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AEGEAN - MARMARA - BLACK SEA:


OF

RESEARCH

ON THE

THE

PRESENT STATE

EARLY NEOLITHIC

I. GATSOV AND H. SCHWARZBERG (EDS.)

Proceedings of the Session held at the EAA 8th Annual Meeting


at Thessaloniki, 28th September 2002

Beier & Beran


LANGENWEISSBACH 2006

SCHRIFTEN DES ZENTRUMS FR ARCHOLOGIE UND


KULTURGESCHICHTE DES SCHWARZMEERRAUMES 5

AEGEAN MARMARA BLACK SEA:


OF

RESEARCH

ON THE

THE

PRESENT STATE

EARLY NEOLITHIC

Content

F. Bertemes/A. Furtwngler (Halle):


Vorwort der Herausgeber der Schriftenreihe

H. Parzinger (Berlin):
Gruwort des Prsidenten des Deutschen
Archologischen Institutes

H. Schwarzberg (Halle)/I. Gatsov (Sofia):


Aegean Marmara Black Sea: The present
state of research on the Early Neolithic. An
introduction
Y. D. Boyadzhiev (Sofia):
The role of absolute chronology in clarifying
the Neolithization of the eastern half of the
Balkan Peninsula
M. L. Sfriads (Rennes):
Some reflections on the Mesolithic substratum
and the Neolithization processes in the Aegean,
Danubian and Black Sea areas
M. zdogan (Istanbul):
Neolithic cultures at the contact zone between
Anatolia and the Balkans - Diversity and homogeneity at the Neolithic frontier
C. Lichter (Karlsruhe):
Zum Forschungsstand des Neolithikums und
frhen Chalkolithikums in Westanatolien
S. Alpaslan-Roodenberg (Leiden):
Death in Neolithic Ilpnar
N. Kyparissi-Apostolika (Athens):
The beginning of the Neolithic in Thessaly
N. Efstratiou (Thessaloniki):
Looking for the Early Prehistory of Greek
Thrace: Research problems, prospects and first
results

M. Lichardus-Itten (Paris)/J.-P. Demoule (Paris)/


L. Pernicheva (Sofia)/M. Grebska-Kulova
(Blagoevgrad)/I. Kulov (Blagoevgrad):
Kovacevo, an Early Neolithic site in South-West
Bulgaria and its importance for European
Neolithization

83

L. Nikolova (Salt Lake City):


Village-interments and social reproduction during the Neolithic

95

E. Rosenstock (Tbingen):
Early Neolithic tell settlements of South-East
Europe in their natural setting: A study in distribution and architecture

115

H. Schwarzberg (Halle):
A new item for the Neolithic Package? Early
Neolithic cult vessels in Anatolia and SouthEast Europe

127

S. Hansen (Berlin):
Frhe Statuetten in Griechenland und ihre
Vorbilder

135

I. Gatsov (Sofia):
The state of research into the problem of
Pleistocene-Holocene transition in the present
area of Bulgaria

151

M. Gurova (Sofia):
Functional aspects of the Early Neolithic flint
assemblages from Bulgaria and NW Anatolia

157

N. Benecke (Berlin):
Animal husbandry and hunting in the Early
Neolithic of South-East Europe - A review

175

E. Marinova (Sofia):
Archaeobotanical studies of the Bulgarian
Neolithic. The current state of research and perspectives for future studies

187

Contributors

195

15

21

29

47

59

69

Early
Neolithic
tell settlements
South-East Europe
Early
Neolithic
tellofsettlements
of

South-East Europe in their natural setting:115


A study in distribution and architecture
Eva Rosenstock

Introduction
Settlements that tend to accumulate their habitation
debris, forming a more or less pronounced artificial
hill, are usually known as mounds, or are given local
terms such as tell (Arabic), hyk (Turkish) or
mogila (Slavic). During the last decade, they have
been the subjects of increasing archaeological interest
focused on the north-western margin of their distribution1. In South-East Europe, these mounds do not dominate the archaeological landscape to the extent as they
do in some regions of the Near East, where tells are
virtually the only known form of settlement. Rather,
the Balkans are characterized by a peculiar distribution of some areas where tells are frequent and other
regions where flat settlements are the common settlement form and tells can hardly be found at all. Their
existence from the Early Neolithic onwards has at times
been denied2 but by following research of V. G. Childe
in the 1950s it has generally been explained by certain
ecological conditions and shared habits of occupants
common to the Near East and the Balkans3. Even the
tells themselves, like the occurrence of painted pottery,
have been seen as a common cultural trait in these
areas 4 adding a further dimension to studies
concerning the origins of the Neolithic in South-East
Europe. This study investigates to what extent the origin and distribution of tells can be attributed to ecological conditions, with the aim of achieving a better
understanding to what extent sociocultural factors have
played a role in forming them.

