IB Geography: Options

Option G: Urban environments

1. Urban populations
1.1. Urbanization
1.1.1. Define urbanization and explain the variation in global growth rates and patterns.
1.1. Definitions:
Urbanization: An increasing percentage of a countrys population coming to live in towns and cities. It may
involve both rural to urban migration and natural increase.
1.1.1. The variation in global growth rates and patterns:
In most MDCs, the process of urbanization is at an end, with the majority of the population already
living in urban areas. This makes the growth rate small, or even negative as people move to rural or
suburban areas for reasons that will be expanded on later.
In NICs, the process of urbanization is still underway at a high rate, as development typically
begins in more industrialized cities, drawing people from rural areas there in the belief that they will have a
better life. More developed LDCs see similar growth rates, while less developed, poorer LDCs may still
have low urbanization rates due to low industrialization not attracting rural migrants to cities.
1.2. Inward movement
1.2.1. Explain the processes of centripetal movements (rural-urban migration, gentrification, reurbanization/urban renewal).
1.2. Definitions:
Rural- urban migration: The movement of population from rural areas to urban areas.
Gentrification: The reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas.
Re-urbanization/urban renewal: The revitalization of urban areas and a movement of people back into
those areas.
Brownfield sites: Abandoned, derelict, or underused industrial buildings and land that may be
contaminated but have potential for redevelopment.
1.2.1. Explaining centripetal movements:
Factors causing rural-urban migration:

Push factors:
o Limited infrastructure

o Little job opportunities

o Famine/drought
o Overpopulation
o Boredom
o Difficulty of farm life
Pull factors:
o A perception that cities are full of jobs
o Want for better education
o Better transport infrastructure
o Better health infrastructure
o More entertainment

Factors causing gentrification:

Lack of land (or cheap land) in cities

Overpopulation in city
Entrepreneuring real estate agencies

Factors causing re-urbanization/urban renewal:

Governmental investment
Foreign investment
Need for more land, particularly cheap land
Overpopulation
Complaints by people that decayed areas look bad

Case Study: Rural to Urban Migration from Caatinga to Sao Paulo

Push factors:

Low unreliable rainfall leads to droughts

Difficulty of subsistence farming life
No water or electricity infrastructure
Few schools and clinics in the area

Pull factors:

The belief that there are many jobs in Sao Paulo (that are not as back-breaking)
Better infrastructure
Better access to services such as education and health
The glamourous image of Sao Paulo with its bright lights

Positive effects:

Overpopulation problem is lessened.

Famine and drought problems lessen as there is a smaller population

Remittances home can improve quality of life

Negative effects:

Husbands may not send money home (may just forget about family)
Farming may be difficult for the elderly, the children, and the women.
May eventually lead to underpopulation problems as all the young men leave.
Destruction of traditional family structure.

Case Study: The urban renewal of Cardiff Bay, U.K.

Causes:

Previously, the docks at Cardiff were very busy- but after the construction of a railway in 1840, the
docks declined, with the final dock slated to be closed in 1987. This is why the abandoned docks (a
brownfield site) were transformed into a residential, manufacturing, and commercial development
area.
The coastal zone of South Wales had a very large range between high and low tides- at low tide,
Cardiff Bay was a bay of mud which looked and smelled repulsive. Thus, a barrage was
constructed to ensure that the water remained in the bay at all times.

Results:

12 000 new jobs, 3 000 new houses, and a million square metres of office, factory, leisure, and
social space.

