Conventional All To Read For IES

4/1/2015
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Content
Welding
Casting
Metrology
Unconventional
Other Machine tools
Jig Fixtures
NC CNC Robotics
Material Science
Metal Cutting, Metal forming, metrology
All PPTs
Three types of flames can be obtained by varying

the oxygen/acetylene (or oxygen/fuel gas) ratio.
If the ratio is about 1 : 1 to 1.15 : 1, all reactions are
carried to completion and a neutral flame is produced.
Most welding is done with a neutral flame. It is
chemically neutral and neither oxidizes or carburizes
the metal being welded.
Oxy-acetylene gas welding neutral flame
IES 2009 Conventional

Explain the three types of oxy-acetylene flames.
Indicate with the help of sketches the various
zones,
respective
temperature
ranges
and
applications of each type of flame.

[ 20 Marks]
A higher ratio, such as 1.5 : 1, produces an oxidizing

flame, hotter than the neutral flame (about 3300oC)
but similar in appearance.
Used when welding copper and copper alloys but
harmful when welding steel because the excess oxygen
reacts with the carbon, decarburizing the region
around the weld.
Oxy-acetylene gas welding Oxidising flame
Excess fuel, on the other hand, produces a carburizing

flame. Carburizing flame can carburize metal also.
The excess fuel decomposes to carbon and hydrogen,
and the flame temperature is not as great (about
3000oC).
Flames of this type are used in welding Monel (a
nickel-copper alloy), high-carbon steels, and some
alloy steels, and for applying some types of hard-facing
material.
Metal
MS
High carbon steel
Grey cast iron
Alloy steel
Aluminium
Brass
Copper, Bronze
Nickel alloys
Lead
Flame
N
R
N, slightly oxidizing
N
Slightly carburizing
Slightly oxidizing
N
Oxy-acetylene gas welding Carburizing flame
4/1/2015
Always use the special wrench or key provided by the
supplier to open and close acetylene cylinder valves

not provided with hand wheels. Such keys should
always be left on the cylinder while in use in case of an
emergency need to shut down
Five gases used for gas welding

1.
Acetelyne (C2H2) gives 50 MJ/Kg
Hydrogen (H2) 11 MJ/m3

3. Propane (Gasol) C3H8
2.
4. Propylene (THERMOLENE) C3H6
5.
LPG
Combustion of oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) in a

welding torch produces a temp. in a two stage reaction.
In the first stage
CH
2 2 O2 2CO H2
+ Heat
This reaction occurs near the tip of the torch.
In the second stage combustion of the CO and H2 and
occurs just beyond the first combustion zone.
2CO + O2 2CO2 + Heat
1
H2 + 2O2 H2O + Heat
Oxygen for secondary reactions is obtained from the
atmosphere.
IAS-2011 Main
Draw a self explanatory sketch of oxy-acetylene gas
cutting torch. Briefly explain how cutting is
effected.
[20-Marks]
4/1/2015
For thicker plates with specified contour, shearing

cannot be used and oxy-fuel gas cutting (OFC) is
useful.
Gas-cutting is similar to gas welding except torch tip.
Oxygen Torch Cutting (Gas Cutting)

Iron and steel oxidize (burn) when heated to a
temperature between 8000C to 10000C.
High-pressure oxygen jet (300 KPa) is directed against
a heated steel plate, the oxygen jet burns the metal and
blows it away causing the cut (kerf ).
For cutting metallic plates shears are used. These are
useful for straight-line cuts and also for cuts up to 40
mm thickness.
Fig- differences in torch tips for gas welding and gas cutting
Contd
For complete oxidation 0.287 m3 oxygen/kg of iron is

required
Contd
The drag lines shows the characteristics of the movement
of the oxygen stream.
Due to unoxidized metal blown away the actual

requirement is much less.
Torch tip held vertically or slightly inclined in the
direction of travel.
Torch position is about 1.5 to 3 mm vertical from plate.
Fig- positioning of cutting torch in oxyfuel gas cutting
Drag is the amount by which the lower edge of the drag
line trails from the top edge.

Good cut means negligible drag.
Contd
Contd
4/1/2015
If torch moved too rapidly, the bottom does not get

sufficient heat and produces large drag so very rough
and irregular-shaped-cut edges.
If torch moved slowly a large amount of slag is
generated and produces irregular cut.
Gas cutting is more useful with thick plates.

For thin sheets (less than 3 mm thick) tip size should
be small. If small tips are not available then the tip is
inclined at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees.
Fig. Recommended torch position for cutting thin steel

Contd
IFS-2011
Low Hydrogen Electrode
What is meant by low -hydrogen electrode ?

[2-marks]
The basic coatings contain large amount of

calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium
fluoride (fluorspar) and produce low hydrogen.
But it can absorb moisture therefore coated low
hydrogen electrodes are backed before use to a
temperature of 200oC to 3000C and stored in an
oven at 110oC to 150oC
Other types of electrode release large amount of
hydrogen, which can dissolve in the weld metal
and lead to embrittlement or cracking.
IFS-2011
What is the maximum output current that can be
drawn at 100% duty cycle from a welding power source
rated at 600A at 60% duty cycle.
[3-Marks]
Duty Cycle
The percentage of time in a 5 min period that a
welding machine can be used at its rated output
without overloading.
Time is spent in setting up, metal chipping, cleaning
and inspection.
For manual welding a 60% duty cycle is suggested and
for automatic welding 100% duty cycle.
Contd
4/1/2015
IAS-2013
I
Ia
Required duty cycle, Ta T

Where ,T = rated duty cycle
I = rated current at the rated duty cycle
Io = Maximum current at the rated duty cycle
The overall resistance in the welding circuits can be
quite low, high currents are generally required to

produce a resistance weld. Power transformers convert
the high-voltage, low-current line power to the highcurrent (up to 100,000 A) low-voltage (0.5 to 10 V)
power required for welding. While smaller machines
Fig. The desired temperature
distribution
across
the
electrodes and the work
pieces in lap resistance
welding.
Fig.
Typical
pressure cycle
welding. The
forging and
operations.
current
and
for resistance
cycle includes
post heating
may utilize single-phase circuitry. Time for a cycle will

be 10 to 100 milliseconds.
Projection welding
Limitations of spot welding.
1. Electrode
condition must be maintained

continually, and only one spot weld at a time.
2. For additional strength multiple welds needed.
Projection
welding (RPW) overcomes above
limitations.
Fig. The arrangement of the electrodes and the work in spot

welding, showing design for replaceable electrode tips.
Contd
4/1/2015
Dimples are embossed on work pieces at the weld

locations and then placed between large-area
electrodes, and pressure and current applied like spot
welding.
Current flows through the dimples and heats them
and pressure causes the dimples to flatten and form a
weld.
Projections are press-formed in any shape.

Multiple welds at a time.
No indentation mark on the surface.
Bolts and nuts can be attached to other metal parts.
Fig. Principle of
projection welding,
(a) prior to application of
current and pressure
(b) and after formation of
welds
Contd
IES 2007
What is the principle of resistance welding?
Indicate where the resistance is maximum in spot
welding operation.
[ 2 marks]
Flash Welding
It is similar to upset welding except the arc rather than
resistance heating.
One pieces is clamped with cam controlled movable
platen and other with is fixed platen.
Two pieces are brought together and the power supply is

switched on. Momentarily the two pieces are separated
to create the arc to melt the ends of the two pieces.
Then again the pieces are brought together and the
power switched off while the two ends are fused under
force. Most of the metal melted would flash out
through the joint and forms like a fin around the joint.
Faster than upset welding.
Contd
4/1/2015
Advantages
1. Butt welding is possible
2. Impurities and contaminants are squeezed out during this
operations so good quality welding
Applications
For Butt joint only
Heat is generated from the are as the ends of the two
members begin to make contact. An axial force is

applied at a control rate then weld is formed by plastic
deformation (Upsetting) of the joint, so flash is
needed.
Current and Voltage

1.
Current very low (1 to 10 A)
2. Voltage very high ( 10 kV to 1500 kV)

Two steel sheets of thickness one mm are welded
by resistance projection welding technique. A
current of 30,000 A for 0005 second is made to
flow. The effective resistance of joint can be taken
as 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered as
a cylinder of diameter 5 mm and height 15 mm.
The density of steel is 000786 gm/mm3. The heat
needed for welding steel is 10 J/mm3. Calculate the
efficiency of welding.
[20]
Friction Welding
IFS-2011
Discuss with figure the various steps required for
friction welding, mentioning at least two methods
of control.
[5-marks]
Machine is similar to a centre lathe.
Heat is obtained by the friction between the ends of
the two parts to be joined.
Power requirements 25 kVA to 175 kVA.

The axial pressure depends on the strength and
One part is rotated at a high speed and other part is
axially aligned and pressed tightly against it.
hardness of the metals being joined.

Pressure 40 MPa for low-carbon steels to as high as 450
Friction raises the temperature of both the ends. Then
MPa for alloy steels.
rotation is stopped abruptly and the pressure is

increased to join.
Contd
Contd
4/1/2015
Very efficient.
Wide variety of metals or combinations of metals can
be joined such as aluminium to steel.
Grain size is refined
Strength is same as base metal.
Only round bars or tubes of the same size, or
connecting bars or tubes to flat surfaces can join.
One of the components must be ductile.
Friction welding is a solid state welding.
A low contact pressure may be applied initially to
permit cleaning of the surfaces by a burnishing action.
Fig- friction welding process
Contd
IAS-2014
Plasma Arc Weld (PAW)

Similar to GTAW except the plasma caused by the arc is
constricted by a water-cooled orifice

Uses ionized gas jet (plasma) to cut materials resistant to
oxy-fuel cutting,
High velocity electrons generated by the arc impact gas
molecules, and ionize them.

The ionized gas is forced through nozzle, and the jet heats
the metal, and blasts the molten metal away.

Capable of high welding speeds where size permits
Argon is used as the shielding gas.
Advantage
Plasma arc has directional Stability, work to torch
distance is not critical and arc length can vary.
Lower heat input and lower filler metal needed
No edge preparation needed
Limitation
Expensive equipment
Restricted to flat and horizontal positions only
Maximum thickness limited 25 mm
Large amount of ultraviolet and infrared rays are emitted.
4/1/2015
Application
Stainless steel
Nickel based alloy
Suitable for refractory metal coating like alumina on
graphite nozzles for rockets.
Welding design and defect

Welding Problem
Cracking of weld metal
Cracking of base metal
Spatter
Distortion
Slag inclusion
Porosity
Lamellar Tearing
Causes
High joint rigidity
Excessive stresses
Arc blow
Poor joint selection
Improper cleaning in multipass welding
Excessive H2, O2, N2, in the
welding atmosphere or Damp
electrodes
inclusions such as Mn Fe and S
in the base metal and/or
residual stress
Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the

ultimate tensile strength of material.
These stresses are developed due to shrinkage during
solidification of weld metal.
Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base
metal, high sulphur and carbon contents, high arc
travel speeds i.e. fast cooling rates, too concave or
convex weld bead and high hydrogen contents in the
weld metal
Cold-cracking in steel weldments depends on
1. Carbon equivalent
2. Heat input
3. Effective thickness
3. Hydrogen content in weld pool
2

Ta I T 60 160 T T 23.4375
100
Ia
2
PREHEATING is done to prevent hot cracking.
4/1/2015

Enumerate four defects caused due to residual stresses in
welded joints.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a- c welding machine?
[2 Marks]
Ans.
1. Distortion
2. Cracking in the base metal
3.
Lamellar Tearing
4. Reduction of fatigue strength
Advantages:
1. Welding transformer and its controller is very much cheaper as compared to D.C
set.
2. No rotating parts so less of wear and tear.
3. Troublesome magnetic fields causing arc blow is eliminated.
4. Efficiency is slightly more than DC setup.
Disadvantages:
1. Covered electrodes must be used. The AC arc cannot be used satisfactorily for bare
wire or lightly coated rods as the DC arc.
2. Higher voltage is to be used , consequently risk of shock is also more as compared
to DC Welding.
3. AC welding machines have moderate penetration.
4. More diamter is required to have more AC current to get more filler material
deposit rates and faster welding speeds.
5. Welding of cast iron, bronze and aluminium cannot be done using AC set up.
If the pressure is not applied properly or insufficient pressure is applied then

porosity may develop at the center of the nugget or cracks may be formed.
Stuck welds may be formed i.e. welds with unacceptable low bond strength.
If excessive pressure is applied then results in
Weld expulsion
Welds with low structural strength and low cosmetic quality.
10
4/1/2015
Effect of welding speed on grain structure:

Low speed tend to allow growing columnar grain to
follow the arc, curving in behind the moving heat
source also has grain refining effect.
High speed welds tend to produce solidification
pattern in which columnar crystals grow in parallel,
straight rows to the weld centreline. This grain
structure tends to be weaker under stress.
High weld speed produce finer cell spacing than slow
speed welding.
A consumable electrode in a gas shield.

Arc is between workpiece and an automatically fed barewire electrode.
Argon, helium, and mixtures of the two can be used.
Any metal can be welded but are used primarily with the
non-ferrous metals.
When welding steel, some O2 or CO2 is usually added to
improve the arc stability and reduce weld spatter.
Applications
Fast and economical.
A reverse-polarity dc arc is generally used because of its
deep penetration, spray transfer, and ability to produce
smooth welds with good profile
DIFFUSION WELDING
It is a solid state welding process which produces
coalescence of the faying surfaces by the application
of pressure and elevated temperatures (about 50 to
80% of absolute melting point of the parent
materials) for a time ranging from a couple of minutes
to a few hours.
Produces high quality bonds with good strength with
little or no distortion.
Can join very dissimilar materials.
A solid filler metal may or may not be inserted.
Materials welded for aircraft and rocket industry:
Boron, Titanium, Aluminium, Ceramic, Composite,
Graphite, Magnesium etc.
TIG
Arc is established between a non-consumable tungsten electrode
and the workpiece.
Tungsten is alloyed with thorium or zirconium for better currentcarrying and electron-emission characteristics.
Arc length is constant, arc is stable and easy to maintain.
With or without filler.
Very clean welds.
All metals and alloys can be welded. (Al, Mg also)
Straight polarity is used.
Weld voltage 20 to 40 V and weld current 125 A for RPDC to 1000
A for SPDC.
Shielded Gas: Argon
Torch is water or air cooled
IAS-2011
11
4/1/2015
Submerged Arc welding (SAW)

A thick layer of granular flux is deposited just ahead of
a bare wire consumable electrode, and an arc is

maintained beneath the blanket of flux with only a few
Most suitable for flat butt or fillet welds in low
carbon steel (< 0.3% carbon).

The process is not recommended for high-carbon
steels,
small flames being visible.

A portion of the flux melts. Molten flux and flux
tool
steels,
aluminum,
magnesium,
titanium, lead, or zinc.
provides thermal insulation, slows cooling rate and

produce soft, ductile welds.
Contd
Characteristic of submerged arc welding

High speeds,
High deposition rates,
Deep penetration,
High cleanliness (due to the flux action).
Advantages
Limitations
Wire electrodes are inexpensive.
Extensive flux handling,
No weld spatter.
Contamination of the flux by moisture.
Nearly 100% deposition efficiency.
Large-grain-size structures.
Lesser electrode consumption.
Welding is restricted to the horizontal position.

Chemical control is important
12
4/1/2015
IES-2010
How do zirconium and thorium affect the tungsten
electrode in the GTAW process? What is weld decay
in Ni Cr steels ?
IES-2010
Is it possible to weld tantalum to steel, if yes, by
which method ? Explain
the term hot cracks in
welding and write four important causes.
The tungsten electrode which is often alloyed with thorium or

zirconium to provide better current-carrying and electron-emission
characteristics .
WELD DECAY
During welding of steel ; formation of chromium carbide
along the grain boundaries may take place.
This results in the depletion of chromium percentage in
the adjoining region of grain boundary.
If this depletion of Chromium percentage is more than
12% which is needed to maintain a passive layer then the
region will be susceptible to corrosion, resulting in
intergranular attack.
Intergrannular corrosion causes loss of metal in the
region that parallels the weld deposit. This corrosion
behaviour is called as weld decay.
Yes, tantalum can be welded to steel by using explosive

welding.
Hot cracks are caused by
Joint design
Restraint imposed on weld
Hot cracks are also caused by low melting constituents
,that extend the temperature range of low hot strength and
low ductility to temperatures below that of the alloy. Eg, in
steel presence of phisphides and sulfides and copper can
seggregate grainboundaries and cause cracking.
Weld beads with high depth to width ratio can promote
the build up of low melting phases at pool centerline and
thus cause hot cracking.
Explosion Welding
Done at room temperature in air, water or vacuum.
Surface contaminants tend to be blown off the surface.
Typical impact pressures are millions of psi.
Well suited to metals that is prone to brittle joints
Important factors are,

Critical velocity
Critical angle
The cladding plate can be supported with tack welded
supports at the edges, or the metal inserts.
when heat welded, such as,

Aluminum on steel
Titanium on steel
Contd
Contd
13
4/1/2015
Typically the detonation velocity should not exceed

120% of the sonic velocity in the metal.
Contd
Advantages,
Can bond many dissimilar, normally unweldable
metals
The lack of heating preserves metal treatment
The process is compact, portable, and easy to contain
Inexpensive
No need for surface preparation
Contd
High velocity explosives, 4572-7620 m/s.

TNT
RDX
PETN
Composition B
Composition C4
Datasheet
Primacord
Medium velocity explosives, 1524-4572 m/s
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium perchlorate
Amatol
Nitroguonidine
Dynamites
diluted PETN
Contd
Disadvantages,
The metals must have high enough impact resistance,
and ductility (at least 5%)
The cladding plate cannot be too large.
Noise and blast can require worker protection, vacuum
chambers, buried in sand/water.
Contd
Typical applications:
Very large plates can be cladded.
Joins dissimilar metals.
(titanium to steel, Al to steel, Al to Cu etc.)

Join tube to tube sheets of large heat exchangers.
Contd
14
4/1/2015
IES-2010
Discuss short circuiting metal transfer in GMAW
mentioning its suitability.
Also define the term
transition current, with figure.
TRANSITION CURRENT:
At a current above the critical
value called the transition
current
transfer
higlhly
directed stream of discrete
droplets of metal in the form of
spray occurs.
Below
transition
current
transfer
mode
becomes
globular and above tansition
current it is spray transfer.
Spray Transfer is achieved by
high current and larger
diameter of electrode wire.
IES 2010
In metal casting define the terms chaplet and resin
binder. Write the merits and demerits of shell

moulding process.
Fig (a) shows the initiation of arc. Under the intense heat of arc
electrode tip melts away and forms a globule of molten metal at the tip.
Fig(b) As the electrode wire is fed towards the work piece, the molten
tip touches the weld metal pool and
Fig (c) when the tip touches the metal pool short circuiting takes place,
that short circuits electrode to the workpiece. This reduces Voltage
across the arc.
Fig (d) The metal tip gets pinched by the surface tension of the weld
metal pool as well as the magnetic force due to current flow. Finally the
metal is pinched away and the arc gets ignited again, and the cycle is
repeated all over again.
Casting
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the

mould cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome
the metallostatic forces. Since some of this metal will
melt during the operation. Since they ultimately become
part of the final casting, chaplets must be made from the
same alloy as that being cast.
Resin binder : Resign binder is a thermosetting phenolic
resin (phenol formaldehyde) which acts as a binder. When

heated pattern is come in contact with fine sand and resign
mixture a shell is produced.
15
4/1/2015
Merits
Good dimensions tolerance
Good surface finishing
High production rate.
IES-2010
Explain why the strength to weight ratio of die cast
parts increases with decreasing wall thickness.
Demerits
Part size limited
Expensive pattern and equipment required.
IES-2010
Density is another property engineers may considers
especially for compact, high efficiency and light weight
application. Material strength helps determine if a
design made out of die cast metal can be slimmed
down for weight saving, and hence when decrease as
thickness increase. Strength to weight ratio of die
cast part.
Explain the term stack molding.
IAS2011
Stack moulding are high production plastic injection
moulds with multiple parting line, with stack

moulding we can produce multiple injection moulded
plastic parts more economically over a large
production run, stack moulding uses small machines
that stack vertically take up less space, reduce run cost.
Advantage of stack moulding
Increase output efficiency
Fewer machines requires
Multiple parts designs produces simultaneously.
16
4/1/2015
Runner: A runner is commonly a horizontal channel
which connects the sprue with gates, thus allowing the

molten metal to enter the mould cavity. The runners
are of larger cross-section and often streamlined to
slow down and smooth out the flow, and are designed
to provide approximately uniform flow rates to the
various parts of the mould cavity. Runners are
commonly made trapezoidal in cross-section.
Liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage

Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in volume
when the metal changes temperature from pouring to

solidus temperature in liquid state. To account for this,
risers are provided in the moulds.
Solidification shrinkage refers to the reduction in
volume when metal changes from liquid to solid state
at the solidus temperature. To account for this, risers
are provided in the moulds.
Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused,
when a metal loses temperature in the solid state. The
shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of this
reduction.
Contd
Gray CI with a carbon equivalent of 4.3% has
negative shrinkage, that is, it actually expands

upto 2.5% because of graphite precipitation. So,
for this, no riser is needed.
17
4/1/2015
Metallurgical defects
During solidification nucleation event produces a
crystal or grain and latent heat removed.

During cooling thermal vibrations reduces.
Hot tears or hot cracking, cause of this defect is that

stresses and strains built up during solidification are too
high compared to the actual strength of the semisolid
material. This type of defects occurs in the lower part of
the solidification range, close to the solidus, when the
alloy has a wide solidification temperature range and a
small amount of liquid, when the solid fraction is more
than 0.9, the hot tearing is easy to occur. Proper mould
design prevents this type of defect.
The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by

a lower fluidity of the mold or when the section
thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be
improved by changing the composition of the metal
and by increasing the pouring temperature of the
metal.
Riser Size: Freezing time or riser or casting depends upon the
Principle of riser design

Riser size, shape and location, as well as the type of
connection between the riser and casting.
amount of heat in a casting (Directly) and depends inversely upon

the surface area of the casting. Based on this facts many relations
have been suggested by different scientists. The riser should also
be designed to conserve the metal.
Riser Shape: Riser should tall enough so that any shrinkage cavity
in the riser ( pipe formation ) does not penetrate into the castings.
The shrinkage cavity must lie above the neck. The neck should be
as short as possible and also solidify longer than the casting.
Riser location: It should be located so that directional
solidification occurs from the extremities of the mould cavity back
towards riser. Since the thickest regions of a casting will be last to
freeze, the riser should be feed directly into these locations.
18
4/1/2015
Conventional Question ESE 2003
A round casting is 20 mm in diameter and 50 mm in
length. Another casting of the same metal is elliptical in

cross section, with a major to minor axis ratio of 2, and
Compare the solidification time of two optimum side
has the same length and cross-sectional area as the
risers of the same volume with one has cylindrical shape
round casting. Both pieces are cast under the same
and other is parallopiped.
[30 Marks]
conditions. What is the difference in the solidification

times of the two castings ?
[10 Marks]
Areaof ellipseab
Circumference 3ab 3aba3b
2 a2 b2 /2 (approx.)
Modulus Method
It has been empirically established that if the modulus
of the riser exceeds the modulus of the casting by a
D2 D2
factor of 1.2, the feeding during solidification would be
satisfactory.
MR = 1.2 Mc
Modulus = volume/Surface area
In steel castings, it is generally preferable to choose a
riser with a height-to-diameter ratio of 1.

Contd
Conventional Question IES-2008

Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and diameter
Caines Method
Freezing ratio = ratio of cooling characteristics of casting to
the riser.
A
X V Casting
A
V Riser
equal) necessary to feed a steel slab casting of dimensions

30 x 30 x 6 cm with a side riser, casting poured horizontally
The riser should solidify last so x > 1
into the mould.
According to Caine
[Use Modulus Method]

[10 - Marks]
Y=
X=
a c
Yb
Vriser
and a, b, c are constant.
Vcasting
19
4/1/2015
Table: Constants in Caines Method
Naval Research Laboratory Method
Conventional Question IES-2007

Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and
diameter equal) necessary to feed a steel slab

casting of dimensions 25 x 25 x 5 cm with a side
riser, casting poured horizontally into the mould.
[Use Caines Method]
[ For steel a = 0.10, b = 0.03 and c = 1.00 ]
This method is a simplification of Caine's

method. In this method, freezing ratio is replaced
by Shape Factor.
The shape factor is defined as
Shape Factor= (Length+Width)/Thickness
The underlying argument is that calculating
volumes and surface areas is too complicated and
therefore simplification would be desirable. The
length, width and thicknesses are computed from
the maximum dimensions of the casting section.
Procedure for getting riser size is as follows:

1. Calculate the shape factor for the given casting.
2. Obtain riser volume to casting volume ratio from the
graph . (or the table provided in questions)
3. Calculate riser volume Vr .
4. For cylindrical riser (h=D), Vr = (.D3 )/4
5. Obtain the diameter.
For circular plates, the length and width are same as that
of the diameter.
But for cylinders, the width and thickness are same as the
diameter for calculating the shape factor.
But for calculating the riser volume actual casting volume
is to be used.
20
4/1/2015
Example
The other shape of interest is hollow cylindrical shape. In

these the heat removal is restricted , a correction factor k,
needs to be applied to get the effective plate thickness. If T
is the true wall thickness
Core
0.5T
diameter
Correction 1.17
factor
2T
4T
1.14
1.02
1.00
Shape Factor = (Length+ width)/(k.T)
GATE-2015
The dimensions of a cylindrical side
riser(height = diameter) for a 25 cm x 15 cm x 5
cm steel casting are to be determined. For the
tabulated shape factor values given below, the
diameter of the riser (in cm)________
Shape Factor
10
12
Riser volume /
Casting Volume
1.0
0.70
0.55 0.50 0.40 0.35
Normally the risers are located at the heaviest sections and they themselves act as
feeders for thin sections. But when smaller sections are connected to thicker
sections, the riser should have larger volume to cater this appendage.
The total volume of the casting is taken as the volume of the main section plus
the effective percentage of the appendage volume, called the parasitic volume.
Calculate the height of cylindrical riser(height=diameter)

necessary to feed the steel slab casting 25 x 25 x 5 with a
side riser, casting poured horizontally into the mold.
Solution:
Shape Factor = (25+25)/5 = 10
From graph at shape factor 10 (riser volume/casting volume) is
0.47.
Riser Volume(Vr ) = (riser volume/casting volume) x casting
volume
Riser Volume = 0.47 x 25 x 25x 5 =1468.75 cm3
For cylindrical riser of height = diameter
Vr = (.D3 )/4
1468.75= (.D3 )/4
D = 12.32 cm
Shape Factor = lengthwidth 2515 8

thickness
5
Fromthe given table, for shape factor of 8,
ratio of Riser volume to casting volume is 0.5,
Volume of riser = 0.5 x casting volume
0.5 x 25 x 15 x 5 =937.5 cm3
For a cylindrical riser with height = diameter
3
V D
4
3
937.5 D D 10.60cm
4
Example
Calculate the risering requirement for the casting
shown in fig.
GRAPH-2
21
4/1/2015
First neglect the branch and calculate shape factor for main
plate ;
Shape Factor = (25+12.5)/5 = 7.5
From graph at shape factor 7.5 (riser volume/casting volume)
is 0.575
Riser Volume(Vr ) = (riser volume/casting volume) x casting
volume
Riser Volume = 0.575 x 25 x 12.5x 5 =898.437 cm3
The branch Volume=2.5 x 2.5 x 10 =62.5cm3
This is plate feeding the bar with thickness ratio (2.5/5) of 0.5.
From the graph we get parasitic volume of 30%
Hence, riser volume = 0.3 x 62.5 + 898.437=917.185cm3
Vr = (.D3 )/4
or 917.185= (.D3 )/4
or D = 10.53 cm
Grain fineness test

Permeability test
Sand mould strength test
Moisture Content test
Clay content test
hardness test
Types of Gate or In-gate

Top gate: Causes turbulence in the mould cavity, it is prone
to form dross, favourable temperature gradient towards the
gate, only for ferrous alloys.
Bottom gate: No mould erosion, used for very deep moulds,
higher pouring time, Causes unfavourable temperature
gradients.
Parting Gate: most widely used gate, easiest and most
economical in preparation.
Step Gate: Used for heavy and large castings, size of ingates
are normally increased from top to bottom.
Pouring Metal Defects

The likely defects in this category are
Mis-runs and
Cold shuts
A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill
the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled
cavities.
A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting
in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus
forming a discontinuity in the casting.
Contd
22
4/1/2015
Cupola
The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by
metal.
Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for

melting cast iron.
In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to preheat the
air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in the
furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola. Coke is fuel and Lime stone
(CaCO3) is mostly used flux.
Cost of melting low.
Main disadvantages of cupola is that it is not possible to
produce iron below 2.8% carbon.
Steel can be also prepared in cupola by employing
duplexing and triplexing operations.
IES 2007
What is permeability? Permeability is more important
in the basic process of sand casting than porosity. Give
one important reason for this feature.
[2 marks]
Permeability: Gases evolving from the molten metal

and generated from the mould may have to go
through the core to escape out of the mould. Hence
cores are required to have higher permeability.
Permeability Number: The rate of flow of air passing
through a standard specimen under a standard pressure is
termed as permeability number.
The standard permeability test is to measure time
taken by a 2000 cu cm of air at a pressure typically of
980 Pa (10 g/cm2), to pass through a standard sand
specimen confined in a specimen tube. The standard
specimen size is 50.8 mm in diameter and a length of
50.8 mm.
Then, the permeability number, R is obtained by
R VH
pAT
Calculate the permeability number of sand if it takes 1 min
25 s to pass 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure of5 g/cm2 through

the standard sample.
Where V= volume of air = 2000 cm3

H = height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm
p = air pressure, g/cm2
A = cross sectional area of sand specimen = 20.268 cm 2
T = time in minutes for the complete air to pass through
p 5.0g / cm2
T 1min25s 1.417min
R 501.28 70.75
51.417
Inserting the above standard values into the

expression, we get
R 501.28
pT
.
23
4/1/2015
Friability: The ability to crumble should be a very
important consideration at the time of removal.
Collapsibility: At the time of cooling, casting shrinks, and
unless the core has good collapsibility (ability to decrease

in size) it is likely to provide resistance against shrinkage
and thus can cause hot tears.
Carbon Dioxide Moulding

Sodium silicate (water glass, SiO2:Na2O) is used as a binder.
This is essentially a quick process of core or mould

preparation.
The mould is prepared with a mixture of sodium silicate and
sand and then treated with carbon dioxide for two to three
minutes such that a dry compressive strength of over 1.4
MPa is arrived.
The carbon dioxide is expected to form a weak acid, which
hydrolyses the sodium silicate resulting in amorphous silica,
which forms the bond.
The introduction of CO2 gas starts the reaction by forming
hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 + H2O).
The compressive strength of the bond increases with
standing time due to dehydration.

Because of the high strength of the bond, the core need not
be provided with any other reinforcements.

It does not involve any distortions due to baking and also
better dimensional accuracies are achieved.

The sand mixture does not have good shelf life and
therefore should be used immediately after preparation.
Contd
Purpose
Muller's are normally used in foundries to mix the sands.

Type
1.
2.
Batch muller for small foundries

Continuous muller for large scale productions
24
4/1/2015
Distortion Allowance
A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and
therefore is likely to be distortion prone.
This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long
flat portions, V, U sections or in a complicated casting
which may have thin and long sections which are
connected to thick sections.
The foundry practice should be to make extra
material provision for reducing the distortion.
Single Crystal Casting

The process is effectively:
1. Prepare a mold so that one end is a heated oven, and
the other end chilled. The part should be oriented so
that the cooling happens over the longest distance.
2. Cast metal into the mold
3. Solidification will begin at the chill plate. These
dendrites will grow towards the heated end of the
part as long dendritic crystals. The part is slowly
pulled out of the oven, past the chill plate.
4. Remove the solidified part.
Creep and thermal shock resistance properties.
25
4/1/2015
Investment Casting
Investment casting process or lost wax process
Basic steps:
1. Produce expendable wax, plastic, or polystyrene patterns.
2. Assemble these patterns onto a gating system
3. Investing or covering the pattern assembly with refractory
slurry
4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
5. Firing the mould to remove the last traces of the pattern
material
6.Pouring molten metal
7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing.
Fig. Investment flask-casting procedure
Ceramic Shell Investment Casting

In ceramic shell investment casting a ceramic shell is
built around a tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a

pattern into a slurry (refractory material such as
zircon with binder).
After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the
assembly is allowed to thoroughly dry before the next

coating is applied.
IES 2009
2 marks
Slush Casting
Slush casting is a variation of the permanent mold process
in which the metal is permitted to remain in the mold only

until a shell of the desired thickness has formed.
The mold is then inverted and the remaining liquid is
poured out.
When the mold halves are separated, the resulting casting
is a hollow shape with good surface detail but variable wall
thickness.
Frequently used to cast low-melting-temperature metals
into ornamental objects such as candlesticks, lamp bases,
and statuary.
26
4/1/2015
Errors
IES 2010
Systematic errors or fixed errors (Bias): Due to faulty
What is meant by interchangeable manufacture ?

Discuss a Go gauge.
or improperly calibrated instruments. These may be

reduced or eliminated by correct choice of instruments.
Eg. calibration errors, Errors of technique etc.
Random errors: Random errors are due to non-specific
cause like natural disturbances that may occur during

the experiment. These cannot be eliminated.
Eg. Errors stemming from environmental variations, Due
to Insufficient sensitivity of measuring system
Accuracy & Precision

Accuracy - The ability of a measurement to match the actual
(true) value of the quantity being measured. The expected

ability for a system to discriminate between two settings.
Smaller the bias more accurate the data.
Precision - The precision of an instrument indicates its
ability to reproduce a certain reading with a given accuracy
OR it is the degree of agreement between repeated results.
Precision data have small dispersion ( spread or scatter ) but
may be far from the true value.
A measurement can be accurate but not precise, precise but
not accurate, neither, or both.
A measurement system is called valid if it is both accurate
and precise.
Repeatability
It is the ability of a measuring system to reproduce
output readings when the same input is applied to it
consecutively, under the same conditions, and in the
same direction.
Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that
during a Mechanical cycle, a process does not stop at the
same location, or move through the same spot each
time. The variation range is referred to as repeatability.
Reliability of measurement
It is a quantitative characteristic which
implies
confidence in the measured results depending on
whether
or
not
the
frequency
distribution
characteristics of their deviations from the true values
of the corresponding quantities are known. It is the
probability that the results will be predicted.
Which of these targets represents

accurate
shooting?
Precise
shooting? Reliable shooting?
A change in one variable, such as wind,

alters the results as shown. Dose this
show which shooting was the most
reliable?
27
4/1/2015
Calibration
It is the setting or correcting of a measuring device
usually by adjusting it to match or conform to a
dependably known value or act of checking.
IAS 2013
Calibration determines the performance characteristics

of an instrument, system or reference material. It is
usually achieved by means of a direct comparison against
measurement standards or certified reference materials.
It is very widely used in industries.
A calibration certificate is issued and, mostly, a sticker is
provided for the instrument.
IFS 2013
IAS 2014
Why is a unilateral tolerance

preferred over bilateral tolerance ?
This system is preferred for Interchangeable manufacturing.
It is easy and simple to determine deviations.
It helps standardize the GO gauge end
Helpful for operator because he has to machine the upper
limit of the shaft and the lower limit of the hole knowing
fully well that still some margin is left for machining before
the part is rejected.
28
4/1/2015
Methods of Measurement
Direct method
Indirect method e.g density
3. Absolute method or Fundamental method e.g
lenghth form definition
4. Comparison method e.g comparator
5. Deflection method e.g. Dial Indicator
1.
2.
American Standard Association Tolerance System

1. Heavy force shrunk fit
2. Medium force fit
3. Tight fit
4. Wringing fit
5. Snug fit
6. Medium fit
7. Free fit
8. Loose fit
Snug fit
1/3
Tolerance = 0.0004D
and Deviation 0
Mediumforce fit :
1/3
1/3
Tolerance = 0.0006D
and Deviation 0.0005D 0.0006D
Snug fit is applicable where no shake is permissible

Medium force fit is applicable for shrink fit on cast
iron
29
4/1/2015
IFS 2012
Drift: It is a slow change of a metrological characteristics of a
measuring instruments
Resolution: It is the smallest change of the measured
quantity which changes the indication of a measuring

instruments
Sensitivity: The smallest change in the value of the
measured variable to which the instrument respond is
sensitivity. It denotes the maximum changes in an input
signal that will not initiate a response on the output.
Rule of 10 or Ten-to one rule: That the discrimination
(resolutions) of the measuring instrument should divide the
tolerance of the characteristic to be measured into ten parts.
In other words, the gauge or measuring instrument should be
10 times as accurate as the characteristic to be measured.
IAS 2012
IFS 2011
IAS 2011
IAS 2010
30
4/1/2015
IES 2010
Why is a unilateral tolerance preferred over bilateral
tolerance ?
In surface roughness, discuss with a figure Root
Mean Square method.
Need for Unconventional Processes
Need for Unconventional Processes
New materials having high strength and hardness, such as
nimonic alloys and alloys with alloying elements such as

tungsten, molybdenum, and columbium are difficult to
machine by the traditional methods.
Complex shapes.
A very high accuracy is desired besides the complexity of
the surface to be machined.
By conventional machining the MRR reduces with an
increase in the work material hardness.