Ecological conditions
The topography of the Balkan Peninsula is characterized by certain north-south and east-west inclinations.
The carstic ridges of the Dinaric Mountains, the Pindos
and the Taygetos, which, apart from the coastal plain
of Albania, rise almost immediately behind the Medi1

2
3
4

E. g. Tringham/Krstic 1990; Parzinger 1993; Sherratt 1994;


Durman 1995; Whittle 1996; Chapman 1997; Bailey 1999;
Perls 2001.
Sherratt 1983, 192; Lichardus-Itten 1993, 102.
Childe 1950, 41ff.; Childe 1957, 84; Tringham 1971, 89;
Treuil 1983, 272.
Milojcic 1949, 16, 49; Childe 1950, 41ff.

terranean coastline up to more than 2,000 m, act as a


pronounced barrier running from the Alps in the north
to the southern tip of the Peloponnesus. In the Iron
Gates area, the Dinaric Mountains connect with the
Carpathians to form a natural barrier separating the
Carpathian Basin from the south of the peninsula. The
eastern part of the peninsula, with its vast plains of the
Danube, Thrace, Greek Macedonia and Thessaly, provides a stark contrast to the mountainous west.
The prevailing westerly winds, which unload rain
while crossing the western ridges, cause an average
precipitation in some places of more than 2,000 mm/a.
The eastern plains, however, are protected from these
winds, and in some parts receive an average precipitation of less than 400 mm/a. This figure generally does
not reach more than 600 mm/a, with the intermittent
mountains like the Balkan and the Rhodopes receiving
around 1,000 mm/a5. While in high altitudes the climate generally tends to be considerably cooler, the
temperatures vary significantly between north and
south, with an average summer temperature of 25 C
in the north and 20 C in the south. In winter these
differences are even more pronounced due to continental influences, varying from 10 C to -2.5 C6. Thus,
according to Langs index, many of the plains have to
be considered as relatively arid regions7.
The soils of the Balkan Peninsula, although varied, can mainly be attributed to three types: most of
the south is dominated by mature, highly leached and
rather poor Mediterranean soils such as terra rossa
and terra fusca, characteristic of arid regimes. While
the mountains usually bear brown soils such as cambisols
and luvisols, typical of temperate regions, Walachia is
an area of fertile steppe phaeozems und chernozems8.

Distribution of Early Neolithic settlements


The definition of the concept tell, in contrast to its
commonly used antonym flat settlement, only applies to well-developed specimens that have distinct
accumulations of debris and not to certain intermediate phenomena described as stratified settlements9
5
6
7
8
9

Furlan 1977, 203.


Furlan 1977, 193ff.
Blthgen/Weischet 1980, 604.
Scheffer/Schachtschabel 1992; Kunzte et al. 1994; FAO 1974.
E. g. Gimbutas et al. 1989; Gimbutas 1992.

Eva Rosenstock

116

Fig. 1. Tell settlements and soil types (after FAO 1992; Rosenstock 2005)
or Tellartige Siedlung10. This is somewhat paradoxical, since every tell was, in its beginnings, a flat settlement11. This study tries to overcome this difficulty,
preliminarily using evidence from the archaeological
literature (when sites were described as tells and related types) and to a lesser extent from the local
toponymy (names of settlements including magoula,
hyk etc.).
In this context, Early Neolithic, i. e. what is
regarded as the earliest phases of food producing in the
Balkan Peninsula, covers the Early Ceramic and Sesklo
in Greece and BEN-M as well as Karanovo I and II in
Bulgaria. In the rest of the Balkans, the Impresso,
Starcevo, WBPP, Krs and Cris and related cultures

also have to be considered12. The correlation with the


Anatolian Early and Late Neolithic as well as Early
Chalcolithic is somewhat more problematic13, but the
14
C-dates for Ilpnar X-VI and Haclar IX-II support
the suggested ceramic parallels with the Early Neolithic
of south-eastern Europe. The Fikirtepe Culture, however, is placed at the beginning of the Ilpnar sequence14
or even earlier15, or else paralleled with Early Chalcolithic Haclar16.
The analysis of a map showing the distribution of
Early Neolithic settlement in relation to soil types in
12
13
14

10
11

Kalicz/Raczky 1990, 16f.