1.3. Outward movement

1.3.1. Explain the processes of centrifugal movements (suburbanization, counterurbanisation,
urban sprawl.)
1.3. Definitions:
Counterurbanisation: The movement of a population away from inner urban areas to a new town, a new
estate, a commuter town, or a village on the edge or just beyond the city limits/rural-urban fringe.
Suburbanization: The outward growth of towns and cities to engulf surrounding villages and rural area.
This may result from the outmigration of population from the inner urban area to the suburbs or from inward
rural-urban movement.
Urban sprawl: The unplanned and uncontrolled physical expansion of an urban area into the surrounding
countryside. It is closely linked to the process of suburbanization.
1.3.1. Explaining centrifugal movements:
Factors causing suburbanization:

The affordability of motor vehicles for normal people after WWII

Cheapness of homes (due to lowered price of farmland) and lower interest compared to innercity areas
Willingness of authorities to provide utilities such as electricity, water, etc.
Expansion of public transport networks

Factors causing counter-urbanization:

Push factors:
o High land prices
o Congestion
o Pollution
o High crime rate
o A lack of community
o Declining services
Pull factors:
o The perception that smaller settlements had:
A closer sense of community
Better environment
More safety

Factors causing urban sprawl:

Suburbanization
o Low-interest loans given by American government to families that built their own
homes after WWII
Lack of adequate city planning in the mid-1900s.

Case Study: Counter-urbanization to St. Ives from London:

Factors drawing migrants:

A picturesque town with Victorian and Georgian houses and links with Oliver Cromwell
Close to the main East Coast railway line and a major highway, making access to London easy
(although it is about 100 km north of London.)
Worsening quality of life in London due to overpopulation and pollution (River Thames is very
polluted, occasional smog)
Better air quality

Effects:

Increased development of rural farmland into housing developments

Increase of both young commuters (in the town centre) and old retirees (in the more rural part of
town)

A higher average income

25% of the St. Ives population commuting to work daily
The railway line being revitalized, with journey times reduced greatly
More medium- and high-order services than previously, such as designer clothes shops and
antique dealers.

Case Study: Urban Sprawl in Houston:

Factors causing the sprawl:

State annexation laws that allowed the city to absorb surrounding areas
Mechanisms that allow develops to create quasi-governmental authorities to finance far-reaching
utility extensions
The relative cheapness of building out rather than up
Lack of physical barriers such as rivers, lakes, or mountains
Lack of zoning laws

Effects:

High levels of commuting (high levels of CO 2 emissions and other air pollution)
More water use and a loss of wildlife
More time used up driving from one place to another
Inefficient transport system
Increased risk of obesity (due to a higher reliance on vehicles.)

1.4. Natural change

1.4.1. Explain the contribution of natural change to patterns of population density within urban
areas.
1.4. Definitions:
Natural change: A change in population due to increasing or decreasing birth rates.
1.4.1. The contribution of natural change:
Only a small part of urbanization is a result of natural increase. For example, the increase in
population of Delhi, Indias capital city, is 75% because of rural-urban migration and only 25% by natural
increase- and that natural increase is contributed to by the young people from rural areas migrating in.
1.5. The global megacity
1.5.1. Explain the global increase in the number and location of megacities (population over 10
million people)
1.5. Definitions:
Megacity: A city with a population of over 10 million people.

1.5.1. Explaining the global increase:

As NICs develop, more migrants are attracted from rural areas to cities, ballooning their
populations. Furthermore, increased development means better qualities of life, which may allow for a
lower infant mortality rate and a lower overall mortality rate, also increasing populations. Megacities are
increasing because more and more NICs are developing, when before, it was only MDCs such as America
and Japan that had them.
Problems of megacities:

Congestion
Loss of farmland due to urban sprawl
Disease easily spreads
Slums and other makeshift housing due to a lack of housing
Bad air quality
Difficulty of implementing water and electricity infrastructure
Unemployment and underemployment issues

2. Urban Land Use

2.1. Residential areas
2.1.1. Explain the location of residential areas in relation to wealth, ethnicity, and family status
(stage in life cycle)
2.1.2. Examine patterns of urban poverty and deprivation (such as slums, squatter
settlements, areas of low-cost housing and inner-city areas).
2.1.3. Examine the causes and effects of the movement of socioeconomic groups since the
1980s.
2.1. Definitions
Shanty settlements: Makeshift dwellings erected without official permission, usually of makeshift materials
such as cardboard, corrugated iron, plastic, and other such materials.
2.1.1. Explaining the location of residential areas:
Wealth:

In older European cities, low-income families tend to live in the inner-city zone in smaller apartment
building or townhouses, while high-income families live in the suburbs in large houses. However, if
gentrification occurs low-income families may move to other areas.
In newer North American and Australian cities, high-income families may live in expensive innercity apartments while low- income families live in the suburbs.