Need
for development of
processes
which
utilize
non-traditional
other
machining
methods
such
as
electrochemical processes for the material removal.
Classification of NTMM
The Non-traditional Machining Methods are classified
according to the major energy sources employed in
machining.
1. Thermal Energy Methods

Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
Laser beam Machining (LBM)
1. Thermal Energy Methods
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
2. Electro - Chemical Energy Method
Electron Beam Machining(EBM)
3. Chemical Energy Methods
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
4. Mechanical Energy Methods
31
4/1/2015
2. Electro - Chemical Energy Method

Electro-Chemical Machining (ECM)
3. Chemical Energy Methods

These methods involve controlled etching of the
workpiece material in contact with a chemical solution.
Electro-Chemical grinding (ECG)

Chemical Machining Method (CHM).
Electro-Chemical Honing (ECH)

Electro-Chemical Deburring (ECD)
4. Mechanical Energy Methods

Ultra Sonic Machining (USM)
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Water Jet Machining (WJM)
Shapes Cutting Capability

The various NTMM have some special shape cutting
capability as given below:
1. Micro-machining and Drilling : LBM and EBM
Some Observations
EDM has the lowest specific power requirement and can
achieve sufficient accuracy.
ECM has the highest metal removal rate, MRR.
USM and AJM have low MRR and combined with high
tool wear, are used for non-metal cutting.
LBM and EBM have high penetration rates with low
MRR and, therefore, are commonly used for micro
drilling, sheet cutting, and welding.
CHM is used for manufacturing PCB and other shallow
components.
PAM can be used for clean, rapid cuts and profiles in
almost all plates upto 20 cm thick with 5o to 10o taper.
Water Jet Machining

Narrow jet of water directed, at high pressure and
velocity, against surface of workpiece

Jet of water erodes surface of workpiece, thereby
2. Cavity sinking and standard Hole Drilling: EDM and
USM
cutting workpiece
Computer control to achieve shape
3. Fine hole drilling and Contour Machining: ECM

4. Clean, rapid Cuts and Profiles: PAM
5. Shallow Pocketing: AJM
192
32
4/1/2015
IAS2014
Water Jet Machining
193
Physical Principle
Basic process
Physical Principle
An arc jumps between two points along the path of least
resistance.
Physical Principle
Physical Principle
The energy of the arc is so concentrated that it causes the

electrode, and the work to melt. But the electrode
material is chosen so that it melts less.
The metal and dielectric fluid is partly vaporized,

causing sudden expansion.
33
4/1/2015
Physical Principle
The blast from the expanding vapors knocks some
molten particles loose, and the remaining molten metal
hardens.
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Disadvantages
1. Only electrically conductive materials can be machined
by EDM. Thus non - metallic, such as plastics, ceramics
or glass, cannot be machined by EDM.
2. Electrode wear and over-cut are serious problems.
3. A re-hardened, highly stressed zone is produced on the
work surface by the heat generated during machining.
This brittle layer can cause serious problems when the
part is put into service.
4. Perfectly square corners cannot be made by EDM.
5. High specific energy consumption (about 50 times that
in conventional machining)
6. MRR is quite low
IAS2011
Hardness, toughness or brittleness of the material poses no

problems. Due to this EDM can be used for machining
materials that are too hard or brittle to be machined by
conventional methods.
The method does not leave any chips or burrs on the work
piece.
Cutting forces are virtually zero, so very delicate and fine
work can be done.
The process dimension repeatability and surface finish
obtained in finishing are extremely good.
The characteristic surface obtained, which is made up of
craters, helps in better oil retention. This improves die life.
Because the forces between the tool and the workpiece and
virtually zero, very delicate work can be done.
EDM Tool
The usual choices for tool (electrode) materials are
Copper,
brass,
alloys of zinc and tin,
hardened plain carbon steel,
copper tungsten,
silver tungsten,
tungsten carbide,
copper graphite, and graphite.
Electrochemical Machining
Electrochemical machining is the reverse of electro
plating
The work-piece is made the anode, which is placed in
close proximity to an electrode (cathode), and a highamperage direct current is passed between them through
an electrolyte, such as salt water, flowing in the anodecathode gap.
Metal is removed by anodic dissolution and is carried
away in the form of a hydroxide in the electrolyte for
recycling or recovery.
MRR in ECM depends on atomic weight of work material
34
4/1/2015
Variation in the current density will result in work
taking the electrodes shape.
The electrode is fed with a constant velocity, and the
electrolyte is fed through the tool.
Fig- Electrochemical Machining process
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Complex three-dimensional surfaces can be machined

accurately. Good for low machinability or complicated
shapes.
1.
2. As ECM leads to atomic level dissolution, the surface

finish is excellent (Ra 0.2 to 0.6 m) with almost stress
free machined surface and without any thermal
damage.
3.
4.
3. The tool wear is practically nil which results in a large

number of components produced per tool.
mm3/min)
4. MRR is highest (1600

among NTMM and
comparable with conventional machining.
2.
5.
6.
7.
Use of corrosive media as electrolytes makes it difficult to

handle.
Sharp interior edges and corners (< 0.2 mm radius) are
difficult to produce.
Very expensive machine.
Forces are large with this method because of fluid pumping
forces.
Very high specific energy consumption (about 150 times
that required for conventional processes),
Not applicable with electrically non-conducting materials
and jobs with very small dimensions
Lower fatigue strength
IAS2012
Refer note
35
4/1/2015
IFS2012
Tool
Tool materials: Copper, brass, bronze, Al, Stainless
Steel, Cupro nickel, etc.
For laser beam machining

Materials: All materials except those with high thermal
conductivity and high reflectivity.
IAS2011
Abrasive Jet Machining (Dry)
It is similar to sand blasting, except that a very narrow jet of
gas and abrasive particles achieves localized cutting.

It removes material through the eroding action of a high
velocity stream of abrasive-laden gas.

The gas is first compressed and mixed with the abrasive
powder in a mixing chamber and passed through outlet

nozzle.
Computer is used to position the jet.
Gas Pressure about 7 atm
Velocity of jet about 300 m/s
Jet Diameter 0.12 mm to 1.25 mm
Abrasive used: Al2O3 , SiC with particle size 10 to 50 m
Tool (nozzle) material tungsten carbide or sapphire
Tool (nozzle) Life about 30 hours
216
36
4/1/2015
Advantages of AJM
Abrasive Jet Machining
Can be used in any material, conductive, non-
conductive, ductile or brittle

Good dimensional accuracy (0.05 mm)
Good Surface finish 0.25 to 1.25 m
Due to cooling action of gas stream no thermal damage
on the work surface

Due to negligible force delicate workpiece can be
217
Disadvantages of AJM
machined.
Application of AJM
Cutting and drilling on metal foils and thin
Low MRR
sections of ceramics and glass
Possibility of stray cutting

Embedding of abrasive particles in soft workpiece
Intricate holes in electronic components such as
resistor paths in insulation
Dust control needed
Engraving of characters on toughened glass
automobile windows
Cleaning, polishing and deburring the surface
Electron Beam Machining
IFS-2011
Workpiece placed in vacuum chamber
Write the advantages, limitations and applications of
High-voltage
electron beam machining. What is the safety problem
workpiece
connected with EBM?
electron
beam
directed
toward
Energy of electron beam melts/ vaporizes selected
[5-Marks]
region of workpiece
Electron beam moved by deflection coils
Similar process to EB welding
222
37
4/1/2015
Electron Beam Machining
Advantage
There is no effect of local heat on workpiece as the
temperature of surrounding material (25 50 m away

from the machining spot) is not raised
223
Disadvantage
Application
Necessity of vacuum
All materials can be machined
Not suitable for large workpiece
Drill small holes for thin plates
Little taper produced on holes
Cutting narrow slots
Very high specific power consumption
Safety
IFS2014 IAS2013
High velocity electron may produce X-ray
38
4/1/2015
Laser Beam Machining
Direct laser beam against surface of workpiece, as in
laser welding
Successive pulses from laser gun vaporize tiny bits of
workpiece
Location of laser beam controlled by computer
Workpiece need not be conductive
Cuts are tapered
Gotta trap overshoot from laser beam
229
230
Produces large remelt zone
What is creep feed grinding? Discuss its salient

features, advantages, and application.
[10 marks]
Can produce holes as small as 0.0005 mm diameter

Can produce deep holes
Used to produce cooling holes in blades/vanes for jet
engines
231
Creep feed grinding

This machine enables single pass grinding of a surface
with a larger down feed but slower table speed than that
adopted for multi-pass conventional surface grinding.
In creep-feed grinding, the entire depth of cut is
completed in one pass only using very small in-feed
rates.
State the basic advantage of a creep feed

grinder over a conventional surface
Productivity is enhanced and life of the grinding wheel is
extended.
Economic
39
4/1/2015
Application
IAS2014
Grinding shaped punches

Key seats
Twist drill flutes
Roots of turbine blades
Various complex superalloy parts
G Ratio
Grade
The grinding ratio or G ratio is defined as thee cubic mm

of stock removed divided by the cubic mm of wheel lost.
The worn out grit must pull out from the bond and make
room for fresh sharp grit in order to avoid excessive rise
of grinding force and temperature.
In conventional grinding, the G ratio is in the range 20: 1

to 80: 1.
A soft wheel should be chosen for grinding hard

material.
The G ratio is a measure of grinding production and

reflects the amount of work a wheel can do during its
useful life.
A hard wheel should be chosen for grinding soft

material.
As the wheel losses material, it must be reset or

repositioned to maintain workpiece size.
IES2009
40
4/1/2015
IAS2012
Fig- cutting action of abrasive grains
Interaction of the grit with the workpiece
Interaction of the grit with the workpiece
Shape of grit is very important because it determines the

grit geometry e.g. rake and clearance angle.
Grit with favourable geometry can produce chip in shear

mode.
The grits do not have definite geometry unlike a cutting

tool.
However, grits having large negative rake angle or

rounded cutting edge do not form chips but may rub or
make a groove by ploughing leading to lateral flow of the
workpiece material.
Fig- Grits engage shearing, ploughing and rubbing
Why is aluminium oxide preferred to

silicon carbide in grinding steel?
Why diamond is not used for steel?
Al2O3 is tougher than SiC. Therefore it is
On ferrous materials, diamonds are not suitable

because of the diffusion of carbon atoms from
diamond to the work-piece material.
preferred to grind material having high tensile

strength like steel. Moreover, Al2O3 shows higher
chemical inertness than SiC towards steel leading
to much improved wear resistance during
grinding.
41
4/1/2015
Centerless Grinding
IES 2010
Draw the typical configuration of Internal Centre less
grinding mentioning main advantage and use.
Centerless Grinding
Centerless Grinding
Centerless grinding makes it possible to grind both

external and internal cylindrical surfaces without
requiring the workpiece to be mounted between centers
or in a chuck.
The regulating wheel controls the rotation and

longitudinal motion of the workpiece and usually is a
plastic- or rubber-bonded wheel with a fairly wide face.
This eliminates the requirement of center holes in some

workpieces and the necessity for mounting the
workpiece, thereby reducing the cycle time.
The workpiece is held against the work-rest blade by the

cutting forces exerted by the grinding wheel and rotates
at approximately the same surface speed as that of the
regulating wheel.
Two wheels are used. The larger one operates at regular

grinding speeds and does the actual grinding. The
smaller wheel is the regulating wheel. It is mounted at
an angle to the plane of the grinding wheel.
State the disadvantages of centreless

cylindrical grinding machine?
It does not grind concentrically with centres.

Large diameter short workpiece are difficult to
control in the process
It may not improve workpiece perpendicularity.
Loading
Some grinding chips get lodged into the spaces between
the grits resulting in a condition known as loaded wheel.

Loading is generally caused during the grinding of soft
and ductile materials.

A loaded grinding wheel cannot cut properly and need
dressing.
42
4/1/2015
Dressing
Truing
Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which

ensures that grit cutting edges are exposed from the
bond and thus able to penetrate into the workpiece
material.
Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry

on the grinding wheel.
In dressing attempts are made to splinter the abrasive

grains to make them sharp and free cutting and also to
remove any residue left by material being ground.
Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one

operation for conventional abrasive grinding wheels, but
are usually two distinctly separate operation for super
abrasive wheel.
Dressing therefore produces micro-geometry.
IFS-2011
Rose Reamer
What is the main difference between rose reamer

and chucking reamer ? Write in short about shell
reamer.
[5-marks]
Chucking Reamer
Fluted
chucking
reamers have relief
behind the edges of the
teeth as well as beveled
ends. They can cut on
all portions of the teeth.
Their
flutes
are
relatively short and they
are intended for light
finishing cuts.
Truing is also required on a new conventional wheel to

ensure concentricity with specific mounting system.
Rose chucking reamers

are ground cylindrical
and have no relief
behind the outer edges
of the teeth. All cutting
is done on the beveled
ends of the teeth
Shell Reamer
Shell reamers often are
used for sizes over 20
mm to save cutting-tool
material. The shell,
made of HSS for smaller
sizes and with carbide
edges for larger sizes or
for
mass-production
work.
43
4/1/2015
Advantages of Down Milling

1. Suited to machine thin and hard-to-hold parts since
the workpiece is forced against the table or holding
device by the cutter.
2. Work need not be clamped as tightly.
3. Consistent parallelism and size may be maintained,
particularly on thin parts.
4. It may be used where breakout at the edge of the
workpiece could not be tolerated.
5. It requires upto 20% less power to cut by this method.
6. It may be used when cutting off stock or when milling
deep, thin slots.
Disadvantages of Down Milling

1. It cannot be used unless the machine has a backlash
eliminator and the table jibs have been tightened.
What are the superabrasive

materials for grinding wheel?
Hardest material diamond and cubic boron nitride
second hardest materials.
2. It cannot be used for machining castings or hot rolled

steel, since the hard outer scale will damage the cutter.
1. Work materials-Tensile strength

2. Helix angle-increase in helix angle reduce thrust
3. Point angle Increases with in point angle
4. Web thickness- Axial thrust will reduce by thinning
the web
44
4/1/2015
Gear Hobbing
The HSS or carbide cutter having teeth like gear milling
cutter and the gear blank apparently interact like a pair
of worm and worm wheel.
The hob (cutter) looks and behaves like a single or
multiple start worms.
(a) Straight (b) helical tooth and (c) worm wheel
Gear Hobbing
Having lesser number (only three) of tool work
motions, hobbing machines are much more rigid, strong

and productive than gear shaping machine.
But hobbing provides lesser accuracy and finish and is
used only for cutting straight or helical teeth (single) of

external spur gears and worm wheels.
Disadvantages of gear Hobbing

(a) Gear hobbing cannot generate internal gears and
bevel gears.
(b) Enough space has to be there in component
configuration for hob approach.
Advantages of Gear Hobbing

(a) The method is versatile and can generate spur,
helical, worm and worm wheels.
(b) Since gear hobbing is a continuous process, it is
rapid; economical and highly productive.
(c) The method produces accurate gears and is suitable
for medium and large batch production.
(d) The cutter is universal, because it can cut all gears of
same module, irrespective of number of teeth on the
gear.
IFS 2013
Applications of Hobbing
The gears produced by gear hobbing are used in
automobiles, machine tools, various instruments, clocks

and other equipments.
45
4/1/2015
Jig
Fixtures
Both jigs and fixtures hold, support, and locate the

work piece.
A jig also guides the cutting tool.
Both jigs and fixtures

hold, support, and
locate the work piece.
A
fixture
has
a
reference point for
setting the cutting tool
with reference to the
work piece.
3-2-1 Locating Principle

A workpiece, just like any free solid body, has six
degrees of freedom (some researchers have referred
this to the twelve degrees of freedom by considering
the +/- movements in each category)
For locating it is necessary to arrest all these six degrees
of freedom to ensure the mechanical stability.
A single locator in Plane 1 would arrest the linear
motion along the X-axis.
A second locator in the same plane would arrest the
rotary motion about the Z-axis.
Another locator placed in the same plane would arrest
the rotary motion about the Y-axis.
Adding one more locator in Plane 1 would not serve any

purpose.
So fourth locator is placed in Plane 2 which is
perpendicular to Plane 1. This would restrict the linear
motion along the Y-axis.
The fifth locator is placed in the Plane 2 which can
arrest the rotational motion about the X-axis.
The sixth locator placed in Plane 2 would not serve any
purpose.
So, sixth locator is placed in Plane 3 which is
perpendicular both the planes 1 and 2. This would
arrest the linear motion along the Z-axis.
IES - 2007
Fig. A
component with
six locators
According to the principle of location in jigs and

fixtures, how many degrees of freedom are to be
eliminated to have a body fixed in space?
(a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 5
(d) 6
46
4/1/2015
Considering 12 DOF
You must fix all the 12 degrees of freedom except the three
transitional degrees of freedom (-X, -Y and -Z) in order to

locate the work piece in the fixture. So, 9 degrees of
freedom of the work piece need to be fixed.
Rest the work piece on three non-collinear points of the
bottom surface (XY), and you will be able to fix
the +Z, CROT-X, ACROT-X, CROT-Y and ACROTY degrees of freedom.
Now, rest the work piece at two points of side surface (XZ),
and you will be able to fix the +Y and CROT-Z and ACROTZ degrees of freedom.
Now, rest the work piece at one point of the adjacent
surface (YZ), and you will be able to fix the +X degrees of
freedom.
GATE - 2005
When 3-2-1 principle is used to support and locate a
three dimensional work-piece during machining,
the number of degrees of freedom that are
restricted is
(a) 7
(b) 8
(c) 9
(d) 10
Points to ponder
When more than one locator is placed on a surface
(plane), they should be distributed as far apart as

possible on the surface.
While selecting the surface for the largest locators,
consideration should be given to the largest area of the

workpiece.
GATE - 2001
3-2-1 method of location in a jig or fixture would
collectively restrict the workpiece in n degrees of
freedom, where the value of n is
(a) 6
(b) 8
(c) 9
(d) 12
GATE-2013 (PI)
IES 2011
In the 3-2-1 principle of fixture design, 3 refers to the
In the 3-2-1 principle of fixture 3 refers to number of
number of
(a) Setups possible
(a) Clamps equired
(b) Clamps required
(b) Locators on the primary datum face
(c) Positions on primary face
(c) Degrees of freedom of the workpiece
(d) Locating positions
(d) Operations carried out on the primary datum face
47
4/1/2015
IES 1999
Assertion (A): Spherical washers are used to locate
the job in the fixtures.
Reason (R): 3-2-1 principle should be adopted to
locate the job.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Clamping
To restrain the workpiece completely a clamping device
IFS 2012
IAS 2012
is required.
Holds the workpiece securely in a jig or fixture against
the forces applied over it during on operation.

Device should be incorporated into the fixture, proper
clamp in a fixture directly influence the accuracy and

quality of the work done and production cycle time.
Cam Clamps
Provide clamping force because of the contour of the cam
surface that comes into contact with the plate used for the
clamping.
Plate is pushed down by the cam against the spring
pressure to hold the part in place.
Cam clamps are quick in operation.
Cam clamps are of three types, eccentric cam, flat spiral
cam and cylindrical cam.
The design shown in Fig. is flat spiral and is the most
commonly used clamp.
Fig. A cam clamp used
for quick and easy
clamping a part
The design shown is indirect pressure clamping where

the pressure is transmit to the part through the plate.
This is more stable and the vibrations during
machining do not affect the a part clamping.
Fig. An example of a
fixture held by a cam
clamp
48
4/1/2015
Duplex Fixture
IFS-2011
What are the functions of jig ? Draw a jig to machine
four holes in a plate. What are two reasons for not
having drill bushings actually touching the workpiece
? What is a duplex fixture ?
[10-marks]
It is a type of multi-station fixtures used primarily for

high speed, high volume production runs where the
machining cycle must be continuous.
It uses only two stations. Once the machining operation
is complete at station one, the fixture is revolved and the
machining is started at
station two. During this
period, the machined part
is unloaded from station
one and a fresh part is
loaded there, and so on
Diamond Pin Locator

Diamond pins are often used for radial location .
One cylindrical locator (Pin A) arrests five degrees of
freedom, second cylindrical locator at the position B
will arrest the sixth degree of freedom.
If the two holes are identical in size then any pin can be
made the principal locator. However, if one of the holes
is larger then the principal locator will be placed in the
larger hole.
The second locator is made slightly smaller than the
hole and relieved from both sides to take care of the
variation in the X direction. The cylindrical surfaces
will locate the part in the Y direction.
49
2.1 NC CNC DNC
What is NC/CNC?
NC is an acronym for Numerical Control and CNC is an
acronym for Computer Numerical Control.
What is the difference between NC and CNC ?

The difference between NC and CNC is one of age and
capability.
The earliest NC machines performed limited functions
and movements controlled by punched tape or punch
cards.
As the technology evolved, the machines were equiped
with increasingly powerful microprocessors (computers)
with the addition of these computers, NC machines
become CNC machines.
CNC machines have far more capability than their
predecessor.
contd..
What is the difference between NC and CNC ?

Some of the enhancements that came along with CNC
include: Canned Cycles, Sub Programming, Cutter

Compensation, Work coordinates, Coordinate system
rotation, automatic corner rounding, chamfering, and Bspline interpolation.
What is a Conversational Control

CNC machine tool builders offer an option what is
known as the conversational control. This control lets

the
operator/programmer
use
simple
descriptive
language to program the part. The control then

displayed a graphical representation of the instructions
so the operator/programmer can verify the tool path.
Are CNC machines faster than

conventional machines?
Yes, No, Sometimes. When it comes to making a single,
simple part it is hard to beat a conventional mill or lathe.
CNC machines move faster in rapid travel than

conventional machines.
Are CNC machines more accurate

than conventional machines?
Yes, they can be. But like anything else it depends on
who is running the machine, how well the machines has

been maintained, quality of setup and so on.
NC/CNC Machines-Advantages
High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts
Volume of production is very high

Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined. E.g.
Turbines
Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less
scrap
More safe, higher productivity, better quality
Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction
in lead times
NC/CNC Machines-Disadvantages
Costly setup, skilled operators
Computers, programming knowledge required
Maintenance is difficult
Stepper Motor
The stepper motor is special type of synchronous motor
which is designed to rotate through a specific angle

(Called step) for each electrical pulse received from the
control unit.
IAS-2010 Main
Illustrate with the help of neat sketches the differences
between open-loop and closed-loop control in NC
system. Why is feedback not possible in open-loop
control system ?
[22- Marks]
Basic CNC Principles
IAS2010
IAS2013
IAS2014
Basic Length Unit (BLU)

In NC machine, the displacement length per one pulse
output from machine is defined as a Basic Length Unit

(BLU).
In the CNC computer each bit (binary digit) represents 1
BLU.
Bit = BLU
Example: If one pulse makes a servo motor rotate by one
degree and the servo motor moves the table by 0.0001
mm, one BLU will be 0.0001 mm.
The lead of a ball screw is related to the displacement
unit of the machine tool table.
GATE 2008 (PI)

A stepper motor has 150 steps. The output shaft of the
motor is directly coupled to a lead screw of pitch 4 mm,

which drives a table. If the frequency of pulse supply to
the motor is 200 Hz, the speed of the table (in mm/min)
is
(a) 400
(b) 320
(c) 300
(d) 280
Example
A DC servomotor is coupled directly to a leadscrew
which drives the table of an NC machine tool. A

digital encoder, which emits 500 pulses per
revolution, is mounted on the other end of the
leadscrew. If the leadscrew pitch is 5 mm and the
motor rotates at 600 rpm, calculate
(a) The linear velocity of the table
(b) The BLU of the NC system
(c) The frequency of pulses transmitted by the encoder.
10

The table of a CNC machine is driven by a Lead screw which
is rotated by a DC servomotor. A digital encoder which emits

1000 pulses per second is mounted on the lead screw as a
feedback device. If the lead screw pitch is 6 mm and motor
rotates at 500 rpm, find

1.
Basic length Units of the system
2.
Linear velocity of the table.
3.
Frequency of pulses generated by the feedback device.

[5 Marks]
IAS-2010 Main
In open-loop NC system the shaft of a stepping motor is
connected directly to the lead screw x-axis of the
machine table. The pitch of the lead screw is 3.0 mm.
The number of step angles on the stepping motor is 200.
Determine how closely the position of the table can be
controlled, assuming that there are no mechanical errors
in the positioning system.
Also, what is the required frequency of the pulse train
and the corresponding rotational speed of the stepping
motor in order to drive the table at a travel rate of 100
mm/min?
[8- Marks]
Q.6.(b) (ii) What is meant by Part Programming ? Discuss point to point control,
and its applications.
Part programs for simple components can be carried out manually. However, if the component has complex
features which require too many repetitive and/or tedious calculations for preparing its program for cutter
path description, then it is recommended that computer-aided part programming be resorted to.
To be a good CNC programmer, one should have a fair knowledge about the machine tools, cutting tools
and fixtures to be used and the manufacturing process. He also should have a good understanding of
geometry, algebra and trigonometry. In fact, machine shop experience is the pre-requisite for a good
11
programmer as only careful process planning can lead to efficient and practical programs.
The following are the steps to be followed

while developing the CNC part programs.
Process planning
Axes selection
Tool selection
Cutting process parameters planning
Job and tool setup planning
Machining path planning
Part program writing
Part program proving
Control Systems possible in CNC Machine

Point to point mode:
12
Programming Key Letters

O - Program number (Used for program identification)
N - Sequence number (Used for line identification)
G - Preparatory function
X - X axis designation
Y - Y axis designation
Z - Z axis designation
R - Radius designation
F Feed rate designation
S - Spindle speed designation

H - Tool length offset designation
D - Tool radius offset designation
T - Tool Designation
M - Miscellaneous function
Table of Important G codes

Code
Meaning
Format
G00
Rapid Transverse
N__G00 X___ Y___ Z___
G01
G02
Linear Interpolation
Circular Interpolation,
CW
N__G01 X___ Y___ Z___ F___
Circular Interpolation,
CCW
N__G03 X___ Y___ Z__R__F___
G04
G17
Dwell
XY Plane
N__G04P___
G18
G19
XZ Plane
G03
N__G02 X__ Y__ Z___ R___ F___

N__G02 X___ Y__Z__I ___J __K __ F __
N__G03 X__ Y__Z__I __J __K __ F __
YZ Plane
13

Code
Meaning
Format
G20/G70 Inch Unit
G21/G71
G28
G40
G41
G42
G43
Metric Unit
Automatic Return to Reference
Point
Cutter compensation cancel
Cutter compensation left
Cutter compensation right
Tool length compensation
(plus)
N__G41D__
N__G42D__
N__G43H__

Code Meaning
Format
G44

(minus)
N__G44H__
G49

cancel
Cancel canned cycles
G80
G81
G90
G91
G92
N__G81 Z__R__F__
Drilling cycle
Absolute positioning
Incremental positioning
Absolute preset, change the N__G92X__Y__Z__
datum position
14
Rapid traverse: G00

G00:
to make the machine move at maximum speed.
It is used for positioning motion.
G90 G00 X20.0 Y10.0

End
G90:
absolute
coordinates
(20,10)
(10,10)
(0,0)
Start
Linear interpolation: G01

G01:
linear interpolation at feed speed.
G91 G0l X200.0 Y100.0 F200.0

G91:
incremental
coordinates
Y
End
100.0
Start
200.0
15
Circular interpolation: G02, G03

G02, G03:
For circular interpolation, the tool destination and the circle
center are programmed in one block
G02 is clockwise interpolation, G03 is counterclockwise
interpolation
G02
R
G17
G03X __Y __I __ J __F __;

G
02
R
G18
G03X __Z __I __ K __F __;

G02
R
G19 Y __Z __
F __;
G03
J __ K __
End
point
Circle center, radius

Y
X
R=-50mm
End
Specify R with
sign before it:
180 +R
Start
>180 -R
R=50mm
G91 G02 X60.0 Y20.0 R50.0 F300.0

G91 G02 X60.0 Y20.0 R-50.0 F300.0
16

N0010 G92 X200.0 Y40.0 Z0 ;
N0020 G90 G03 X140.0 Y100.0 I -60.0 F300
N0030 G02 X120. 0 Y60.0 I- 50.0
G92:
To define working
coordinate
Or
N0010 G92 X200.0 Y40.0 Z0

N0020 G90 G03 X140.0 Y100.0 R60.0 F300
N0030 G02 X120.0 Y60.0 R50.0
Y
100
G90:
absolute
coordinates
R50
R60
60
40
X
O
90 120 140
200
Tool-Radius Compensation
Tool-radius compensations make it possible to
program directly from the drawing, and thus eliminate
the tool-offset calculation
G41 (G42) D
D: the radius of tool to compensate is saved in a memory unit that
is named D
G41/G42 is directly related with direction of tool movement and
which side of part is cut.
17
Tool-Height Compensation
G43 (G44) H
H: specified memory unit used to save height
compensation of tool.
Positive compensation (G43):

real position = specified position + value saved in H
Negative compensation (G44):
real position = specified position - value saved in H
Tool-Height Compensation
Example:
N0010 G91 G00 X12.0 Y80.0
G91:
incremental
coordinates
N0020 G44 Z-32.0 H02

If we put 0.5mm into H02,
real position = -32.0 - 0.5 = -32.5
Cancel tool-height compensation: G49
18
Table of Important M codes

M00 Program stop
M01 Optional program stop

M03 Spindle on clockwise
M04 Spindle on counterclockwise
M05 Spindle stop

M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Clamps on
M11 Clamps off
M02 or M30 Program stop, reset to start
Example of CNC Programming

What Must Be Done To Drill A Hole On A CNC
Vertical Milling Machine
19
Tool Home
Top
View
1.) X & Y Rapid To Hole Position
Front
View
Top
View
2.) Z Axis Rapid Move

Just Above Hole
3.) Turn On Coolant
4.) Turn On Spindle
Front
View
.100
20
Top
View
5.) Z Axis Feed Move to
Drill Hole
Front
View
Top
View
6.) Rapid Z Axis Move

Out Of Hole
Front
View
21
Top
View
7.) Turn Off Spindle

8.) Turn Off Coolant
Front
View
9.) X&Y Axis Rapid

Move Home
Heres The CNC Program!
Top
View
Front
View
Tool At Home
O0001
N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
N020 G01 Z-.75 F3.5
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
N035 M30
22
IAS2011
APT language form PPTs
IES-2008
Name the four types of statements in a complete APT

part program. Prepare part program for geometry
description of the contour shown in the figure below:
Y
[15-Marks]
30
40
20
L2
L3
135
80
20
C1
L4
L1
C2
L5
P2
20
20
P1
X
23
Answer:
PARTNO CONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL, 1
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0
P1 = POINT/110.0, 20.0, 0.0
P2 = POINT/20.0, 20.0, 0.0
P3 = POINT/90.0, 110.0, 0.0
P4 = POINT/20.0, 100.0, 0.0
P5 = POINT/50.0, 130.0, 0.0
L1 = LINE/P2, ATANGL, 90, XAXIS
L2 = LINE/P4, ANTNGL, 45, XAXIS
L3 = LINE/P5, ATANGL, 135, L2
L4 = LINE/P1, PERPTO, L3
C1=CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 20.0
PL1=PLANE/P1, P2, P3
Contd.
CUTTER/25.0
TOLER/0.1
INTOL/0.05
OUTTOL/0.05
FEDRAT/200
SPINDL/500, CLW
COOLNT/ON
FROM/P0
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TO, L5
GOLFT/L1, PAST, L2
GORGT/L2, PAST, L3
GORGT/L3, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1, PAST, L4
GOFWD/L4, PAST, C2
GORGT/C2, PAST, L5
GORGT/L5, PAST, L1
24
Contd.
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
IES-2007
Prepare part using APT language for milling the contour

shown in Fig. in a single pass. D
[20-Marks]
110
R30
Q
110
120
E
R40
40
+ 40
100
P
Material : M S.
8 mm
25
Answer:
PARTNO CONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL, 2
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 10.0
PTA = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0
PTB = POINT/0.0, 120.0, 0.0
PTC = POINT/30.0, 150.0, 0.0
PTD = POINT/140.0, 150.0, 0.0
PTE = POINT/140.0, 40.0, 0.0
PTF = POINT/100.0, 0.0, 0.0
PTQ = POINT/30.0, 120.0, 0.0
PTP = POINT/140.0, 0.0, 0.0
LAB = LINE/PTA, PTB
LCD = LINE/PTC, PTD
LDE = LINE/PTD, PTE
LAF = LINE/PTA, PTF
CBC = CIRCLE/CENTRE, PTQ, RADIUS, 30.0
CEF = CIRCLE/CENTRE, PTP, RADIUS, 40.0
PL1=PLANE/PTA, PTB, PTC
26
Contd.
CUTTER/25.0
TOLER/0.1
INTOL/0.05
OUTTOL/0.05
FEDRAT/200
SPINDL/500, CLW
COOLNT/ON
FROM/P0
GO/TO, LAB, TO, PL1, TO, LAF
GOLFT/LAB, TANTO, CBC
GOFWD/CBC, PAST, LCD
GORGT/LCD, PAST, LDE
GORGT/LDE, PAST, CEF
GORGT/CEF, PAST, LAF
GORGT/LAF, PAST, LAB
Contd.
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
27
IES-2006
Prepare part program to machine the contour shown in

the figure using APT on CNC milling machine.
[15-Marks]
R30
R20
100 mm
80
50
60
200 mm
Material: MS
Thickness: 8.0 mm
R30
L2
C2
P3
C1
R20
P2
L3
100 mm
80
L1
X
P1
60
50
L4
200 mm
28
P4
R30
L2
P3
C1
Answer:
C2
R20
PARTNO CONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL, 3
CLPRNT
80 L1
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 10.0
P1 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0
P2 = POINT/60.0, 80.0, 0.0
P3 = POINT/150.0, 100.0, 0.0
60
P1
P4 = POINT/200.0, 0.0, 0.0
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P2, RADIUS, 20
C2 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 30
L1 = LINE/P1, LEFT, TANTO, C1
L2 = LINE/LEFT, TANTO, C1, LEFT, TANTO, C2
L3 = LINE/P4, RIGHT, TANTO, C2
L4 = LINE/P1, P4
P2
L3
100 mm
X
50
L4
200 mm
Contd.
CUTTER/25.0
TOLER/0.1
INTOL/0.05
OUTTOL/0.05
COOLNT/ON
SPINDL/500, CLW
FEDRAT/200
FROM/P0
GOLFT/L1, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1, PAST, L2
GOFWD/L2, TANTO, C2
GOFWD/C2, PAST, L3
GOFWD/L3, PAST, L4
GORGT/L4, PAST, L1
29
P4
Contd.
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
Home Work
Write a complete part program in APT for machining
the product which is given in the diagram. Thickness of
the workpiece is 6 mm. All dimensions are in mm.
[15]
30
PARTNO CONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL, 1
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/-25.0,-25.0, 25.0
P1 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 6.0
P2 = POINT/117.0, 32.0, 6.0
P3 = POINT/117.0, -32.0, 6.0
L1 = LINE/RIGHT, TANTO, C1, RIGHT, TANTO, C3

C4=CIRCLE/XLARGE, OUT, C2, OUT, C3, RADIUS, 62
REMARK POSTPROCESSOR STATEMENT FOLLOW
CUTTER/50.0
TOLER/0.01
INTOL/0.05
OUTTOL/0.05
FEDRAT/200
SPINDL/1000, CLW
COOLNT/ON
31
REMARK MOTION STATEMENT FOLLOW

FROM/P0
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TANTO, C1
GORGT/L1, TANTO, C3
GOFWD/C3, TANTO, C4
GOFWD/C4, TANTO, C2
GOFWD/C2, PAST, L2
GOFWD/L2, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1, PAST, L1
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI

State the method of defining line segment of
cutter motion using APT program format.

[5 Marks]
32
Line (LINE)
LIN1 = LINE/ P1, P2
y
P2
P1
LIN1
x
Line (LINE)
L12 = LINE/ PT4, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS
L14 = LINE/ PT1, ATANGL, 40
L15 = LINE/ 32, -3, 2, ATANGL, -15, XAXIS
L16 = LINE/ PT3, ATANGL, 40, YAXIS
y
PT3
L14
40
L12
PT1
L16
PT4
40
L15
20
15
(32, -3, 2)
33
Line (LINE)
L2 = LINE/ PT51, RIGHT, TANTO, C11
L4 = LINE/ PT40, LEFT, TANTO, C11
L3
Right
PT40
L1
Left
Left
L4
PT51
Right
L2
Line (LINE)
LN3 = LINE/ PNT6, PARLEL, LN15
LN4 = LINE/ PNT5, PERPTO, LN13
y
PNT6
PNT5
LN3
LN4
LN15
LN13
34
IAS2012
35
What is an industrial robot?