Chapman 1997, 142.

15
16

Alram-Stern 1996, 86f.; Coleman 1992; Ehrich/Bankoff 1992;


Parzinger 1993.
Mellink 1992; Roodenberg 1990, 81; Parzinger 1993, 355;
Schubert 1999; zdoga n 1999.
Roodenberg 1990, 94.
zdogan 1999.
Schoop 2002.

Early Neolithic tell settlements of South-East Europe

the Balkans (fig. 1) makes it clear that there is a preference for Mediterranean soils. In addition to the tells,
other types, such as settlements that are not explicitly
referred to as tells and those that are called flat settlements, have been mapped to check that the distribution
does not merely reflect settlement density, but real
differences in the distribution of these two antonymic
types. Although it must be taken into consideration that
due to their high level of visibility, tells are more likely
to be found by archaeologists and flat settlements are
therefore put at a disadvantage, it can be noted that
other settlements do not avoid brown and steppe soils
as much as the tells.
The correlation with mean annual precipitation
values (fig. 2) is much more obvious: tells are rarely

117

found in regions with more than 1,000 mm/a, and they


have a strong tendency to be located in areas with not
more than 600 mm/a. Tells also tend to cluster in areas where the mean annual temperature is above
11 C, are hardly found between 6 C and 10 C and
never in areas with an annual mean temperature of
less than 5 C (fig. 3). Considered in isolation, neither
of these two characteristics can be seen as very
significant, but it is remarkable that most tells are
either in regions with less than 600 mm/a of precipitation and an annual mean temperature of at least 6 C,
or in regions where a maximum precipitation of
1,000 mm/a meets temperatures that reach a minimum
annual mean of 11 C. These regions fulfil or are close
to Langs criterion of a precipitation/temperature

Fig. 2. Tell settlements and precipitation (after ESRI 2003; Rosenstock 2005)

Eva Rosenstock

118

ratio of less than 60 for arid or semi-arid regions17.


There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as Slatina
in the Sofia area or Vashtmi in Albania, and it is
interesting to note that these areas are again characterized by Mediterranean soils.

Architecture of Early Neolithic settlements


Although the Neolithic architecture of south-eastern
Europe is extremely varied18, we can principally distinguish three types based on the extent to which mud
is used in their construction. On some sites, such as

Otzaki19, walls were made completely of mud brick,


occasionally with some rows of stone as a foundation,
as in Nea Makri. On occasion, for instance in
Achilleion20, the walls were not built with dried bricks,
but with wet mud slabs (pis) packed directly above
one another to form the wall. Since these types do not
require a supporting timber frame, we can subsume
these massive mud houses under one single construction type. Almost pure timber constructions, with posts
and walls made from organic material like wattle or
reed with only a thin mud daub, form the other extreme. They can be encountered, for example, in Nea
Nikomedeia21 or Kolsh I22. Although often also catego-

Fig. 3. Tell settlements and temperature (after ESRI 2003a; Rosenstock 2005)
19
17
18

Blthgen/Weischet 1980, 604.


Perls 2001, 180ff.; Alram-Stern 1996; Treuil 1983; Lichter
1993.

20
21
22

Milojcic/v. Zumbusch-Milojcic 1971.


Gimbutas et al. 1989.
Pike/Yiouni 1996.
Korkuti 1995, 58ff.

Early Neolithic tell settlements of South-East Europe

rized as timber architecture, a type of house often found


in Bulgarian Thrace, such as in Karanovo23 or SofiaSlatina24, should be treated as a separate category. The
diameter of its posts is often less than 10 cm, while the
intervals between them are usually between 20 and 30
cm only values that would rather justify them being
classified as stakes. A thick mud plaster surrounds these
stakes to form a wall of approximately 20-30 cm width25,
so that the mud content of the walls far exceeds the
measurements a wattle-and-daub construction would
reach. Unfortunately, information on wall construction
and post diameters is often lacking in the publications,
so that these specimens have to be classified as timber
buildings. A certain bias putting combined timber/mud
constructions at a disadvantage has to be kept in mind,
although post constructions with stone foundations or,
as known from Banjata with mud walls, were recorded
as combined timber/mud architecture in this study because they are often used to prevent splashing water
from destroying the mud walls26. There is a very clear
connection between annual precipitation and the building material used in the Early Neolithic settlements
(fig. 4): no pure mud architecture is to be found in
regions with more than 600 mm/a, while the distribution of combined timber/mud construction tends to concentrate in regions slightly above the 600 mm/a-isohyet.
Pure timber buildings can be found everywhere, but
represent the only construction type in considerably
wet areas.
We also observe a diachronic tendency: in some
instances early horizons of a tell settlement contain
houses with a higher proportion of timber used in construction, while later the proportion of mud increases.
In Ilpnar X-VI27, Achilleion II/III to IV28 and Otzaki29,
for instance, we find that timber-framed architecture
gives way to solid mud houses during the initial phases
of the sites, whereas during the first horizons at
Karanovo a decrease in the average stake diameter from
approximately 13 to 9 cm is visible30.

