern stone. Out of the structures containing
burials, just FE152 contains a context in which we can
consider the association of fauna as a funerary practice.
The first burial, corresponding to a child of 7-10 years old
at the time of death, was found in the niche. Given the
small size of the space within the niche, the corpse
(specifically the torso) was deposited partially in the area

In summary, the specific architecture of the hypogea is

defined through funeral practice. The majority of human
remains correspond to adult individuals with which are
37

Figure 7. Sections of the pits with human burials.

of the pit. In the top of the deposit which covered the
deposition a concentration of faunal remains which we
considered to be in association with the burial was
identified (figure 14). The second burial is a sub-adult of
14 years of age at the time of death and was found in the
area of the pit about 30 cm above the first burial, against
the opposite wall occupied by the previous inhumation.
Associated with this burial was a bone bead and 4
perforated shells.

the sheep/goats, and radii in articulation with the ulnae

and respective carpus in the case of the Bos taurus. The
radii of the sheep/goat were found associated with just
two human skeletons in hypogea H59 and H159, while
the bones of the bovine were found among the votive
artefacts of the ossuary of H59 and the skeletons of H118
and H155. Both the remains of Bos taurus and the
Ovis/Capra show cut marks at the joints suggesting
intentional disarticulation of those parts of the bodies, all
belonging to sub-adult animals. Lastly, the partial
skeleton of a rabbit was found associated with the
remains of a female individual placed in the interior of
the funerary chamber of hypogeum H153.

Faunal remains in Bronze Age burial contexts

Hypogea

The arrangement found in H153 reveals some

particularities. On the one hand, the remains of a single
skeleton of an adult female were recovered grouped into
small clusters. Just some parts, the left shoulder blade,
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum were found
in articulation (Rodrigues 2011: 43). In the centre of this,
a partial rabbit skeleton was recovered, made up mainly
of elements of the upper and lower limbs and some
vertebrae. As the ceiling of this chamber had collapsed,
we should not rule out the idea that the presence of the
rabbit is intrusive (and the dispersion of the human
remains is due to post depositional processes), but in
reality there was no stratigraphic evidence to
unequivocally support this hypotheses. Considering the
fact that the osteological remains, of human and animal,
were found at the same height in the base of the funerary
chamber (almost two meters from the surface), the
sediment which fills the pit provided little archaeological

Of the 14 hypogea identified, just 7 faunal assemblages

were recovered with a total of 53 elements, exclusively of
mammals. The fauna found in the interior of the deposits
was found directly associated with human burials, with 2
exceptions, one an unidentified animal of medium size,
the other a sheep/goat which was found in the bottom of
the antechamber of hypogeum H102, along with 2
elements of rabbit found in the sediment that covers the
burials in the interior of the funeral chamber of H155.
The range of faunal remains associated with the human
burials contains just 3 species: domestic cattle (Bos
Taurus), sheep/goat (Ovis/Capra) and rabbit (Oryctolagus
cuniculus) not including the bones from an unidentified
animal which was comparable in size to a sheep or goat.
The types of bones appearing were radii, in the case of
Species

H59

H102

H118

H153

H155

H159

H169

Total

Bos taurus

14

Ovis/Capra

Oryctolagus cuniculus

28

30

28

53

Midsize animal
Total

Table 1. Frequency of faunal remains associated with hypogeal.

38

Species
Bos taurus

H59

H118

H153

H155

H159

H169

Left ulna

Left scaphoide

Left pyramidal

Left pisiform

Left radius

Left lunar

Ovis/Capra

Midsized animal
O. cuniculus

Partial skeleton

Und carpal

Right radius

Right ulna

Right scaphoide

Radius

Table 2. Association of faunal remains to the burials contained in hypogea.

material, and all the bones exhibit the same degree of
erosion on their surfaces (pointing to the contemporaneity
of the deposition of human and animal), it seems
pertinent to accept the possibility that this was an
intentional association.

The case of hypogeum H59 is also strange insofar as in

the interior of the pit that pre-dates the hypogeum (found
under the antechamber) 32 fragments of dog remains
from a single animal, along with 2 fragments of
Ovis/Capra were found. The specific bones of the dog
found were the metatarsals and metacarpals, first and
second phalanges of both sides, a caudal vertebrae, skull
bones and several teeth. Clearly without anatomical
articulation, the bones were integrated in the deposit
complete and without marks of post mortem
manipulation, and therefore the intentional nature of their
presence also cannot be ruled out, although it is difficult
to interpret. The dog is a species which only appears in
Montinhos 6 in a group of articulated bones in pit F115
(Costa 2013). But, in the context of structured depositions
or groups of articulated bones identified in the other pits
of Montinhos 6, it seems that there is a special relevance
to the deposition of limbs and/or elements of the paws of
deposited animals, as the existence of the front and hind
limbs of a dog in the fill of a pit predating a hypogeum is
not exceptional in the context of Montinhos 6.
Effectively, the incorporation of faunal elements in a pit
predating the construction of a hypogeum has a parallel in
pit F49, which predates hypogeum H49. Faunal material
in this pit was not found associated to human remains,
but some elements of Ovis/Capra and remains of an
animal of similar size were present.