A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to handle material, parts, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
Advantages of Robots
Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase
productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and consistency of

products
Robots can work in hazardous environments
Robots need no environmental comfort
Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and
illnesses
Robots have repetable precision at all times
Robots can be much more accurate than humans, they may have
mili or micro inch accuracy.
Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of
humans
Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously,
humans can only one.
Robots replace human workers who can create economic
problems
36
Disadvantages of Robots
Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause:

Inappropriate and wrong responses
A lack of decision-making power
A loss of power
Damage to the robot and other devices
Human injuries
Robots may have limited capabilities in
Degrees of Freedom
Dexterity
Sensors
Vision systems
Real-time Response
Robots are costly, due to
Initial cost of equipment
Installation Costs
Need for peripherals
Need for training
Need for Programming
Asimov's three laws of robotics

First law (Human safety):
A robot may not injure a human being, or, through
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
Second law (Robots are slaves):
A robot must obey orders given it by human beings,
except where such orders would conflict with the First
Law.
Third law (Robot survival):
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the First or Second
Law.
37
All robots have the following basic components:

1. Manipulators: the mechanical unit, often called the
"arm," that does the actual work of the robot. It is
2.
3.
4.
5.
composed of mechanical linkages and joints with actuators

to drive the mechanism directly or indirectly through gears,
chains, or ball screws.
Feedback devices: transducers that sense the positions of
various linkages and joints and transmit this information to
the controllers in either digital or analog Form.
End effectors: the "hand" or "gripper" portion of the
robot, which attaches the end of the arm and perform the
operations of the robot.
Controller: the brains of the system that direct the
movements of the manipulator.
Power supply
Q.6.(a) (iv)
What are a manipulator, wrist and end effectors for a robot ?
Ans.6.(a) (iv) manipulator : - manipulator are built as serial chains or parallel chains
or occasionally a
combination of both. Links and joints (revolute and prismatic) that are mostly used in manipulators. In
spatial manipulators (open chains) adjacent axes are parallel or perpendicular to each other.
Wrists : - Wrists roll, yaw and pitch. There are 3 motions and 3 actuators are
required for motion.
End effector : - continuous path motion painting application are an

example when the end effector
has to move over a desired curve in space. The robot end effector is required to reach the centre of circle
the target point. The circle on extreme left shows the situation when the robot has poor
accurancy
and poor repeatability. The circle in the middle shows the EE had been repeatedly reaching positions
which are closely together through way
from the target point.
IES2010
38
Robotic Arc-Welding Cell

Robot performs
flux-cored arc
welding (FCAW)
operation at one
workstation
while fitter
changes parts at
the other
workstation
Ans PPT
39
IFS2013
IFS2011
Q.6.(b) (iii) In FMS define the terms : Automatic Guided Vehicle (AGV) and DNC. Explain
the
terms
chucking reamers and climb milling. What effect does the helix angle have on drill performance. Explain
the terms combined cuts and
multiple cuts.
Ans.6.(b) (iii) Automatic guided vehicle (AGV) : - It is mobile robot that follows markers or wire in the
floor or uses vision or lasers. They are most of ten used in industrial application to move material around
40
a manufacturing
facility or a warehouses. AGV system lareliable horizontal transportation when
spacels at a premium and flexibility is critical e.g Aerospace,
Automotive, clean room.
Direct numerical control (DNC) : - It is commonly manufacturing term for
networking CNC
machine tool. On some CNC machine controllers the
available memory is too small to contain the
machine programmed. So in this case the programme is stored in separate computer and sent directly to
the machine. If the computer connected to a number of machines it can
distribute
programme to different machine required. DNC networking or
DNC communication is always required
when CAM programme are th run or
some CNC machine control.
Helix angle effect : - An increase in the helix angle to more quickly remove chips
but
a
decrease in helix angle in the interest of greater strength of
cutting
edges,
in
the
drilling
performance.
IES2010
IAS2011
CAD
41
CAM
Automations
FMS
from PPTS
42
MATERIALSCIENCEQUESTIONANDANSWER (CONVENTIONALTYPE)
Q-1:
A-1:
What are coordination number of BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is bonded.
CN of BCC structure is 8
CN of FCC structure is 12
CN of HCP structure is 12
BCC
FCC
HCP
Q-2:
A-2:
What are packing factors of BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell actually occupied by
the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell.
APF of BCC structure is 0.68
APF of FCC structure is 0.74
APF of HCP structure is 0.74
Q-3:
A-3:
How many slip planes are there in BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
Crystal
BCC
FCC
HCP
Q-4:
A-4:
[1 2 0]
Slip Planes
{110}, {112}, {123}
{111}
Basal plane, Prismatic & Pyramidal planes
Show crystalographic directions [1 2 0], [1 3 3], [1 1 0 0], [1 2 0]

The length of the vector
projection on the axis x,
y and z respectably
a/2, b, 0c
Crystalographic Directions
Page 1 of 14
[1 3 3]
a/3, b, c
[1 1 0 0]
0.866a, -0.866a, 0a, 0c
[1 2 0]
a/2, -b, 0c
Page 2 of 14
Q-5:
A-5:
Show crystalographic planes [1 0 2], [2 2 1], [6 3 2], [10 1 0]

Crystalographic Planes
[1 0 2]
[ 2 2 1]
[632]
[10 1 0]
Plane
ABCD
Page 3 of 14
Q-6:
A-6:
Show Burgers vector in edge and screw dislocations.

Burgers vector in edge dislocations
Burgers vector in screw dislocations
Q-7:
A-7:
Why fine grained structure is harder than coarse grain structure?

The smaller the grain size, the more frequent is the pile up of dislocations. With decrease in grain
size, the mean distance of a dislocation can travel decreases, and soon starts pile up of dislocations at
grain boundaries. This leads to increase in yield strength of the material.
Q-8:
A-8:
What is the type of solid solution (a) copper and nickel (b) Iron and carbon
(a) copper and nickel
Cu-Ni forms a sunstitutional solid solution. If a melt of Cu and Ni with any composition is
cooled, a solid solution begins to freeze out. This solid solution is richer in Ni than the liquid
solution. As the two phase system of solid plus melt is cooled further, the mole fractin of Ni
decreases in both the solid solution and the liquid melt.
(b) Iron and carbon
Fe-C forms an interstitial solid solution; the C atoms occupy interstices in the crystal
structure of substance Fe. The Fe-Fe3C is characterized by five individual phases. Five
phases that exist in the Fe-C diagram are: ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, -austenite
(FCC) Fe-C solid solution, -ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, Fe3C (iron carbide) or
cementite - an inter-metallic compound and liquid Fe-C solution.
Q-9:
A-9:
Differentiate between the following; a) age hardening b) strain hardening c) precipitation

hardening.
a) Age hardening or c) precipitation hardening.
Age hardening is produced by solution treating and quenching an alloy. Term Age hardening is used
to describe the process because strength develops with time. Requisite for precipitation hardening to
take place is that second phase must be soluble at an elevated temperature but precipitates upon
quenching and aging at a lower temperature. This limits the alloy systems which can be
strengthened by precipitation hardening. For example: Al-alloys, Cu-Be alloys, Mg-Al alloys, Cu-Sn
alloys. If the precipitation occurs at normal ambient temperatures, it is called natural aging. Some
alloy systems needed to be aged at higher temperatures and the process is known as artificial aging.
Most precipitation hardened alloys are limited in their maximum service temperatures, which may
lose their strength at elevated temperatures due to over-aging.
b) Strain hardening
Phenomenon where ductile metals become stronger and harder when they are deformed
plastically is called strain hardening or work hardening.
During plastic deformation, dislocation density increases. And thus their interaction with
each other resulting in increase in yield stress.
Dislocation density () and shear stress () are related as, = o + A

Page 4 of 14
Q-10: Explain the effect of mean stress on fatigue life.

A-10: Failure that occurs under fluctuating/cyclic loads Fatigue. Fatigue occurs at stresses that
considerable smaller than yield/tensile strength of the material. S-N testing is done under
alternating (completely reversed) loading and stress. Here mean stress (m) is zero. If mean stress is
present then fatigue life will change according to the following diagram.
Following empirical curves are used to estimate mean stress effects on fatigue life
a. Soderberg (USA, 1930)
b. Goodman (England, 1899)
c. Gerber (Germany, 1874)
d. Morrow (USA, 1960s)
Q-11: Explain the difference between Soderberg line and Goodman line.
A-11:
Alternating stress ( a ) =
Mean stress ( m ) =
max min
2
max + min
2
Yield strength = y
Ultimate TensileStrength = u
1.
Goodman Line
2.
Soderberg Line
a m
+
=1
e ut
a m
+
=1
e y
Most actual test data tend to fall above the Goodman line.
The Soderberg line is very conservative and seldom used.
Q-12: What are creep resistant alloy? Give composition of Nimonic 90 and Vitallium HS 21.
A-12: Creep resistant alloy
To make creep resistance alloy we have to strengthen the solid solution by mechanisms which cause
dislocation locking and those which contribute to lattice friction hardening.
The alloy can also be hardened by precipitation. Some solute alloying elements is added in reducing
the rate of climb and cross-slip processes.
Page 5 of 14
Example: The nickel alloy (Inconol, Nimonic), ferritic steel, austenitic steel 16-25-6, etc.
Composition of Nimonic 90
Cr-20%, Co-16%, Ti-2.3% Al-1.40 %, Fe-0.5%, C-0.08%, Mn-0.06%, Si-0.017% and Ni -58%
Composition of Vitallium HS 21
C 0.25%, Cr 27%, Ni 3 %, Mo 5%, Fe 1%, Mn 1%, Si -1%, Co - bal
Q-13: Differentiate between temper embrittlement and hydrogen embrittlement.
A-13: Temper embrittlement
Tempering of some steels may result in a reduction of toughness what is known as temper
embrittlement. This may be avoided by (1) compositional control, and/or (2) tempering above 575oC
or below 375oC , followed by quenching to room temperature. The effect is greatest in Martensite
structures, less severe in bainitic structures and least severe in pearlite structures. It appears to be
associated with the segregation of solute atoms to the grain boundaries lowering the boundary
strength. Impurities responsible for temper brittleness are: P, Sn, Sb and As. Si reduces the risk of
embrittlement by carbide formation. Mo has a stabilizing effect on carbides and is also used to
minimize the risk of temper brittleness in low alloy steels.
Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is more failure than a form of corrosion, but it is often results from the
hydrogen, produced from corrosion. Atomic hydrogen produced during corrosion diffuses
interstitially through crystal lattice, and interferes with dislocation motion, leading to failure. It is
similar to stress corrosion in the sense that ductile materials experience brittle failures as a result.
Counter measures to hydrogen embrittlement include: heat treatment to reduce strength of the
alloy; removal of source of hydrogen; baking the component to drive out any dissolved hydrogen.
Q-14: What is diffusion couple? Give two examples.
A-14: Diffusion couple is made by two metals A and
B. Two containers of two metals are joined
together by removing the barrier between
them. This couple is heated for an extended
period at a higher temperature, but certainly
lower than the melting points of A and B, and
then cooled to room temperature. It is
observed that atoms A have migrated into
atoms B and atoms B have migrated into
atoms A. There is a net flow of atoms from
higher concentration to lower concentration
regions. This type of diffusion is known as
inter-diffusion or impurity diffusion.
Example
(i)
Copper and Nickel couple
Gold and Silver couple
(ii)
Fig. Diffusion couple of two metals

Page 6 of 14
Q-15: Explain how annealing and normalizing are diffusion controlled processes?
A-15: Annealing can be defined as a heat treatment process in which the material is taken to a high
temperature, kept there for some time and then cooled. Carbon atoms diffuse in BCC and FCC by
interstitial diffusion process. High temperatures allow diffusion processes to occur fast. The time at
the high temperature (soaking time) must be long enough to allow the desired transformation to
occur.
Normalizing is used to refine the grains and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution.
It involves heating the component to attain single phase (e.g.: austenite in steels), then cooling in
open air atmosphere. In normalizing also high temperature allows diffusion process to occur fast.
Q-16: What is a Eutectic system? Explain copper/silver and lead/tin eutectics.
A-16: Many binary systems have components which have limited solid solubility, e.g.: Cu-Ag, Pb-Sn. The
regions of limited solid solubility at each end of a phase diagram are called terminal solid solutions
as they appear at ends of the diagram.
Many of the binary systems with limited solubility are of eutectic type, which consists of specific
alloy composition known as eutectic composition that solidifies at a lower temperature than all other
compositions. This low temperature which corresponds to the lowest temperature at which the liquid
can exist when cooled under equilibrium conditions is known as eutectic temperature. The
corresponding point on the phase diagram is called eutectic point. When the liquid of eutectic
composition is cooled, at or below eutectic temperature this liquid transforms simultaneously into
two solid phases (two terminal solid solutions, represented by and ). This transformation is
known as eutectic reaction and is written symbolically as:
Liquid (L) solid solution-1 () + solid solution-2 ()
This eutectic reaction is called invariant reaction as it occurs under equilibrium conditions at a
specific temperature and specific composition which can not be varied.
Thus, this reaction is represented by a thermal horizontal arrest in the cooling curve of an alloy of
eutectic composition. A typical eutectic type phase diagram is shown in figure-4 along with a cooling
curve.
Eutectic system of Copper and Silver

In the Copper-silver binary eutectic system, the invariant point is located at 71.9 wt% Ag + 28.1 wt%
Cu at 779oC
Page 7 of 14
Eutectic reactions for copper-silver

L (71.9 wt% Ag + 28.1 wt% Cu)
cooling
R
heating
(8.0 wt% Ag + 92 wt% Cu) +

(91.2 wt% Ag + 8.8 wt% Cu)
Eutectic system of Lead and Tin

In the lead-tin binary eutectic system, the invariant point is located at 61.9 wt% Sn + 38.1 wt% Pb at
183oC
Page 8 of 14
Eutectic reactions for Lead and tin

L (61.9 wt% Sn + 38.1 wt% Pb)
cooling
R
heating
(18.3 wt% Sn + 81.7 wt% Pb) +

(97.8 wt% Sn + 2.2 wt% Pb)
Q-17: What are hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels, explain.

A-17: Hypoeutectoid Steel
Plain carbon steels in which carbon percentage is less than 0.8% are called hypoeutectoid steel.
Hypereutectoid Steel
Plain carbon steels in which carbon percentage is more than 0.8% are called hypoeutectoid steel.
Q-18: What is 0.8% C, steel, what are its special properties?

A-18: Steel which contains 0.8% C is known as eutectoid composition. In the solid state when
cooled below 723oC a eutectic reaction takes place one solid phase (-iron) having eutectoid (0.8% C)
composition transforms into two different solid phases ferrite and Fe3C (cementite). This
particular composition of ferrite and cementite is known as pearlite.
Q-19: What is tempered martensite?

A-19: Cooling the austenized steel to temperature
just above Ms temperature, holding it there
until temperature is uniform, followed by
cooling at a moderate rate to room
temperature before austenite-to-bainite
transformation begins. The final structure
is tempered Martensite
Page 9 of 14
Q-20: What is the driving force in the formation of Spheroidite?

A-20: The driving force for the formation of spheroidite is the net reduction in ferrite-cementite phase
boundary area.
Q-21: What is the difference between martempering and austempering?
A-21: Martempering is a modified quenching procedure used to minimize distortion and cracking that
may develop during uneven cooling of the heat-treated material. It involves cooling the austenized
steel to temperature just above Ms temperature, holding it there until temperature is uniform,
followed by cooling at a moderate rate to room temperature before austenite-to-bainite
transformation begins. The final structure of martempered steel is tempered Martensite.
Austempering is different from martempering in the sense that it involves austenite-to bainite
transformation. Thus, the structure of austempered steel is bainite. Advantages of austempering are
improved ductility; decreased distortion and disadvantages are need for special molten bath; process
can be applied to limited number of steels.
Q-22: What is the difference between nitriding and carbonitriding processes?

A-22: Nitriding
Nitriding is carried out in the ferritic region. No phase change occurs after nitriding. The part to be
nitrided should posses the required core properties prior to nitriding. During nitriding, pure
ammonia decomposes to yield nitrogen which enters the steel. The solubility of nitrogen in ferrite is
small. Most of the nitrogen, that enters the steel, forms hard nitrides (e.g., Fe3N). The temperature
of nitriding is 500-590oC. The time for a case depth of 0.02 mm is about 2 hr. In addition to providing
outstanding wear resistance, the nitride layer increases the resistance of carbon steel to corrosion in
moist atmospheres.
Page 10 of 14
Carbonitriding
Carbonitriding is a lower cost surface hardening process that provides a thin, high hardness case on
lower hardenability steels. Carbonitriding involves the diffusion of both carbon and nitrogen into the
base steel. The carbon provides the base metal with a high carbon surface, and the nitrogen provides
the case with an added boost of hardenability to insure full case hardness. The addition of nitrogen
makes the carbonitriding process especially suited to plain, low carbon steel that would not
otherwise respond to standard carburizing. Carbonitriding is usually carried out in a temperature
range of 820-900C in a gaseous atmosphere adding between 0.5 to 0.8% carbon and 0.2-0.4% (< 5%)
nitrogen to the surface of plain carbon steel or low alloy steel.
Q-23: What are the high-strength low-alloy steel?
A-23:
High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical
properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel.
HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific chemical composition
but rather to specific mechanical properties.
They have low carbon content between 0.050.25% to retain formability and weldability.
Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities
of copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium,
molybdenum, titanium, calcium, rare
earth elements, or zirconium.
Copper, titanium, vanadium, and niobium are added for strengthening purposes.
These steels are not strengthened by heat treatment due to low carbon content.
Q-24: Give composition and use of (a) Hadfield steel (b) Maraging steel (c) Spring Steel (d) Rail
Steel (e) Invar Steel
A-24:
Composition
Use
(a) Hadfield steel
C 1.1 to 1.4%, Mn 11-14%, rest Fe
Jaw crusher plate, Nuts and
bolts, Chains
(b) Maraging steel
C <0.03%, Ni-25%, Co 7-10%, Mo 3 -5%, Ti Aircraft under carriage parts,
1.75 %, Al- 0.2%, other trace, rest Fe
portable bridges and booster
motor in missile
(c) Spring Steel
C 0.55 0.65%, Si 0.1 0.35%, Mn 0.7 1.0 Spring
%, Cr 0.4 0.6%, Ni 0.4 0.7%, Mo 0.15
0.25%, rest Fe
(d) Rail Steel
C 0.4 0.6 %, Mn -1.5%, rest Fe
(e) Invar Steel
Ni 32%, Fe-68%
Rail
Precision measuring
instrument, survey measuring
tapes
Q-25: What is nodular cast Iron? How it is made?

A-25: Nodular (or ductile) cast iron: Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing these
materials. Small additions of Mg / Ce to the gray cast iron melt before casting can result in graphite
to form nodules or sphere-like particles. Matrix surrounding these particles can be either ferrite or
pearlite depending on the heat treatment. These are stronger and ductile than gray cast irons.
Q-26: What is Superalloy? Give composition and use of Waspalloy, and Inconel?
A-26: Superalloys as a class constitute the currently reigning aristocrats of the metallurgical world. They
are the alloys which have made jet flight possible, and they show what can be achieved by drawing
together and exploiting all the resources of modern physical and process metallurgy in the pursuit of
a very challenging objective.
Page 11 of 14
Applications of Superalloy?
Gas Turbine Engines
Blades, vanes, disks, combustors
Space Vehicles
Rocket motors
Nuclear Reactors
Submarines
Petroleum Equipment
Composition
Waspalloy
Cr-19%, Co-13%, Ti-3%, Al 1.4%, Zr 0.06 %,
C 0.08%, rest Ni
Inconel
Cr 15%, Ti 2.4%, Al 1%, Nb 1%, Ta 1%, Fe
7%, C 0.04%, rest Ni
Use
For
high
temperature
application upto 900oC
For
high
temperature
application upto 820oC
Q-27: What are PTFE, Nylon 6, Nylon 610, Perspex, where they are used?
A-27:
What is?
Use
PTFE
Fluorocarbons (PTFE or TFE) or Teflon. It Anticorrosive seals, chemical
is chemically inert in almost all pipes and valves, bearings, anti
environments,
excellent
electrical adhesive coatings, high
properties; low coefficient of friction; may be temperature electronic parts.
used to 260oC; relatively weak and poor
cold-flow properties.
Nylon 6
Nylon 6 or polycaprolactam or cast nylon is

polymer developed
to
reproduce
the
properties of nylon 6,6. Unlike most
other nylons, nylon 6 is not a condensation
polymer, but instead is formed by ringopening polymerization.
Synthetic fibers
Nylon 610
Polyhexamethylene sebacamide
Flexible tubes
Perspex
PMMA-polymethyle methacrylate
Domestic article
Q-28: What are conducting polymers and conducting ceramics? Give 2 examples of each.
A-28: Conducting Polymers
Due to the kind of bonding, polymers are typically electrical and thermal insulators. However,
conducting polymers can be obtained by doping, and conducting polymer-matrix composites can be
obtained by the use of conducting fillers. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 400oC),
and are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. . The most recent research in this has been the
development of highly conducting polymers with good stability and acceptable processing attributes.
Example: Polyacetylene, Polyphenylene, Polypyrroles
Conducting Ceramics
Conductive ceramics, advanced industrial materials that, owing to modifications in their structure,
serve as electrical conductors. Like metals, conducting ceramics have overlapping electron energy
bands and are therefore excellent electronic conductors. They constitute complex systems based on
oxide and non-oxide phases.
Examples: lead oxide (PbO), ruthenium dioxide (RuO2), bismuth ruthenate (Bi2Ru2O7)
Page 12 of 14
Q-29: What are silicon carbide and silicon nitride, what are their strength and hardness?
A-29: Silicon carbide (SiC)
It is known as one of best ceramic material for very high temperature applications. It is used as
coatings on other material for protection from extreme temperatures. It is also used as abrasive
material. It is used as reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based composites. It is a
semiconductor and often used in high temperature electronics.
Ultimate tensile strength of SiC is 300 MPa
Hardness of SiC is 2500 VPN (Vickers Pyramid Number)
Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
It has properties similar to those of SiC but is somewhat lower, and found applications in such as
automotive and gas turbine engines.
Ultimate tensile strength of Si3N4 is 580 MPa
Hardness of Si3N4 is 2300 VPN (Vickers Pyramid Number)
Q-30: What are dispersion strengthened and particulate composites? Give two examples of
each.
A-30: Dispersion-strengthened composites
In this composite, particles are of 0.01-0.1 m in size.
Strengthening occurs as a result of dislocation motion hindrance. It is similar to that of
precipitation hardening in metals.
Matrix bears the major portion of the applied load, while dispersoids obstruct the motion of
dislocations.
Example: thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni-alloys) with high-temperature strength; SAP
(sintered aluminium powder) where aluminium matrix is dispersed with extremely small flakes of
alumina (Al2O3).
Particulate composites
These composites contain large number of coarse particles.
These composites are designed to produce combination of properties rather than increase the
strength.
Mechanical properties are characterized by rule-of-mixtures.
Particulate composites are usually made of all three conventional engineering materials, namely
metals, polymers and ceramics.
Example: tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC) embedded cobalt or nickel based cutting
tools. Aluminium alloy castings containing dispersed SiC particles are widely used for automotive
applications including pistons and brake applications.
Q-31: Describe the following
(a) Ceramic matrix composite
(b) Metal matrix composite
(c) Carbon Carbon Composite
A-31: (a) Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
They are a subgroup of composite materials as well as a subgroup of technical ceramics. They consist
of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber reinforced ceramic
(CFRC) material. The matrix and fibers can consist of any ceramic material,
whereby carbon and carbon fibers can also be considered a ceramic material.
(b) Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminium, magnesium, iron, cobalt,
copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.
Page 13 of 14
(c) Carbon Carbon Composite

It is a composite material consisting of carbon fibre reinforcement in a matrix of graphite. It was
developed for the nose cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles. It has been used in the brake
systems of Formula One racing cars. Carboncarbon is well-suited to structural applications at high
temperatures, or where thermal shock resistance and/or a low coefficient of thermal expansion is
needed.
Q-32: Explain the following in corrosion
(a) Redox
(b) Electrolyte
A-32:
(a) Redox corrosion

Corrosion of metals is the most common type of corrosion and is a process involving an exchange
of electrons between two substances, one of them being the metal. In this process, the metal
usually loses electrons, becoming oxidized, while the other substance gains electrons, becoming
reduced. For this reason, corrosion is classified as an oxidation-reduction or redox reaction.
While many redox reactions are extremely important and beneficial to society (for example, those
that are used to make batteries), the redox reactions involved in corrosion are destructive.
(b) Electrolyte corrosion
Electrochemical corrosion takes place in the presence of an electrolyte, which is simply a fluid
conducting electricity, by migration of ions. Water generally contains mineral ions, hydrogen ions
and hydroxyl ions. In this case of atmospheric corrosion, humidity in the air does the job of an
electrolyte.
Q-33: Explain (a) Degradation of polymer (b) Corrosion of ceramics

A-33: (a) Degradation of polymer
As other engineering materials, polymers also deteriorated during their service. However, in
contrast to electrochemical nature of metal corrosion, polymer degradation is of
physiochemical in nature.
As polymer structures are complex, so are the mechanisms involved in their deterioration.
Many factors involved in degradation of polymers, like temperature, radiation,
environment, moisture, bacteria or external loads/stress.
Polymers degrade mainly in three forms swelling and dissolution, bond rupture, and
weathering.
(b) Corrosion of ceramics
As ceramics are made of metals and non-metals, they can be considered as already corroded.
Ceramics do get deteriorated during their service under extreme temperatures and external
loads.
Factors effecting life of ceramic components include: temperature, external loads, vibrations,
environment, etc.
Life span of ceramics can be increased by controlling the environment they are exposed to;
operational loads and temperatures; altering the component design.
Q-34: Give composition and uses of Permalloy and Cammalloy
A-34:
Composition
Use
Permalloy
45 Permalloy (55%Fe-45%Ni),
Application of soft magnets (Permalloy)
include: cores for electro-magnets, electric
79 Permalloy (79% Ni-4% Mo-17 %Fe),
motors, transformers, generators, and
other electrical equipment.
Cammalloy
66.5% Ni, 30% Cu, 3.5% Fe
Soft magnetic material, Curie point is
100oC
Page 14 of 14
For -2015
Rev1
Metal Cutting, Metal Forming & Metrology

Theory, Questions & Answers (All Questions are in Sequence)
IES-1992-2014 (23 Yrs.), GATE-1992-2014 (23 Yrs.), GATE (PI)-2000-2014 (15 Yrs.), IAS-1994-2011
(18 Yrs.), some PSUs questions and conventional questions are added.
Section-I: Theory of Metal Cutting
Theory & Questions
Chapter-1: Basics of Metal Cutting

Chapter-2: Force & Power in Metal Cutting
Chapter-3: Tool life, Tool Wear, Economics and Machinability
Answer &Explanation
Page-2
Page-9
Page-16
Page-137
Page-141
Page-151
Page-34
Page-44
Page-55
Page-160
Page-165
Page-166
Page-60
Page-65
Page-75
Page-86
Page-99
Page-117
Page-167
Page-168
Page-171
Page-176
Page-179
Page-184
Page-127
Page-185
--
Page-188
Section-II: Metrology
Chapter-4: Limit, Tolerance & Fits
Chapter-5: Measurement of Lines & Surfaces
Chapter-6: Miscellaneous of Metrology
Section-III: Metal Forming

Chapter-7: Cold Working, Recrystalization and Hot Working
Chapter-8: Rolling
Chapter-9: Forging
Chapter-10: Extrusion & Drawing
Chapter-11: Sheet Metal Operation
Chapter-12: Powder Metallurgy
Section-IV: Cutting Tool Materials
Section -V: Forging Analysis
For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs)
Page 1 of 205
Rev.1
IAS 2009 i
IAS2009main
GATE 2014
GATE2014
p
p
y Name four independent
variables and three dependent
TheoryofMetalCutting
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
variables in metal cutting.
[ 5 marks]
I d
IndependentVariables
d tV i bl
D
DependentVariables
d tV i bl
Startingmaterials
Startingmaterials
Forceorpowerrequirements
Forceorpowerrequirements
(tool/work)
Maximumtemperaturein
Toolgeometry
cutting
CuttingVelocity
Surfacefinish
g rake
Better surface finish is obtained with a large
angle because
(a) the area of shear plane decreases resulting in the
decrease in shear force and cutting force
(b) the tool becomes thinner and the cutting force is
reduced
( ) less
(c)
l
h
heat
i accumulated
is
l d in
i the
h cutting
i zone
(d) the friction between the chip and the tool is less
Lubrication
Lubrication
1
IES 2013
IES2013
Feed&Depth ofcut
S 200
IES2001
Carbide tool is used to machine a 30 mm diameter

steel shaft at a spindle speed of 1000 revolutions per
minute. The cutting speed of the above turning
operation is:
( ) 1000 rpm
(a)
IES1995
For cutting of brass with singlepoint

single point cutting tool
on a lathe, tool should have
( ) Negativerakeangle
(a)
N ti k
l
(b) Positiverakeangle
(c) Zerorakeangle
(d) Zerosidereliefangle
(b) 1570 m/min
Singlepointthreadcuttingtoolshouldideally
have:
a)) Zerorake
b) Positiverake
c) Negativerake
d) Normalrake
(c) 94.2 m/min

(d) 47.1 m/min
Cuttingpowerconsumptioninturningcanbe
C tti
ti i t
i
b
significantlyreducedby
g
y
y
(a)Increasingrakeangleofthetool
(b)Increasingthecuttinganglesofthetool
(c)Wideningthenoseradiusofthetool
(d)I
(d)Increasingtheclearanceangle
i h l
Assertion (A): For a negative rake tool, the specific

cutting pressure is smaller than for a positive rake
tool under otherwise identical conditions.
Reason (R): The shear strain undergone by the chip
in the case of negative rake tool is larger.
larger
correctt explanation
l
ti off A
Page 2 of 205
S 2005
200
IES
IES1993
GATE1995;2008
Assertion (A): Carbide tips are generally given

negative rake angle.
Reason (R): Carbide tips are made from very hard
materials.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
d R are individually
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
Rev.1
S 2002
IES
Assertion (A): Negative rake is usually provided on
carbide tipped tools.
Reason (R): Carbide tools are weaker
in
compression.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
IES2011
Which one of the following statement is NOT correct
with reference to the purposes and effects of rake angle
of a cutting tool?
(a) To guide the chip flow direction
(b) To reduce the friction between the tool flanks and
the machined surface
(c) To add keenness or sharpness to the cutting edges.
(d) To provide better thermal efficiency.
( )
GATE 2008(PI)
Brittle materials are machined with tools
having zero or negative rake angle because it
(a) results in lower cutting force
( ) improves surface finish
(b)
(c) provides adequate strength to cutting tool
(d) results in more accurate dimensions
10
11
12
ForIESOnly
Cast iron with impurities of carbide requires a

particular rake angle for efficient cutting with single
point tools, what is the value of this rake angle, give
reasons for
f your answer.
[ 2 marks]
k ]
Answer: Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability

and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating tools with
high toughness. Zero rake tool is perfect for this purpose.
Considerthefollowingcharacteristics
1. Thecuttingedgeisnormaltothecuttingvelocity.
2. Thecuttingforcesoccurintwodirectionsonly.
Th tti f
i t di ti
l
3. Thecuttingedgeiswiderthanthedepthofcut.
Thecharacteristicsapplicabletoorthogonalcutting
wouldinclude
(a) 1and2
(b) 1and3
(c) 2and3
(d) 1,2and3
1 2and3
13
IES 2012
IES
Which one of the following statements is correct about

an oblique cutting?
(a) Direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the
cutting edge of the tool
(b) Only
O l two
t
components
t off cutting
tti
f
forces
actt on the
th
tool
(c) cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an acute angle
to the direction of tool feed
(d) Cutting edge clears the width of the workpiece
14
IES2006
Duringorthogonalcutting,anincreaseincuttingspeed
causes
(a)Anincreaseinlongitudinalcuttingforce
(b)Anincreaseinradialcuttingforce
(c)Anincreaseintangentialcuttingforce
( )
(d)Cuttingforcestoremainunaffected
g
IES 2014
IES
S 1994
99
IAS
IES2007Conventionall
16
Whichofthefollowingisasinglepointcutting
tool?
(a) Hacksawblade
(b) Millingcutter
(c) Grindingwheel
(d) Partingtool
P ti t l
Page 3 of 205
15
IES 2012
IES
()
g
g
p
g
Statement(I):Negativerakeanglesarepreferredonrigidset
upsforinterruptedcuttinganddifficulttomachine
materials.
Statement(II):Negativerakeangledirectsthechipsontothe
machinedsurface
( ) Both
(a)
B h Statement
S
(I) and
d Statement
S
(II) are individually
i di id ll
true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of
Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
p
of
true but Statement ((II)) is not the correct explanation
Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
Rev.1
18
IES2003
The angle of inclination of the rake face with
respect to the tool base measured in a plane
perpendicular to the base and parallel to the width
of the tool is called
(a) Back rake angle
(b) Side rake angle
(c) Side cutting edge angle
((d)) End cutting
g edge
g angle
g
The diameter and rotational speed of a job are 100 mm and

500 rpm respectively.
respectively The high spot (Chatter marks) are
found at a spacing of 30 deg on the job surface. The chatter
frequency is
(a) 5 Hz
(b) 12 Hz
(c) 100 Hz
19
20
Consider the following statements:

In an orthogonal, singlepoint metal cutting,
as the
th sidecutting
id
tti edge
d angle
l is
i increased,
i
d
1. The tangential
g
force increases.
2. The longitudinal force drops.
3. The
Th radial
di l force
f
i
increases.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
( ) 2 and 3 only
(c)
( ) 1, 2 and 3
(d)
Thrustforcewillincreasewiththeincreasein
(a) Sidecuttingedgeangle
(b)T l
(b)Toolnoseradius
di
(c) Rakeangle
(d)Endcuttingedgeangle.
22
Assertion (A): For drilling cast iron,

iron the tool is
provided with a point angle smaller than that
required for a ductile material.
material
Reason (R): Smaller point angle results in lower
rake
k angle.
l
(b) Both A and R are individuallyy true but R is not the
(d) A is falseFor-2015
but R is(IES,
true GATE & PSUs)
25
Thetoollifeincreaseswiththe
(a) Increaseinsidecuttingedgeangle
(b) Decreaseinsiderakeangle
D
i id k
l
(c) Decreaseinnoseradius
(d) Decreaseinbackrakeangle
(d) 500 Hz
IES 2010
IES2010
S 1995
99
IAS
IES2006
S 1996
996
IAS
GATE(PI)1990
21
IES1995
The
the fface and
the flank
Th angle
l between
b t
th
d th
fl k off the
th
single point cutting tool is known as
a) Rake angle
b) Clearance angle
g
c) Lip angle
d) Point angle.
angle
23
IES 2012
IES
IES2002
The strength of a single point cutting tool depends
upon
1. Rake angle
2. Clearance angle
3. Lip angle
( ) 1 and
(a)
d3
(b) 2 and
d3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Page 4 of 205
24
26
Toollifeincreasewithincreasein
(a)Cuttingspeed
(b)N di
(b)Noseradius
(c)Feed
(d)Depthofcut
Rev.1
27
Consider the following statements with respect

to the effects of a large nose radius on the tool:
1. It deteriorates
d t i
t surface
f
fi i h
finish.
2. It increases the possibility of chatter.
3. It improves tool life.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 2 only
(b) 3 only
( ) 2 and
(c)
d 3 only
l
(d) 1, 2 and
d3
Consider the following statements about nose

radius
1 It improves tool life
1.
2. It reduces the cutting force
3. It improves the surface finish.
Select the correct answer using
g the codes g
given below:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1,
1 2 and 3
28
IES 2009
IES2009
29
Tool geometry of a single point cutting tool is specified by

the following elements:
1. Back rake angle
2. Side rake angle
3. End cutting edge angle
4. Side cutting edge angle
5. Side relief angle
6. End relief angle
7. Nose radius
The correct sequence of these tool elements used for
correctly specifying the tool geometry is
( ) 1,2,3,6,5,4,7
(a)
( ) 1,2,6,5,3,4,7
(b)
30
(c) 1,2,5,6,3,4,7
(d) 1, 2, 6, 3, 5, 4,7
S 993
IES1993
The following tool signature is specified for a single

single
point cutting tool in American system:
10, 12, 8,
8 6,
6 15, 20, 3
What does the angle 12 represent?
(a) Side cuttingedge angle
(b) Side rake angle
(c) Back rake angle
(d) Side
Sid clearance
l
angle
l
In ASA System,
System if the tool nomenclature is 8655
8655
10152mm, then the side rake angle will be
( ) 5
(a)
(b) 6
( ) 8
(c)
(d) 10
34
A cutting tool having tool signature as 10, 9, 6, 6, 8, 8,

2 will have side rake angle
(b) 9o
(c) 8o
(d) 2o
32
G
20 0 ( )
GATE
2010(PI)
GATE2008
In a single point turning tool, the side rake angle
and orthogonal rake angle are equal. is the
principal cutting edge angle and its range is
0o 90o . The chip flows in the orthogonal plane.
The value of is closest to
(a) 00
(b) 450
0
(c) 60
(d) 900
ISRO2011
(a) 10o
31
IES 1994
IES1994
IES 1995
IES1995
IES2009
The tool geometry of a single point right handed turning

tool is provided in the orthogonal rake system (ORS).
The sum of the principal (major) cutting edge angle and
the auxiliary (minor) cutting edge angle of the above tool
is 90o. The inclination angles of the principal and the
auxiliary cutting edges are both 0o. The principal and
auxiliary orthogonal clearance angles are 10o and 8o,
respectively. The rake angle (in degree) measured on the
orthogonal plane is
(a) 0
(b) 2
(c) 8
(d) 10
Page 5 of 205
35
33
IAS 2009Main
Rev.1
36
GATE2001
IES1994
GATE2011
During
D i orthogonal
h
l cutting
i off mild
ild steell with
ih
a 10 rake angle tool, the chip thickness ratio
was obtained as 0.4. The shear angle (in
degrees)
g
) evaluated from this data is
(a)6.53
(b)20.22
( )
(c)22.94
( )
(d)50.00
A single point cutting tool with 12

12 rake angle is
used to machine a steel work piece. The depth of
cut i.e.
cut,
i e uncut thickness is 0.81
0 81 mm.
mm The chip
thickness under orthogonal machining condition is
1 8 mm.
1.8
mm The shear angle is approximately
(a) 22
(b) 26
(c) 56
5
(d) 76
37
38
IES 2004
During pure orthogonal turning operation of a
In a machining operation chip thickness ratio
hollow cylindrical pipe, it is found that the
is 0.3 and the rake angle of the tool is 10. What
thickness of the chip produced is 0.5