Ethnicity:

Due to racial discrimination, people of non-white ethnicities in European and North American
countries tended to be poorer than their white counterparts, leading to them living in lowincome areas.
Alternately, even today, migrants may group together not due to a shared economic status, but
due to a shared culture.
o ex. Richmond, B.C. has a large population of Asian inhabitants, most notably
Taiwanese, Chinese, and Hong Kongers. (It used to have a large Japanese population
before WWII)

Family status:

In general, for a middle-income child, they will live in a middle-income house, then move to a cheap
rental when they set off on their own, move to a more expensive starter home if they get married,
and may move a couple more times to more expensive homes should they have children before
moving to a cheaper retirement home.
The same process applies to low-income families, but they are more likely to move to cheaper
homes.

2.1.2. Examine patterns of urban poverty and deprivation:

The

Hoyt model of city structures

The Burgess model of city structures

Areas of low-cost housing tend to lie in the middle of town, where the oldest and cheapest homes
are found- unless these homes have undergone urban renewal. Alternately, they may be found by
industrial areas or close to noisy transport areas such as an airport.

Slums tend to lie on the outskirts of town, where rural-to-urban migrants find themselves after
migrating to the city. 78.2% of the urban population in LDCs are found in slums, representing 32% of
the worlds total urban population. Slums are typically located in areas planners do not want, such as
steep slopes, floodplains, and areas close to industrial complexes. People in slums find it difficult to
come out due to discrimination against slum dwellers, the difficulty of finding a proper job in the formal
sector, the expenses of everyday life, among other reasons.
Case Study: The shantytown of Kibera in Nairobi, Kenya:
Causes:

The British
government
importing
African
migrant
workers, then
refusing to The shantytown Kibera, in Nairobi. It takes up an area of around 2.5 square kilometres.
give them a
place to live.
The Kenyan government that followed decided to go with a laissez-faire attitude with Kibera, not
providing the slum with any infrastructure but not destroying it either.
Rural migrants also entered Kibera after coming to Nairobi.

Facts:

Contains an estimated 150 000 to 250 000 residents.

The average shanty size is 3.7 by 3.7 metres long and houses around eight people.
They are made with mud walls screened with concrete at times, with a corrugated tin roof.
The cost of renting a shanty is 700 Kenyan shillings a month
Electricity access is 20%
Sewage and waste is thrown into the Ngong River- which overflows into homes and footpaths in
rainy seasons, spreading disease. (Some residents rely on the Ngong River for water supplies due
to bad water infrastructure and expensive water kiosks).
Very high disease rates
Very low education rates (37% of school-age children were not going to school)
Ethnic violence is common between different tribes (and there is no law enforcement due to police
refusing to enter the shantytown)

Solutions:

NGOs providing legal assistance clean drinking water, improved sanitation, health care, and
education.

The government is not providing any legal, educational, or health services in Kibera. This means
that it is dependent of the whims of foreign organizations.

2.1.3. The causes and effects of the movement of socio-economic groups:

[Refer to Case Studies]
2.2. Areas of economic activity
2.2.1. Explain the spatial pattern of economic activity, the zoning or urban and suburban
functions and the internal structure of the CBD.
2.2.2. Describe the informal sector: its characteristics and location in urban areas.
2.2.3. Examine the causes and effects of the movement of retailing, service, and
manufacturing activities to new locations, including brownfield sites.
2.2. Definitions:
Central Business District (CBD): The commercial and economic core of a city.
Informal sector: The section of the economy that is not registered with the government, is not regulated
and does not pay taxes. The informal sector is sometimes called the black market.
Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI): The point with the highest land values in a city.
2.2.1. The spatial pattern of city sectors:
Structure of the CBD:

Concentration of department stores, chain stores, and specialist retail outlets.