Role of ecological conditions in tell formation


Comparing recent ecological conditions with settlement patterns of the 7th and 6th millennium BC is considerably difficult and requires some justification. The
Early Neolithic of south-eastern Europe falls within
the Holocene climatic optimum, when the average tem-

119

peratures were up to 1.5 C warmer than those of


today and precipitation rose by approximately
30-100 mm/a31. However, as there is no more detailed
climatic information available, and as it is suspected
that these changes were mostly proportional32, the
method applied here seems acceptable.
As soils are always under transformation, they
can react very sensitively to changes in climate, vegetation and human impact33. The influence of agriculture, however, mostly affects the plough horizon without changing the main characteristics of the soil type34.
Due to the fact that the forest cover of the lowland
regions in particular has experienced severe deterioration since the 4th millennium35, more considerable
changes have to be expected in the Mediterranean soils
zone than in the brown soils zone of the mountains. As
the main difference between these two soil types lies
in the fact that the latter was prevented from complete
maturization by the effects of the last glaciation36, it
should nevertheless be possible to rely on this very
basic distinction.
As tells are usually regarded as a sign of more
permanent and intensive settlement activity than flat
sites37, their predominance in the most arid regions of
south-eastern Europe could be explained by the
requirements of the Near Eastern domesticates, while
flat sites represent an adaptation to shifting agriculture thought to be necessary in more temperate climates38. However, this assumption is highly debatable,
and as we have seen in the preceding section, flat settlements and tells are not mutually exclusive features
in their respective environments: rather, tell settlements seem to demand more specific environmental
factors than flat settlements. It should also be noted
that with the exception of Achilleion, which in spite of
its 4.2 m of debris is called a stratified settlement
in the excavation report39, all settlements containing
pure mud architecture are recorded as tells in the literature. Although the tells also form the majority of
those sites that contained timber architecture, those
early Neolithic sites that were not categorized as tells
in the literature never made considerable use of mud
in the construction of their houses. Where the thickness of the Early Neolithic layers is known, we note
that timber architecture is most common where the
31
32
33

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Hiller/Nikolov 1997.
Nikolov 1989.
Lichter 1993.
Hlscher et al. 1948, 37.
Roodenberg 1995.
Gimbutas et al. 1989.
Milojcic/v. Zumbusch-Milojcic 1971.
Hiller/Nikolov 1997.

34
35
36
37

38
39

Frenzel 1992; Flohn/Fantechi 1984.


Frenzel 1992, 134.
Limbrey 1975, 83.
Scheffer/Schachtschabel 1992, 437ff.
Willis 1994, 778ff.
Limbrey 1975, 204ff.; Kuntze et al. 1994.
E. g. Childe 1957, 85ff.; Tringham 1971, 91; Sherratt 1983,
191; Chapman 1991, 84; Whittle 1996, 44ff., 79; Perls 2001,
174 but see also Bailey 1999.
Childe 1957, 85ff.; Perls 2001, 118f.
Gimbutas et al. 1989.

Eva Rosenstock

120

Fig. 4. Construction types and precipitation (after ESRI 2003; Rosenstock 2005)
layers are thin, while the highest Early Neolithic tells
contain either mud or combined constructions. The quantity of mud in the houses40, and perhaps also the frequency of rebuilding, might account for the fact that
timber/mud constructions are not only found in tells of
medium height, as to be expected, but also amongst
the highest examples (tab. 1). Combining this picture
and the correlation between the distribution of tell settlements and mud architecture with precipitation, temperature and aridity as well as terra rossa and terra
fusca soils, it is possible to outline a possible scenario
as to how ecological conditions favoured the development of tells in Early Neolithic south-eastern Europe.

Since a considerable amount of water is needed


in the preparation of mud for construction41, the presence of a perennial source, river or lake in close proximity is essential. A. S. Sherratt has already recognized
a connection between tell distribution and floodplains
(fig. 1), although his interpretation pointed towards
agriculture42. To construct houses from mud requires
the absence of rain and frost in order to allow the material to dry - arid regions where evaporation exceeds
precipitation considerably facilitate this process. In addition, the amount of rain falling during the summer
decreases significantly towards the south of the Balkan
Peninsula, and the eastern coast has much less rainy
41

40

Sherratt 1983, 192.