0 5 mm.
mm The feed
is the value of the shear strain?
given to the zero degree

g
g
rake angle
g tool is 0.2
(a) 0.3
0.31
(b)
0.133
0.
mm/rev. The shear strain produced during the
(c) 3.00
(d)
3.34
operation is .
A single point cutting tool with 120 rake angle is

used for orthogonal machining of a ductile
material.
The
shear
plane
angle
for
the
theoretically minimum possible shear strain to

occur
(a) 51
(b) 45
((c)) 330
((d)) None of these

43
Minimum
shear
strain
in
Mi i
h
i
i
g
turning
g with a cutting
g
orthogonal
tool of zero rake angle is
(a) 0.0
00
((b)) 0.55
(c) 1.0
(d) 2.0
41
GATE 2012
GATE2012
GATE(PI)1990
39
IES 2009
GATE2014
40
The following parameters determine the

model of continuous chip formation:
1. True
T
f d
feed
2. Cutting
g velocityy
3. Chip thickness
4. Rake
R k angle
l off the
h cutting
i tool.
l
The p
parameters which g
govern the value of shear
angle would include
( ) 1,2 and
(a)
d 3 (b) 1,3 and
d4
(c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 2,3 and 4
p
g to an orthogonal
g
g
Details pertaining
metal cutting
process are given below.
Chip thickness ratio
04
0.4
Undeformed thickness
0.6 mm
R k angle
Rake
l
+10
Cutting speed
2.5 m/s
Mean thickness of primary shear zone 25 microns
The shear strain rate in s1 during the process is
(a) 0.1781105
(b) 0.7754105
5
( ) 1.010410
(c)
(d) 4.397105
Page 6 of 205
44
42
IES2004
Considerthefollowingstatementswithrespectto
thereliefangleofcuttingtool:
1 Thisaffectsthedirectionofchipflow
1.Thisaffectsthedirectionofchipflow
2.Thisreducesexcessivefrictionbetweenthetool
andworkpiece
d
k i
3.Thisaffectstoollife
4.Thisallowsbetteraccessofcoolanttothetool
workpieceinterface
p
Whichofthestatementsgivenabovearecorrect?
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and3
(c) 2and4
(d) 3and4
Rev.1
45
IES2006
IES2004
Considerthefollowingstatements:
1. Alargerakeanglemeanslowerstrengthofthe
cuttingedge.
cuttingedge
2. Cuttingtorquedecreaseswithrakeangle.
Whichofthestatementsgivenaboveis/arecorrect?
((a)) Only1
y
((b)) Only2
y
(c) Both1and2
(d) Neither1nor2
46
The
angle
Th rake
k angle
l off a cutting
tti tool
t l is
i 15,
shear
h
l 45
and cutting
g velocity
y 35 m/min.
/
What is the velocity
y
of chip along the tool face?
(a) 28.5 m/min
(b)
27.3 m/min
(c) 25.3 m/min
(d)
23.5 m/min
47
48
IES 2014
IES
IES2008
Inanorthogonalcuttingthecuttingratioisfoundtobe
0 75.Thecuttingspeedis60m/minanddepthofcut2 4
075.Thecuttingspeedis60m/minanddepthofcut24
mm.Whichofthefollowingarecorrect?
1
1.
Chipvelocitywillbe45m/min
Chipvelocitywillbe45m/min.
2. Chipvelocitywillbe80m/min.
3 Chipthicknesswillbe18mm.
3.
Chipthicknesswillbe1 8mm
4. Chipthicknesswillbe32mm.
Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegivenbelow:
l
h
h
d
b l
(a) 1and3
(b) 1and4
(c) 2and3
(d) 2and4
IES2001
In an orthogonal turning process, the chip thickness =

0.32 mm, feed = 0.2 mm/rev. then the cutting ratio will
be
(a) 2.6
(b) 3.2
(c) 1.6
(d) 1.8
IAS2003
52
(a)
V cos
cos( )
V cos
sin( )
(b)
(d)
V sin
cos ( )
V sin
sin( )
50
IES2003
An orthogonal cutting operation is being
carried out under the following conditions:
cutting
tti speed
d = 2 m/s,
/ depth
d th off cutt = 0.5 mm,
chip thickness = 0.6 mm. Then the chip
velocity is
(a) 2.0
2 0 m/s (b) 2.4
2 4 m/s
(c) 1.0 m/s (d) 1.66 m/s
If is the rake angle of the cutting tool,

tool is the
shear angle and V is the cutting velocity, then the
velocity
l it off chip
hi sliding
lidi
along
l
th shear
the
h
plane
l
i
is
given by
(c)
49
IES2004,ISRO2009
Match.ListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswer
usingthecodesgivenbelowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
A. Planapproachangle
1.
Toolface
B Rakeangle
B.
2
2.
Toolflank
C. Clearanceangle
3.
Toolfaceandflank
D Wedgeangle
D.
W d
l
4.
C i d
Cuttingedge
5.
Toolnose
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
4
2
55
(b) 4
1
33
2
(c) 4
1
2
3
(d) 1
4
3
5
51
IAS2002
Inorthogonalcutting,shearangleistheanglebetween
Inorthogonalcutting shearangleistheanglebetween
((a)) Shearplaneandthecuttingvelocity
p
g
y
(b) Shearplaneandtherakeplane
(c) Shearplaneandtheverticaldirection
(d) Shearplaneandthedirectionofelongationofcrystalsin
thechip
Page 7 of 205
53
Rev.1
54
IAS2000
IAS1998
IAS1995
The cutting velocity in m/sec,

m/sec for turning a work piece
of diameter 100 mm at the spindle speed of 480 RPM is
(a) 1.26
(b)
2.51
(c)
48
(d)
151
55
56
G
2009 ( ) CommonDataS1
GATE
2009(PI)
G
2009 ( ) CommonDataS2
GATE
2009(PI)
An orthogonal turning operation is carried out at 20
An orthogonal turning operation is carried out at 20
m/min cutting speed, using a cutting tool of rake angle
m/min cutting speed, using a cutting tool of rake angle
15o. The chip thickness is 0.4 mm and the uncut chip
15o. The chip thickness is 0.4 mm and the uncut chip
thickness
hi k
i 0.2 mm.
is
thickness
hi k
i 0.2 mm.
is
The shear plane angle (in degrees) is
The chip velocity (in m/min) is
((a)) 26.8
((a)) 8
((b)) 27.8
7
((c)) 28.8
((d)) 29.8
9
((b)) 10
((c)) 12
61
GATE1995
Plainmillingofmildsteelplateproduces
(a) egu a s aped d sco t uous c ps
(a)Irregularshapeddiscontinuouschips
(b)Regularshapeddiscontinuouschip
(c)Continuouschips ithoutbuiltupedge
(c)Continuouschipswithoutbuiltupedge
(d)Joinedchips
59
IES 2007
IES2007
57
((d)) 14
4
58
Duringmachining,excessmetalisremovedintheform
ofchipasinthecaseofturningonalathe.Whichofthe
followingarecorrect?
C ti
Continuousribbonlikechipisformedwhenturning
ibb lik hi i f
d h t
i
1. Atahighercuttingspeed
2. Atalowercuttingspeed
A l
i
d
3. Abrittlematerial
4. Aductilematerial
Ad
il
i l
( ) 1and3
(a)
d
(b) 1and4
d
(c) 2and3
(d) 2and4
In an orthogonal cutting, the depth of cut is halved and

the feed rate is double. If the chip thickness ratio is
unaffected with the changed
g
cutting
g conditions,, the
actual chip thickness will be
((a)) Doubled
((b)) halved
(c) Quadrupled
(d) Unchanged.
GATE2002
IAS1997
Considerthefollowingmachiningconditions:BUEwill
Considerthefollowingmachiningconditions BUEwill
formin
(a) Ductilematerial.
60
Abuiltupedgeisformedwhilemachining
Ab ilt
d i f
d hil
hi i
(a)Ductilematerialsathighspeed
(b)
(c) Smallrakeangle. (d)
Highcuttingspeed.
(b)Ductilematerialsatlowspeed
p
Smalluncutchipthickness.
(c)Brittlematerialsathighspeed
(d)Brittlematerialsatlowspeed
Page 8 of 205
62
Rev.1
63
Workbook
Ch1:MechanicsofBasicMachiningOperation
G
2009
GATE2009
IES1997
Friction
can be
F i ti att the
th toolchip
t l hi interface
i t f
b reduced
d
d by
b
Assertion (A): For high speed turning of cast iron

pistons, carbide tool bits are provided with chip
breakers.
Reason (R): High speed turning may produce long,
ribbon type continuous chips which must be broken
into small lengths which otherwise would be
difficult to handle and may prove hazardous.
correct explanation
l
i off A
(a) decreasing the rake angle

(b) increasing
g the depth
p of cut
(c) Decreasing the cutting speed
(d) increasing the cutting speed
64
65
ESE2000(Conventional)
A l i off Metal
Analysis
M t l Cutting
C tti
BySKMondal
68
LinkedAnswerQuestionsGATE2013S1
GATE2010(PI)LinkedS2
g
g of an engineering
g
g alloy,
y, it has
In orthogonal
turning
been observed that the friction force acting at the chip
tool interface is 402.5 N and the friction force is also
perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector. The feed
velocity is negligibly small with respect to the cutting
velocity.
l it The
Th ratio
ti off friction
f i ti
f
force
t normall force
to
f
associated with the chiptool interface is 1. The uncut
chip thickness is 0.2
0 2 mm and the chip thickness is 0.4
04
mm. The cutting velocity is 2 m/s.
Assume that the energy expended during machining is
completely converted to heat. The rate of heat
generation (in W) at the primary shear plane is
(a) 180.5 (b)For-2015
200.5 (IES,
(c) 302.5
(d) 402.5
GATE & PSUs)
70
Option
p
Q. No
Option
p
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
10
20
66
The
the
Th following
f ll i data
d t from
f
th orthogonal
th
l cutting
tti test
t t
is available. Rake angle = 100, chip thickness ratio =
0.35, uncutt chip
hi thickness
thi k
= 0.51 mm, width
idth off cutt =
3 mm, yield shear stress of work material = 285
2, mean friction
N/
N/mm
f i ti
coefficient
ffi i t on tool
t l face
f
=
0.65,
Determine
()
(i)
Cutting force (F
( c)
(ii) Radial force
(iii) Normal force (N) on tool and
(iv) Shear force (Fs ).
)
67
Q. No
In orthogonal turning of an engineering alloy, it has

been observed that the friction force acting at the chip
tool interface is 402.5 N and the friction force is also
perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector. The feed
velocity is negligibly small with respect to the cutting
velocity. The ratio of friction force to normal force
associated with the chip
chiptool
tool interface is 1. The uncut
chip thickness is 0.2 mm and the chip thickness is 0.4
mm. The cutting velocity is 2 m/s.
The shear force (in N) acting along the primary shear
plane is
(a) 180.0 (b) 240.0 (c) 360.5 (d) 402.5
69
LinkedAnswerQuestionsGATE2013S2
In orthogonal turning of a bar of 100 mm diameter
In orthogonal turning of a bar of 100 mm diameter
with a feed of 0.25 mm/rev, depth of cut of 4 mm
with a feed of 0.25 mm/rev, depth of cut of 4 mm
and cutting velocity of 90 m/min, it is observed that
and cutting velocity of 90 m/min, it is observed that
the main (tangential)cutting force is perpendicular
the main (tangential)cutting force is perpendicular
to friction force acting at the chiptool

chip tool interface.
interface
to friction force acting at the chiptool

chip tool interface.
interface
The main (tangential) cutting force is 1500 N.
The main (tangential) cutting force is 1500 N.
y The orthogonal rake angle of the cutting tool in degree is
(a) zero
(b) 3.58
(c) 5
(d) 7.16
Page 9 of 205
y The normal force acting at the chiptool interface in N is
(a) 1000 (b) 1500

71
(c) 20oo
(d) 2500
Rev.1
72
GATE 2014
GATE2014
Which pair of following statements is correct for
orthogonal cutting using a singlepoint cutting
tool?
P. Reduction in friction angle increases cutting force
Q Reduction in friction angle decreases cutting force
Q.
R. Reduction in friction angle increases chip thickness
S Reduction
S.
R d i in
i friction
f i i angle
l decreases
d
chip
hi thickness
hi k
(a) P and R
(b) P and S
(c) Q and R
(d) Q and S
S 1999
999
IAS
GATE1997
In
process, rake
I an orthogonal
th
l cutting
tti
k angle
l off the
th
In a typical metal cutting operation, using a cutting
tool is 20 and friction angle

g
is 25.5.
5 5 Using
g
tool of positive rake angle = 10

10, it was observed
Merchant's shear angle relationship, the value of
that the shear angle was 20. The friction angle is
shear angle will be

( ) 39.5
(a)
(b)
42.25
(c) 47.75
47 75
(d)
50 5
50.5
73
Mild steel
machined
speed
t l is
i being
b i
hi d att a cutting
tti
d off
200 m/min with a tool rake angle of 10. The width of
cutt and
d uncutt thickness
thi k
are 2 mm and
d 0.2 mm
respectively. If the average value of coefficient of
f i ti between
friction
b t
th tool
the
t l and
d the
th chip
hi is
i 0.5 and
d the
th
shear stress of the work material is 400 N/mm2,
(b) 30
(c) 60
(d) 40
74
GATE 2008 (PI) Linked S 1

ESE2005Conventional
(a) 45
75
GATE 2008 (PI) Linked S 2

g
g experiment,
p
g
In an orthogonal
cutting
an HSS tool having
g
g experiment,
p
g
In an orthogonal
cutting
an HSS tool having
the following tool signature in the orthogonal reference
the following tool signature in the orthogonal reference
system (ORS)
(
) has
h been
b
used:
d 0107710751. Given
system (ORS)
(
) has
h been
b
used:
d 0107710751. Given
width of cut = 3.6 mm; shear strength of workpiece
width of cut = 3.6 mm; shear strength of workpiece
material = 460
N/mm2;
depth of cut = 0.25 mm;
material = 460 N/mm2; depth of cut = 0.25 mm;
coefficient of friction at toolchip interface = 0.7.
coefficient of friction at toolchip interface = 0.7.
(i) shear
h
angle
l and
d
Sh
Shear
plane
l
angle
l (in
(i degree)
d
) for
f minimum
i i
cutting
tti force
f
Mi i
Minimum
power requirement
i
t (in
(i kW) att a cutting
tti speed
d
(ii) Cutting and thrust component of the force.
is
of 150 m/min is
Determine
76
IES 2010
IES2010
The relationship between the shear angle ,
the friction angle and cutting rake angle
is given as
79
(a) 20.5
(b) 24.5
(c) 28.5
(d) 32.5
77
(a) 3.15
(b) 3.25
IES2005
(d) 3.45
78
IES2003
Which
is
Whi h one off the
h following
f ll i
i the
h correct
expression for the Merchant's machinability
constant?
(a) 2 +
(b) 2 +
(c) 2
(d) +
(Where = shear angle, = friction angle
and = rake angle)
Page 10 of 205
(c) 3.35
80
In orthogonal cutting test, the cutting force = 900 N,

the thrust force = 600 N and chip shear angle is 30o.
Then the chip shear force is
(a) 1079.4 N
(b)
969.6 N
(c) 479.4 N
(d)
69.6 N
Rev.1
81
IES 2014
IES
GATE 2007(PI)CommonData1
2007 (PI) C
D t 1
GATE
IES2000
In an orthogonal cutting operation shear angle = 11.31

11 31o ,
cutting force = 900 N and thrust force = 810 N. Then the
shear force will be approximately ( given sin 11.31o = 0.2)
(a) 650 N
(b) 720 N
(c) 620 N
(d) 680 N
In an orthogonal cutting test, the cutting force and

thrust force were observed to be 1000N and 500 N
respectively. If the rake angle of tool is zero, the
coefficient of friction in chiptool interface will be
(a)2
( b)2
( c)
( d) 2
2
82
g
g test,, the following
g
In an orthogonal
machining
observations were made
Cutting force
1200 N
Thrust force
500 N
T l rake
Tool
k angle
l
zero
Cutting speed
1 m/s
Depth of cut
0.8 mm
Chip thickness
1.5 mm
Chip speed along the tool rake face will be
( ) 0.83
(a)
8 m/s
/
(b) 0.53 m/s
/
85
(c) 1.2 m/s
(d) 1.88 m/s
IFS2012
An orthogonal machining operation is being carried out

under the following conditions :
depth of cut = 0.1 mm,
chip
h thickness
h k
= 0.2 mm,
width of cut = 5 mm,
rake angle = 10o
Theforcecomponentsalongandnormaltothedirection
ofcuttingvelocityare500Nand200Nrespectively.
Determine
(i)Thecoefficientoffrictionbetweenthetoolandchip.
(ii)Ul i
(ii)Ultimateshearstressoftheworkpiecematerial.[10]
h
f h
k i
i l [ ]
83
GATE 2011(PI)LinkedS1
GATE
2011 (PI) Linked S1
GATE 2007(PI)CommonData2
2007 (PI) C
D t 2
GATE
88
g
g test,, the following
g
In an orthogonal
machining
observations were made
Cutting force
1200 N
Thrust force
500 N
T l rake
Tool
k angle
l
zero
Cutting speed
1 m/s
Depth of cut
0.8 mm
Chip thickness
1.5 mm
Friction angle during machining will be
( ) 22.6
(a)
6o (b) 32.8
8o
( ) 57.1o
(c)
(d) 67.4
6 o
84
GATE
2011 (PI) Linked S2
During orthogonal machining of a mild steel specimen

with a cutting tool of zero rake angle, the following data
is obtained:
Uncut chip thickness = 0.25 mm
Chip thickness = 0.75
0 75 mm
Width of cut = 2.5 mm
N
Normal
l force
f
= 950 N
Thrust force = 475 N
The shear angle and shear force, respectively, are
(a) 71.565
71 565o, 150.21
150 21 N
(b) 18.435
18 435o , 751.04
751 04 N
(c) 9.218o, 861.64 N
(d) 23.157o , 686.66 N
86
During orthogonal machining of a mild steel specimen

with a cutting tool of zero rake angle, the following data
is obtained:
Uncut chip thickness = 0.25 mm
Chip thickness = 0.75
0 75 mm
Width of cut = 2.5 mm
N
Normal
l force
f
= 950 N
Thrust force = 475 N
Theultimateshearstress(inN/mm2)ofthework
materialis
(a)235 (b)139
(c)564
(d)380
GATE2006CommonDataQuestions(1)
Inanorthogonalmachiningoperation:
I th
l
hi i
ti
Uncutthickness=0.5mm
Cuttingspeed=20m/min Rakeangle=15
Widthofcut=5mm
Widthofcut
5mm
Chipthickness=0.7mm
Chipthickness
0.7mm
Thrustforce=200N
Cuttingforce=1200N
A
AssumeMerchant'stheory.
M h t' th
Thecoefficientoffrictionatthetoolchipinterfaceis
( )
(a)0.23
(b)
(b)0.46
(c)0.85
(d)0.95
Page 11 of 205
89
87
I th
l
hi i
ti
Widthofcut=5mm
Widthofcut
5mm
Chipthickness=0.7mm
Chipthickness
0.7mm
Thrustforce=200N
Cuttingforce=1200N
A
M h t' th
Thepercentageoftotalenergydissipateddueto
f
frictionatthetoolchipinterfaceis
h
l h
f
(a)30%
(b)42%
(c)58%
(d)70%
Rev.1
90
IES1995
I th
l
hi i
ti
Widthofcut=5mm
Widthofcut
5mm
Chipthickness=0.7mm
Chipthickness
0.7mm
Thrustforce=200N
Cuttingforce=1200N
A
M h t' th
Thevaluesofshearangleandshearstrain,
respectively,are
l
(a)30.3 and1.98
(b)30.3 and4.23
(c)40.2 and2.97
(d)40.2 and1.65
The primary tool force used in calculating the total

power consumption in machining is the
((a)) Radial force
((b))
Tangential
g
force
(c) Axial force
(d)
Frictional force.
91
IES1997
S 2003 Conventional
C
i
l
ESE2003
97
93
GATE2014
The
Th radial
di l force
f
iin singlepoint
i l
i tooll during
d i
turning operation varies between
(a) 0.2 to 0.4 times the main cutting force
(b) 0.4
0 4 to 0.6
0 6 times the main cutting force
(c) 0.6 to 0.8 times the main cutting
g force
(d) 0.5 to 0.6 times the main cutting force
94
During turning a carbon steel rod of 160 mm diameter by a

carbide
bid tooll off geometry; 0, 0, 10, 8,
8 15, 75, 0 (mm)
(
) at speed
d off
400 rpm, feed of 0.32 mm/rev and 4.0 mm depth of cut, the
following observation were made.
made
Tangential component of the cutting force, Pz = 1200 N
Axial component of the cutting force,
force Px = 800 N
Chip thickness (after cut), 2 = 0.8 mm.
For the above machining condition determine the values of
(i) Friction force, F and normal force, N acting at the chip tool
interface.
interface
(ii) Yield shears strength of the work material under this
machining condition.
(iii) Cutting power consumption in kW.
Power
consumption
in
is
P
i
i metall cutting
i
i
mainly due to
(a) Tangential component of the force
(b) Longitudinal component of the force
(c) Normal component
p
of the force
(d) Friction at the metaltool interface
92
IES1999
Consider
the
forces
acting
on a
C
id
h following
f ll i
f
i
finish turning tool:
1. Feed force
2 Thrust force
2.
3. Cutting
g force.
The correct sequence of the decreasing order of
the magnitudes of these forces is
(a) 1, 2, 3
(b) 2, 3, 1
(c) 3, 1, 2
(d) 3, 2, 1
IES2001
A straight turning operation is carried out using a

single point cutting tool on an AISI 1020 steel rod.
rod
The feed is 0.2 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 0.5
mm. The tool has a side cutting edge angle of 60o.
The uncut chip thickness (in mm) is .
95
GATE 1995Conventional
IAS2003MainExamination
While
Whil turning
t
i a C15
C steel
t l rod
d off 160
6 mm diameter
di
t att
315 rpm, 2.5 mm depth of cut and feed of 0.16
mm/rev
/
b a tool
by
t l off geometry
t 00, 100, 80, 90,150, 750,
0(mm), the following observations were made.
Tangential component of the cutting force = 500 N
Axial component
p
of the cutting
g force = 200 N
Chip thickness = 0.48 mm
Draw schematically the Merchant
Merchantss circle diagram
for the cutting force in the present case.
Page 12 of 205
96
98
During
D i tturning
i process with
ith 7 6 6 8 30 1
(mm) ASA tool the undeformed chip thickness of
2.0 mm and
d width
idth off cutt off 2.5 mm were used.
d The
Th
side rake angle of the tool was a chosen that the
machining
hi i
operation
ti
could
ld be
b approximated
i t d to
t be
b
orthogonal cutting. The tangential cutting force and
th
thrust
t force
f
were 1177 N and
d 560
6 N respectively.
ti l
Calculate:
[30 marks]
( ) The
(i)
h side
d rake
k angle
l
(ii) Coefficient of friction at the rake face
(iii) The dynamic shear strength of the work material
Rev.1
99
GATE2007
GATE2007
In orthogonal turning of a low carbon steel bar

of diameter 150 mm with uncoated carbide
tool the cutting velocity is 90 m/min.
tool,
m/min The feed
is 0.24 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 2 mm.
The chip thickness obtained is 0.48
0 48 mm.
mm If the
orthogonal rake angle is zero and the principal
cutting edge angle is 90
90, the shear angle is
degree is
( ) 20.56
(a)
6
(b) 26.56
6 6
(c) 30.56
(d) 36.56
In orthogonal turning of low carbon steel pipe with

principal cutting edge angle of 90
90, the main cutting
force is 1000 N and the feed force is 800 N. The shear
angle is 25 and orthogonal rake angle is zero.
Employing Merchants theory, the ratio of friction
force to normal force acting on the cutting tool is
(a) 1.56
1 56
(b) 1.25
1 25
(c) 0.80
0 80
100
A cylinder
is
li d
i tturned
d on a llathe
th with
ith orthogonal
th
l
machining principle. Spindle rotates at 200 rpm. The
axial
i l feed
f d rate
t is
i 0.25 mm per revolution.
l ti
D th off cutt is
Depth
i
0.4 mm. The rake angle is 10. In the analysis it is found
th t the
that
th shear
h
angle
l is
i 27.75
Intheaboveproblem,thecoefficientoffrictionat
thechiptoolinterfaceobtainedusingEarnestand
Merchanttheoryis
(a)0.18
(b)0.36
(c)0.71
(d)0.98
(d) 0.64
0 64
GATE2008CommonDataQuestion(1)
Orthogonal
O th
l turning
t
i is
i performed
f
d on a cylindrical
li d i l work
k
piece with shear strength of 250 MPa. The following
conditions
diti
are used:
d cutting
tti velocity
l it is
i 180
8 m/min.
/ i feed
f d
is 0.20 mm/rev. depth of cut is 3 mm. chip thickness
ratio
ti = 0.5. The
Th orthogonal
th
l rake
k angle
l is
i 7o. Apply
A l
Merchant's theory for analysis.
Theshearplaneangle(indegree)andtheshear
(
)
forcerespectivelyare
(a)52:320N
(b)52:400N
(c)28:400N
(d)28:320N
102
GATE2008CommonDataQuestion(2)
Orthogonal
O th
l turning
t
i is
i performed
f
d on a cylindrical
li d i l work
k
piece with shear strength of 250 MPa. The following
conditions
diti
are used:
d cutting
tti velocity
l it is
i 180
8 m/min.
/ i feed
f d
is 0.20 mm/rev. depth of cut is 3 mm. chip thickness
ratio
ti = 0.5. The
Th orthogonal
th
l rake
k angle
l is
i 7o. Apply
A l
Merchant's theory for analysis.
ThecuttingandThrustforces,respectively,are
(a)568N;387N (b)565N;381N
(c)440N;342N
(d)480N;356N
104
105
GATE 2013
GATE2013
A medium carbon steel workpiece is turned on a

lathe at 50 m/min. cutting speed 0.8 mm/rev feed
and 1.5 mm depth of cut. What is the rate of metal
removal?
(a) 1000 mm3/min
(b) 60,000 mm3/min
(c) 20,000 mm3/min
((d)) Can not be calculated with the g
given data
A cylinder
is
li d
i tturned
d on a llathe
th with
ith orthogonal
th
l
machining principle. Spindle rotates at 200 rpm. The
axial
i l feed
f d rate
t is
i 0.25 mm per revolution.
l ti
D th off cutt is
Depth
i
0.4 mm. The rake angle is 10. In the analysis it is found
th t the
that
th shear
h
angle
l is
i 27.75
Thethicknessoftheproducedchipis
(a)0.511mm
(b)0.528mm
(c)0.818mm
(d)0.846mm
101
103
IES 2004
IES
106
GATE(PI)1991
A steel bar 200 mm in diameter is turned at a feed of

0.25 mm/rev with a depth of cut of 4 mm. The
rotational speed of the workpiece is 160 rpm. The
material removal rate in mm3/s is
(a) 160 (b) 167.6
167 6 (c) 1600
(d) 1675.5
1675 5
Page 13 of 205
107
Amount of energy consumption per unit volume of

metal removal is maximum in
((a)) Turning
g
((b)) Milling
g
(c) Reaming
(d) Grinding
Rev.1
108
GATE 2013 (PI) C

D
Q
i
GATE2013(PI)CommonDataQuestion
GATE2007
In
carbon
steel.
I orthogonal
th
l turning
t
i off medium
di
b
t l The
Th
specific machining energy is 2.0 J/mm3. The cutting
velocity,
l it feed
f d and
d depth
d th off cutt are 120 m/min,
/ i 0.2
mm/rev and 2 mm respectively. The main cutting
f
force
i N is
in
i
(a) 40
(b) 80
(c) 400
(d) 800
A disc of 200 mm outer and 80 mm inner diameter is

faced of 0.1 mm/rev with a depth of cut of 1 mm. The
facing operation is undertaken at a constant cutting
speed of 90 m/min in a CNC lathe. The main
(tangential) cutting force is 200 N.
Neglecting the contribution of the feed force
towards cutting power,
power the specific cutting energy
in J/mm3 is
( ) 0.2
(a)
(b) 2
( ) 200
(c)
(d) 2000
109
GATE2014
The main cutting force acting on a tool during the
turning (orthogonal cutting) operation of a metal is
400 N. The turning was performed using 2 mm
depth of cut and 0.1 mm/rev feed rate. The specific
cutting pressure is
(a) 1000
Example
Whentherakeangleiszeroduringorthogonalcutting,
showthat
s
pc
(1 r ) r
1+ r2
Where s is the shear strengrh of the material

p c = specific power of cutting
p thickness ratio
r = chip
= coefficient of friction in tool chip interface
110
111
GATE1993
GATE1992
The
off rake
angle
h effect
ff
k angle
l on the
h mean friction
f
l in
machining can be explained by
(A) sliding (Coulomb) model of friction
(B) sticking and then sliding model of friction
(C) sticking friction
((D)) Sliding
g and then sticking
g model of friction
The
Th effect
ff t off rake
k angle
l on the
th mean friction
f i ti angle
l in
i
machining can be explained by
( ) Sliding (coulomb)
(a)
(
) model of friction
(b) sticking
g and then siding
g model of friction
(c) Sticking friction
(d) sliding and then sticking model of friction
(b) 2000
(c) 3000
(d) 4000
112
IES2000
113
IES2004
Assertion
(A):
the
A
i
(A) In
I metall cutting,
i
h normall
laws of sliding friction are not applicable.
Reason (R): Very high temperature is
produced at the tool
toolchip
chip interface.
interface
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is
the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is
not the correct explanation of A
( ) A is
(c)
i true but
b R is
i false
f l
115
Assertion (A): The ratio of uncut chip thickness to

actual chip thickness is always less than one and is
termed as cutting
g ratio in orthogonal
g
cutting
g
Reason (R): The frictional force is very high due to the
occurrence of sticking
g friction rather than sliding
g
friction
((a)) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the correct
explanation of A
((b)) Both A and R are individuallyy true but R is not the
Page 14 of 205
116
114
IES2002
In
process, the
I a machining
hi i
h percentage off
heat carried away by the chips is typically
(a) 5%
(b) 25%
(c) 50%
(d) 75%
Rev.1
117
S 2003
IAS
IES1998
In
operation,
the
I metall cutting
i
i
h approximate
i
ratio of heat distributed among chip, tool
and work, in that order is
(a) 80: 10: 10 (b) 33: 33: 33
(c) 20: 60: 10 (d) 10: 10: 80
Asthecuttingspeedincreases
(a) Moreheatistransmittedtotheworkpieceandless
heatistransmittedtothetool
(b) Moreheatiscarriedawaybythechipandlessheatis
t
transmittedtothetool
itt dt th t l
(c) Moreheatistransmittedtoboththechipandthe
tool
((d)) Moreheatistransmittedtoboththeworkpieceand
p
thetool
118
Theinstrumentordeviceusedtomeasurethecutting
forcesinmachiningis:
( )T h
(a)Tachometer
t
(b)Comparator
(c)Dynamometer
(d)Lactometer
122
S 200
IAS2001
The
off a resistive
pickup
off
Th gauge factor
f
i i
i k
cutting force dynamometer is defined as the
ratio of
(a) Applied strain to the resistance of the wire
(b) The proportional change in resistance to the
applied strain
(c) The resistance to the applied strain
(d) Change in resistance to the applied strain
124
cutting
can
120
IES1996
A 'Dynamometer'
used
the
'D
' is
i a device
d i
d for
f
h
measurement of
(a) Chip thickness ratio
(b) Forces during metal cutting
(c) Wear of the cutting
g tool
(d) Deflection of the cutting tool
121
IES1998
The heat generated in metal

conveniently be determined by
(a) Installing thermocouple on the job
(b) Installing thermocouple on the tool
(c) Calorimetric setup
((d)) Using
g radiation py
pyrometer
119
IES1993
IES2011
S 2003
IAS
) Piezoelectric transducers and preferred

p
Assertion ((A):
over strain gauge transducers in the dynamometers for
measurement of threedimensional cutting forces.
Reason (R): In electric transducers there is a significant
leakage of signal from one axis to the other, such cross
error is negligible in the case of piezoelectric
transducers.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
Page 15 of 205
125
Which of the following forces are measured directly by

strain gauges or force dynamometers during metal
g?
cutting
1. Force exerted by the tool on the chip acting normally to
the tool face.
2. Horizontal cutting force exerted by the tool on the work
piece.
3. Frictional resistance of the tool against the chip flow
acting along the tool face.
4. Vertical
V i l force
f
which
hi h helps
h l
i holding
in
h ldi
the
h tooll in
i
position.
( ) 1 and
(a)
d3
(b) 2 and
d4
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2 and 3
123
ForPSU&IES
In strain gauge dynamometers the use of how
many active
ti gauge makes
k the
th dynamometers
d
t
more
effective
( ) Four
(a)
(b) Three
(c) Two
(d) One
Rev.1
126
IES 2010
IES2010
ToolFailure
ToolWear,ToolLife&
ToolWear,ToolLife&Machinability
Machinability
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
Tool failure is two types

y 1. Slowdeath: The gradual or progressive wearing
away of rake face (crater wear) or flank (flank wear) of
the cutting tool or both.
y 2.Suddendeath:Failuresleadingtoprematureend
. Sudde deat : a u es ead g to p e atu e e d
ofthetool
y The suddendeath type
yp of tool failure is difficult to
predict. Tool failure mechanisms include plastic
deformation, brittle fracture, fatigue fracture or edge
chipping However it is difficult to predict which of
chipping.
these processes will dominate and when tool failure
will occur.
Flank wear occurs mainly on which of the
IAS 2009Main
[
[4
marks]
k ]
(a) Nose part and top face

(b) Cutting edge only
( ) Nose
(c)
N
part, front
f
relief
li f face,
f
and
d side
id relief
li f face
f
off the
h
cutting
g tool
(d) Face of the cutting tool at a short
distance
(b) Rake face

(c) Nose of the tool
(d) Cutting edge
129
IES 2014
IES
y Explainsuddendeathmechanismoftoolfailure.
following?
((a)) Relief face of the tool
128
127
S 2007
200
IES
Flank wear occurs on the
The fatigue failure of a tool is due to

(a) abrasive friction, cutting fluid and chip breakage
(b) Variable
V i bl thermal
th
l stresses,
t
chip
hi breakage
b k
and
d variable
i bl
dimensions of cut
(c) Abrasive friction, chip breakage and variable
dimensions of cut
(d) Chip breakage, variable thermal stresses and cutting
fluid
from
the cutting edge

130
131
Tool Wear
ToolWear
ToolWear
S 1994
99
IES
Assertion(A):Toolwearisexpressedintermsof
flankwearratherthancraterwear.
Reason(R):Measurementofflankwearissimple
andmoreaccurate.
( ) BothAandRareindividuallytrueandRisthe
(a)
B thA dR i di id ll t dRi th
correctexplanationofA
(b) BothAandRareindividuallytruebutRisnot the
(c) AistruebutRisfalse
(d) AisfalsebutRistrue
(a)
( ) Flank
Fl k Wear
W
(b) Crater Wear
(c) Chipping
pp g off of the cutting
g edge
g
132
133
Page 16 of 205
134
Rev.1
135
G
20
GATE2014
FlankWear:(Wearland)
Reason
y Abrasion by
y hard p
particles and inclusions in the work
piece.
y Shearing off the micro welds between tool and work
material.
y Abrasion by fragments of builtupedge
built up edge ploughing
against the clearance face of the tool.
y At low
l speed
d flank
fl k wear predominates.
d i t
y If MRR increased flank wear increased.
Cutting tool is much harder than the work

piece.
workpiece.
Yet the tool wears out during the toolwork
interaction, because
(a) extra hardness is imparted to the workpiece due to
coolant used
(b) oxide layers on the workpiece surface impart extra
h d
hardness
t it
to
(c) extra hardness is imparted to the workpiece due to
severe rate of strain
(d) vibration is induced in the machine tool
136
Effect
y Flank wear directly
y affect the component
p
dimensions
produced.
y Flank wear is usually the most common determinant of
tool life.
137
138
Stages
Primary wear
Tertiary wear
y Flank Wear occurs in three stages

g of varying
y g wear rates
The region
g
where the sharp
p cutting
g edge
g is q
quicklyy
broken down and a finite wear land is established.
The region
g
where wear p
progresses
g
at a g
graduallyy
increasing rate.
y In the tertiary region the wear of the cutting tool has
become sensitive to increased tool temperature due to
high wear land.
y Regrinding is recommended before they enter this
region.
region
Secondar wear
Secondary
ear
The region
g
where the wear p
progresses
g
at a uniform rate.
139
GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE2008(PI)
S 2004
200
IES
During the third stage of toolwear, rapid
deterioration of tool edge takes place because
1. Flank wear is only marginal
2. Flank wear is large
33. Temperature
p
of the tool increases g
graduallyy
4. Temperature of the tool increases drastically
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2 and 3
140
142
During machining, the wear land (h) has been plotted

against
machining
time
(T) as given
in
i
hi i
i
i
i the
h following
f ll i
figure.
141
IFS2012
Explain
off flank
E l i the
th mechanism
h i
fl k wear off a cutting
tti
tool. Plot a flank wear rate curve and indicate the
region of tool failure.
[10 Marks]
For a critical wear land of 1.8 mm, the cutting tool life (in
minute) is
(a) 52.00
(b) 51.67
51.50
(d) 50.00
Page 17(c)
of 205
143
Rev.1
144
Craterwear
ToollifecriteriaISO
(Acertainwidthofflankwear(VB)isthemostcommon
criterion)
y Uniformwear:0.3mmaveragedoverallpast
Uniformwear:0 3mmaveragedoverallpast
y Localizedwear:0.5mmonanyindividualpast
CraterwearContd..
y More
common in
M
i ductile
d til materials
t i l which
hi h produce
d
y Crater depth exhibits linear increase with time.

time
y It increases with MRR.
continuous chip.
p
y Crater wear occurs on the rake face.
y At very high speed crater wear predominates
y For crater wear temperature is main culprit and tool
d f
defuse
i
into
the
h chip
hi material
i l & tooll temperature is
i
work piece tolerance or surface finish.
maximum
a
u at so
somee d
distance
sta ce from
o tthee too
tool ttip.
p.
145
S 2002
IES
y Crater wear has little or no influence on cutting forces,
146
147
S 2007
200
IAS
Craterwearontoolsalwaysstartsatsomedistance
fromthetooltipbecauseatthatpoint
(a) Cuttingfluiddoesnotpenetrate
(b) Normalstressonrakefaceismaximum
(c) Temperatureismaximum
((d)) Toolstrengthisminimum
g
148
S 1995
99
IES
S 2000
IES
Whydoescraterwearstartatsomedistancefrom
thetooltip?
(a) Toolstrengthisminimumatthatregion
(b) Cuttingfluidcannotpenetratethatregion
(c) Tooltemperatureismaximuminthatregion
((d)) Stressonrakefaceismaximumatthatregion
g
149
150
WearMechanism
IES2009Conventional
Craterwearispredominantin
(a) Carbonsteeltools
(b) Tungstencarbidetools
T
t bid t l
(c) Highspeedsteeltools
(d) Ceramictools
Craterwearstartsatsomedistancefromthetooltip
because
(a) Cuttingfluidcannotpenetratethatregion
(b) Stressonrakefaceismaximumatthatregion
(c) Toolstrengthisminimumatthatregion
((d)) Tooltemperatureismaximumatthatregion
p
g
Showcraterwearandflankwearonasinglepoint
Sh t
dfl k
i l i t
cuttingtool.Statethefactorsresponsibleforwear
onaturningtool.
t
i t l
[2marks]
1. Abrasionwear
2. Adhesionwear
3. Diffusionwear
4. Chemicaloroxidationwear
151
Page 18 of 205
152
Rev.1
153
S 2002
IAS
S 1995
99
IES
Consider the following actions:

1. Mechanical abrasion 2.
Diffusion
3. Plastic
Pl ti deformation
d f
ti
4.
O id ti
Oxidation
Which of the above are the causes of tool wear?
(a) 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
154
h hi i
ff fi
k
Whychippingofforfinecracks
developedatthecuttingedge
developed at the cutting edge
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrect
answerusingthecodesgivenbelowthelists:
ListI(Weartype) ListII(Associatedmechanism)
A. Abrasivewears
1.
Galvanicaction
B. Adhesivewears
2.
Ploughing action
C. Electrolyticwear
y
33.
Moleculartransfer
D. Diffusionwears
4.
Plasticdeformation
5
5.
Metallicbond
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
5
1
3
(b) 5
2
1
3
(c) 2
1
3
4
(d) 5
2
3
4155
The type of wear that occurs due to the cutting

action of the particles in the cutting fluid is
referred to as
(a) Attritions wear
(b) Diffusion
Diff i wear
(c) Erosive wear
(d) Corrosive wear
156
S 2003
IAS
h
NotchWear

Chipping of a cutting tool is due to
1. Tool
T l material
t i l being
b i too
t brittle
b ittl
2. Hot hardness of the tool material.
3. High positive rake angle of the tool.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3
( ) 2 and
(c)
d3
(d) 1 and
d2
y Tool
T l material
t i l is
i too
t brittle
b ittl
y Weak
k design
d
off tool,
l such
h as high
h h positive rake
k angle
l
y As a result of crack that is already in the tool
y Excessive static or shock loading of the tool.
157
S 1996
996
IES
Notchwearattheoutsideedgeofthedepthofcutis
dueto
(a) Abrasiveactionoftheworkhardenedchipmaterial
(b) Oxidation
(c) Slipstickactionofthechip
((d)) Chipping.
pp g
S 1999
999
IAS
160
y Notch wear on the trailing edge is to a great extent an
oxidation wear mechanism occurring where the cutting

edge leaves the machined workpiece material in the feed
direction.
y But
B t abrasion
b i and
d adhesion
dh i wear in
i a combined
bi d effect
ff t can
contribute to the formation of one or several notches.
158
159
Listtheimportantpropertiesofcuttingtool
materialsandexplainwhyeachisimportant.
materials and explain why each is important
Whyareceramicsnormallyprovidedas
insertsfortools,andnotasentiretools?
inserts for tools and not as entire tools?
y Hardness at high temperatures this provides longer
life of the cutting tool and allows higher cutting speeds.

y Toughness to provide the structural strength needed
to resist impacts and cutting forces
y Wear
W
resistance
i t
to
t prolong
l
usage before
b f
replacement
l
t
doesnt chemically react another wear factor
y Formable/manufacturable can be manufactured in a
useful
use
u geo
geometry
et y
Page 19 of 205
161
Ceramicsarebrittlematerialsandcannotprovidethe
p
structuralstrengthrequiredforatool.
Rev.1
162
S 1992
992
IES
ToolLifeCriteria
Tool
T l life
lif criteria
it i can be
b defined
d fi d as a predetermined
d t
i d
numerical value of any type of tool deterioration which
can be
b measured.
d
Some of
the ways
y Actualcuttingtimetofailure.
Toollifeisgenerallyspecifiedby
(a) Numberofpiecesmachined
(b) Volumeofmetalremoved
V l
f t l
d
(c) Actualcuttingtime
(d) Anyoftheabove
y Volumeofmetalremoved.
y Numberofpartsproduced.
Numberofpartsproduced
y Cuttingspeedforagiventime
163
S 2012Main
20 2
i
IAS
y Lengthofworkmachined.
164
ValuesofExponentn
TaylorsToolLifeEquation
Define
tool
four
methods
D fi
t l life
lif and
d list
li t down
d
f
th d for
f
quantitative measurement of tool life.
q
[Marks12]
basedonFlankWear
Causes
y Slidingofthetoolalongthemachinedsurface
y Temperaturerise
VT n = C
166
IES 2012
IES
Where,V=cuttingspeed(m/min)
T=Time(min)
n=exponentdependsontoolmaterial
C=constantbasedontoolandworkmaterialandcutting
167
condition.
S 2008
IES
InTaylor
stoollifeequationVTn =C,theconstantsn
C,theconstantsn
InTaylorstoollifeequationVT
andCdependupon
1 Workpiecematerial
1.Workpiecematerial
2.Toolmaterial
3.Coolant
( )
(a)1,2,and3
3
(b)1and2only
(c)2and3only
(d)1and3only
169
n = 0.08
8 to 0.2 for
f HSS tooll
= 0.1
0 1 to 0.15
0 15 for Cast Alloys
= 0.2 to 0.4 for carbide tool
[IAS1999; IES2006]
= 0.5 to
t 0.7 for
f ceramic
i tool
t l
[
[NTPC2003]
3]
168
S 2006
IES
InTaylor
stoollifeequationisVTn =constant.
InTaylor'stoollifeequationisVT
Whatisthevalueofnforceramictools?
( ) 0.15to0.25
(a)
t
(b) 0.4to0.55
t
(c) 0.6to0.75
(d) 0.8to0.9
Page 20 of 205
165
Which of the following values of index n is

associated with carbide tools when Taylor's tool life
equation, V.Tn = constant is applied?
(a) 01 to 015
(b) 02 to 04
( ) 0.45 to
(c)
t 06
6
(d) 065
6 to
t 09
170
Rev.1
171
S 1999
999
IES
S 1998
998
IAS
The approximately variation of the tool life

exponent 'n' of cemented carbide tools is
(a) 0.03
0 03 to 0.08
0 08
(b) 0.08
0 08 to 0.20
0 20
(c) 0.20 to 0.48
(d) 0.48 to 0.70
(
g
)
MatchList I(Cuttingtoolmaterial)withList
II
(Typicalvalueoftoollifeexponent'n'intheTaylor's
equationV.Tn =C)andselectthecorrectanswerusing
th d i
thecodesgivenbelowthelists:
b l th li t
List I
List II
A HSS
A.
1.
0.18
8
B. Castalloy
2.
0.12
C Ceramic
C.
C
i
3.
0.25
D. Sinteredcarbide 4.
0.5
Codes:A
d
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b) 2
1
3
4
( ) 2
(c)
1
4
3
( ) 1
(d)
2
4
3
172
( )
GATE2009(PI)
In an orthogonal machining operation, the tool life
obtained is 10 min at a cutting speed of 100 m/min,
while at 75 m/min cutting speed, the tool life is 30
min The value of index (n) in the Taylor
min.
Taylorss tool life
equation
(a) 0.262
(b) 0.323
174
G
200
GATE2004
tool failure occurred in 10 minutes.

minutes The speed was
changed to 232 rpm and the tool failed in 60 minutes.
Assuming straight line relationship between cutting
(d) 0.521
173
ISRO2011
A 50 mm diameter
steell rod
d
d was turned
d at 284 rpm and
d
(c) 0.423
S 2000
IES
In a machining operation, doubling the cutting

1
speed reduces the tool life to the of the original
8
value. The exponent n in Taylor
Taylor'ss tool life equation
VTn = C, is
(a )
1
8
(b)
1
4
(c )
1
3
(d )
1
2
In a tool life test, doubling the cutting speed

reduces the tool life to 1/8th of the original. The
Taylor'ss tool life index is
Taylor
1
( a )2
( b )3
( c )4
( d ) 8
speed
d and
d tooll life,
l f the
h value
l off Taylorian
l
Exponent is
(a) 0.21
0 21
(b) 0.13
0 13
(c) 0.11
0 11
(d) 0.23
0 23
175
176
S 1999,ISRO2013
999 S O 20 3
IES
177
S 2002
IAS
S 1995
99
IAS
In
operation
off steel
I a singlepoint
i l
i t turning
t
i
ti
t l with
ith a
Using
the
equation
VTn = c, calculate
U i
th Taylor
T l
ti
l l t the
th
In a single point turning operation with a cemented
cemented carbide tool,, Taylor's

y
tool life exponent
p
is
percentage
p
g increase in tool life when the cutting
g
carbide and steel combination having a Taylor
0.25. If the cutting speed is halved, the tool life will
speed is reduced by 50% (n = 05 and c = 400)
exponent of 0.25, if the cutting speed is halved, then
increase by
(a) 300%
(b)
400%
(c) 100%
(d)
50%
( ) Two times
(a)
(b)
Four times
(c) Eight times
(d)
Sixteen times
the
h tooll life
lif will
ill become
b
(a) Half
(b) Two times
(c) Eight times
178
Page 21 of 205
(d) Sixteen times

179
Rev.1
180
IES 2013
IES2013
S 1997
99
IAS
S 2006conventional
2006
i
l
IES
A carbide tool(having n = 0.25)

0 25) with a mild steel
In
I the
th Taylor's
T l ' tool
t l life
lif equation,
ti
VTn = C,
C the
th value
l
An
The
A HSS tool
t l is
i used
d for
f turning
t
i operation.
ti
Th tool
t l life
lif is
i
workpiece was found to give life of 1 hour 21
of n = 0.5.
5 The tool has a life of 180 minutes at a
1 hr. when turning

g is carried at 330 m/min.
/
The tool life
minutes while cutting at 60 m/min. The value of C
cutting speed of 18 m/min. If the tool life is reduced
will be reduced to 2.0 min if the cutting speed is
in Taylors tool life equation would be equal to:
to 45 minutes, then the cutting speed will be
doubled. Find the suitable speed in RPM for turning 300
( ) 200
(a)
( ) 9 m/min
(a)
(b)
18 m/min
mm diameter
di
t so that
th t tool
t l life
lif is
i 30 min.
i
(b) 180
(c) 36 m/min
(d)
72 m/min
(c) 150
(d) 100
181
GATE2009LinkedAnswerQuestions(1)
182
IFS2013
GATE2009LinkedAnswerQuestions(2)
Inamachiningexperiment,toollifewasfoundtovary
withthecuttingspeedinthefollowingmanner:
Cuttingspeed(m/min)
Toollife(minutes)
60
81
90
36
Theexponent(n)andconstant(k)oftheTaylor's
p
( )
( )
y
toollifeequationare
(a)n=0.5andk=540
(a)n
0.5andk 540
(b)n=1andk=4860
(b)n
1andk 4860
(c)n=1andk=0.74
(d)n0.5andk=1.15
183
Inamachiningexperiment,toollifewasfoundtovary
withthecuttingspeedinthefollowingmanner:
Cuttingspeed(m/min)
Toollife(minutes)
60
81
90
36
Whatisthepercentageincreaseintoollifewhen
p
g
thecuttingspeedishalved?
(a)50%
(b)200%
(c)300%
(d)400%
In a metal cutting experiment, the tool life was

found to vary with the cutting speed in the
ffollowing
ll i manner :
Cuttingspeed,V(inm/min) Toollife,T(inmin)
100
130
120
50
Derive Taylor's
y
tool life equation
q
for this operation
p
and estimate the tool life at a speed of 2.5 m/s. Also
estimate the cutting speed for a tool life of 80 min.
184
185
Example
p
GATE 2013
GATE2013
G
20 0
GATE2010
For
F tool
t l A,
A Taylors
T l tool
t l life
lif exponentt (n)
( ) is
i 0.45 and
d
Two cutting tools are being compared for a
constant ((K)) is 9
90. Similarly
y for tool B,, n = 0.33 and K
machining operation. The tool life equations are:
= 60. The cutting speed (in m/min) above which tool
Carbide tool: VT 1.6 = 3000
A will have a higher tool life than tool B is
HSS tool: VT 0.6 = 200
( ) 26.7
(a)
Wh
Where
V is
i the
h cutting
i speed
d in
i m/min
/ i and
d T is
i the
h
(b) 42.5
( ) 80.7
(c)
(d) 142.9
186
Thefollowingdatawasobtainedfromthetoollife
cuttingtest:
CuttingSpeed,m/min:49.74
d
49 4 49
49.23
23 48
48.67
6 4
45.76
6 42
42.58
8
Toollife,min
2.94 3.90 4.77 9.87 28.27
tool life in min. The carbide tool will p

provide higher
g
DeterminetheconstantsoftheTaylortoollifeequation
VTn =C
tool life if the cutting speed in m/min exceeds

(a) 15.0
187
(b) 39.4
(c) 49.3
(d) 60.0
Page 22 of 205
188
Rev.1
189
GATE2003
components while working at 50 rpm with a tool
feed of 0.25
0 25 mm/rev and depth of cut of 1 mm.
mm A
similar batch of 10 tools of the same specification
p
could produce 122 components while working at 80
What
change
is
Wh t is
i approximate
i t percentage
t
h
i the
th life,
lif t,
t
of a tool with zero rake angle
g used in orthogonal
g
cutting when its clearance angle, , is changed from
10o to 7o?
rpm with a feed of 0.25 mm/rev and 1 mm depth of
(
(Hint:
Flank
l k wear rate is proportionall to cot ))
cut How many components can be produced with

cut.
(a) 30 % increase
(b) 30%,
30% decrease
one cutting
g tool at 60 rpm?
p
(c) 70% increase

c ease
(d) 70% dec

decrease
ease
(a) 29
(b) 31
(c) 37
(d) 42
190
IES 2010
IES2010
191
(b) Depth of cut

(c) Coolant
(d) Cutting speed
193
S 1994,2007
99 200
IES
Considerthefollowingelements:
C
id th f ll i l
t
without any
y constraints,, what is the right
g sequence
q
to adjust the cutting parameters?
2.
Feed
3.
Depth of cut
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

( ) 1 2 3
(a)
(b)
2 3 1
(c) 3 2 1
(d)
1 3 2
196
1
1.
Noseradius
2
2.
Cuttingspeed
33.
Depthofcut
p
4.
Feed
ThecorrectsequenceoftheseelementsinDECREASING
orderoftheirinfluenceontoollifeis
(a) 2,4,3,1
(b)
4,2,3,1
( ) 2,4,1,3
(c)

(d)
4,2,I,3
I
194
S 2008
IES
For
F increasing
i
i the
th material
t i l removall rate
t in
i turning,
t
i
192
S 1997
99
IES
What is the correct sequence of the following

parameters
t
i
in
order
d
off their
th i maximum
i
t
to
minimum influence on tool life?
1. Feed
d rate
2. Depth of cut
3. Cutting speed
Select the correct answer using the codes given
below
(a) 1,
1 2,
2 3
(b) 3,
3 2,
2 1 (c) 2,
2 3,
3 1 (d) 3,
3 1,
1 2
((a)) Feed
Speed
ii.ee Cuttingspeedhasthegreatereffectfollowedbyfeed
anddepthofcutrespectively.
ISRO2012
Tool life is affected mainly with
1.
E t d d M difi d T l
ti
ExtendedorModifiedTaylorsequation
G
999
GATE1999
A batch of 10 cutting tools could produce 500
S 1995
99
IAS
Whatarethereasonsforreductionoftoollifeina
machiningoperation?
1 Temperatureriseofcuttingedge
1.
2. Chippingoftooledgeduetomechanicalimpact
3. Gradualwearsattoolpoint
4. Increaseinfeedofcutatconstantcuttingforce
4
g
Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegiven
below:
(a) 1,2and3
(b) 2,3and4
( ) 1,3and4
(c)
d
(d) 1,2and4
d
Page 23 of 205
195
197
Assertion (A): An increase in depth of cut shortens

the tool life.
Reason(R): Increases in depth of cut gives rise to
relatively small increase in tool temperature.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
Rev.1
198
T l Lif C
ToolLifeCurve
S 999 S 20 0 C
i
l
ESE1999;IAS2010Conventional
IFS2009
The
Th following
f ll i equation
ti for
f tool
t l life
lif was obtained
bt i d for
f HSS
tool. A 60 min tool life was obtained using
g the following
g
With the help of Taylors tool life equation,
cutting condition VT0.13f0.6d0.3= C. v = 40 m/min, f = 0.25
determine the shape of the curve between velocity
mm, d = 2.0 mm. Calculate the effect on tool life if
of cutting and life of the tool. Assume an HSS tool
speed,
d feed
f d and
d depth
d th off cutt are together
t th increased
i
d by
b
and steel as work material.

material
25%
5 and also if theyy are increased individuallyy byy 25%;
5 ;
[
[10Marks]
]
where f = feed, d = depth of cut, v = speed.

1.HSS
2.Carbide
3.Ceramic
199
S 20 0 C
i
l
IES2010Conventional
y Drawtoollifecurvesforcastalloy,Highspeedsteeland
ceramictools.
[2 Marks]
Ans.
1.Highspeedsteel
2.castalloyand3.ceramictools.
202
Cuttingspeedusedfordifferent
toolmaterials
l
l
200
S 2003
IAS
IES2010
The above figure shows a typical
relationship between tool life and
cutting
g speed
p
for different
materials. Match the graphs for
HSS, Carbide and Ceramic tool
materials
i l and
d select
l
the
h correct
answer using the code given
below the lists:
Code: HSS Carbide Ceramic
(a) 1
2
3
(b) 3
2
1
(c) 1
3
2
(d) 3
1
2
ThetoollifecurvesfortwotoolsAandBareshownin
thefigureandtheyfollowthetoollifeequationVTn =C.
g
1.
2.
3.
4.
Valueofnforboththetoolsissame.
ValueofCforboththetoolsissame.
ValueofCfortoolAwillbegreaterthanthatforthetoolB.
ValueofCfortoolBwillbegreaterthanthatforthetoolA.
a ue o C o too
be g eate t a t at o t e too .
Whichofthesestatementsis/arecorrect?
(a) 1and3
(b) 1and4
(c) 2only
(d) 4only
203
EffectofRakeangleontoollife
204
EffectofClearanceangleontoollife
If clearance angle increased it reduces flank wear but
weaken the cutting edge, so best compromise is 80 for
HSS and 50 for carbide tool.
HSS (min) 30 m/min < Cast alloy < Carbide
Effect of work piece on tool life

Effectofworkpieceontoollife
< Cemented carbide 150 m/min < Cermets
y With hard microconstituents in the matrix gives poor
< Ceramics or sintered oxide (max) 600 m/min
201
tooll life.
lif
y With larger grain size tool life is better.
205
Page 24 of 205
206
Rev.1
207
IES 2013Con.Answer
IES 2013Conventional
IES
2013 Conventional
ForIESOnly
You are asked to turn ductile cast iron with various

microstructure and hardness as shown in the
following table.
H d
Hardness(HB)
(HB) Ferrite
F it
P lit
Pearlite
1.Annealed
186
97
3
2.AsCast
265
20%
80%
3.Annealed
170
100
4.AsCast
207
60
40
ToollifeTests
y Conventionaltest:Usingempiricalformula
y Acceleratedtest:Estimatethetoollifequickly
A l t dt t E ti t th t llif i kl
Extrapolatingofsteadywearrate
Highspeedtestwilltakelesstime
Variablespeedtest
Multipassturning
Taperturning
p
g
Draw a figure
D
fi
showing
h i
variation
i i
off tooll life
lif with
ih
cutting speed and the effect of workpiece hardness
and
d microstructure.
i
208
IES 2014
IES
209
ChipEquivalent
In accelerated tool life tests, the three main types of

quick and less costly tool life testing are
(a) Extrapolation on the basis of steady wear;
conventional measurement of flank and crater wear;
comparative performance against tool chipping
(b) Measurement of abrasive wear; multi pass turning;
conventional
ti
l measurementt off diffusion
diff i wear
(c) Extrapolating on the basis of steady wear, multipass
turning; taper turning
(d) comparative
p
performance against
p
g
tool chipping;
pp g
taper turning; measurement of abrasive wear
ChipEquivalent(q) =
Refer:B.LJuneja+Nitin Seth
The SCEA alters the length of the engaged cutting
Engaged
E
d cutting
tti edge
d llength
th
Plan area of cut
edge
affecting
d without
ih
ff i the
h area off cut. As
A a result,
l the
h
chip equivalent changed.
changed When the SCEA is increased,
y It is used for controlling the tool temperature.
the chip equivalent is increased, without significantly

changing the cutting forces.
Increase in nose radius also increases the value of the
chip equivalent and improve tool life.
211
212
213
Economics of metal cutting

Economicsofmetalcutting
IES1996
Chip equivalent is increased by
(a) An increases in sidecutting edge angle of tool
(b) An increase in nose radius and side cutting
edge angle of tool
(c) Increasing the plant area of cut
(d) Increasing the depth of cut.
214
Page 25 of 205
215
Rev.1
216
Formula
Vo Ton = C
O ti
Optimum
tool
t l life
lif for
f minimum
i i
costt
C 1 n
To = Tc + t
if Tc , Ct & Cm given
C
m n
C 1 n
= t
if Ct & Cm given
Cm n
Optimum tool life for Maximum Productivity
(minimum production time)
1 n
To = Tc
Toolingcost(Ct)=toolregrindcost
) toolregrindcost
+tooldepreciationperservice/replacement
Machiningcost(Cm)=labour cost+overheadcostper
min
217
G
20
GATE2014
Determine the optimum cutting speed for an

operation on a Lathe machine using the following
information:
Tool change time: 3 min
T l regrinds
Tool
i d time:
ti
3 min
i
Machine running cost Rs.0.50 per min
Depreciation of tool regrinds Rs. 5.0
The constants in the tool life equation are 60 and
0.2
218
219
S 200 C
i
l
ESE2001Conventional
If the
th Taylors
T l tool
t l life
lif exponentt n is
i 0.2, and
d the
th
tool changing
g g time is 1.55 min,, then the tool life ((in
min) for maximum production rate is .
In a certain machining operation with a cutting

speed of 50 m/min, tool life of 45 minutes was
observed.
b
d When
Wh the
th cutting
tti speed
d was increased
i
d
to 100 m/min, the tool life decreased to 10 min.
Estimate the cutting speed for maximum
productivityy if tool change
p
g time is 2 minutes.
220
G
200
GATE2005
S 2009 C
i
l
IES2009Conventional
Units:Tc min(Toolchangingtime)
Ct Rs./servicingorreplacement(Tooling
/
i i l
(
li
cost)
Cm Rs/min(Machiningcost)
V m/min(Cuttingspeed)
/
(
g p
)
Determine the optimum speed for achieving

maximum production rate in a machining
operation. The data is as follows :
Machining time/job = 6 min.
min
Tool life = 90 min.
Ta lor'ss equation constants C = 100,
Taylor
00 n = 0.5
0
Job handling time = 4 min./job
Tooll changing
h
i time
i
= 9 min.
i
[10Marks]
221
S 2007Contd
200
C d
IAS
223
IAS 2011Main
g
g economics with
A diagram
related to machining
various cost components is given above. Match List I
(Cost Element) with List II (Appropriate Curve) and
select the correct answer using the code given below
the Lists:
ListI
ListII
(CostElement)
(AppropriateCurve)
A. Machiningcost
1.
Curvel
2.
Curve2
B. Toolcost
C. Toolgrindingcost
3.
Curve3
D Non
D.
Nonproductivecost
productivecost 4.
4
Curve4
Curve
4
5.
Curve5
Page 26 of 205
224
222
Contd
Contd.
From previous slide
Code:A
(a) 3
(c) 3
B
2
1
C
4
4
D
5
2
(b)
(d)
A
4
4
B
1
2
Rev.1
C
3
3
D
2
5
225
MinimumCostVsProductionRate
IES2011
The optimum cutting speed is one which should
have:
1. High
Hi h metal
t l removall rate
t
2. High cutting tool life
3. Balance the metal removal rate and cutting
tool life
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
( ) 3 only
(d)
Vmax.production >Vmax.profit >Vmin. cost
226
S 1998
998
IES
S 2000
IES
Inturning,theratiooftheoptimumcuttingspeed
forminimumcostandoptimumcuttingspeedfor
maximumrateofproductionisalways
(a) Equalto1
(b) Intherangeof0.6to1
I th
f 6t
(c) Intherangeof0.1to0.6
(d) Greaterthan1
230
S 2004
200
IES
232
228
S 1997
99
IAS
Optimum cutting speed for minimum cost (Vc min

i )
and optimum cutting speed for maximum
production rate (Vr max ) have which one of the
following relationships?
(a) Vc min = Vr max
(b) Vc min > Vr max
(c) Vc min < Vr max
(d) V2c min = Vr max
229
The magnitude of the cutting speed for maximum

profit rate must be
(a) In between the speeds for minimum cost and
maximum production rate
(b) Higher
Hi h than
th the
th speed
d for
f maximum
i
production
d ti rate
t
(c) Below the speed for minimum cost
(d) Equal to the speed for minimum cost
Consider the following approaches normally

applied for the economic analysis of machining:
1 Maximum production rate
1.
2. Maximum profit criterion
3. Minimum cost criterion
The correct sequence
q
in ascending
g order of optimum
p
cutting speed obtained by these approaches is
(a) 1, 2, 3
(b) 1, 3, 2
(c) 3, 2, 1
(d) 3, 1, 2
227
S 2002
IAS
The variable cost and production rate of a

machining process against cutting speed are shown
in the given figure. For efficient machining, the
range of best cutting speed would be between
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 1 and 5
(c) 2 and 4
((d)) 3 and 5
S 1999
999
IES
g statements:
Consider the following
1. As the cutting speed increases, the cost of production
initially reduces, then after an optimum cutting speed it
increases
2. As the cutting speed increases the cost of production
also
l increases
i
and
d after
f a critical
i i l value
l it
i reduces
d
3. Higher feed rate for the same cutting speed reduces cost
of production
4. Higher feed rate for the same cutting speed increases the
cost of production
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4
(d) Page
3 only
27 of 205
233
231
S 2002
IES
Ineconomicsofmachining,whichoneofthe
followingcostsremainsconstant?
(a) Machiningcostperpiece
(b) Toolchangingcostperpiece
(c) Toolhandlingcostperpiece
((d)) Toolcostperpiece
p p
Rev.1
234
IES 2010
IES2010
S 2007
200
IAS
Assertion (A): The optimum cutting speed for the
minimum cost of machining may not maximize the
profit.
Reason (R): The profit also depends on rate of
production.
production
l
ti off A
With increasing cutting velocity, the total

time for machining a component
( ) Decreases
(a)
D
((b)) Increases
(c) Remains unaffected
(d) First
Fi decreases
d
and
d then
h increases
i
235
236
MachinabilityDefinition
Machinability can be tentatively defined as ability
ability of
being machined and more reasonably as ease of
machining.
machining.
Such ease of machining or machining characters
of any toolwork pair is to be judged by:
y Tool
wear or tool life

y Magnitude of the cutting forces
y Surface finish
y Magnitude of cutting temperature
y Chip forms.
237
ForIESOnly
FreeCuttingsteels
y Addition
carbon
Additi off lead
l d in
i low
l
b resulphurised
l h i d steels
t l and
d
also in aluminium, copper and their alloys help reduce

th i s. The
their
Th dispersed
di
d lead
l d particles
ti l actt as discontinuity
di
ti it
and solid lubricants and thus improve machinability by
reducing
d i
f i ti
friction,
cutting
tti
f
forces
and
d temperature,
t
t
t l
tool
wear and BUE formation.
y It contains less than 0.35% lead by weight .
y A free cutting
g steel contains
C0.07%, Si0.03%, Mn0.9%, P0.04%, S0.22%, Pb0.15%
IES 2012
IES
MachinabilityIndex
OrMachinabilityRating
O M hi bilit R ti
The machinability index KM is defined by
KM = V60/V60R
Wh
Where
V60 is
i the
th cutting
tti
speed
d for
f the
th target
t
t material
t i l
that ensures tool life of 60 min, V60R is the same for the
reference
f
material.
t i l
If KM > 1, the machinability of the target material is
better that this of the reference material, and vice versa
238
The usual method of defining machinability of a

material is by an index based on
(a) Hardness of work material
(b) Production rate of machined parts
(c) Surface finish of machined surfaces
((d)) Tool life
239
240
ForIESOnly
S 1996
996
IAS
MachinabilityofSteel
Assertion(A):Themachinabilityofamaterialcan
bemeasuredasanabsolutequantity.
Reason(R):Machinabilityindexindicatesthecase
withwhichamaterialcanbemachined
(a)
241
ForIESOnly
MachinabilityofSteelcontd
y Mainly sulfur and lead improve machinability of
y Leaded steel: Lead is insoluble and takes the form of
steel.
y Resulfurized
R
lf i d steel:
t l Sulfur
S lf is
i added
dd d to
t steel
t l only
l if
there is sufficient manganese in it. Sulfur forms
manganese sulfide
lf d which
h h exists as an isolated
l d phase
h
and act as internal lubrication and chip breaker.
y If insufficient manganese is there a low melting iron
sulfide will formed around the austenite grain
boundary. Such steel is very weak and brittle.
y Tellurium and selenium is similar to sulfur.
sulfur
dispersed fine particle and act as solid lubricants. At

high speed lead melts and acting as a liquid lubricants.
As lead is toxin and pollutant, lead free steel is produced
using Bismuth and Tin.
y Rephosphorized steel: Phosphorus strengthens the
ferrite causing increased hardness,
ferrite,
hardness result in better chip
formation and surface finish.
y CalciumDeoxidized
C l i
D
idi d steel:
t l Oxide
O id flakes
fl k off calcium
l i
silicates are formed. Reduce friction, tool temp, crater
wear specially
i ll att high
hi h speed.
d
Page 28 of 205
242
Rev.1
243
ForIESOnly
MachinabilityofSteelcontd
y Stainless Steel: Difficult to machine due to abrasion.
abrasion
y Aluminum and Silicon in steel: Reduce machinability
due to aluminum oxide and silicates formation,

formation which
are hard and abrasive.
y Carbon
C b
and
d manganese in
i
steel:
t l
R d
Reduce
machinability due to more carbide.
y Nickel, Chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium in
steel: Reduce machinability due to improved property.
y Effect of boron is negligible. Oxygen improve
y
Nitrogen
g
and Hydrogen
y g
reduce
machinability.
machinability.
ForIESOnly
IES 2011 C
ti
l
IES2011Conventional
RoleofmicrostructureonMachinability
g elements on the
y Discuss the effects of the following
machinability of steels:
(i) Aluminium and silicon
(ii) Sulphur and Selenium
(iii) Lead
L d and
d Tin
Ti
(iv) Carbon and Manganese
(v) Molybdenum and Vanadium
ForIESOnly
[5 Marks]
Coarsemicrostructureleadstolesservalueofs.
Therefore,
Th
f
s canbedesirablyreducedby
b d i bl d db
y Properheattreatmentlikeannealingofsteels
y Controlledadditionofmaterialslikesulphur (S),lead
((Pb),Tellerium
)
etcleadingtofreecuttingofsoftductile
g
g
metalsandalloys.
y Brittlematerialsarerelativelymoremachinable.
244
245
246
ForIESOnly
S 1992
992
IES
Toollifeisgenerallybetterwhen
(a) Grainsizeofthemetalislarge
(b) Grainsizeofthemetalissmall
G i i fth t li
ll
(c) Hardconstituentsarepresentinthemicrostructure
ofthetoolmaterial
((d)) Noneoftheabove
Eff t off tool

t l rake
k angle(s)
l ( ) on
Effects
machinability
y AsRakeangleincreasesmachinabilityincreases.
A R k
l i
hi bili i
y Buttoomuchincreaseinrakeweakensthecuttingedge.
Buttoomuchincreaseinrakeweakensthecuttingedge
247
248
ForIESOnly
EffectsofCuttingEdgeangle(s)on
machinability
S 2000
IAS
Thetoollifeisincreasedby
1. Builtupedgeformation
B ilt d f
ti
2. Increasingcuttingvelocity
3. Increasingbackrakeangleuptocertainvalue
Whichofthesestatementsarecorrect?
(a) 1and3
(b) 1and2
( ) 2and3
(c)
d
(d) 1,2and3
d
249
ForIESOnly
Effectsofclearanceangleonmachinability
ForIESOnly
EffectsofNoseRadiusonmachinability
Proper
tool
improves
machinability
P
t l nose radiusing
di i
i
hi bilit to
t
some extent through
y increase in tool life by increasing mechanical strength
and reducing temperature at the tool tip
y reduction of surface roughness, hmax
y The variation in the cutting edge angles does not affect
cutting force or specific energy requirement for cutting.

y Increase in SCEA and reduction in ECEA improves
surface
f
fi i h sizeably
finish
i bl in
i continuous
ti
chip
hi formation
f
ti
hence Machinability.
y
Inadequate clearance angle reduces tool life and surface

finish by tool work rubbing, and again too large
clearance reduces the tool strength and tool life hence
machinability.
250
Page 29 of 205
251
hmax
f2
=
8R
Rev.1
252
S 1992
992
IES
S 2007,2009
200 2009
IES
ISRO2007
Considerthefollowing:
Easeofmachiningisprimarilyjudgedby
E
f
hi i i i
il j d db
(a) Lifeofcuttingtoolbetweensharpening
1.
Toollife
Machinability depends on
(b) Rigidityofworkpiece
g y
p
2.
Cuttingforces
(a) Microstructure, physical and mechanical
(c) Microstructureoftoolmaterial
3.
Surfacefinish
properties and composition of workpiece material.
(d) Shapeanddimensionsofwork
253
Whichoftheaboveis/arethemachinability
( ) Cutting forces
(b)
criterion/criteria?
(c) Type of chip
(a) 1,2and3
(b)
1and3only
(c) 2and3only
(d)
2only
S 2003
IES
formation during
g machining
g are
(a) Sulphur, lead and phosphorous
(b) Sulphur, lead and cobalt
(c) Aluminium, lead and copper
(d) Aluminium, titanium and copper
following
Considerthefollowingcriteriainevaluating
machinability:
1 Surfacefinish 2.
1.
2
Typeofchips
3. Toollife
4.
Powerconsumption
InmodernhighspeedCNCmachiningwithcoated
carbidetools,thecorrectsequenceofthesecriteria
inDECREASINGorderoftheirimportanceis
((a)) 1,2,4,3
4 3
((b)) 2,1,4,3
4 3
(c) 1,2,3,4
(d) 2,1,3,4
257
S 1996
996
IES
the
255
S 1998
998
IES
The
Th elements
l
t which,
hi h added
dd d to
t steel,
t l help
h l in
i chip
hi
256
of
254
S 2009
IES
) The machinability
y of steels improves
p
Assertion ((A):
by adding sulphur to obtain so called 'Free
Machining Steels.
Reason (R): Sulphur in steel forms manganese
sulphide inclusion which helps to produce thin
ribbon like continuous chip.
Which
(d) Tool life
258
S 1996
996
IES
indicate
better
S 1995
99
IES
Small
S ll amounts
t off which
hi h one off the
th following
f ll i
Inlowcarbonsteels,presenceofsmallquantities
I l b t l
f
ll
titi
machinability?
elements/pairs
/p
of elements is added to steel to
sulphur
p
improves
p
1.
Smaller shear angle
increase its machinability?
(a) Weldability
(b)
Formability
2.
Higher cutting forces
(a) Nickel
(b)
Sulphur and phosphorus
(c) Machinability
(d)
Hardenability
3.
L
Longer
tooll life
lif
(c) Silicon
(d)
Manganese and copper
4 Better surface finish.