Banks of businesses
Multi-storey development (extended vertical scale)
Limited horizontal scale
Concentrated day-time population
High pedestrian density
Low residential population
May be some limited light manufacturing, derelict land, transport terminals, office areas, and
specialist services around the core of the CBD.

CBDs may decline due to:

Urban sprawl means it is difficult for many residents to go to the city centre
Cost of development and upkeep is too high
Too much congestion
Investors and businesses are attracted to periphery sites that are cheaper and have similar access
to markets
As time passes, the CBD ages and is perceived as dirty and unsafe with poor infrastructure.

Consequences of CBD decline:

Change in functions (to more modern functions)

Migration of town core
Modernization of shopping functions (such as covered shopping areas)
Transitional zone formed (where commercial activities overflow from the CBD)
The emergence of specialized areas (ex. The entertainment district Soho in London)
Urban renewal

The Bid-Rent Theory:

The bid-rent theory theorizes that retailers are willing to pay the most for a key location near the
CBD, while industrial and commercial are willing to pay less, and residential the least. As due to the
principle of distance decay, the further land is from the PLVI, the cheaper it is, residential areas tend to be
located far from the CBD while retailers tend to be found close to it.
2.2.2. The informal sector:
The informal sector is typically around the CBD where there is street vending, as this is where
pedestrian density is the greatest. Alternately, it may be found around residential areas, particularly within
slum areas and squatter areas such as river embankments.
Advantages:

Provides unskilled and semi-skilled migrants, with informal, temporary but intermediate work as
no qualifications or training is typically required in the informal sector. + Unregulated Working
Hours.
The informal economy makes a significantly large contribution to the urban wealth of city; for
instance it was the basis of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century throughout Europe.
Handmade products from raw materials sold to tourists help preserve the culture and traditions.
Informal businesses can be setup as opposed to setting up a formal business which is proven to
be difficult with large costs and delays; informal businesses help provide a way out of poverty for
the poor population as people get employed and don't have to pay tax.

Disadvantages:

Crime, prostitution, drugs, smuggling, protests and riots are all reoccurring problems which exist
within the local sectors due to little legal civilian and job protection.
Therefore the security of the residents living with the informal sector is often compromised and
concerning; it turns away potential visitors such as tourists and has a bad impact on the city's
image.
Informally run businesses have little or no legal aid or protection from political issues and
incidents, which are likely to occur in the informal sector; furthermore the lack of legal property
ownership limits access to credit.
Workers within the informal economy are occasionally exposed to health and safety risks.

Additionally workers are also deprived of rights and benefits associated with law and regulations.
Laws and rules are often not followed through by the workers - because they cannot afford to
and/or they have no choice; an example is the lack of protective clothing and adequate instruction,
which causes contamination by toxic chemicals and heavy metals, found in solvents and recycled
waste.

2.2.3. The causes and effects of the movement of retailing, service, and manufacturing activities to
new locations, including brownfield sites
Retailing:

1970s: Decentralization of food shops

1980s: Decentralization of furniture shops. Development of large out-of town regional shopping
centres. The decline of the CBD.
1990s: The revival of the CBD through the development of large-scale retailing centres in or near
the CBD. Convenience stores in the outer urban area.

Causes:

The rising prices of the CBD

The greater mobility of the population

Manufacturing:
Causes of abandonment:

1. Comparatively large size

2. Time or service factor unimportant
3. Large ground area per person required
4. Nuisance features (odours, noise, fire hazard etc.)
5. Specialised buildings required
6. Serious problem of waste disposal
7. Large quantities of fuel and / or water required

Causes of staying:

1. Time or service factor as important element

2. Specialised, highly skilled work
3. Small size
4. Obsolete buildings suitable
5. Close contact with market required
6. Style factor important
7. Established transport network (rail,ship)
8. Inertia

Manufacturing areas that leave are typically re-occupied by services which have a higher return per net
area.