As for the two elements of rabbit which were found in the

deposit covering the burials in the interior of the funerary
chamber of hypogeum H155, their presence is more
difficult to explain. On one hand, the two elements are
loose and without any anatomical connection, suggesting
perhaps that they had formed part of the deposit that
filled the chamber and perhaps their presence was not
intentional. Also, following the caving in of the roof of
the chamber the cavity filled naturally with sediment and
this could also explain some foreign elements in the
deposit. On the other hand, as we have already seen,
rabbit is a species which appears to be associated to
funeral rites in hypogeum H153 so the intentionality of
the association of these remains should not be ruled out.
The case of H102 is slightly different from the other
hypogea because in the interior of the funerary chamber
various alternating levels of ossuarys and an articulated
human skeleton were found. As for faunal material, a
fragment of metacarpal bone from an Ovis/Capra and a
fragment of a medium size undetermined animal were
found in the deposit at the base of the antechamber,
however, they are not unequivocally part of the funerary
ritual, as they may have just made part of the deposit.
Effectively, the funerary chamber was reutilised
successively and if these remains made part of offerings,
after repeat reuse of the space, could have been removed
from their original position.

Given the above, and limiting ourselves to the finds

unequivocally associated with human remains in the
hypogea, it seems as if only the Bos taurus and
Ovis/Capra forelimbs, and the partial skeleton of the
rabbit do not leave us with any doubts as to their
participation in funerary practice (figures 8 to 13). A
39

Figure 8. Hypogeum 59 - Two votive sets with faunal remains: Bos Taurus associated with an ossuary (on the left);
Ovis/Capra associated with a female skeleton (on the right).
summary of the faunal associations can be found in tables
1 and 2.

is related to the burial of an non adult individual who was

deposited in a fetal position in the niche and the group of
artifacts present was composed of elements of
Ovis/Capra, of at least three young animals, constituted
by elements of the upper apendicular skeleton and some
vertebrae of an unidentified animal of similar size to
Ovis/Capra, grouped and deposited near the abdominal
area of the human skeleton.

Pits
Of the seven pits which contained primary burials, faunal
remains were only recovered in three: FE77, FE144 and
FE152. In the first two cases, the faunal remains were not
found directly associated with the burials, but in the case
of FE152, they seem to be associated with one of the
burials. The faunal assemblage contains 17 remains made
up of Ovis/Capra and an undetermined animal of medium
size, represented by the bones of its forepaws.

Final remarks
In other words, identity is not something that people
have, an unchanging set of qualities; rather, it is an
ongoing act of production an inherently fluid set of
properties under continual construction and revision
(Bruck 2004, 311).

Because of this the case of FE152 is unusual, not just

because it contains the burial of 2 individuals, but also
because the faunal remains found in the stratigraphic unit
UE15207 have a stratigraphic position that suggests a
ritual association to the second burial (figure 14 and table
3). The levels UE15204 and UE15205, which underlies
the first burial level, both contained faunal remains.
However the majority of the finds from UE15204 was
composed of unclassifiable fragments. The same also
goes for UE15205, which is another heterogeneous
deposit whose faunal contents should not be regarded as
part of the funeral ritual. However, the deposit UE15207,

The presence of fauna within burial contexts, principally

in hypogea, make up part of a series of items, like
ceramics or metal, that compose the different scenarios of
burial. Although the sample in Montinhos 6 is small, of
the 6 cases in which fauna is associated with primary
burials (two cases of Bos taurus, two of Ovis/Capra, one
rabbit and an undetermined medium sized animal), 5 are
associated with female adults. The Bos taurus remains are
limbs from the left side, and from the Ovis/Capra the
40

Figure 9 - Hypogeum 118 Radius, ulna and carpals, with cut marks, associated to a female skeleton.

Figure 10 - Hypogeum 153 - Partial skeleton of a rabbit among bones from a female skeleton, mostly disarticulated.
41

Figure 11 - Hypogeum 155 Bos, with cut marks, associated to a female skeleton.

Figure 12 - Hypogeum 159 Ovis/Capra radius, with cut marks. Associated with a female skeleton.
42

Figure 13 - Hypogeum 169 Radius diaphysis (of a mid-size animal) associated with a human skeleton of
undetermined sex, probably a male.