4.
finish
(a) 1 and 3
(b)
2 and 4
(c) 1 and 2 For-2015

(d) (IES,
3 andGATE
4
& PSUs)
259
Page 30 of 205
260
Rev.1
261
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
S 1992
992
IES
MachinabilityofTitanium
y Titanium
is
Tit i
i very reactive
ti and
d the
th chips
hi tend
t d to
t weld
ld to
t
S 2013Conventional
20 3 C
i
l
IES
Machiningoftitaniumisdifficultdueto
M hi i ftit i
i diffi ltd t
the tool tip

p leading
g to p
premature tool failure due to edge
g
(a) Highthermalconductivityoftitanium
chipping.
(b) Chemicalreactionbetweentoolandwork
y Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity,
causing high
h h temperature rise and
d BUE.
Why
titanium
have
poor machinability?
Wh does
d
tit i
h
hi bilit ?
(c) Lowtoolchipcontactarea
(d) Noneoftheabove
y Almost all tool materials tend to react chemically with
titanium.
262
263
264
IES 2002
IES
S f
h
SurfaceRoughness
IES1995
Consider
C
id the
th following
f ll i work
k materials:
t i l
1. Titanium
2.
Mild steel
3. Stainless steel
4.
Grey cast iron.
The correct sequence of these materials in terms of
increasing order of difficulty in machining is
(a) 4,
4 2,
2 3,
3 1
(b) 4,
4 2,
2 1,
1 3
(c) 2, 4, 3, 1
(d) 2, 4, 1, 3
y Ideal
( Zero
nose radius)
Id l Surface
S f
Z
di )
f
tan SCEA + cot ECEA
h
f
and (Ra) =
=
4 4 ( tan SCEA + cot ECEA )
Peak to valley roughness (h) =
The value of surface roughness 'h'

h obtained during
the turning operating at a feed 'f' with a round nose
tool having radius 'r'
r is given as
y Practical
P ti l Surface
S f
( with
ith nose radius
di = R)
h=
f2
8R
Ra =
and
f2
18 3R
Change in feed (f) is more important than a change in nose radius

(R) and depth of cut has no effect on surface roughness.
265
266
IAS 1996
IAS
IES 1999
IES
Given that
S = feed in mm/rev. and
R = nose radius
di in
i mm,
the maximum height of surface roughness Hmax
produced by a singlepoint turning tool is given by
((a)) S2/2R
(b) S2/4R
(c) S2/4R
(d) S2/8R
267
268
GATE 1997
GATE
In
operation,
the
I turning
t
i
ti
th feed
f d could
ld be
b doubled
d bl d to
t
Acuttingtoolhasaradiusof1.8mm.Thefeedrate
A tti t lh di f 8
Th f d t
increase the metal removal rate. To keep

p the same
foratheoreticalsurfaceroughnessofis5mis
g
5
level of surface finish, the nose radius of the tool
(a) 0.268mm/rev
should be
(b) 0.187mm/rev
( ) Halved
(a)
l d
(b)
Kept unchanged
h
d
(c) 0.036mm/rev
(c) doubled
(d)
Made four times
(d) 0.0187mm/rev
Page 31 of 205
269
Rev.1
270
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
GATE 2005
GATE
A tool with Side Cutting Edge angle of 30o and

End Cutting Edge angle of
10o
is used for fine
turning with a feed of 1 mm/rev. Neglecting nose

radius of the tool, the maximum (peak to valley)
height of surface roughness produced will be
(a) 0.16 mm
(b) 0.26 mm
(c) 0.32 mm
(d) 0.48 mm
Two tools P and Q have signatures 55566830

5 6 6 8 30
0 and 55778150 (both ASA) respectively.
They are used to turn components under the same
machining conditions. If hp and hQ denote the peak
tovalley
to
valley heights of surfaces produced by the tools P
and Q, the ratio hp/hQ will be
tan 8o + cot15o
tan 8o + cot 30o
tan15o + cot7o
(c )
tan 30o + cot7o
(a)
271
IES 2006
IES
IES 1993,ISRO2008
1993 ISRO 2008
IES
tan15o + cot 8o
tan 30o + cot 8o
tan7o + cot15o
(d )
tan7o + cot 30o
(b)
requirement
q
of surface finish would p
put a limit on
which of the following?
(a) The maximum feed
(b) The maximum depth of cut
( ) The
(c)
Th maximum
i
speed
d
is
(a) Depth of cut
(b)
Cutting speed
(c) Feed
(d)
Tool rake angle
273
GATE 2010 (PI)

GATE2010(PI)
A spindle speed of 300 rpm and a feed of 0.3

03
mm/revolution are chosen for longitudinal turning
operation on an engine lathe. In finishing pass,
roughness on the work surface can be reduced by
(a) reducing the spindle speed
(b) increasing the spindle speed
(c) reducing the feed of tool
((d)) increasing
g the feed of tool
During turning of a low carbon steel bar with TiN coated

carbide insert, one need to improve surface finish
without
h
sacrificing
f
materiall removall rate. To achieve
h
improved surface finish, one should
(a) decrease nose radius of the cutting tool and increase
depth of cut
(b) Increase nose radius of the cutting tool
(c) Increase feed and decrease nose radius of the cutting
tool
(d) The maximum number of passes

274
Cutting fluid
Cuttingfluid
y The cutting fluid acts primarily as a coolant and
secondly as a lubricant, reducing the friction effects at

the toolchip interface and the workblank regions.
y Cast Iron: Machined dry or compressed air,
air Soluble oil
for high speed machining and grinding
y Brass:
B
M hi d dry
Machined
d or straight
t i ht mineral
i
l oil
il with
ith or
without EPA.
y Aluminium:
l
Machined
h d dry
d or kerosene
k
oill mixed
d with
h
mineral oil or soluble oil
y Stainless steel and Heat resistant alloy: High
performance soluble oil or neat oil with high
concentration with chlorinated EP additive.
turning
g the most important
p
factor to be controlled
272
GATE 2014 (PI)

GATE2014(PI)
In
off optimal
conditions,
the
I the
th selection
l ti
ti l cutting
tti
diti
th
For
finish
F achieving
hi i a specific
ifi surface
f
fi i h in
i single
i l point
i t
277
275
IAS 2009 Main

IAS2009Main
276
IES 2001
IES
y Whatareextremepressurelubricants?
[3 marks]
g
pressures and rubbing
p
g action are
Where high
encountered, hydrodynamic lubrication cannot be
maintained; so Extreme Pressure (EP) additives must be
added
dd d to the
h lubricant.
l bi
EP lubrication
l b i i is
i provided
id d by
b a
number of chemical components such as boron,
phosphorus sulfur,
phosphorus,
sulfur chlorine,
chlorine or combination of these.
these
The compounds are activated by the higher temperature
resulting from extreme pressure.
pressure As the temperature
rises, EP molecules become reactive and release
derivatives such as iron chloride or iron sulfide and
forms a solid protective coating.
Page 32 of 205
(d) Increase depth of cut and increase feed
278
Dry and compressed air is used as cutting fluid for

machining
(a) Steel
(b) Aluminium
(c) Cast iron (d) Brass
Rev.1
279
Workbook
Ch4:EconomicsofMachiningOperation
Workbook
Ch3:CuttingTools,ToolLifeandCuttingFluid
IES 2012
IES
Themostimportantfunctionofthecuttingfluidisto
(a)Providelubrication
(b)C lth t l d
(b)Coolthetoolandworkpiece
k i
(c)Washawaythechips
(d)Improvesurfacefinish
Q. No
Q
Option
p
Q. No
Q
Option
p
Q. No
Q
Option
p
Q. No
Option
Q. No
Option
12
23
13
24
14
25
15
26
2
3
B
A
7
8
A
C
16
27
17
28
18
29
19
30
20
31
10
21
32
11
22 B
280
33
B
C
C
281
282
283
Page 33 of 205
Rev.1
Terminology
Terminology
y Nominal size: Size of a part specified in the drawing.
It
I is
i used
d for
f generall identification
id ifi i purpose.
y Basic size: Size of a part to which all limits of
variation (i.e. tolerances) are applied. Basic dimension

is theoretical dimension.
dimension
Limit Tolerance&Fits
Limit,Tolerance&Fits
y Actual size: Actual measured dimension of the part.
The difference between the basic size and the actual

size should not exceed a certain limit, otherwise it will
interfere with the interchangeability of the mating
parts.
BySKMondal
TerminologyContd....
Terminology
Contd
Terminology
Contd....
y Limits of sizes: There are two extreme permissible
sizes for a dimension of the part.

part The largest
permissible size for a dimension is called upper or high
or maximum limit, whereas the smallest size is known
as lower or minimum limit.
y Tolerance
The difference between the upper limit and lower
limit.
It is the maximum permissible variation in a
dimension.
The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral.
Terminology
Terminology
Contd....
Unilateral Limits occurs when both maximum limit and

minimum limit are either above or below the basic size.
size
e.g. 25 +0.18
For Unilateral Limits,, a case mayy occur when one of the

limits coincides with the basic size,
+0 20 ,25
e.g.25
+0.20
0
+0 10
+0.10
Basic Size = 25.00 mm

Upper Limit = 25.18 mm
Lower Limit = 25.10 mm
Tolerance = 0.08 mm
0.10
BilateralLimits occurwhenthemaximumlimitisabove
andtheminimumlimitisbelowthebasicsize.
e.g. 25 -0.10
-0.20
Basic
B
i Size
Si
= 25
25.00
00 mm
Tolerance = 0.10 mm
e.g. 25 0.04
Basic Size = 25.00 mm
Tolerance = 0.08 mm
Terminology
Contd
Terminology
Contd....
ForPSU
y Zero line: A straight line corresponding to the basic
ISRO2010
Tolerancesarespecified
( ) Toobtaindesiredfits
(a)
b
d
df
(b) becauseitisnotpossibletomanufactureasize
exactly
((c)) toobtainhigheraccuracy
g
y
(d) tohaveproperallowances
size. The deviations are measured from this line.
Expressing a dimension as 25.30.05 mm is the case of
y Deviation:
D i i
I the
Is
h algebraic
l b i difference
diff
b
between
a size
i
(a) Unilateral tolerance
(actual, max. etc.) and the corresponding basic size.
(b) Bilateral tolerance
y Actual deviation: Is the algebraic difference between
(c) Limiting dimensions
an actual size and the corresponding basic size.
(d) All off the

h above
b
y Upper deviation: Is the algebraic difference between
th maximum
the
i
size
i and
d the
th basic
b i size.
i
Page 34 of 205
Rev.1
Terminology
Contd
Terminology
Contd....
GATE 2010,ISRO2012
2010 ISRO 2012
GATE
GATE 1992
GATE
g
y Lower deviation: Is the algebraic
difference between
0.009
the minimum size and the basic size.

y Mean deviation: Is the arithmetical mean of upper
and
d lower
l
d
deviations.
y Fundamental deviation: This is the deviation,
deviation either
A shaft has a dimension,350.025

Th respective
The
ti values
l
off fundamental
f d
t l deviation
d i ti and
d
tolerance are
(a) 0.025, 0.008

(c) 0.009, 0.008
(b) 0.025,0.016
(d) 0.009,0.016
the upper or the lower deviation, which is nearest one

to zero line for either a hole or shaft.
10
11
GATE 2004
2004
GATE
IES 2005
IES
In an interchangeable assembly, shafts of size

+0.020
25.000
mm mate with holes of size 25.0000.000 mm.
The maximum possible clearance in the assembly
will be
( ) 10 microns
(a)
i
(b) 20 microns
(c) 30 microns
(d) 60 microns
+0.040
0.0100
12
GATE 2000
GATE
p
y the designer
g
The tolerance specified
by
for the
diameter of a shaft is 20.00 0.025 mm. The shafts
produced by three different machines A, B and C
have mean diameters of 1999 mm, 2000 mm and
20.01 mm respectively, with same standard
d i ti
deviation.
Wh t will
What
ill be
b the
th percentage
t
rejection
j ti
f
for
the shafts produced by machines A, B and C?
( ) Same
(a)
S
f the
for
th machines
hi
A Band
A,
B d C since
i
th standard
the
t d d
deviation is same for the three machines
(b) Least
L t for
f machine
hi A
(c) Least for machine B
(d) Least for machine C
13
A slot is to be milled centrally on a block with a

dimension of 40 0.05 mm. A milling cutter of 20
mm width is located with reference to the side of
the block within 0.02 mm. The maximum offset in
mm between the centre lines of the slot and the
block is
(a) 0.070
0 070
(b) 0.070
0 070
(c) 0.020
(d) 0.045
14
Clearance Fits
Fit
15
GATE 2007
GATE
0 .0 5 0
Hole
Fits:(assemblyconditionbetweenHole&Shaft)
H l Afeatureengulfing
Hole
Af t
lfi acomponent
Max C
Min C
Shaft Afeaturebeingengulfed
g g
bya
y
component
Tolerancezonesnevermeet
Shaft
Max. C = UL of hole - LL of shaft

Max
Min. C = LL of hole - UL of shaft
TwoshaftsAandBhavetheirdiametersspecifiedas
100 0.1mmand0.1 0.0001mmrespectively.
Whichofthefollowingstatementsis/aretrue?
(a) ToleranceinthedimensionisgreaterinshaftA
(b) Therelativeerrorinthedimensionisgreaterinshaft
A
(c) ToleranceinthedimensionisgreaterinshaftB
(d) Therelativeerrorinthedimensionissameforshaft
AandshaftB
16
Theclearancefitsmaybeslidefit,easyslidingfit,running
Page 35 of 205
17
fit,slackrunningfitandlooserunningfit.
A hole is specified as 4 0 0 . 0 0 0
mm. The mating
shaft has a clearance fit with minimum clearance of
0.01 mm. The tolerance on the shaft is 0.04 mm. The
maximum clearance in mm between the hole and
the shaft is
(a) 0.04
(b) 0.05
(c) 0.10
(d) 0.11
Rev.1
18
Transition Fits
Interference Fits
Hole
Hole
M C
Max
Max I
Tolerancezonesalways
overlap
Shaft
Shaft
IES2011
Tolerancezonesnevermeet
butcrosseseachother
Interference
fit
f
f joints are provided
d d for:
f
(a) Assembling bush bearing in housing
Min I
Max I
(b) Mounting
ou t g heavy
ea y duty gea
gearss o
on sshafts
a ts
(c) Mounting pulley on shafts
Max. C = UL of hole - LL of shaft
Max. I = LL of hole - UL of shaft
(d) Assembly of flywheels on shafts
Max. I = LL of hole - UL of shaft

Min. I = UL of hole - LL of shaft
Thetransitionfitsmaybetightfitandpushfit,wringing
Thetransitionfitsmaybetightfitandpushfit
wringing
fit(Gear,pulleyonshaft),pressfit.
19
IES 2013
IES2013
Theinterferencefitsmaybeshrinkfit,heavydrivefitand
h
f
f
b h kf h
d
f
d
lightdrivefit.
20
IES 2014
GATE 2005
GATE
Which of the following is a joint formed by
In
interference
fit,
I order
d to
t have
h
i t f
fit it is
i essential
ti l that
th t
interference fits?
the lower limit of the shaft should be
(a) Joint of cycle axle and its bearing
(a) Greater than the upper limit of the hole
(b) Joint between I.C. Engine piston and cylinder
(b) Lesser than the upper limit of the hole
(c) Joint between a pulley and shaft transmitting power
(c) Greater than the lower limit of the hole
(d) Joint
J i off lathe
l h spindle
i dl and
d its
i bearing
b i
(d) Lesser than the lower limit of the hole
22
GATE2011
A hole is of dimension 9
+0.015
0 015
+0
In an interchangeable assembly, shafts of size

+0.010
corresponding
p
g shaft is of dimension
The resulting assembly has
(a) loose running fit
(b) close running fit
( ) transition
(c)
t
iti fit
(d) interference fit
9 +0.001
mm.
mm mate with holes of size
25++0.03
0 02
0.02
Page 36 of 205
24
IAS 2011 Main

IAS2011Main
25+0.04
0.01
mm.
The maximum interference (in microns) in the assembly

is
( ) 40
(a)
(b) 30
( ) 20
(c)
(d) 10
25
StatementI: In interference fit, the outer diameter

y
will be more than the inner
of the inner cylinder
diameter of the hollow outer cylinder
StatementII: These fits are recommended for two
parts frequently dismantled and assembled.
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
explanation
l
i off Statement
S
(I)
23
GATE2012SameQinGATE2012(PI)
mm. The
21
26
An interference assembly, of nominal diameter 20 mm,

is
i off a unilateral
il
l holes
h l and
d a shafts.
h f The
Th manufacturing
f
i
tolerances for the holes are twice that for the shaft.
P
Permitted
i d interference
i
f
values
l
are 0.03 to 0.09 mm.
Determine the sizes, with limits, for the two mating
parts.
[ M k ]
[10Marks]
Hint: Use unilateral hole basis system.

system
Rev.1
27
IES 2007
IES
IES 2006
IES
ISRO2011
Which
fit?
Whi h off the
th following
f ll i is
i an interference
i t f
Ashaftandholepairisdesignatedas50H7d8.
(a) Push fit
Thisassemblyconstitutes
(b) Running
g fit
(a)Interferencefit
(c) Sliding fit
(b)Transitionfit
(d) Shrink fit
(c)Clearancefit
(d)Noneoftheabove
28
29
IES 2009
IES
IES 2008
IES
Consider the following joints:

1. Railway carriage wheel and axle
2. IC engine
i cylinder
li d and
d liner
li
Which of the above joints is/are the result(s) of
interference fit?
((a)) 1 onlyy
(b) 2 only
(c) Neither 1 nor 2
(d) Both 1 and 2
Allowance
34
Consider the following fits:

1. I.C. engine cylinder and piston
2. Ball
B ll bearing
b i outer
t race and
d housing
h
i
3. Ball bearing inner race and shaft
Which of the above fits are based on the interference
y
system?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3
32
33
GATE 2001
2001
GATE
y It is Minimum clearance or maximum interference. It is
the intentional difference between the basic

dimensions of the mating parts. The allowance may be
positive or negative.
negative
IES 2004
IES

1. The amount of interference needed to create a tight
joint varies with diameter of the shaft.
shaft
2. An interference fit creates no stress state in the
shaft.
h ft
3. The stress state in the hub is similar to a thick
walled cylinder with internal pressure.
Which of the statements g
given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
31
30
GATE 1998
GATE
Allowance
in
to
All
i limits
li it and
d fits
fit refers
f
t
In
and
I the
th specification
ifi ti off dimensions
di
i
d fits,
fit
(a) Maximum clearance between shaft and hole
(a) Allowance is equal to bilateral tolerance
(b) Minimum clearance between shaft and hole
(b) Allowance is equal

q
to unilateral tolerance
(c) Difference between maximum and minimum size of
(c) Allowance is independent of tolerance
hole
(d) Allowance is equal to the difference between
(d) Difference between maximum and minimum size of
maximum and minimum dimension specified by the
shaft
tolerance.
tolerance
Page 37 of 205
35
Rev.1
36
IES 2012
IES
2012 C
ti
l
IES
S O 20 0
ISRO2010
Clearance
in
between
Cl
i a fit is
i the
th difference
diff
b t
Explain
the
between
tolerance
and
l
h difference
d ff
b
l
d
(a) Maximum hole size and minimum shaft size
allowance.
allowance
+0.02
Dimension of the hole is 50+0.02
mm
0.00 mm and shaft is 50 +0.00 mm.
The minimum clearance is

(a) 0.02 mm
(c) -0.02
0 02 mm
(b) Minimum hole size and maximum shaft size
(b) 0.00 mm
(d) 0.01
0 01 mm
(c) Maximum hole size and maximum shaft size

(d) Minimum hole size and minimum shaft size
37
5.BasisofFits HoleBasis
Hole Basis Fits
Legends:
Hole
Shaft
Tolerance
C - Clearance
T - Transition
I - Interference
38
ForIESOnly
BasisofFits ShaftBasis
H l basis
b i system: When
Wh
Hole
the hole is kept as a
constant
member
(i.e.
t t
b
(i
when the lower deviation of
th
the
h l
hole
i zero)) and
is
d
different fits are obtained
b varying
by
i
th shaft
the
h ft size
i
then the limit system is said
t be
to
b on a hole
h l basis.
b i
For hole basis system, H
stands for dimensions of
holes
whose
lower
deviation is zero.
Shaft Basis Fits
Legends:
Hole
Shaft
Tolerance
C - Clearance
T - Transition
I - Interference
Sh f basis
b i system: When
Wh
Shaft
the shaft is kept as a
constant
member
(i.e.
t t
b
(i
when the upper deviation
off the
th shaft
h ft is
i zero)) and
d
different fits are obtained
b varying
by
i
th hole
the
h l size
i
then the limit system is said
t be
to
b on a shaft
h ft basis.
b i
For shaft basis system, h
stands for dimensions of
shafts
whose
upper
deviation is zero.
40
deviations and lower deviations respectively are
( ) Zero, Zero
(c)
( ) None of the above

(d)
y Holes can be finished by tools like reamers, drills,
broaches, and their sizes are not adjustable. The shaft

sizes
i
can be
b easily
il obtained
b i d by
b externall machining.
hi i
y Iff shaft
h f basis
b
system is used
d considerable
d bl no off reamers
and other precision tools are required for producing

different classes of holes for one class of shaft for
obtaining
different fits which
increases cost of
production.
d i
42
IES 2005
IES
Basic shaft and basic hole are those whose upper
(b) ve, +ve
Why Hole Basis Systems are Preferred?

WhyHoleBasisSystemsarePreferred?
41
ISRO2008
(a) +ve, ve
39
43
IFS 2013
IFS
Assertion (A): Hole basis system is generally

preferred to shaft basis system in tolerance design
for getting the required fits.
Reason (R): Hole has to be given a larger tolerance
band than the mating shaft.
shaft
l
ti off A
Page 38 of 205
44
Explain,
the
E l i with
ith the
th help
h l off sketches,
k t h
th concepts
t off
hole basis and shaft basis in terms of assembly
y fit
specifications. Which of the two is preferred and
why?
[
[8Marks]
k ]
Rev.1
45
Limits and Fits

LimitsandFits
ToleranceZone
y Limits and fits comprises 18 grades of fundamental
It is defined graphically
b th
by
the magnitude
it d off th
the
Tolerance Zone tolerance and by its
position in relation to the
zero line.
55
20
Basic Size
46
DiameterSteps
p
Above
(mm)
3
6
10
18
30
50
80
120
180
250
315
400
500
ValueoftheTolerance
IT01
IT0
IT1
IT3
ar2
IT4
ar3
IT5
ar4 = 7i
IT7
IT8
IT9
0.3 + 0.008D 0.5 + 0.012D 0.8 + 0.02D

=a
Upto andincluding
(mm)

3
3
6
10
10
18
30
50
80
120
120
180
250
250
315
400
tolerances for both shaft and hole,

hole designated as IT01,
IT01
IT0 and IT1 to IT16. These are called standard
tolerances (IS919) But ISO 286 specify 20 grades upto
tolerances.
IT18
y There are 25 (IS 919) and 28 (ISO 286) types of
fundamental deviations.
Hole: A,
A B,
B C,
C CD,
CD D,
D E,
E EF,
EF F,
F FG,
FG G,
G H,
H J,
J JS,
JS K,
K M,
M N,
N P,
P
R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z, ZA, ZB, ZC.
Shaft : a,
a b,
b c,
c cd,
cd d,
d e,
e ef,
ef f,
f fg,
fg g,
g h,
h j,j js,
js k,
k m,
m n,
n p,
p r,
r s,
s t,
t
u, v, x, y, z, za, zb, zc.
y A unilateral hole basis system is recommended but if
necessary a unilateral or bilateral shaft basis system may
47
also be used
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
= 16i
IT11
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
= 100i
IT15
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
49
= 640i
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
= 25i
IT12
10(1.6)
(
)(ITn -IT6)
= 160i
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
= 40i
IT13
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
= 250i
IT2
ar
r = 101/5
IT6
IT6)
10(1.6)
10(1
6)(ITn -IT6)
= 10i
IT10
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
= 64i
IT14
T l
Tolerance
on a shaft
h ft or a hole
h l can be
b calculated
l l t d by
b using
i
table provided.
T = K i
Where, T isthetolerance(inm)
Standard Tolerance unit or Fundamental tolerance unit

i = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D
in m
D = D1D2 (D1 and D2 are the nominal sizes marking

the beginning and the end of a range of
sizes in mm)
sizes,
[ForIT6toIT16]
K = is a constant
d
f l
GradesofTolerance
y It is
i an indication
i di ti off the
th level
l l off accuracy.
y IT01 to IT4
For production of gauges,

gauges plug gauges,
gauges
measuring instruments
y IT5 to IT 7 For fits in precision engineering applications

y IT8 to IT11 For General Engineering
10(1 6)((ITn -IT6))

10(1.6)
= 400i
IT16
y IT12 to IT14 For Sheet metal working or press working

y IT15
IT to
t IT16
IT 6 For
F processes like
lik casting,
ti
generall cutting
tti
10(1.6)(ITn -IT6)
= 1000i
ToleranceDesignation(IS)
50
work
51
FundamentalDeviations
Fundamental Deviation
is chosen to locate the tolerance zone w.r.t. the zero line
C l l ti f U
dL
D i ti
CalculationforUpperandLowerDeviation
y ForShaft
Holes are designated by capital letter:

Letters A to G - oversized holes
Letters P to ZC - undersized holes
ei =es IT
es =ei
ei +IT
y ForHole
EI=ES IT
ES=EI+IT
S
Shafts are designated

g
byy small letter:
Letters m to zc - oversized shafts
Letters a to g - undersized shafts
H is used for holes and h is used for shafts
whose fundamental deviation is zero
52
es =upperdeviationofshaft
ei =lowerdeviationofshaft
ES
ES=upperdeviationofhole
d i ti fh l
Page 39 of 205
EI=lowerdeviationofhole
53
Rev.1
54
GATE 2014
GATE2014
y For hole, H stands for a dimension whose lower
de
at o refers
e e s to tthee bas
e. Thee hole
o e H for
o which
c
deviation
basicc ssize.
the lower deviation is zero is called a basic hole.
y Similarly,
y, for shafts,, h stands for a dimension whose
upper deviation refers to the basic size. The shaft h for
which the upper deviation is zero is called a basic
shaft.
y A fit is designated by its basic size followed by symbols
representing the limits of each of its two components,
the hole being quoted first.
y For example, 100 H6/g5 means basic size is 100 mm
and the tolerance grade for the hole is 6 and for the
shaft
h ft is
i 5.
Forthegivenassembly:25H7/g8,matchGroupAwith
GroupB
Basicsize
HoleToleranceZone
ShaftToleranceZone
FundamentalDeviation
IT#
55
IES 2008
IES
56
Find the limit sizes, tolerances and allowances for a

100 mm diameter shaft and hole pair designated by
F8h10. Also specify the type of fit that the above pair
belongs to.
Given: 100 mm diameter lies in the diameter step
range of 80120 mm. The fundamental deviation for
shaft designation f
f is 5.5
5 5 D0.41
The values of standard tolerances for grades of IT 8
and
d IT 10 are 25ii and
d 64i
6 i respectively.
ti l
Also, indicate the limits and tolerance on a diagram.
[15Marks]
58
GATE 2009
GATE
pp
What are the upper
and lower limits of the shaft
represented by 60 f8?
Use the following data:
Diameter 60 lies in the diameter step of 5080 mm.
Fundamental tolerance unit,
i, in m= 0.45 D1/3 + 0.001D, where D is the
representative size in mm;
T l
Tolerance
value
l for
f lT8 = 25i.
i
Fundamental deviation for 'f shaft = 5.5D0.41
( ) Lower limit
(a)
l
= 59.924 mm, Upper Limit = 59.970 mm
(b) Lower limit = 59.954 mm, Upper Limit = 60.000 mm
( ) Lower limit = 59.970 mm, Upper Limit = 60.016 mm
(c)
For-2015
(IES,
GATE
& Limit
PSUs)= 60.046 mm 61
(d) Lower limit
= 60.000
mm,
Upper
GroupB
P.H
I.ShaftType
Q IT8
Q.IT8
II HoleType
II.HoleType
R.IT7
III.HoleToleranceGrade
S.g
IV.ShaftToleranceGrade
( )
(a)
(c)
P
I
II
Q
III
III
R
IV
IV
S
II
I
( )
(b)
(d)
P
I
II
Q
IV
IV
Following data are given for calculating limits of

dimensions and tolerances for a hole: Tolerance unit i (in
m) = 0.45 D + 0.001D. The unit of D is mm. Diameter
step is 1830 mm. If the fundamental deviation for H
hole is zero and IT8 = 25 i,
i the maximum and minimum
limits of dimension for a 25 mm H8 hole (in mm) are
(b) 25.017, 24.984
(d) 25.000, 24.967
Page 40 of 205
57
60
GATE 2000
GATE
GATE 2008(PI)
2008 (PI)
GATE
(c) 25.033, 25.000
S
II
I
In the tolerance specification 25 D 6, the letter D

represents
(a) Grade of tolerance
(b) Upper deviation
(c) Lower deviation
((d)) Type
yp of fit
59
(a) 24.984, 24.967
R
III
III
IES 2002
IES
S 2006 C
i
l
IES2006Conventional

A nomenclature 50 H8/p8 denotes that
1. Hole
H l diameter
di
t is
i 50 mm.
2. It is a shaft base system.
3. 8 indicates fundamental deviation.
Which of the statements given above is/are incorrect?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and
d 2 only
l
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 3 only
GroupA
62
A fit is specified as 25H8/e8. The tolerance value for

a nominal diameter of 25 mm in IT8 is 33 microns
and fundamental deviation for the shaft is 40
microns. The maximum clearance of the fit in
microns is
(a) 7
(b) 7
(c) 73
(d) 106
Rev.1
63
GATE 2003
GATE
R
RecommendedSelectionofFits
d d S l ti
f Fit
GATE2010(PI)
The dimensional limits on a shaft of 25h7 are

(a) 25.000, 25.021 mm
(b) 25.000, 24.979 mm
(c) 25.000, 25.007 mm
(d) 25.000, 24.993 mm
A small bore is designated as 25H7. The lower

(minimum) and upper (maximum) limits of the bore
are 25.000 mm and 25.021 mm, respectively. When the
bore is designated as 25H8, then the upper (maximum)
limit is 25.033
25 033 mm.
mm When the bore is designated as
25H6, then the upper (maximum) limit of the bore (in
mm) is
(a) 25.001 (b) 25.005 (c) 25.009 (d) 25.013
64
65
66
ForIESOnly
GATE 1996,IES2012
1996 IES 2012
GATE
IES 2000
IES
The fit on a hole

shaft system is specified as H7
holeshaft
H7
s6.The type of fit is
(a) Clearance fit
(b) Running fit (sliding fit)
(c) Push fit (transition fit)
((d)) Force fit ((interference fit))
SelectiveAssembly
Which one of the following tolerances set on inner

diameter and outer diameter respectively of headed
jig bush for press fit is correct?
(a) G7 h 6
(b) F7 n6
( ) H 7h
(c)
h6
(d) F7j6
F j6
y All the parts (hole & shaft) produced are measured
and graded into a range of dimensions within the

tolerance groups.
y Reduces the cost of production
y No.of group =
67
Process capability
T l
Tolerance
desired
d i d
68
69
ForIESOnly
Interchangeability
y Interchangeability, a maintainability design factor, is
quite closely related to standardization and is realized

through standardization.
y If the variation of items are within certain limits, all
p
parts
of equivalent
q
size will be equally
q
y fit for operating
p
g in
machines and mechanisms and the mating parts will
give the required
g
q
fitting.
g
y This facilitates to select at random from a large number
off parts
t for
f an assembly
bl and
d results
lt in
i a considerable
id bl
saving in the cost of production, reduce assembly time,
replacement
l
t and
d repair
i becomes
b
very easy.
70
ISRO2008
IAS2010main
Interchangeability can be achieved by
What is the difference between hole basis system and
(a) Standardization
shaft basis system ? Why is hole basis system the more

extensive
t i in
i use ?
(b) Better process planning
What are the differences between interchangeability
(c) Simplification
and selective assembly ?
(d) Better
B
product
d
planning
l
i
Page 41 of 205
[12Marks]
71
Rev.1
72
GATE 2003
2003
GATE
ToleranceSink
GATE 1997
GATE
Three blocks B1 , B2 and B3 are
to be inserted in a channel of
width S maintaining a
minimum
i i
gap off width
idth T =
0.125 mm, as shown in Figure.
For P = 18.
18 75 0.08;
0 08;
Q = 25.00 0.12;
R = 28.125
28 125 0.1
0 1 and
S = 72.35 + X, (where all
dimensions are in mm),
mm) the
tolerance X is
y A design
engineer keeps
one section off the
d
k
h part blank
bl k
(without tolerance) so that production engineer can

dump all the tolerances on that section which becomes
most inaccurate dimension of the part.
y Position of sink can be changing the reference point.
y Tolerance
T l
f the
for
th sink
i k is
i the
th cumulative
l ti sum off all
ll the
th
tolerances and onlyy like minded tolerances can be added

i.e. either equally bilateral or equally unilateral.
(a)+0 38
(a)+0.38
73
(b) Runout
(c) Perpendicularity
(d) Flatness
Diameter of a hole after plating needs to be controlled
Cylindrical pins of 25++0.020

0.010 mm diameter are
0 050
b t
between
30++0.050
the plating
l ti thickness
thi k
varies
i
+0.010 mm. If th
electroplated
l t
l t d in
i a shop.
h
Thickness
Thi k
off the
th
between 10 - 15 microns, diameter of the hole before

plating should be
plating is 30 2.0 micron

micron. Neglecting gage
(a) 30
+0.070
+0.030
( ) 30
(c)
+0.080
0 080
+0.030
mm
mm
+0.065
+0.020
mm
tolerances, the size of the GO gage in mm

to inspect the plated components is
+00.070
070
+0.040
mm
(a) 25.042 (b) 25.052 (c) 25.074 (d) 25.084
(b) 30
(d) 30
77
Limit Gauges
LimitGauges
the size of the low limit of the hole while the NOT GO plug
gauge corresponds to the high limit of the hole.
y Snap, Gap or Ring gauge: used for gauging the shaft and
male components. The Go snap gauge is of a size
corresponding
di to the
h high
hi h (maximum)
(
i
) limit
li i off the
h shaft,
h f
while the NOT GO gauge corresponds to the low
(minimum limit).
limit)
Fig.Pluggauge
Fig.Ringandsnapgauges
For-2015 (IES, GATE
& PSUs)
79
75
GATE 2013
GATE2013
76
y Plug gauge: used to check the holes. The GO plug gauge is
(d)0
(d)
0.05
05
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
The g
geometric tolerance that does NOT need a datum
(a) Concentricity
(c)+0 05
(c)+0.05
74
GATE 2007(PI)
GATE
2007(PI)
for its specification is
(b) 0.38
(b)
0 38
Allocation of manufacturing tolerances

Allocationofmanufacturingtolerances
ISRO2008
y
g
g tolerance zone lies
y Unilateral system:
gauge
Plug gauges are used to

( ) Measure the
(a)
h diameter
d
off the
h workpieces
k
(b) Measure the diameter of the holes in the
workpieces
((c)) Check the diameter of the holes in the
workpieces
(d) Check the length of holes in the workpieces
Page 42 of 205
78
80
entirely within the work tolerance zone.

y work tolerance zone becomes smaller by the sum of the
gauge tolerance.
Rev.1
81
Bilateral system:
y
in this
Example
l
Size of the hole to be checked 25 00.02
02 mm
Here, Higher
g
limit of hole = 25.02 mm
Lower limit of hole = 24.98 mm
W k tolerance
Work
l
= 0.04
0 04 mm
Gauge
Gauge tolerance = 10% of work tolerance = 0.004 mm

+0.004
Dimension of 'GO'
GO Plug gauge = 24.98
24 98
mm
0.000
+0.000
+
0 000
Dimension of 'NOT GO' Plug gauge = 25.02
mm
0.004
82
system, the GO and NO GO

ggauge
g tolerance zones are
bisected by the high and
low limits of the work
tolerance zone.
y Wearallowance:GOgaugeswhichconstantlyrub
T ki example
Taking
l as above:
b
Dimension
Dimension of 'GO'
GO Plug gauge = 24.98
24 98
+0.002
mm
0.002
+0.002
+
0 002
mm
0.002
againstthesurfaceofthepartsintheinspectionare
subjectedtowearandloosetheirinitialsize.
y Thesizeofgopluggaugeisreducedwhilethatofgo
Th i f l
i d d hil h f
snapgaugeincreases.
y Toincreaseservicelifeofgaugeswearallowanceis
addedtothegogaugeinthedirectionoppositeto
wear.Wearallowanceisusuallytakenas5%ofthe
worktolerance.
y Wearallowanceisappliedtoanominaldiameter
g g
pp
beforegaugetoleranceisapplied.
83
84
Takingexampleofabove:
Wear
W
Allowance
All
= 5% off work
k ttolerance
l
= 0.002
0 002 mm
Nominal size of GO p
plugg ggauge
g = 24.98 + 0.002 mm
+0.004
Dimension of 'GO' Plug
g gauge
g g = 24.982
mm
0.000
+0.000
+
0.000
mm
0.004
GATE 2014
GATE
GATE 2004
GATE
A GO
NOGO plug gauge is to be designed for
GONOGO
measuring a hole of nominal diameter 25 mm with a
hole tolerance of 0.015 mm. Considering 10% of
work tolerance to be the gauge tolerance and no
wear condition, the dimension (in mm) of the GO
plug gauge as per the unilateral tolerance system is
(a ) 24.985
(c) 24.985
24 985
+0.003
0 003
0.003
+0.03
0 03
0.03
(b) 25.015
+00.000
000
0.006
(d ) 24
24.985
985
85
+0.003
000
00.000
GO and NO
GO plug gages are to be designed for a
NOGO
0.05
hole 200.01 mm. Gage tolerances can be taken as 10%
of the hole tolerance.
tolerance Following ISO system of gage
design, sizes of GO and NOGO gage will be
respectively
(a) 20.010 mm and 20.050 mm
(b) 20.014 mm and 20.046 mm
((c)) 20.006 mm and 20.054
54 mm
(d) 20.014 mm and 20.054 mm
86
87
ForIESOnly
GATE 1995
GATE
Checking the diameter of a hole using GO
NO GO
GONOGO
gauges is an, example of inspection by
..(variables/attributes)
The above statement is
( ) Variables
(a)
V i bl
(b) Attributes
(c) Cant say
(d) Insufficient data
TaylorssPrinciple
Principle
Taylor
GATE 2006,VS2012
2006 VS 2012
GATE
88
A ring gauge is used to measure

(a) Outside diameter but not roundness
(b) Roundness
R
d
b t nott outside
but
t id diameter
di
t
(c) Both outside diameter and roundness
(d) Only external threads
This
be
Thi principle
i i l states
t t that
th t the
th GO gauge should
h ld always
l
b
so designed
g
that it will cover the maximum metal
condition (MMC) of as many dimensions as possible in
the same limit gauges, whereas a NOT GO gauges to
cover the
th minimum
i i
metal
t l condition
diti
off one dimension
di
i
only.
y
Page 43 of 205
89
Rev.1
90
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
Preferred Number
PreferredNumber
Preferred Number ..Contd.