3. Urban stress
3.1. Urban microclimate
3.1.1. Explain the effects of structures and human activity on urban microclimates, including
the urban heat island effect and air pollution
3.1. Definitions:
Urban heat island: The phenomenon where urban areas tend to be hotter than the surrounding
countryside by 2-4oC.
3.1.1. The effects of structures and human activity on urban microclimates:
Radiation and sunshine:

Radiation and sunshine is diffused through reflection off of buildings and scattering due to air
pollution, causing reduced visibility.

Clouds and fogs:

Due to increased air pollution and increased convention (Urban Heat Island), summer sees
thicker cloud covers and winter sees radiation fogs or smogs.

Pressure and winds:

Turbulence and gusting around tall buildings creates strong local pressure. Deep, narrow
streets are calmer unless aligned with prevailing winds to funnel. Typically lower wind speeds
due to urban roughness and building heights.

Humidity:

Due to higher temperatures and less moisture, humidity is low.

Precipitation:

More intense storms, due to greater instability and greater convection.

Urban heat island:

Lower wind speeds

Urban pollution trapping radiant energy

Fossil fuel burning releases heat

Buildings have low albedo and high emissivity
Heat diffusion is lessened due to airflow changes

Case Study: The Urban Microclimate of Houston, Texas

Urban heat island effect:

Has increased by 0.8oC since 1985 to 2014

Has dimensions of approximately 4 000 km 2 and has increased by 650 km 2 since 1985 thanks to
urban sprawl

Pollution:

Houston is one of Americas most polluted cities

Coal power plant releases toxic mercury
Violates air quality standard for ozone and thus is very smoggy
This is due to urban sprawl (and partially because of the coal plant), which increases commuting
distance and thus pollution greatly.

Wind speeds:

The release of heat from the pavement results in weaker convection and thus weaker offshore
breezes.
This contributes to air pollution, as it takes longer for the pollution to be blown away.
o An attempted solution is the installation Grasspave, a porous paving material- however, its
coverage is very, very, small as of 2014.

Precipitation:

Precipitation levels have increased since the 1970s.

It is hypothesized that the effect of the urban heat island on convection in the air cause this
anomaly, but it is not certain.

3.2. Other types of environmental and social stress

3.2.1. Examine the other symptoms of urban stress including congestion, overcrowding and
noise, depletion of green space, waste overburden, poor quality housing, social deprivation,
crime, and inequality.
3.2.1. Symptoms of urban stress:
Congestion:
In MEDCs:

Increased number of motor vehicles

Increase dependence on cars as public transport declines
Major concentration of economic activities in CBDs
Inadequate provision of roads and parking
Frequent roadworks
Roads overwhelmed by sheer volume of traffic
Urban sprawl, resulting in low-density built-up areas and increasingly long journeys to work
Developing of out-of-town retail and employment, leading to cross-city commuting.

In LEDCs:

Lower private car ownership

Less dependence on the car, but growing
Many cars are poorly maintained and are high polluters
Growing centralization and development of CBBDs, increasing traffic in urban areas
Heavily reliance on affordable public transport
Shorter journeys, but getting longer
Rapid growth, resulting in enormous urban sprawl and long journeys
Emergence of out-of-town development due to economic development

Case Study: Congestion in Nairobi, Kenya:

Has proper road capacity of one third of its 3.1 million population
Economic effects:
o Traffic jams cost the country $578 000 US a day due to lost productivity
o Fuel costs are higher for commuters (and the poorest live in the outskirts, meaning they
must pay even more)
o Businesses lose out as people do not want to travel as much
o Kenyans may lose their jobs due to being late
o Due to corruption, foreign aid given to address this problem as the congestion is seen as
normal, if irritating.
Social effects:
o Lack of communication due to lost time may lead to a loss of power of wives and children
o Stress and anger is aggravated by congestion, which can lead to domestic violence
o Physical health effects such as organ dysfunction may be caused by stress
o Crime is facilitated by congestion, as its simpler for thieves to escape unspotted (and
those desperate to get the work will let thieves escape as they cannot risk leaving their
vehicle).
Environmental effects:
o Heavy air pollution (Air pollution index of 62.50)
also caused by industrial factories, but contributed to by the congestion
o When roads are widened and newly constructed, the amount of green space is lowered