Figure 14 - Pit FE152 Burial of a sub-adult individual placed in lateral left decubitus, inside a small wall niche
(age at death 10 years old). With faunal remains.
43

limbs correspond to the right side of the body. The

intentional choosing of these parts of specific (and
preferentially young) animals, many of them deposited
with soft tissue intact, reveals an action that clearly had a
pattern. Bearing in mind the limits of the sample, we
hope that more work of this kind are undertaken that
allows a larger analysis at a regional level.

faunal remains, of Ovis/Capra, disarticulated and from a

minimum of 3 different animals.
The pit burials have parallels in sites of the same county
(Torre Velha 3, Outeiro Alto 2 e Torre Velha 12) as in
other areas in Alentejo (Antunes et alli 2012), like Horta
do Albardo 3, Monte da Cabida 3, Casaro da Mesquita
3, Casaro da Mesquita 4, Pedreira de Trigaches 2 and
Horta de Jacinto. Of the sites listed, only in pit 53 of
Outerio Alto 2 (Costa & Cabao 2012) were faunal
remains identified of the species Sus sp. and Bos sp. on
the lower back of a human skeleton. However, the
chronology of this structure was not determined. In Horta
de Jacinto, in Beringel (Baptista et alli 2012) we also see
the association of an almost complete animal (Sus sp.)
and a human burial, but this context also has several
peculiarities, which so far, make it exceptional.

A pattern of association with the same characteristics has

been identified in other archaeological sites of the same
region from the Bronze Age. Belmeque (Oliveira 1994;
Soares 1994) and more recently, Torre Velha 3 (Alves et
alli 2010; Porfrio & Serra 2010), Outeiro Alto 2 (Costa
& Cabao 2012; Valera & Filipe 2010) and Torre Velha
12 (Rodrigues et alli in press), in which the study of
faunal material is still ongoing. Nevertheless, more than a
dozen of these types of site where hypogea have been
identified have been located in the county of Serpa. The
disclosure of these sites would contribute immensely to
the study of the Bronze Age population in the south east
of the Iberian Peninsula.

The growth in the amount of fieldwork in the area has

shown that the funeral practices attributed to the 2nd
millennium BC are very diverse, both architecturally and
in the treatment of the human skeleton itself and the
artifacts and animal bones that accompany it.

The similarities between the funerary traditions present in

this region, seen as part of the Argaric world, with regard
to funerary fauna in hypogea apparently show a
standardization of practices which were seen by most
Iberian authors as the result of rituals of commensality
which were in one way an animal sacrifice, in another, a
way to consume meat, the faunal deposit being a
representation of the participation of the deceased in the
ritual meal (Alves et alli 2010, Aranda Jimenez &
Esquivel Guerrero 2006, 2007; Porfrio & Serra 2010;
Sanchz Romero et alli 2007; Soares et alli 2009).
Associated with this practice of feasting was the
production of ceramic vessels especially for the occasion,
with specific shapes, namely open formed vessels for
solid food, closed form vessels for liquids, and cups, well
made, and of higher quality, specifically in terms of
decoration (which included the intense burnishing of
surfaces). The different items, ceramics, metal artifacts,
and faunal remains made part of a ritual which worked as
a symbolic expression of social cohesion in an
asymmetrical and unequal society. Feasting rituals are
seen to have been one the practices related to the exercise
of power in the Argaric world (Aranda Jimenez 2008,
2011).

Recently, several essays have been addressed to this

theme (Baptista 2013; Baptista et alli 2012; Valera &
Costa 2013), following lines of research that value the
idea of fragmentation/segmentation as social practice,
based on the numerous empirical contexts in which
humans and/or animals, and other materialities, can arise
in an archaeological context in a complete state or in
fragments.
The site of Montinhos 6 (Baptista 2013; Baptista et alli
2012), stresses that the influences on the Argaric world
had been as a result of the contact between different
supra-regional
groups
in
a
network
of
circulation/manipulation of things (goods, people, ideas)
and were not just a direct importation of social
organizational models. And, that these influences
reflected the web of actions in which they themselves
shared and organized similarities and produced rituals in
which to negotiate them. Furthermore, the differences in
the funerary deposits revealed the fluidity and
adaptability of the funeral ritual, which although being
standardized, cannot be disassociated from its
participants. A fluidity and adaptability which makes us
return to the quote with which we began this section,
looking at the different relations between the items which
show the funerary contexts of Montinhos 6 as invocations
of the relational character of the identity of all the
participants.

However, neither Belmeque, Torre Velha 3 nor Outeiro

Alto 2 or Montinhos 6 (sites which have hypogea that fit
into the same chronological period and have information
about faunal remains available) have provided bioanthropological or archaeological evidence which permits
us to support the hypotheses that different faunal
associations can effectively show us social
differentiation. However, we should not forget that of all
the hypogea excavated in Montinhos 6, a total of 14, just
6 (around 40%) gave evidence for the association of
faunal remains.

References
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(Serpa Portugal). O Sudeste no Sudoeste?!. Zephyrus
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showed us evidence of an indubitable association of
44

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