42

Hlscher et al. 1948; Rheinisches Freilichtmuseum 1986.


Sherratt 1980.

Early Neolithic tell settlements of South-East Europe

days than the western coast43. Whereas mud bricks dry


rather quickly, but this is only possible under very good
conditions, the slow-drying pis and combined timber/
mud constructions have the advantage that they can be
easily protected from sudden rainfall by means of shelters44. The fact that the latter construction types are
more common towards the north of our study area
(fig. 4) illustrates a possible connection between architecture and the reliability of a season of warm
weather where damaging rain is not to be expected.
In these regions, people either built their houses
from mud from the very beginning, as seems to be the
case in many instances in eastern Greece, abandoned
initial timber construction in favour of mud, or else
after a time began to use timber of lower quality. Some
explanations for this have pointed at the desire to express sedentariness or the household in more substantial houses45. However, it should be kept in mind
that, since settlement activity entails considerable
clearance of forests for fields, fuel and construction, it
could also be a result of exploitation of timber resources.
This seems particularly likely in dry areas46 with poor
soils such as terra rossa and terra fusca. These soils,
however, provide excellent loams that, due to their
maturity and high content of iron oxides, maintain their
volume under changing humidity conditions and are very
suitable for house construction to avoid fissures47. Since
mud from house debris as an inorganic matter that does
not decay is regarded as the main factor of tell formation48, it seems reasonable to suggest a connection between the possible climatic and pedological determination of construction types and the distribution of tells
that follows similar criteria.

121

or adobe architecture became the characteristic desert


architecture of sedentary, corn-raising people in a region of scanty rainfall, sparse timber and abundant
clay50. Ecological determinism, however, cannot account for all differences in human behaviour - somehow the inhabitants of Vashtmi managed to accumulate about 1.5 m of debris from timber-framed wattleand-daub houses during the Early Neolithic51 in an area
characterized by an annual precipitation of well beyond 1,000 mm. Likewise, many tells rose from timber houses only (although, as mentioned above, it should
be admitted that in such cases information on the mud
content of the walls is often lacking). The initial architecture in Achilleion was pis on stone foundations and
was afterwards replaced for some time by timber constructions52. Does this provide evidence of newcomers
who brought with them their own traditional building
methods and after a time learned about the advantages
of locally available building materials? The needs of
domesticates, the geographical and climatic preferences
of the people, and the ecological conditions determining certain types of architecture all have to be considered in the problem of how settlement mounds came
into existence. Moreover, their inhabitants, who possibly expressed their habits and identities through the
architecture53 and even through the tells themselves54,
also contribute to this question to such an extent that
one-sided explanations must fall short. Nevertheless,
as this study has aimed to demonstrate, architecture
determined by ecological factors played an integral role
in their development that should not be underestimated.

Acknowledgements
Conclusion
Early in the 20th century, Emil Forrer noted regional
differences in tell density during his survey in Anatolia.
He assumed that regions with few tells were densely
forested in pre-Roman times, thus providing enough timber to prevent the inhabitants from being forced to use
mud49. In human geography textbooks, mud brick, pis

43
44
45
46
47
48
49

Furlan 1977, 297f.


Hlscher et al. 1948, 21.
Tringham/Krstic 1990, 605ff.
Perls 2001, 118.
Limbrey 1975, 204ff.
Davidson 1976; Rosen 1986 but see also Haita 1997.
Forrer 1927, 40.

This article is part of a research project which was


carried out as a Dr. phil. dissertation in Tbingen. I
wish to thank the German Merit Foundation for enabling me to join the EAA 8th Annual Meeting, and the
editors of this volume for providing me with the opportunity to publish this paper. I am especially grateful to
Prof. Dr. M. Korfmann, Dr. J. Chapman, M. Schmidt
M.A. and Dr. U. Schoop for discussing my ideas and
commenting on the paper.

50
51
52
53
54

Huntington et al. 1951, 12.


Korkuti 1995, 41ff.
Gimbutas et al. 1989.
Rapoport 1969.
Chapman 1997, 152ff.; Bailey 1999, 97.

122

Tab. 1. Settlement types, architecture and thickness of EN layers (after Rosenstock 2005)

Eva Rosenstock

Early Neolithic tell settlements of South-East Europe

123

124

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Eva Rosenstock

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