Noise:
Noise pollution typically arises from airports, train stations, and some factories. While this is
troublesome for new inhabitants, typically people grow used to the noise pollution within a month so long as
it is not too loud. As well, noise pollution can help create low-income housing which is otherwise in a nice
area.
Depletion of green space:
This is bad for the environment. However, it is also bad socially, as parks are a good meeting place
and help keep the spirits of urban residents up.
Case Study: Green Space in Singapore

Singapores total area is 712 km 2 mean that alternative energy sources are difficult to implement.
Still, it has attempted to at least increase its green spaces and become a City in a Garden.
o Economic benefits include boosted appeal to foreign businesses and increased liveability
attracting tax-payers
o There are 1.4 million roadside trees and the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve makes up one of
two primary rainforests in the world located within city limits.
o Park connectors are used to connect residential areas to parks and nature sites
The CEO of the National Parks Board says that community involvement is also a major part of the
City in a Garden vision.

Waste overburden:
An example would be Kibera, Nairobi- due to a lack of waste-collecting infrastructure, the waste
builds up in the Ngong River, spreading disease.
Poor quality housing:
This occurs due to:

A lack of quality in the housing

A lack in the quantity of housing
A lack of affordability in housing
A lack of housing tenure

It can lead to many social issues described in the Kibera case study.
Social deprivation, crime and inequality:
Marginalized groups tend to be poorer, leading them to a life of crime. Unemployed and
uneducated people also tend to turn to crime with no other choices. Men tend to be more likely to turn to

crime than women in many LDCs, likely because women tend to have less physical power than men and
are culturally indoctrinated to believe themselves lesser.
Some sly examples of inequality are the fact that schools in the US receive funding from the
property taxes in the area and stereotyping.
Overcrowding:
Overcrowding can lead to many of the aforementioned problems.

4. The Sustainable City

4.1. The City as a System
4.1.1. Describe the city as a system in terms of:
o 4.1.1.1. Inputs (energy, water, people, material, products, food)
o 4.1.1.2. Outputs (solid, atmospheric, and liquid waste, noise, people)
4.1.2. Distinguish between a sustainable circular system where inputs are reduced and outputs
are recycled and an unsustainable (open/linear city system) with uncontrolled inputs and
outputs.
4.1.1. Describing the city:
Cities take in inputs and spew out outputs. Outputs may be reused and recycled as inputs.
4.1.2. Sustainable vs. Unsustainable Cities:
Circular metabolism cities minimize new inputs and maximize recycling. Linear metabolism cities
consume and pollute at a high rate.
Methods to improve sustainability include:

Reducing the use of fossil fuels by promoting public transport

Keeping waste production to locally treatable levels
Providing green spaces
Reusing and reclaiming brownfield sites
Encouraging community involvement
Conserving non-renewable resources
Using renewable resources.

4.2. Case Studies

4.2.1. Referring to at least two city case studies, discuss the concepts of:
o 4.2.1.1. Sustainable city management
o 4.2.1.2. The urban ecological footprint

Case Study: Curitiba, the Sustainable City:

Curitiba grew from 150 000 people in the 1950s to 1.8 million in 2013.
It initially suffered from problems such as mass unemployment, transport congestion, the lack
of basic services and uncontrolled slum growth.
The redesigning of Curitiba dealt with those mistakes.

Redesigning:

In the 1960s, the mayor involved

the people in a competition for a
Curitiba master plan and
discussed the best entries with
everyone.
Architects took the best plan and
adjusted it to make it viable, while
keeping in mind the wants of the
people.

Sustainable developments:

Transport
o Radial arterial roads with express lanes for express buses and normal lanes for local
buses and cars
o Cheap buses used instead of subway
o Only one ticket is necessary for a journey no matter how many times they change buses
It used to be based on distance, but it was changed after it was realized it
disadvantaged low-income families who lived on the outskirts of town.
o 75% of commuters use public
transportation: there is now 25% less
congestion and 30% less fuel consumption
compared to other cities.
o Each bus holds up to 270 people
o Tube-like bus station (seen to the right)
maximizes efficiency
Land use and public services
o All income ranges have easy access to
public transport
o Citizenship streets are built along arterial
roads close to heavily used bus terminals,
offering access to public utilities

Environmental Cleanup Programme: 90% of Curitibans have access to sewage

systems and 100% have access to clean drinking water
o Lighthouses of Knowledge provide access to books and the Internet and the staff work in
collaboration with the schools. At the top is a police officer, which improves security in
residential areas (as they are placed in residential areas).
o Special centres to feed street children.
o Pedestrianized shopping streets have increased profits and reduce traffic.
Recycling
o Thanks to children learning about it in school, parents were convinced to recycle.
o Recycling plants employ recovering alcoholics and homeless people
o Styrofoam is shredded to stuff quilts for the poor
o In favelas, in exchange for sorting their rubbish, they receive basic food (that the city buys
from local farmers)
o It costs no more than landfill and improves public health, creates jobs, and improves
nutrition
o 20% of waste is diverted and 70% of households take part
Green space
o 1.5 million trees have been planted
o 54 m2 per resident (recommended is 16 m2 per resident :D)
Economic sustainability
o An Industrial City 10 km west-south-west of the city is located in an area that blows
pollution away from the city and protects local water sources
o Housing units were built in the area so workers could cycle.
o Provides 200 000 direct and indirect jobs

Case Study: Chengdu, the (Un)sustainable City:

Chengdu has undergone great urban growth in the past few decades:
o 1950s, early 1960s: Industrialization due to governmental policies
o 1960s and 1970s: Urban growth restricted by preventing people from moving from rural to
urban or vice versa
o 1980s onwards: Rapid and accelerating urban growth. 1979 economic reforms created
employment opportunities
surplus rural labour
Relaxations in the hukou system, allowing for migration
Boundary changes
o Administrative boundary changes make up 40% of the urban growth in the past fifty years.
Housing sustainability:
o Issues:
Lack of housing
High-rise development overshadowing old housing
Overcrowded six, seven-storey housing made in the 1950s and 1960s
Many houses with no piped water and sanitation are in the inner city area

o Solutions:
Up-market housing is increasing as well as high-rise apartment blocks
Renting is a solution now
Low-cost rooms and flats have been produced
Employment sustainability:
o Issues:
Rising unemployment
The closure of many inefficient factories
Rural-to-urban migration after the relaxation of hukou
Poverty is an issue as increasing affluence raises the threshold level for
living standards
Female urban workers are clashing with rural migrants in the informal
sector
o Solutions:
Services and construction work = important migrant jobs
High tech industrial development
Creates many jobs for highly educated Chinese but not migrants
Transport sustainability:
o Issues:
Car ownership is increasing
Separating housing from employment requires commuting
Leisure-related travel up
Cyclists and moterized traffic conflict
Air and noise pollution up
Public transport is lacking
o Solutions:
Radial pattern of rings helps to easily connect different areas of the city
Wide multi-line principal roads with bicycling lanes
Expressways out of city
Metro and light rail system planned
Environmental sustainability:
o Issues:
Pollution in nearby Fu and Nan rivers
Air pollution
o Solutions:
Lining roads with trees
Rehabilitation project of Fu and Nan rivers
Riverside upgrading by removing slum housing and adding green space
Relocated displaced residents and businesses to fancy new buildings
Flood control (before, there was flooding once every 10 years)
Improved water quality with sewers and wastewater outlets blocked
unless passing through water treatment plant

Encouraged to switch from low-quality charcoal briquettes to electricity and solar

panels.
Urban ecological footprint is still fairly large as environmental sustainability is not at the forefront of
Chinese developers minds

4.3. Sustainable strategies

4.3.1. Evaluate one case study of each of the following:
o 4.3.1.1. One socially sustainable housing management strategy
o 4.3.1.2. One environmentally sustainable pollution management strategy
o 4.3.1.3. One strategy to control rapid city growth resulting from immigration
Case Study: Kibera Housing Management Strategy:

600 apartments in 17 nearby buildings

Rent $10 US/month for one room
Nine years to rehouse all slum residents
Planned to have all the infrastructure cities have- green spaces, schools, waste management,
markets, sewage systems etc.
o Economically sustainable:
Children receive education, which helps them break out the cycle of poverty.
Provides jobs (for construction and upkeep) to slum residents
o Environmentally sustainable:
Reduces heavy pollution in Kibera
Green spaces produce oxygen and lower pollution-producing buildings
o Socially sustainable:
Gets rid of the eyesore of Kibera
Provides basic services to slum dwellers
However:
o Economically unsustainable:
Cost the Kenyan government 3.4 trillion Ksh but only 5 000 people have been
relocated (cough corruption cough)
Slum-dwellers make $2/day on average, and much is in the form of goods and
food- apartments are unaffordable
Informal sector employees find it difficult to find jobs in the organized nature of
the apartments
Middle-class Nairobians arent banned from renting the apartments, meaning
that college students are living in them instead.
o Environmentally unsustainable:
Giving the 150 000- 200 000 people in the slums access to sewage, water,
and waste infrastructure will cause a huge strain, simply in areas outside of
Kibera.
o Socially unsustainable:

Only men are slotted to receive permanent housing- not women.

20% of the people in a zone refused to relocate, making it impossible for the
government to destroy the slums to make new buildings

Case Study: The Wadi Hanifah valley of Saudi Arabia

For years, the Wadi Hanifah valley was a rubbish dump and a public health hazard, treated as an
open sewer.
Seasonal flooding also swept pollutants into residential neighbourhoods and left stagnant water,
spreading disease.
Since 2001, the area has been imporved:
o Clearing rubbish
o Grading the banks
o Landscaping and replanting native flora
o A facility that transforms urban run-off into water clean enough for irrigation and fishing
through bioremediation- natural processes to repair environmental damage.
A linked series of wetland habitats uses natural oxygenation to remove harmful
bacteria and other pollutants without human intervention
It has also brought gentrification to previously unfashionable neighbourhoods along the coast
However, there was no public consultation, and $1.5 billion US was sunk into a scheme when
1/3 of households are unconnected to mainline sewage.
It is also bringing social change, as people of all ethnicities and locales mix with impunity- women
are unveiling, for example.

Case Study: Baths Population Management Strategy

Bath is a city in southwest England. Due to its historic attraction such as Roman baths and
Georgian architecture, it attracts nearly 4 million visitors each year, leading to much in-migration
(and stress on transport due to tourists).
It is also surrounded by a green belt, which restricts urban sprawl.
Thus, it needs to safeguard land for industrial development (due to its reliance on the fickle tourist
industry) while producing more housing.
Strategies include:
Rejuvenating neglected inner-city areas such as the Western Riverside
High-density residential areas integrated with leisure and industrial sites,
reached by a light rapid transit system (are planned)
Adjusting green belt boundaries to allow a bit more urban sprawl
o However, these strategies bring the risk of creating exclusive suburbs where wealthy
people live and work, and if even more people are attracted by the new area, the problem
will only worsen.

As it located on a bend of the River Avon, there are limited crossing points into the
city centre, leading to traffic bottlenecks. Air pollution levels are horrible at the
London Road bottleneck, for example.
Steep hills discourage walking and cycling- 48% of workers commute by car.
However, Bath has succeeded in implementing park and ride schemes that allow
commuters to park their cars at designated lots then take the transit.
That being said, Bath has not succeeded (socially) in implementing a bus gate
scheme which would prevent private traffic from entering certain roads to the city
centre, due to businesses complaining about losing business and the increased
congestion caused at the city edges.
As well, the buses contribute to air pollution so they need to be revampedperhaps buses that use bio-diesel or by using electric trams.
o Only 28% of Baths waste was recycled- population increases, waste will increase, leading
to problems.