Contd
PreferredNumber..
y A designed product needs standardization.
y These are named as Renard series.
y Motor
power, machine
tool
M t speed,
d engine
i
hi
t l speed
d and
d
y Many
other
M
th derived
d i d series
i are formed
f
d by
b multiplying
lti l i or
feed, all follows a definite pattern or series.

y This
h also
l helps
h l in interchangeability
h
b l off products.
d
y It has been observed that if the sizes are put in the form
of geometric progression, then wide ranges are covered
with a definite sequence.
y These numbers are called preferred numbers having
common ratios as,,
dividing the basic series by 10, 100 etc.

y Typicall values
l
off the
h common ratio for
f four
f
b
basic
G.P.
series are given below.
10 1.58,
10
10 1.26,
20
10 1.12 and 40 10 1.06
y Depending on the common ratio,

ratio four basic series are
formed; these are R5 , R10 , R20 and R40
(
R10 : 1.26 :1.0,1.25,1.6,... (
R 20 : 1.12 :1.0,1.12,1.4,... (
R5 : 1.58 :1.0,1.6, 2.5,...
10, 5 100, 5 1000,....
)
1000,....)
10
10, 10 100, 10 1000,....
20
10, 20 100, 20
R 40 : 1.06 :1.0,1.06,1.12,...
40
10, 40 100, 40 1000,....
91
MeasurementofLines&Surfaces
BySKMondal
92
93
Vernier Caliper
Li
Linearmeasurements
t
Some of the instruments used for the linear
measurements are:
y Rules
y Vernier
y Micrometer
y Height
g g
gauge
g
y Bore gauge
y Dial indicator
y Slip gauges or gauge blocks
y A vernier scale is an auxiliary scale that slides along the main
scale.
scale
y The vernier scale is that a certain number n of divisions on
the vernier scale is equal in length to a different number

(usually one less) of mainscale divisions.
nV = (n 1)S
1)S
where n = number of divisions on the vernier scale
V = The
h length
l
h off one division
di i i on the
h vernier
i scale
l
and S = Length of the smallest mainscale division
y Least count is applied to the smallest value that can be read
directly by use of a vernier scale.
y Least count = S V = 1 S
n
94
S O 20 0
ISRO2010
96
Metric Micrometer
MetricMicrometer
ISRO2008
The vernier reading should not be taken at its face
Vernier Caliper
95
y A micrometer allows a measurement of the size of a
value before an actual check has been taken for
The least count of a metric vernier caliper
body. It is one of the most accurate mechanical devices
(a) Zero error
having 25 divisions on vernier scale, matching
in common use.
(b) Its calibration
with 24 divisions of main scale (1 main scale
y It consists a main scale

l and
d a thimble
h bl
divisions = 0.5
0 5 mm) is
Method of Measurement
(c) Flatness of measuring jaws

(d) Temperature equalization
97
((a)) 0.0055 mm
((b)) 0.01 mm
StepI:
p Find the whole number of mm in the barrel
(c) 0.02 mm
(d) 0.005mm
StepI: Find the reading of barrel and multiply by 0.01
Page 44 of 205
98
StepIII: Add the value in StepI and Rev.1

StepII
99
B
G
d for
f measuring
i
b
diff
y Bore
Gauge:
used
bores
off different
,
ISRO2009,2011
sizes ranging from smalltolarge sizes.

y Provided with various extension arms that can be
In a simple micrometer with screw pitch 0.5
added for different sizes.
mm and divisions on thimble 50, the reading

corresponding to 5 divisions on barrel and 12
divisions on thimble is
Micrometer
((a)) 2.620 mm
((b)) 2.512
5 mm
(c) 2.120 mm
(d) 5.012 mm
100
y Dial indicator: Converts a linear
p
into a radial
displacement
movement to measure over a
g of movement for the
small range
plunger.
y The typical least count that can be
obtained with suitable gearing
dial indicators is 0.01 mm to 0.001
mm.
y It is possible to use the dial
indicator as a comparator by
mounting it on a stand at any
suitable height.
101
GATE 2008
2008
GATE
Applicationsofdialindicatorinclude:
y offsettinglathetailstocks
y aligningaviceonamillingmachine
li i i illi
hi
y checkingdimensions
GATE 2008contdfromS2
2008
td f
S2
GATE
If Rp= RQ>0, which one of the
following would be consistent with the
observation?
(A) The drill spindle rotational axis is
coincident with the drill spindle taper
hole axis
(B) The drill spindle rotational axis
intersects the drill spindle taper hole
axis at point P
(C) The drill spindle rotational axis is
parallel to the drill spindle taper hole
axis
(D) The drill spindle rotational axis
intersects the drill spindle taper hole
axis at point Q
104
105
GATE 2014(PI)S1
2014(PI)
S1
GATE
GATE 2014(PI)S2
2014(PI)
S2
GATE
The alignment test

Spindle square with
base plate
plate is applied
to the radial drilling
machine.
A
dial
indicator is fixed to
the cylindrical spindle
and the spindle is
rotated to make the
indicator touch the
base plate at different
points
106
S1
S1
A displacement sensor (a dial indicator) measures the

lateral displacement of a mandrel mounted on the taper
hole inside a drill spindle. The mandrel axis is an
extension of the drill spindle taper hole axis and the
protruding portion of the mandrel surface is perfectly
cylindrical. Measurements are taken with the sensor
placed at two positions P and Q as shown in the figure.
The readings are recorded as Rx = maximum deflection
minus minimum deflection, corresponding to sensor
position at X, over one rotation.
y centering workpices tomachinetoolspindles
Principleofadialindicator
103
102
Page 45 of 205
This test inspects whether the

(a) spindle vertical feed axis is perpendicular to the base
plate
(b) axis of symmetry of the cylindrical spindle is
perpendicular
di l to
t the
th base
b
plate
l t
(c) axis of symmetry, the rotational axis and the vertical
feed axis of the spindle are all coincident
((d)) spindle
p
rotational axis is p
perpendicular
p
to the base
plate
107
Rev.1
108
Sli G
SlipGaugesorGaugeblocks
G
bl k
y These are small blocks of alloy steel.
steel
y Used in the manufacturing shops as length standards.
y Not
N t
t
to
b
be
used
d for
f
regular
l
and
d continuous
ti
measurement.
y Rectangular blocks with thickness representing the
dimension of the block. The crosssection of the block
is usually 32 mm x 9 mm.
y Are hardened and finished to size. The measuring
g
surfaces of the gauge blocks are finished to a very high
g
of finish, flatness and accuracy.
y
degree
y Come in sets with different number of pieces in a given
p a Slip Ga
ge pile to 41
125 mm
To make up
Gauge
41.125
q
set to suit the requirements
of measurements.
y A typical set consisting of 88 pieces for metric units is
shown in.
in
y To build any given dimension, it is necessary to
identify a set of blocks, which are to be put together.
y Number of blocks used should always
y be the smallest.
y Generally the top and bottom Slip Gauges in the pile
are 2 mm wear gauges.
gauges This is so that they will be the
only ones that will wear down, and it is much cheaper
to replace two gauges than a whole set.
p Gauge p
e iss set up with
t tthe
e use o
pe
yAS
Slip
pile
of ssimple
109
y Decide what height you want to set up, in this
case 41.125mm.
41 125mm
y Take away
y the thickness of the two wear g
gauges,
g ,
and then use the gauges in the set to remove

each place of decimal in turn, starting with the
lowest.
lowest
110
111
A Metric slip gauge set (88 Pieces)

AMetricslipgaugeset(88Pieces)
p a Slip Ga
ge pile to 41
125 mm
To make up
Gauge
41.125
41.125
-4.000
______
37.125
-1.005
_______
36.120
-1.020
_______
35.100
-1.100
_______
34 000
34.000
-4.000
_______
30.000
-30.000
_______
0.000
pg g
Slipgaugessizeor
range,mm
1 005
1.005
1.001to1.009
1 010to1 490
1.010to1.490
0.500 to9.500
10to100
112
,
Increment,mm
0.001
0 010
0.010
0.500
10 000
10.000
Numberof
Pieces
1
9
49
19
10
113
114
Comparators
ISRO2010
A master gauge is
(a) A new gauge
(b) An international reference standard
( ) A standard
(c)
t d d gauge for
f checking
h ki
accuracy off
gauges used on shop floors
(d) A gauge used by experienced technicians
ISRO2008
y Comparator is another form of linear measuring
Standards to be used for reference purposes in

laboratories and workshops are termed as
(a) Primary standards
( ) Secondary standards
(b)
(c) Tertiary standards
(d) Working standards
maths.
115
Page 46 of 205
116
method, which is quick and more convenient for

checking large number of identical dimensions.
y During the measurement, a comparator is able to give
the deviation of the dimension from the set dimension.
y Cannot measure absolute dimension but can only
compare two dimensions.
dimensions
y Highly reliable.
y To
T magnify
if the
h deviation,
d i i
a number
b off principles
i i l are
used such as mechanical, optical, pneumatic and
electrical.
l
i l
Rev.1
117
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
FeelerGauge
Which one of the following instruments is a

comparator ?
(a) Tool Makers Microscope
(b) GO/NO GO gauge
(c) Optical Interferometer
(d) Dial
Di l Gauge
G
Fig. Principleofacomparator
118
119
Mechanical Comparators
MechanicalComparators
Li it G
LimitGauges
PSU
Afeelergaugeisusedtocheckthe
(a)Pitchofthescrew
(b)Surfaceroughness
Gauge
ForMeasuring
SnapGauge
ExternalDimensions
PlugGauge
InternalDimensions
T
TaperPlugGauge
Pl G
T
Taperhole
h l
g
g
RingGauge
ExternalDiameter
(c)Thicknessofclearance
GapGauge
GapsandGrooves
(d)Fl
(d)Flatnessofasurface
f f
RadiusGauge
Gaugingradius
ThreadpitchGauge
ExternalThread
121
120
y The Mikrokator principle
greatly
magnifies
any
deviation in size so that
even
small
deviations
produce large deflections of
the pointer over the scale.
122
Si
h i lC
SigmaMechanicalComparator
123
MechanicalComparators
The
Mechanical
uses a partially
Th Sigma
Si
M h i l Comparator
C
t
ti ll
y The EdenRolt Reed system uses a
wrapped
pp band wrapped
pp about a driving
g drum to turn a
pointer attached to the end of two
pointer needle. The assembly provides a frictionless
reeds One reed is pushed by a

reeds.
movement with a resistant pressure provided by the
plunger, while the other is fixed. As
springs.
i
one reed moves relative to the other,

the
h pointer that
h they
h are commonly
l
attached to will deflect.
deflect
SigmaMechanicalComparator
124
Page 47 of 205
125
Rev.1
126
O ti l C
OpticalComparators
t
P
PneumaticComparators
ti C
t
y These devices use a plunger to rotate a mirror.

mirror A light
beam is reflected off that mirror, and simply by the

virtue of distance, the small rotation of the mirror can
be converted to a significant translation with little
friction.
PneumaticComparators
y Flow
Fl type:
t
y The float height is essentially proportional to the air
that escapes from the gauge head

y Master gauges are used to find calibration points on
the scales
y The
Th
i
input
pressure
i
is
regulated
l d
to
allow
ll
magnification
ag cat o adjust
adjustment
e t
127
A
AngularMeasurement
l M
t
128
129
B lP t t
BevelProtractor
This
the
and
Thi involves
i
l
th measurementt off angles
l off tapers
t
d
y Is
I partt off the
th machinist's
hi i t' combination
bi ti square.
similar surfaces. The most common angular

g
measuring
g
y The flat base of the protractor helps in setting it firmly
tools are:
on the workpiece and then by rotating the rule, it is
y Bevel protractor
possible to measure the angle. It will typically have a
y Sine bar
d
discrimination
off one degree.
d
ABevelProtractor
130
131
132
Sine Bar
SineBar
y When a reference for a nonsquare angle is required, a sine bar
ISRO2011
can be
b used.
d
y Basically a sine bar is a bar of known length. When gauge blocks
A sine bar is specified by
are placed under one end, the sine bar will tilt to a specific
(a) Its total length
angle.
g
(b) The size of the rollers
y Knowing the height differential of the two rollers in alignment
with the workpiece ,the

the angle can be calculated using the sine
(c) The centre distance between the two rollers
formula.
(d) The
Th distance
di
b
between
rollers
ll and
d upper surface
f
y A sine bar is specified by the distance between the centre of the
two rollers, i.e. 100 mm, 200 mm, & 300 mm. the various part of
sine bar are hardened before grinding & lapping.
133
H
s i n48 of=205
Page
L
134
Rev.1
135
d
Disadvantages
Th d M
ThreadMeasurements
t
y 1. Sine
bars
cannott be
conveniently
Si
b
b used
d for
f
i tl for
f
Threadsarenormallyspecifiedbythemajordiameter.
y Threadsarenormallyspecifiedbythemajordiameter
GATE2012(PI)
A sine bar has a length of 250 mm. Each roller has
a diameter
di
t
off 20 mm. During
D i
t
taper
angle
l
measurement of a component,
p
, the height
g from the
(c) 23.6
engineering,themostcommonthreadencounteredis
engineering
themostcommonthreadencounteredis
themetricVthreadshowninFig.
sometimes introduce
d
considerable
d bl errors.
The calculated taper angle (in degrees) is

(b) 22.8
adjustment problems.
y Thoughtherearealargevarietyofthreadsusedin
y 2. Misalignment of workpiece with sine bar may
surface plate to the centre of a roller is 100 mm.
(a) 21.1
measuring
g angles
g
more than 60o because of slip
pg
gauge
g
(d) 68.9
136
137
138
Three-Wire Method
y Theparametersthatarenormallymeasuredare:
y Majordiameter
M j di
t
y Three wires of equal diameter placed in thread, two
y Micrometer
on one side
id and
d one on other
th side
id
y Pitchdiameter
y Screwthreadmicrometer
y Standard micrometer used to measure distance over
y Wiremethod
wires (M)
y Pitch
y Different sizes and pitches of threads require
y Screwpitchgauge
y Pitchmeasuringmachine
different sizes of wires
y Threadform
y Opticalprojector
139
The Three-Wire Method of Measuring Threads
140
y Distance W over the outer edge
( )
GATE 2011(PI)
W = D p + d 1 + cosec cot
2 2
2
For ISO metric thread, = 60 and D p = D 0.6496 p
The best wire size (in mm) for measuring

effective
ff ti
di
diameter
t
off a metric
t i
th d
thread
(included angle is 60o) of 20 mm diameter and
2.5 mm pitch
it h using
i two
t
wire
i method
th d is
i
(a) 1.443
(b) 0.723
((c)) 2.886
(d) 2.086
W = D + 3d 11.5156
5156 p
y Best wire size
sec
2
2
For ISO metric thread, = 60
d = 0.5774 p
d=
D p = pitch
it h di
diameter
t or Eff
Effective
ti di
diameter
t
For-2015
(IES,
GATE
& PSUs)
p = pitch
of thread
, and
= thread
angle
142
Page 49 of 205
141
143
Rev.1
144
GATE 2013
GATE2013
( )
GATE 2011(PI)
A metric
t i thread
th d off pitch
it h 2 mm and
d thread
th d angle
l 60
6
inspected
p
for its p
pitch diameter using
g 33wire
method. The diameter of the best size wire in mm is
(a) 0.866
(b) 1.000
(c) 1.154
(d) 2.000
To measure the effective diameter of an external

metric thread (included angle is 60o) of 3.5
3 5 mm
pitch, a cylindrical standard of 30.5 mm diameter
aand
d ttwo
o wires
es o
of 2 mm d
diameter
a ete eac
each aaree used.
The micrometer readings over the standard and
over the wires are 16.532 mm and 15.398 mm,
respectively. The effective diameter (in mm) of the
thread is
(a) 33.366
(b) 30.397
(c) 29.366
(d) 26.397
145
S f
Surfaces
146
y Surfacegeometrycanbequantifiedafewdifferent
y No
is
N surface
f
i perfectly
f tl smooth,
th but
b t the
th better
b tt the
th
generally the surface finish is indicated.

indicated It is specified
either as arithmetic average value or the root mean
square value.
value
y Roughness width: is the distance parallel to the
nominal
i l part surface
f
within
i hi which
hi h the
h peaks
k and
d
valleys, which constitutes the predominant pattern of
the
h roughness.
h
y Roughness width cutoff: is the maximum width of
the surface that is included in the calculation of the
roughness height.
and the better is performs.

texture
can
be
difficult
to
analyse
quantitatively.
l
y Realsurfacesarerarelysoflat,orsmooth,butmost
y Two surfaces may be entirely different,

different yet still provide
y
commonlyacombinationofthetwo.
the same CLA (Ra) value.

148
147
y Roughness height: is the parameter with which
ways.
surface q
quality,
y, the longer
g a p
product g
generallyy lasts,,
y Surface
Measurement of Surfaces
MeasurementofSurfaces
149
150
y Waviness: refers to those surface irregularities that have
p
g than that of roughness
g
greater spacing
width.
ag
y Determined by the height of the waviness and its
width.
y The greater the width, the smoother is the surface and
thus is more desirable.
desirable
y Lay direction: is the direction of the predominant
surface
f
pattern
tt
produced
d d on the
th workpiece
k i
b the
by
th tool
t l
marks.
y Flaw:
l
are surface
f
irregularities
l
that
h are present which
h h are
random and therefore will not be considered.
151
Page 50 of 205
152
Rev.1
153
Lay
Di
Diagram
S b l
Symbol
LayContd..
D
i i
Description
Di
Diagram
S b l
Symbol
y Layy parallel
p
Parallel lay:
to
the Surface. Surface is
produced
p
byy
shaping,
p g,
planning etc.
y Layy
Multidirectional lay:
multidirectional. Surface is
produced byy g
p
grinding,
g,
lapping, super finishing.
Circular lay:
Approximately
circular
relative to the center.
center
Surface is produced by
facing.
facing
Radiallay:Approximately
radialrelativetothecenter
ofthenominalsurface. 155
Perpendicular lay: Lay

perpendicular
to
the
Surface Surface is produced
Surface.
by shaping and planning
Crossedlay:Layangularin
bothdirections.
Surface is produced by
knurling, honing.
154
RepresentationofSurfaceRoughness
i
f
f
h
157
IES 2012
IES2012
D
i i
Description
Roughness
Ra (m)
50
RoughnessGrade
Number
RoughnessSymbol
N12
255
12.5
N11
N10
63
6.3
N9
3.2
N8
1.6
N7
0.8
N6
0.4
N5
0.2
N4
0.1
N3
0.05
N
N2
0.025
N1
Which grade
broaching?
(a) N12 (b)
(c) N4 (d)
symbol represents surface rough of

N8
N1
158
159
l i
fS f
h
EvaluationofSurfaceRoughness
y Waviness width the distance between peaks or
What
Wh t is
i meantt by
b interchangeable
i t h
bl manufacture?
f t ?
160
156
IFS2011
[2marks]
IES 1992
IES
y Waviness height the distance from a peak to a valley
valleys
y Roughness
R
h
width
idth cutoff
t ff a value
l greater
t than
th the
th
maximum roughness width that is the largest
separation
ti
off surface
f
i
irregularities
l iti included
i l d d in
i the
th
measurements. Typical values are (0.003, 0.010,
0.030, 0.100, 0.300))
y Lay the direction the roughness pattern should
f ll
follow
y Stylus travel is perpendicular to the lay specified.
In connection with surface texture define

(a) waviness
(b) flaws,
fl
and
d
(c) lay.
List three defects found on surfaces.
1. Centre line average (CLA) or arithmetic mean
Laser light has unique advantages for inspection.

inspection
deviation denoted as Ra.
g
What are theyy ? Define the terms 'roughness
2. Root mean square

q
value ((Rg) : rms value
height', 'waviness width' and 'lay' in connection
3. Maximum peak to valley roughness (hmax)
with surface irregularities.
4. The average of the five highest peak and five deepst
[
[10marks]
k ]
Page 51 of 205
161
valleys in the sample.

5. The
Th average or leveling
l li depth
d h off the
h profile.
fil
Rev.1
162
i i
f
i
DeterminationofMeanLine
i i
f
i
DeterminationofMeanLine
y MSystem:
After
MS t
Aft
plotting
the
l tti
th characteristic
h
t i ti off any
surface a horizontal line is drawn by joining two points.
Thi line
This
li is
i shifts
hift up and
d down
d
i such
in
h a way that
th t 50%
%
area is above the line and 50% area is below the line
Arithmetical Average:
y ESystem:
(Envelop
System)
off 25 mm
ES t
(E
l
S t ) A sphere
h
diameter is rolled over the surface and the locus of its

centre
t is
i being
b i traced
t
d outt called
ll d envelope.
l
Thi envelope
This
l
is shifted in downward direction till the area above the
li is
line
i equall to
t the
th area below
b l
th line.
the
li
Thi is
This
i called
ll d
mean envelope and the system of datum is called E
system.
t
y Measured for a specified area and the figures are added
together and the total is then divided by the number of

measurements taken to obtain the mean or
arithmetical average (AA).
y It is also sometimes called the centre line average or
CLA value. This in equation form is given by
L
1
1
Ra = y ( x) dx
L0
N
163
RRMS =
1
N
165
IES 2006
IES
ISRO2011
The
in
are related
Th M and
d Esystem
E
t
i metrology
t l
l t d to
t
CLAvalueandRMSvaluesareusedformeasurement
measurement of:
of
2
i
164
y Theotherparameterthatisusedsometimesistheroot
meansquarevalueofthedeviationinplaceofthe
arithmeticaverage,Thisinexpressionformis
(a)Metalhardness
(a) Screw threads
(b)
Flatness
(c) Angularity
(d)
Surface finish
(b)Sharpnessoftooledge
(c)Surfacedimensions
(d)Surfaceroughness
Fig.Surfaceroughnessparameters
166
167
IES 2007
IES
IES 2008
IES
IES2010
What
Wh t is
i the
th dominant
d
i
t direction
di ti off the
th tool
t l marks
k or
What
is
off the
Wh t term
t
i used
d to
t designate
d i
t the
th direction
di ti
th
scratches in a surface texture having

g a directional
predominant
p
quality, called?
machining operation?
surface
pattern
p
produced
p
(a) Primary texture (b)
Secondary texture
(a) Roughness
(b)
Lay
(c) Lay
Flaw
(c) Waviness
(d)
Cut off
(d)
168
169
Page 52 of 205
by
y
170
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer

using the code given below the lists:
List I
List II
(Symbols for direction of lay)
(Surface texture)
(a)
(c)
A
4
4
B
2
1
C
1
2
D
3
3
(b)
(d)
A
B
3
2
3 Rev.1
1
C
1
2
D
4
4 171
IES 2008
2008
IES
ISRO2010
Surface
roughness
on a drawing
is represented
f
h
d
d by
b
IAS 2013Main
For a machined surface, show macro and micro
(a) Triangles
irregularities. What are their causes?
(b) C
Circles
c es
What are the various measures of surface finish?
(c) Squares
E l i any three
Explain
th
off them.
th
(d) Rectangles
172
Methods of measuring Surface Roughness

MethodsofmeasuringSurfaceRoughness
q
g
There are a number of useful techniques
for measuring
surface roughness:
173
Ob
ObservationMethods
ti M th d
St l E i
StylusEquipment
t
y Human
perception
H
ti is
i highly
hi hl relative.
l ti
y To give the human tester a reference for what they are
y Observation and touch the human finger is very
perceptive to surface
f
roughness
h
touching, commercial sets of standards are available.

y Comparison
y stylus based equipment very common
should
be
made
against
matched
identical processes.
y Interferometry
y uses light
g wave interference p
patterns
(discussed later)
174
y uses a stylus that tracks small changes in surface

height, and a skid that follows large changes in surface
height.
y The relative motion between the skid and the stylus is
measured with a magnetic circuit and induction coils.
coils
y One example of this is the Brown & Sharpe Surfcom
unit.
it
y One
O method
h d off note is
i the
h finger
fi
nail
il assessment off
roughness
oug ess aand
d touc
touch method.
et od.
175
176
177
P fil
Profilometer
t
y Measuring instrument used to measure a surface's
profile in order to quantify its roughness.

profile,
roughness
y Vertical resolution is usually
y in the nanometre level,,
though lateral resolution is usually poorer.
178
Page 53 of 205
179
Rev.1
180
GATE 1997
1997
GATE
C t t
Contactprofilometers
fil
t
y Adiamondstylusismovedverticallyincontactwitha
sampleandthenmovedlaterallyacrossthesamplefor
aspecifieddistanceandspecifiedcontactforce.
y Aprofilometer canmeasuresmallsurfacevariationsin
verticalstylusdisplacementasafunctionofposition.
verticalstylusdisplacementasafunctionofposition
y Theradiusofdiamondstylusrangesfrom20
nanometresto25m.
t t
181
AdvantagesofopticalProfilometers
d
f
i l
fil
y Because
the
nott touch
B
th noncontact
t t profilometer
fil
t does
d
t
h
the surface the scan speeds

p
are dictated byy the light
g
reflected from the surface and the speed of the
acquisition electronics.
y Opticall profilometers
fl
d not touch
do
h the
h surface
f
and
d
therefore cannot be damaged by surface wear or

careless operators.
N
NoncontactProfilometers
t t P fil
t
List I
List II
(A) Surface profilometer
1.
Calibration
(B) Light Section Microscope 2.
2 Form tester
(C) Microkater
3.
Film thickness
measurement
(D) Interferometer 4.
Centre line average
5
5.
Comparator
6.
Surface lay measurement
C d A B
Codes:A
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
1
2
3
(b) 4
3
5
1
(c) 4
2
1
3
(d) 3
1
2
4
y An optical profilometer is a noncontact method for
providing
idi
much
h off the
th same information
i f
ti
as a stylus
t l
based profilometer.
p
y There are many different techniques which are
currently being employed, such as laser triangulation

(
(triangulation
sensor),
) confocal microscopy and digital
holography.
holography
182
183
O ti l Fl t
OpticalFlats
g
y Op
Opticalgrade
clear fused q
quartz or g
glass structures
lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one or
both sides.
y Used with a monochromatic light to determine the
flatness of other optical surfaces by interference.
y When a flat surface of another optic is placed on the
optical flat, interference fringes are seen due to
interference in the tiny gap between the two surfaces.
y The spacing between the fringes is smaller where the
gap is changing more rapidly, indicating a departure
from flatness in one of the two surfaces, in a similar
way to
t the
th contour
t
li
lines
on a map.
184
185
186
y When the fringes are perfectly straight and same fringe
width for dark and bright band we conclude that the

surface is perfectly flat.
y For convex surface the fringes curve around the point of
contact.
y For concave surface the fringes curve away from the
point of contact.
contact
The distance of air gap between two successive fringes is given by =
n
Distance of air gap of interference fringe of n order is =
2
th
187
Page 54 of 205
188
Rev.1
189
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
2012 C
ti
l
IES
IAS 2012Main
2012 M i
IAS
Explainhowflatnessofasurfaceismeasuredwithanoptical
l i h fl
f f i
d i h i l
Write
about
optical
Two
fringe
patterns
W i in
i short
h
b
i l flat.
fl
T
f i
flat.
pp
for two completely
p
y different surfaces using
g
are supplied
[12marks]
optical flat, name the types of surfaces, and draw if

required
Fig. Fringe patterns for two completely different types

190
191
Optical flat as a comparator

Opticalflatasacomparator
h =
of surfaces.
GATE 2003
GATE
n l
2
Two slip gauges of 10 mm width measuring 1.000

1 000 mm
and 1.002 mm are kept side by side in contact with each
other lengthwise. An optical flat is kept resting on the
slip gauges as shown in the figure. Monochromatic light
of wavelength 0.0058928 mm is used in the inspection.
The total number of straight fringes that can be observed
on both slip gauges is
Where l = separation of edges

n = number of fringes / cm
h = The difference of height between gauges
= wevlength of monochomatic light
(a)2
(c)8
193
192
(b)6
(d)13
194
195
T l
Talysurf
f
Clinometer
y It is based upon measuring the generated noise due to
y An optical device for measuring elevation angles above
dry friction of a metallic blade which travels over the

surface under consideration.
y If the frictional force is made small enough to excite
the blade,
blade and not the entire system,
system then the noise
will be proportional to surface roughness, and
independent of the measured specimen size and
material.
y The
Th specimen
i
surface
f
roughness
h
was measured
d by
b a
widely used commercial instrument (Talysurf 10), and
th prototype
the
t t
t
transducer.
d
horizontal.
y Compass clinometers are fundamentally just magnetic
compasses held with their plane vertical so that a
plummet or its equivalent can point to the elevation of
the sight line.
y The
Th clinometer
li
t can read
d easily
il and
d accurately
t l angles
l off
elevation that would be very difficult to measure in any
other
th simple
i l and
d inexpensive
i
i way.
y A fairly common use of a clinometer is to measure the
height of trees.
196
MiscellaneousofMetrology
Page 55 of 205
BySKMondal
197
Rev.1
198
Autocollimator
Clinometer
l
y An optical instrument for noncontact measurement of
small
ll angles
l or small
ll angular
l tilts
il off a reflecting
fl i surface.
f
y Used to align components and measure deflections in
optical or mechanical systems.
y An autocollimator works by
yp
projecting
j
g an image
g onto a
target mirror, and measuring the deflection of the
g against
g
a scale,, either visuallyy or byy
returned image
means of an electronic detector.
y A visual autocollimator can measure angles as small as
0.5 arcsecond, while an electronic autocollimator can be
up to 100 times more accurate.
accurate
199
y Visual autocollimators are used for lining up laser rod
ends and checking the face parallelism of optical

windows and wedges.
y Electronic
El
i and
d digital
di i l autocollimators
lli
are used
d as
angle measurement standards, for monitoring angular

movement over long
l
periods
i d off time
i
and
d for
f checking
h ki
angular position repeatability in mechanical systems.
y Servo autocollimators are specialized compact forms
of electronic autocollimators that are used in high

speed servo feedback loops for stable platform
applications.
applications
200
201
GATE 1998
1998
GATE
Autocollimator
ll
( )
GATE 2009(PI)
Auto collimator is used to check

(a) Roughness
(b) Flatness
Fl t
(c) Angle
(d) Automobile balance.
An autocollimator is used to
(a) measure small angular displacements on flat
surface
( ) compare known and unknown dimensions
(b)
(c) measure the flatness error
(d) measure roundness error between centers
202
203
OpticalSquare
GATE 2014
p
q
y
y An Optical
square
consists of a small cylindrical
metal box,,
The flatness of a machine bed can be

measured using
(a) Vernier calipers
( ) Auto collimator
(b)
(c) Height gauge
(d) Tool maker

makerss microscope
204
205
about 5 cm in diameter and 12.5 cm deep, in which two

mirrors are placed at an angle of 45o to each other and at
right
i ht angles
l to
t the
th plane
l
off the
th instrument.
i t
t
One mirror(horizon glass) is half silvered and other(index
glass) is wholly silvered.
silvered
The optical square belongs to a reflecting instruments which
measure angles by reflection.
reflection Angle between the first
incident ray and the last reflected ray is 90o
Used to find out the foot of the p
perpendicular
p
from a g
given
point to a line.
Used to set out right
g angles
g at a g
given p
point on a line in the
field.
Page 56byoftwo
205prisms.
206
Two mirrors may be replaced
AnOpticalSquare
Rev.1
207
S O 20 0
ISRO2010
LaserScanningMicrometer
Optical square is
(a) Engineer's square having stock and blade set at 90o
(b) A constant
t t deviation
d i ti
prism
i
h i
having
th angle
the
l off
deviation between the incident ray and reflected ray,
equall to
t 90o
(c) A constant deviation prism having the angle of
deviation between the incident ray and reflected ray,
equal to 45o
(d) Used to produce interference fringes
y The LSM features a high scanning rate which allows
inspection of small workpiece even if they are fragile,

at a high temperature,
temperature in motion or vibrating.
vibrating
y Applications :
y Measurement of outer dia. And roundness of
cylinder,
y Measurement of thickness of film and sheets,
y Measurement of spacing if IC chips,
y Measurement of forms,
y Measurement
M
t off gap between
b t
rollers.
ll
208
IES 1998
IES
Match ListI with ListII and select the correct answer using the
codes
below
the
d given
i
b l
h lists:
li
ListI
ListII
((Measuring
g Device))
((Parameter Measured))
A. Diffraction grating
1.
Small angular deviations on long
flat surfaces
B
B.
Optical flat
2
2.
Online measurement of moving
parts
C. Auto collimators
3.
Measurement of gear pitch
D
D.
L
Laser
scan micrometer4.
i
t
S f
Surface
t t
texture
using
i interferometer
i t f
t
5.
Measurement of very small
displacements
Code: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 5
4
2
1
(b)
3
5
1
2
(c) 3
5
4
1
(d)
5
4
1
2
209
McLeodgauge
d
GATE2014
Which one of the following instruments is widely
used to check and calibrate geometric features of
machine tools during their assembly?
(a) Ultrasonic probe
(b) Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
(c) Laser interferometer
(d) Vernier calipers
211
principle of Boyle's law.

y Works on the principle,
principle "Compression
Compression of known
volume of low pressure gas to higher pressure and
g resulting
g volume & p
pressure,, one can
measuring
calculate initial pressure using Boyle's Law equation."
y Pressure of g
gases containing
g vapours
p
cannot normallyy
measured with a McLeod gauge, for the reason that
compression will cause condensation .
y A pressure from 0.01 micron to 50 mm Hg can be
measured. Generally McLeod gauge is used for
calibration purpose.
y Acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer,

Transformer
surfacebytracingtheboundaryofthearea.
Page 57 of 205
213
LVDT
y Adeviceusedformeasuringtheareaofanyplane
214
y Used to measure vacuum by application of the
212
Planimeter
l
210
215
a common type of electromechanical transducer that

can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to
which it is coupled mechanically into a corresponding
electrical signal.
signal
y LVDT linear position sensors are readily available that
can measure movements
t as small
ll as a few
f millionths
illi th off
an inch up to several inches, but are also capable of
measuring
i positions
iti
up to
t 20 inches
i h (0.5
(
m).
)
y A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT)
is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring
Rev.1
216
angular displacement.
GATE 1992
GATE
LVDT
ToolMakersMicroscope
l
k
y
q
y
Match the instruments with the p
physical
quantities they
measure:
Instrument
Measurement
(A) Pilottube
(1)
R.P.M. of a shaft
g
(2)
Displacement
p
(B) McLeod Gauge
(C) Planimeter
(3)
Flow velocity
(4)
4
Vacuum
(D) LVDT
(5)
Surface finish
((6)) Area
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
((a)) 4
1
2
3
((b)) 3
4
6
2
(c) 4
2
1
3
(d) 3
1
2
4
217
218
Match the following

Feature to be inspected
Instrument
P Pitch and Angle errors of screw thread 1.
1 Auto Collimator
Q Flatness error of a surface plate 2. Optical Interferometer
R Alignment
Ali
error off a machine
hi slide
lid way 3. Dividing
Di idi Head
H d
and Dial Gauge
S Profile
P fil off a cam
4. Spirit
S i i Level
L l
5. Sine bar
6. Tool maker's Microscope
(a) P6 Q2 R4 S6
(b) P55 Q2 R1 S6
(c) P6 Q4 R1 S3
(d) P1 Q4 R4 S2
220
List I
(Measuring instruments)
(A) Talysurf
T l
f
1.
(B) Telescopic gauge
2.
(C) Transfer callipers
3.
(D) Autocollimator
4.
Codes:A B
C
D
( ) 4
(a)
1
2
3
(b)
(c) 4
2
1
3
(d)
List II
(Application)
T l t
Tslots
Flatness
Internal diameter
Roughness
A
B
C
D
4
3
1
2
3
1
2
4
223
219
Telescopic Gauges
TelescopicGauges
GATE 2004
GATE
GATE 1995
GATE
An essential part of engineering inspection,

inspection
measurement and calibration in metrology labs.
Hence is used to the following:
y Examination of form tools, plate and template
gauges, punches
h and
d dies,
di
annular
l grooved
d and
d
threaded hobs etc.
y Measurement of glass graticules and other surface
marked parts.
y Elements of external thread forms of screw plug
gauges,
g
g taps,
p worms and similar components.
p
y Shallow bores and recesses.
y Used to measure a bore's size, by transferring the
internal
i
l dimension
di
i to a remote measuring
i tool.
l
y They are a direct equivalent of inside callipers and
require the operator to develop the correct feel to

obtain repeatable results.
221
Coordinate Measuring Machine

CoordinateMeasuringMachine
(
)
(CMM)
Advantages,
y Aninstrumentthatlocatespointcoordinatesonthree
dimensionalstructuresmainlyusedforqualitycontrol
applications.
y Thehighlysensitivemachinemeasurespartsdownto
Th hi hl
ii
hi
d

thefractionofaninch.
y Specifically,aCMMcontainsmanyhighlysensitiveair
bearingsonwhichthemeasuringarmfloats.
Page 58 of 205
222
224
y canautomateinspectionprocess
y lesspronetocarelesserrors
p
y allowsdirectfeedbackintocomputersystem
Disadvantages,
Disadvantages
y Costly
y fixturing
fi
i iscritical
i ii l
y requiresaverygoodtolerancemodel
Rev.1
225
GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE2008(PI)
GATE 2010
GATE
A taper hole is inspected using a CMM, with a probe
of 2 mm diameter. At a height, Z = 10 mm from the
bottom, 5 points are touched and a diameter of
circle (not compensated for probe size) is obtained
as 20 mm. Similarly, a 40 mm diameter is obtained
at a height Z = 40 mm. the smaller diameter (in mm)
of hole at Z = 0 is
(a) 13.334
(b) 15.334
(c) 15.442
(d) 15.542
226
GATE 2014
GATE2014
The diameter of a recessed ring was measured by using two
spherical balls of diameter d2 = 60 mm and d1 = 40 mm as
shown in the figure.
The distance
H2 = 35.55
mm
and
H1 = 20.55
mm.
The
diameter (D,
(D
in mm) of the
ring
g g
gauge
g is
.
H1
H2
d1 Diameter
H
A
An experimental setup is planned to determine the taper of

workpiece as shown in the figure. If the two precision rollers
have radii 8 mm and 5 mm and the total thickness of slip
gauges inserted
i
d between
b
the
h rollers
ll
i 15.54 mm, the
is
h taper
angle is
( ) 6 degree
(a)
d
(b) 10 degree
(c) 11 degree
(d) 12 degree
g
227
228
WorkbookCh13:Metrology
gy
ISRO2007
Q.No
Option
Q.No
Option
Which
Whi h off the
h following
f ll i errors are inevitable
i
i bl in
i the
h
10
measuring
g system
y
and it would be vain full
11
exercise to avoid them
12
13
(a) Systematic errors
14
(b) Random
R d
errors
15
(c) Calibration errors
16
(d) Environmental errors
17
Recessed Ring
D
d2 Diameter
229
232
230
Page 59 of 205
231
Rev.1
Terminology
Four Important forming techniques are:

FourImportantformingtechniquesare:
y Rolling: The process of plastically deforming metal by
passing
rolls.
i it
i between
b
ll
y
y
y Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two
MetalForming
opposing dies so that the die shapes are imparted to the

work.
work
y Extrusion: The work material is forced to flow

through a die opening taking its shape
y
y
Semifinished product
Ingot: is the first solid form of steel.
Bloom: is the product of first breakdown of ingot has square
cross section 6 x 6 in.
in or larger
Billet: is hot rolled from a bloom and is square, 1.5 in. on a
side or larger.
larger
Slab: is the hot rolled ingot or bloom rectangular cross
section 10 in.
in or more wide and 1.5
1 5 in.
in or more thick.
thick
y Drawing:
D
i
The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
pulling it through a die opening (bar drawing) or a series

of die openings (wire drawing)
2
i l
Terminology
PlasticDeformation
y Plate
Pl t is
i the
th product
d t with
ith thickness
thi k
> 5 mm
Billet
slab
y These
processes involve
amountt off plastic
Th
i
l large
l
l ti
deformation.
y Duetoslip,grainfragmentation,movementof
D t li i f
t ti
t f
y Sheet is the product with thickness < 5 mm and width >
Bloom
BulkDeformationProcesses
y Deformationbeyondelasticlimits.
Mill product
Ingot
y The crosssection of workpiece changes without
atomsandlatticedistortion.
g
volume change.
y The ratio crosssection area/volume is small.
600 mm
y For most operations, hot or warm working
y Strip is the product with a thickness < 5 mm and width
conditions are preferred although some operations

are carried out at room temperature.
< 600 mm
Sh
SheetFormingProcesses
F
i P
StrainHardeningg
section of
y In sheet metal working operations, the cross
crosssection
workpiece does not changethe material is only
subjected to shape changes.
y Sheet metalworking operations are performed on thin
(less than 5 mm) sheets,

sheets strips or coils of metal by means
of a set of tools called punch and die on machine tools
called stamping presses.
presses
y They are always performed as cold working operations.
GATE1995
y When metal is formed in cold state, there is no
A test specimen is stressed slightly beyond the
recrystalization of grains and thus recovery from
y The ratio crosssection area/volume is very high.
yield point and then unloaded. Its yield strength
grain
i distortion
di t ti
or fragmentation
f
t ti
d
does
nott take
t k
(a) Decreases
p
place.
( ) Increases
(b)
y As grain deformation proceeds, greater resistance
(c) Remains same
to this action results in increased hardness and
(d) Become equal to UTS
strength i.e.
i e strain hardening.
hardening
Page 60 of 205
Rev.1
IES2013
Statement (I): At higher strain rate and lower
temperature structural steel tends to become brittle.
Statement (II): At higher strain rate and lower
temperature the yield strength of structural steel tends
to increase.
increase
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
true and
d Statement
S
(II) is
i the
h correct explanation
l
i
off
Statement (I)
true but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of
Statement (I)
((c)) Statement ((I)) is true but Statement ((II)) is false
Recrystallisation Temperature(Rxtemp.)
The minimum temperature at which the completed
y The
recrystallisation of a cold worked metal occurs within a
specified period of approximately one hour
hour..
y Rx temp. decreases strength and increases ductility.
whereas working
g below are coldworking
gp
process.
y It involves replacement of coldworked structure by a
new set of strainfree,

strainfree approximately equiaxed grains to
replace all the deformed crystals.
Contd.
y Rx temp. varies between 1/3 to melting paint.

y For Pure metal Rx temp. = 0.3 x Melting temp.
y For Alloy Rx temp. = 0.5 x Melting temp. (Kelvin).
y Rx temp. off lead
l d and
d Tin is below
b l room temp.
y Rx temp.
p of Cadmium and Zinc is room temp.
p
y Rx temp. of Iron is 450oC and for steels around 1000C
y Finer is the initial grain size; lower will be the Rx temp
11
G i
th
Graingrowth
M ll bilit
Malleability
y Graingrowthfollowscompletecrystallizationifthematerials
y Malleability
M ll bilit is
i the
th property
t off a material
t i l whereby
h b it can
leftatelevatedtemperatures.
12
be shaped
p when cold byy hammering
g or rolling.
g
y Graingrowthdoesnotneedtobeprecededbyrecoveryand
hd
d b
d db
d
y A malleable material is capable of undergoing plastic
y Incontrarytorecoveryandrecrystallization,drivingforce
forthisprocessisreductioningrainboundaryenergy.
has already received. The higher the cold work, the lower
would be the Rx temp.
temp
(
(Kelvin).
)
y If working above Rx temp., hotworking process
10
recrystallization;itmayoccurinallpolycrystallinematerials.
y Rx temp.
temp depends on the amount of cold work a material
deformation without fracture.
ColdWorking
y A malleable material should be plastic but it is not
y Inpracticalapplications,graingrowthisnotdesirable.
particlesareeffectiveinretardinggraingrowth.
Workingbelowrecrystalization temp.
temp
essential to be so strong.
strong
y Incorporationofimpurityatomsandinsolublesecondphase
y Lead,
ead, so
softt stee
steel,, wrought
oug t iron,
o , coppe
copper aand
d aaluminium
u
u aaree
y Graingrowthisverystronglydependentontemperature.
some materials in order of diminishing malleability.
13
Ad t
f C ld W ki
AdvantagesofColdWorking
14
15
Di d t
f C ld W ki
DisadvantagesofColdWorking
Equipmentofhigherforcesandpowerrequired
1. Better
tolerances
B tt accuracy, closer
l
t l
1.
1
2 Better surface finish

2.
2. Surfacesofstartingworkpiecemustbefreeofscaleand
dirt
3. Strain hardening
g increases strength
g and hardness
3. Ductilityandstrainhardeninglimittheamountofforming
l d
h d
l
h
ff
4. Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product
thatcanbedone
4. Insomeoperations,metalmustbeannealedtoallow
furtherdeformation
5. No heating of work required (less total energy)
5 Somemetalsaresimplynotductileenoughtobecold
5.
16
worked.
Page 61 of 205
17
Rev.1
18
HotWorking
W ki b
Workingaboverecrystalization
li i temp.
AdvantagesofHotWorking
DisadvantagesofHotWorking
1.
1 The porosity of the metal is largely eliminated.
eliminated
2. The grain structure of the metal is refined.
3. The impurities like slag are squeezed into fibers and
distributed throughout the metal.
4. The mechanical properties such as toughness,
percentage
p
g elongation,
g
percentage
p
g reduction in area, and
resistance to shock and vibration are improved due to
g
the refinement of grains.
1.
1 It requires expensive tools.
tools
2. It produces poor surface finish, due to the rapid
oxidation
id ti and
d scale
l formation
f
ti on the
th metal
t l surface.
f
3. Due to the poor surface finish, close tolerance
cannot be maintained.
19
Micro Structural Changes in a Hot

MicroStructuralChangesinaHot
WorkingProcess(Rolling)
Working Process (Rolling)
20
Annealing
Annealing relieves the stresses from cold working three
g recovery,
y recrystallization
y
and g
grain g
growth.
stages:
During recovery, physical properties of the coldworked
g in
material are restored without anyy observable change
microstructure.
21
W
F
i
WarmForming
y Deformation
intermediate
D f
ti produced
d d att temperatures
t
t
i t
di t to
t
hot and cold forming

g is known as warm forming.
g
y Compared to cold forming, it reduces loads, increase
material ductility.
y Compared to hot forming, it produce less scaling and
decarburization better dimensional precision and

decarburization,
smoother surfaces.
22
I th
lF
i
IsothermalForming
interior, and the variations in strength can result in non
uniform deformation and cracking of the surface.
y For temp.sensitive
temp sensitive materials deformation is performed
under isothermal conditions.

y The dies or tooling must be heated to the workpiece
t
temperature,
t
sacrificing
ifi i die
di life
lif for
f product
d t quality.
lit
y Close tolerances,, low residual stresses and uniform metal
25
Assertion (A): Lead,

Lead Zinc and Tin are always hot
worked.
R
Reason
(R) : If they
th are worked
k d in
i cold
ld state
t t
they cannot retain their mechanical properties.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT
p
of A
the correct explanation
Page 62 of 205
24
G
2003
GATE2003
IES2011
y During hot forming,

forming cooler surfaces surround a hotter
flow.
23
26
Cold working of steel is defined as working

(a) At its recrystallisation temperature
(b) Above
Ab
it recrystallisation
its
t lli ti temperature
t
t
(c) Below its recrystallisation temperature
(d) At two thirds of the melting temperature of the
metal
Rev.1
27
ISRO 2010
ISRO2010
G
2002 S O 20 2
GATE2002,ISRO2012
S 2006
IES
Materials after cold working are subjected to
Hot rolling of mild steel is carried out

(a) At recrystallisation temperature
(b) Between
B t
100C
C to
t 150C
C
(c) Below recrystallisation temperature
(d) Above recrystallisation temperature
following process to relieve stresses

(a) Hot working
Which one of the following is the process to refine

the grains of metal after it has been distorted by
hammering or cold working?
(a) Annealing
(b) Softening
( ) Recrystallizing
(c)
R
t lli i
(d) Normalizing
N
li i
(b) Tempering
(c) Normalizing
(d) Annealing
28
S 2004
200
IES
29
S 2009
IES

In comparison to hot working, in cold working,
1. Higher
Hi h forces
f
are required
i d
2. No heating is required
3. Less ductility is required
4. Better surface finish is obtained
( ) 1, 2 and
(a)
d 3 (b) 1, 2 and
d4
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 2, 3 and 4
S 2008
IES
34

1. Metal forming decreases harmful effects of
impurities and improves mechanical strength.
strength
2. Metal working process is a plastic deformation
process.
3. Very intricate shapes can be produced by forging
process as compared to casting process.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
32
S 2004
200
IES
Cold forging results in improved quality due to

1 Better mechanical properties of the process.
1.
process
2. Unbroken grain flow.
3. Smoother finishes.
4. High
4
g p
pressure.
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 (b) 1,
1 2 and 4
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
S 2008
IES
Consider the following characteristics:

1. Porosity in the metal is largely eliminated.
2. Strength
St
th is
i decreased.
d
d
3. Close tolerances cannot be maintained.
Which of the above characteristics of hot working is/are
correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
31
30
S 2003
IES
Assertion (A): Cold working of metals results in

increase of strength and hardness
Reason (R): Cold working reduces the total number
of dislocations per unit volume of the material
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
Page 63 of 205
33
35
Cold working produces the following effects:

1. Stresses are set up in the metal
2. Grain
G i structure
t t
gets
t distorted
di t t d
3. Strength and hardness of the metal are decreased
4. Surface finish is reduced
(a) 1and 2
(b) 1, 2 and 3
( ) 3 and
(c)
d4
(d) 1 and
d4
Rev.1
36
S 2000
IES
Assertion (A): To obtain large deformations by cold
working intermediate annealing is not required.
Reason (R): Cold working is performed below the
recrystallisation temperature of the work material.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
In the metal forming process, the stresses

encountered
t d are
(a) Greater than yield strength but less than
ultimate
l
strength
h
(b) Less than yield strength of the material
(c) Greater than the ultimate strength of the
material
(d) Less than the elastic limit
37
S 1996
996
IES
S 1997
99
IES
ISRO2009
38
S 2006
IES
40
S 1996
996
IAS
S 2004
200
IAS
Assertion(A):Hotworkingdoesnotproducestrain
hardening.
Reason(R):Hotworkingisdoneabovethere
Reason(R):Hotworkingisdoneabovethere
crystallizationtemperature.
(a)
43
Specify the sequence correctly

(a) Grain growth, recrystallisation, stress relief
(b) Stress
St
relief,
li f grain
i growth,
th recrystallisation
t lli ti
(c) Stress relief, recrystallisation, grain growth
(d) Grain growth, stress relief, recrystallisation
41
For mild steel, the hot forging temperature range is

(a) 4000C to 6000C
(b) 7000C to
t 9000C
0
(c) 1000 C to 12000C
(d) 13000Cto 15000C
39
S 1992
992
IES
Assertion (A): In case of hot working of metals, the

temperature at which the process is finally stopped
should not be above the recrystallisation
y
temperature.
p
Reason (R): If the process is stopped above the
recrystallisation
y
temperature,
p
, g
grain g
growth will take
place again and spoil the attained structure.
explanation of A
Whenametaloralloyiscoldworked
1. Itisworkedbelowroomtemperature.
Iti
k db l
t
t
2. Itisworkedbelowrecrystallisation temperature.
3. Itshardnessandstrengthincrease.
4. Itshardnessincreasesbutstrengthdoesnot
increase.
Ofthesecorrectstatementsare
(a) 1and4
(b) 1and3
(c) 2and3
(d) 2and4
Inmetalssubjectedtocoldworking,strain
hardeningeffectisdueto
(a) Slipmechanism
(b) Twiningmechanism
(c) Dislocationmechanism
((d)) Fracturemechanism
Page 64 of 205
42
S 2002
IAS2002
44
Assertion (A): There is good grain refinement in hot

working.
Reason (R): In hot working physical properties are
generally improved.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
Rev.1
45
S 2008
IES2008
Rolling
y Definition:
The
D fi iti
Th process off plastically
l ti ll deforming
d f
i metal
t l
Which
Whi h one off the
th following
f ll i is
i correct?
t?
Malleability is the property by which a metal or
alloy can be plastically deformed by applying
(a) Tensile stress
(b)
Bending stress
(c) Shear stress
(d)
Compressive stress
byy p
passing
g it between rolls.
Rolling
y Most widely used, high production and close tolerance.

y Friction between the rolls and the metal surface
produces high compressive stress.

y Hotworking
H
ki (unless
( l
mentioned
i
d cold
ld rolling.)
lli )
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
46
y Metal will undergo biaxial compression.

compression
47
48
50
51
GATE 2013
GATE2013
In
process, the
off the
I a rolling
lli
th state
t t off stress
t
th
material undergoing
g
g deformation is
(a) pure compression
(b) pure shear
(c) compression and shear
(d) tension and shear
49
ChangeingrainsstructureinHot rolling
ChangeingrainsstructureinHotrolling
HotRolling
y Done above the recrystallization temp.
temp
y Results fine g
grained structure.
y Surface quality and final dimensions are less accurate.
y Breakdown of ingots into blooms and billets is done by
h
hotrolling.
lli
Thi is
This
i followed
f ll
d by
b further
f h hotrolling
h
lli
i
into
plate,, sheet,, rod,, bar,, p
p
pipe,
p , rail.
y Hot rolling is terminated when the temp. falls to about
(50 to 100C) above the recrystallization temp.

52
Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in

metals for improved strength and ductility.
ductility
Page 65 of 205
53
S 2001
200
IAS
Consider the following characteristics of rolling
process:
1 Shows work hardening effect
1.
2. Surface finish is not good
3. Heavy reduction in areas can be obtained
Which of these characteristics are associated with hot
rolling?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Rev.1
54
ColdRolling
RingRolling
ISRO2006
y Done
below
D
b l the
th recrystallization
t lli ti temp..
t
y Products are sheet,
sheet strip,
strip foil etc.
etc with good surface
finish and increased mechanical strength with close
produce strongest components?
product dimensions.
(a) Hot rolling
y Performed on fourhigh or clustertype rolling mills.
(Due to high force and power)
y Ring
ring
Ri rolls
ll are used
d for
f tube
t b rolling,
lli
i rolling.
lli
Which of the following processes would
y As the rolls squeeze and rotate,

rotate the wall thickness is
reduced and the diameter of the ring increases.

y Shaped rolls can be used to produce a wide variety of
( ) Extrusion
(b)
crosssection profiles.
(c) Cold rolling
y Ring
Ri rolls
ll are made
d off spheroidized
h idi d graphite
hi bainitic
b i i i and
d
pearlitic
pea
t c matrix
at o
or aalloy
oy cast stee
steel base.
(d) Forging
55
56
Sheetrolling
ISRO2009
y In
we are only
to
the
I sheet
h t rolling
lli
l attempting
tt
ti
t reduce
d
th
Ring rolling is used

(a) To decrease the thickness and increase
diameter
(b) To increase the thickness of a ring
(c) For producing a seamless tube
(d) For producing large cylinder
58
57
cross section thickness of a material.
59
RollForming
60
RollBending
y A continuous form of threepoint bending is roll
b di
bending,
where
h
plates,
l t sheets,
h t and
d rolled
ll d shapes
h
can
be bent to a desired curvature on forming
g rolls.
y Upper roll being adjustable to control the degree of
curvature.
61
Page 66 of 205
62
Rev.1
63
S 2006
IES
Packrolling
Shaperolling
y Pack
involves
hot
multiple
P k rolling
lli
i
l
h t rolling
lli
lti l sheets
h t off
Which
bending
Whi h one off the
th following
f ll i is
i a continuous
ti
b di
process in which opposing
p
pp
g rolls are used to p
produce
material at once,, such as aluminium foil.
long sections of formed shapes from coil or strip
y Improved productivity
stock?
y Aluminum sheets (aluminum foil)

y Matte,
Matte satin side foil
foiltofoil
to foil contact
y Shiny, bright side foiltoroll contact due to high contact
stresses with polished rolls
( ) Stretch
(a)
h forming
f
(b)
Roll
ll forming
f
(c) Roll bending
(d)
Spinning
y A thin surface oxide film prevents their welding

64
65
Threadrolling
66
Threadrollingcontd.
y Used
threads
U d to
t produce
d
th d in
i substantial
b t ti l quantities.
titi
y Major
greater
M j diameter
di
t is
i always
l
t than
th the
th diameter
di
t off the
th
y This is a cold
coldforming
forming process in which the threads are
formed by rolling a thread blank between hardened dies

that cause the metal to flow radially into the desired
shape.
h
blank.
y Blank diameter is little larger (0.002 inch) than the pitch
diameter of the thread.

y Restricted to ductile materials.
y No metal is removed,
removed greater strength,
strength smoother,
smoother harder,
harder
and more wearresistant surface than cut threads.

67
68
S 1992,GATE1992(PI)
992 G
992( )
IES
70
69
S 1993,GATE1989(PI)
993 G
989( )
IES
Threadrollingisrestrictedto
Th d lli i t i t dt
The
Th blank
bl k diameter
di
t used
d in
i thread
th d rolling
lli will
ill be
b
(a) Ferrousmaterials
(a) Equal to minor diameter of the thread
(b) Ductilematerials
(b) Equal
q
to p
pitch diameter of the thread
(c) Hardmaterials
(c) A little large than the minor diameter of the thread
(d) Noneoftheabove
(d) A little larger than the pitch diameter of the thread
Page 67 of 205
71
Rev.1
72
S 2013Conventional
20 3 C
i
l
IES
Manufactureofgearsbyrolling
Writetwoadvantagesofthreadrollingandexplain
W it t d
t
fth d lli d
l i
y The
external
Th straight
t i ht and
d helical
h li l teeth
t th off disc
di or rod
d type
t
t
l
withfiguretwodiecylindricalmachine.
g
y
steel g
gears of small to medium diameter and module are
[5Marks]
generated by cold rolling.

y High accuracy and surface integrity.
y Employed for high productivity and high quality. (costly
machine)
y Larger
a ge ssizee gea
gearss aaree formed
o ed by hot
ot rolling
o g aand
d tthen
e
73
R ll i i
Rollpiercing
finished by machining.
74
Fig.Gearrollingbetweenthreegearrolltools
75
i a variation
i ti off rolling
lli called
ll d roll
ll piercing.
i i
y It is
y The billet or round stock is rolled between two rolls,
both
rotating
direction
b h off them
h
i iin the
h same di
i with
i h their
h i
axes at an angle of 4.5 to 6.5 degree.
y These
Th
rolls
ll have
h
a centrall cylindrical
li d i l portion
i with
i h the
h
sides tapering slightly. There are two small side rolls,
which help in guiding the metal.
metal
y Because of the angle at which the roll meets the metal,
it gets
t in
i addition
dditi
t a rotary
to
t
motion,
ti
an additional
dditi
l
axial advance, which brings the metal into the rolls.
y This
Thi crossrolling
lli action
ti makes
k the
th metal
t l friable
f i bl att the
th
centre which is then easily pierced and given a
cylindrical shape by the centralpiercing
central piercing mandrel.
mandrel
76
77
S 2007
200
IAS
g
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using
the code given below the Lists:
List I
List II
(
(Type
of Rolling Mill))
(
(Characteristic)
)
A. Two high nonreversing mills 1. Middle roll rotates by friction
B
B.
Th
Three
hi h mills
high
ill
2. By
B small
ll working
ki
roll,
ll power
for rolling is reduced
C Four high mills
C.
3 Rolls of equal size are
3.
rotated only in one direction
D. Cluster mills
4. Diameter of working
g roll is
very small
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 3
(a)
4
2
1
(b)
2
1
3
4
(c) 2
4 For-2015
3
1
(d) &3 PSUs)
1
2
4 79
(IES,
GATE
S 2003
IAS
78
S 2000
IAS
In
off rolls
mill,
I one setting
tti
ll in
i a 3high
hi h rolling
lli
ill one
Rollingverythinstripsofmildsteelrequires
R lli
thi t i f ild t l
i
g
gets
(a) Largediameterrolls
(a) One reduction in thickness
(b) Smalldiameterrolls
(b) Two reductions in thickness
(c) Highspeedrolling
(c) Three reductions in thickness
(d) Rollingwithoutalubricant
(d) Two or three reductions in thickness depending

upon the setting
Page 68 of 205
80
Rev.1
81
b
Camber
Planetarymill
g rolls surrounded byy a large
g
y Consist of a p
pair of heavyy backing
number of planetary rolls.
y Each planetary roll gives an almost constant reduction to the
slab as it sweeps out a circular path between the backing rolls

and the slab.
y As each p
pair of p
planetaryy rolls ceases to have contact with the
work piece, another pair of rolls makes contact and repeat
that reduction.
y The overall reduction is the summation of a series of small
reductions by each pair of rolls. Therefore, the planetary mill
can reduce a slab directlyy to strip in one pass through
g the
mill.
ll
y The operation requires feed rolls to introduce the slab into
the mill,
mill and a pair of planishing rolls on the exit to improve
the surface finish.
y Camber can be used to correct the roll deflection (at only
82
S 1993
993
IES
83
In
thickness
off the
I order
d to
t gett uniform
if
thi k
th plate
l t by
b
y Hot
metals
without
H t rolling
lli off ferrous
f
t l is
i done
d
ith t a lubricant.
l bi
t
rolling
gp
process,, one p
provides
y Hot rolling of non

nonferrous
ferrous metals a wide variety of
compounded oils, emulsions and fatty acids are used.

y Cold rolling lubricants are watersoluble oils, low
(b) Offset on the rolls

(c) Hardening of the rolls
viscosity lubricants, such as mineral oils, emulsions,
(d) Antifriction bearings
paraffin and fatty acids.

acids
85
84
S 2004
200
IAS
LubricationforRolling
(a) Camber on the rolls
one value of the roll force).
Assertion (A): Rolling requires high friction which

increases forces and power consumption.
Reason (R): To prevent damage to the surface of the
rolled products, lubricants should be used.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
86
87
DefectsinRolling
Defects
Whatis
Cause
Surface
Defects
Scale,
Scale
rust Inclusions and
rust,
impurities in the
scratches,
pits cracks
pits,
materials
Wavyy edges
g
Strip
p
is
thinner along
g than
its edges
at its centre.
Due
to
roll
bending edges
elongates
g
more
and buckle.
Ed breaks
Edge
b k
Nonuniform
N
if
deformation
Alli
Alligatoring
i
88
GeometryofRollingProcess
( )
GATE 2009(PI)
Anisotropy in rolled components is caused by
(a) changes in dimensions
(b) scale formation
(c) closure of defects
(d) grain
i orientation
i
i
Page 69 of 205
89
Rev.1
90
Draft
S 20 2
i
IAS2012Main
Angle of bite:
draft taken in rolling.

y Total reduction or draft
rolling
What
off (1)
Wh t is
i the
th significance
i ifi
( ) angle
l off nip,
i and
d (2)
( )
Angle
A l off nip:
i
h=h0 - hf =2(R- Rcos ) =D(1- cos )
angle
g of bite during
g rolling
g operation?
p
How are they
y
y Usually, the reduction in blooming mills is about 100
[10marks]
related to roll friction?
g mills, about 550 to 60 mm.

mm and in slabbing
91
G
200
GATE2007
92
93
G
998
GATE1998
GATE 2012SameQinGATE 2012(PI)
The
off a metallic
an
Th thickness
thi k
t lli sheet
h t is
i reduced
d
d from
f
In a single pass rolling process using 410 mm
A strip
150 mm x 4.5 mm is
t i with
ith a crosssection
ti
i
initial value of 16 mm to a final value of 10 mm in
diameter steel rollers,

rollers a strip of width 140 mm and
being
g rolled with 20% reduction of area using
g 45
450
one single pass rolling with a pair of cylindrical
thickness 8 mm undergoes 10% reduction of
mm diameter rolls. The angle subtended by the
rollers each of diameter of 400 mm. The bite angle
thickness. The angle of bite in radians is
deformation zone at the roll centre is (in radian)
i degree
in
d
will
ill be
b
(a) 0.006
(b) 0.031
( ) 0.01 (b)
(a)
0.02
(c) 0.062
0 062
(d) 0.600
0 600
(c) 0.03
0 03 (d)
0 06
0.06
(a) 5.936
5 936
(b)
7 936
7.936
(c) 8.936
(d)
9.936
94
95
Roll strip contact length

Rollstripcontactlength
G
200
GATE2004
ForUnaidedentry
y Rollstripcontactlength
In
process, sheet
is
I a rolling
lli
h t off 25 mm thickness
thi k
i
L=R
rolled to 20 mm thickness. Roll is of diameter 600

mm and it rotates at 100 rpm. The roll strip contact
[ mustbeinradian]
96
tan
length will be
97
( ) 5 mm
(a)
(b)
39 mm
(c) 78 mm
(d)
120 mm
Page 70 of 205
98
Rev.1
99
MaximumDraftPossible
GATE 2014
GATE2014
GATE2011
The
off
h maximum possible
bl draft
d f in cold
ld rolling
ll
( h )max
sheet increases with the
= R
(a) increase in coefficient of friction

(b) decrease in coefficient of friction
(c) decrease in roll radius
(d) increase in roll velocity
100
101
G
2006
GATE2006
A 4 mm thick
thi k sheet
h t is
i rolled
ll d with
ith 300 mm diameter
di
t
ho h f min = 2 R
rolls to reduce thickness without any

y change
g in its
width. The friction coefficient at the workroll
interface is 0.1. The minimum possible thickness of
th sheet
the
h t that
th t can be
b produced
d
d in
i a single
i l pass is
i
103
(a) 1.0
1 0 mm
(b)
1 5 mm
1.5
(c) 2.5 mm
(d)
3.7 mm
104
105
GATE 2011(PI)
GATE
2011 (PI)
Numberofpassneeded
hrequired
hmax
S 2001
200
IES
The thickness of a plate is reduced from 30 mm to 10
A strip
a thickness
off 30 mm to
t i is
i to
t be
b rolled
ll d from
f
thi k
t
mm by successive cold rolling passes using identical
155 mm using
g a twohigh
g mill having
g rolls of
rolls of diameter 600 mm. Assume that there is no
diameter 300 mm. The coefficient of friction for
change
h
i width.
in
id h If the
h coefficient
ffi i
off friction
f i i
unaided bite should nearly be
between the rolls and the work piece is 0.1, the

minimum number of passes required is
(a) 3
102
MinimumPossibleThickness (h f min )
S 1999
999
IES
Assertion (A): In a two high rolling mill there is a
limit to the possible reduction in thickness in one
pass.
Reason (R): The reduction possible in the second
pass is less than that in the first pass.
pass
l
ti off A
n=
In a rolling process, the maximum possible draft,

defined as the difference between the initial and
the final thickness of the metal sheet, mainly
depends on which pair of the following parameters?
P:Strain
Q:Strengthoftheworkmaterial
R:Rolldiameter
S:Rollvelocity
T:Coefficientoffrictionbetweenrollandwork
((a)Q,S
) Q,
((b)R,T
) ,
(c)S,T
(d)P,R
106
(b) 4
(c) 6
( ) 0.35
(a)
(b)
0.5
(c) 0.25
0 25
(d)
0 07
0.07
(d) 7
Page 71 of 205
107
Rev.1
108
NeutralPointandNeutralPlane
G
20 ( )
GATE2014(PI)
A 80 mm thick steel plate with 400 mm width is
rolled to 40 mm thickness in 4 passes with equal
reduction in each pass, by using rolls of 800 mm
diameter. Assuming the planestrain deformation,
what is the minimum coefficient of friction
required for unaided rolling to be possible?
(a) 0.111
0 111 (b) 0.158
0 158 (c) 0.223
0 223 (d) 0.316
0 316
The point where roll velocity equals

work velocity is known as the noslip V0 =inputvelocity
p
point or the neutral p
point.
Vf =finaloroutputvelocity
Backward slip =
Forward slip =
109
IES 2014
IES
In the process of metal rolling operation, along the arc

of contact in the roll gap there is a point called the
neutral point, because
(a) On one side of this point,
point the work material is in tension
and on the other side, the work material is in compression
(b) On one side of this point,
point the work material has velocity
greater than that of the roll and on the other side, it has
velocityy lesser than that of the roll
(c) On one side of this point, the work material has rough
surface finish and on the other side, the work material has
very fine finish
(d) At this point there is no increase in material width, but
on either side of neutral point, the material width increases
Vr Vo
100%
Vr
V f Vr
Vr
100%
R=rollradius
ho =backheight
b kh i h
hf =outputorfinal
thickness
hi k
=angleofbite
NN=neutralpointorno
slippoint
TotheleftoftheNeutralPoint:
Velocityofthestrip<Velocityoftheroll
y
p
y
TotherightoftheNeutralPoint:
110
Velocityofthestrip>Velocityoftheroll
While rolling a strip the peripheral velocity of

the roll is .A..than the entry velocity of the
strip and is B ..the exit velocity of the
strip.
strip
((a)) less than/greater
/g
less
(b) Greater than/less than
111
S 2002
IES
GATE2008(PI)
In
process, thickness
off a strip
I a rolling
lli
thi k
t i is
i reduced
d
d
In
a strip
two
rolls,
off
I rolling
lli
t i between
b t
t
ll the
th position
iti
from 4 mm to 3 mm using
g 3300 mm diameter rolls
the neutral p
point in the arc of contact does not
rotating at 100 rpm. The velocity of the strip in
depend on
(m/s) at the neutral point is
(a) Amount of reduction
(b)
Diameter of the rolls
(c) Coefficient of friction
(d)
Material of the rolls
( ) 1.57
(a)
(b) 3.14
( ) 47.10
(c)
(d) 94.20
112
113
114
Continuity Equation
ContinuityEquation
S l
dQ
i
SelectedQuestions
GATE2014
y Generally rolling increases the
The
Th effect
ff t off friction
f i ti on the
th rolling
lli mill
ill is
i
(a) always bad since it retards exit of reduced metal
(b) always
y g
good since it drags
g metal into the g
gap
p between
the rolls
A mild
has
ld steell plate
l
h to be
b rolled
ll d in one pass such
h
work width from an initial value

of bo to a final one of bf and this
i called
is
ll d spreading.
di
y The inlet and outlet volume
rates off material
i l flow
fl
must be
b
the same, that is,
that the final plate thickness is 2/3rd of the initial

thickness, with the entrance speed of 10 m/min
and roll diameter of 500 mm. If the plate widens
b 2%
by
% during
d
rolling,
ll
the
h exit velocity
l
( m/min))
(in
hobovo = hf bfvf
(c) advantageous before the neutral point
is
where
h
vo and
d vf are the
th entering
t i
and exiting velocities of the
work.
work
(d) disadvantageous after the neutral point

( )
GATE1990(PI)
115
Page 72 of 205
116
Rev.1
117
Force,TorqueandPower
El
i F
El
i C ffi i
ElongationFactororElongationCoefficient
A
L
E= 1 = o
Lo A1
for single
g pass
p
L
A
En = n = o
Lo An
for n pass
( )
GATE1992(PI)
Iff the
factor
during
rolling
off an
h elongation
l
f
d
ll
ingot is 1.22. The minimum number of passes
needed to produce a section 250 mm x 250 mm
from an ingot of 750 mm x 750 mm are
(a) 8
(b) 9
( ) 10
(c)
(d) 17
118
Will
be
discussed
in class
119
120
Projected length ( Lp ) = R sin = Rh , mm

Projected Area ( Ap ) = Lp b , mm 2
G
2008
GATE2008
RollSeparating Force ( F ) = o Lp b , N
[ o in N / mm 2 i.e. MPa ]
Arm length ( a in mm ) = 0.5 L p for hot rolling

= 0.45
0 45 Lp for
f cold
ld rolling
lli
a
, Nm
1000
Total power for two roller ( P ) = 2T , inW
Torque per roller (T ) = F
S 2000,GATE2010(PI)
2000 G
20 0( )
IES
In a single pass rolling operation, a 20 mm thick

plate with plate width of 100 mm, is reduced to 18
mm. The roller radius is 250 mm and rotational
speed is 10 rpm. The average flow stress for the plate
material is 300 MPa. The power required for the
rolling operation in kW is closest to
(a) 15.2
15 2
(b) 18.2
(c) 30.4
(d) 45.6
45
121
decreased by
y
(a) Reducing the roll diameter
(b) Increasing the roll diameter
(c) Providing backup rolls
(d) Increasing the friction between the rolls and the
metal
122
S 2007
200
IAS
123
AssumptionsinRolling

Roll forces in rolling can be reduced by
1. Reducing
R d i friction
f i ti
2. Using large diameter rolls to increase the contact
area.
33. Taking
g smaller reductions p
per p
pass to reduce the
contact area.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
( ) 1 and
(c)
d 3 only
l
(d) 1, 2 and
d3
In
process, roll
force
can be
I the
th rolling
lli
ll separating
ti
f
b
124
1.
1 Rolls are straight, rigid cylinders.
cylinders
2. Strip is wide compared with its thickness, so that no
widening of strip occurs (plane strain conditions).

conditions)
3. The arc of contact is circular with a radius greater than
[F IESC
[ForIESConventionalOnly]
i
lO l ]
Page 73 of 205
125
the radius
th
di off the
th roll.
ll
4. The material is rigid perfectly plastic (constant yield
strength).
55. The coefficient of friction is constant over the tool
work interface.
Rev.1
126
StressEquilibriumofanElementinRolling
S 2001
200
IES
g assumptions
p
Which of the following
are correct for
cold rolling?
1. The material is plastic.
p
2. The arc of contact is circular with a radius greater than
the radius of the roll.
3. Coefficient of friction is constant over the arc of
g
the arc of
contact and acts in one direction throughout
contact.
g the codes g
given below:
Codes:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3
127
Due to cold rolling, 0' increases as h decreases,
( p / )
II =
2R
( ) d
h f + R 2
2 R d
l ( p / ) =
ln
h f + R 2
2 R
h f + R 2 d = I II (say)
2d
h/R
h
= ln
R
R
.tan 1
hf
R
. + ln C
hf
R
.tan 1
hf
R
.
hf
Now att entry

N
t ,
=
Hence H = H0 with replaced by in above equation
At exit = 0
Therefor p = '0
R
.tan 1
.
hf
hf
h0
1
1
H0 ln
2
hf
132
If bac
back tension
te s o b iss tthere
e e at Entry,
t y,
p = ( o b )
ho
H 2H
= e ( 0 n)
hf
h
H H
. e ( 0 )
h0
If front tension f is there at Exit,

Exit
R
.
hf
h f Hn
hf
.tan
.
n =
R 2
R
and h n = h f + 2R
(1 74cos
Page
of
205
n)
From H = 2
129
h
p = C '0 e H
R
where
h
H =2
2
d
/ R + 2
or Hn =
133
h
ln p / '0 = ln 2
R
131
or
h
p = '0 .eH
hf
At the neutral po int above equations
d ( x h )
= 2 pR ( )
d
2
p x =
0 = 0'
3
d
h ( p 0' ) = 2 pR ( )
d ' p
0 h ' 1 = 2 pR ( )
d
0
d
d p p
0' h
( 0' h ) = 2 pRR ( )
' + ' 1
d 0 0
d
hn
h
H H
. e ( 0 n ) = n . e Hn
h0
hf
In the exit zone
second order terms,

terms sin and cos = 1,
1 we get
hf
+ 2
R
130
h
H H
. e ( 0 )
h0
will give
same results
2Rd
=
h
2R
d
2
f + R
= 2
h
In the entry zone, p = C. '0 o e Ho
R
R Ho
and C =
.e
e
ho
p = '0
d h
= 2 \
d R
Integrating both side

'
0
2Rd
=
2
f + R
or
h = h f + 2 R (1 cos ) h f + R 2
=
128
Now h / R =
d
( p / 0' ) 2R
d
=
( )
p / 0'
h
'
0
+ 2 x R d cos = 0
I=
th 0' h nearly
thus
l a constant
t t andd itsderivative
it d i ti zero.
d ( p / 0' )
Considering the thickness of the element perpendicular to

the
h plane
l
off paper to be
b unity,
i
W get equilibrium
We
ilib i
equation in -xdirection
as,
x h + ( x +d x ) (h + dh) - 2pR d sin
For sliding friction, x = p Simplifying and neglecting
p = ( o f )
R
.tan
tan 1
hf
134
h
. e H
hf
Rev.1
135
IAS 2012 M i
IAS2012Main
S 1998
998
IAS
IFS 2010
Whatis"frictionhill"?
Calculate the neutral plane to roll 250 mm wide

annealed copper strip from 2.5 mm to 2.0 mm
thi k
thickness
with
ith 350 mm diameter
di
t steel
t l rolls.
ll Take
T k
= 0.055 and o =180 MPa.
[10marks]
136
137
Workbook:Rolling Ch14
Q.No
Option
1
2
3
C
B
D
6
7
A
B
8
9
D
C
10
11
C
B
12
Forging
y Forging process is a metal working process by which
metals or alloys are plastically deformed to the desired

shapes by a compressive force applied with the help of a
pair of dies.
dies
y Because of the manipulative ability of the forging
process, it
i is
i possible
ibl to closely
l l controll the
h grain
i flow
fl
i
in
the specific direction, such that the best mechanical
properties
i
can be
b obtained
b i d based
b d on the
h specific
ifi
application.
Forging
BySKMondal
139
142
141
140
IES2013
ClosedDieforging
Match List I (products) with List II (processes)

and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists:
List I
List II
A M.S.
A.
M S angles
l and
d channels
h
l
1.
W ldi
Welding
B. Carburetors
2.
Forging
C. Roof trusses
3.
Casting
D. Gear wheels
4.
Rolling
Codes: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 1
(a)
2
3
4(b)
(b) 4
3
2
1
(c) 1
2
4
3(d) 4
3
1
2138
Statement (I): The dies used in the forging process are

p
made in pair.
Statement (II): The material is pressed between two
surfaces and the compression force applied, gives it a
shape.
Statement (I)
t
true
b t Statement
but
St t
t (II) is
i nott the
th correctt explanation
l
ti off
Statement (I)
( ) Statement (I)
(c)
( ) is true but
b Statement (II)
( ) is false
f l
Page
75
of
205
143
O
d Cl d di f i
OpenandCloseddieforging
y Depending upon complexity of the part forging is
carried out as open die forging and closed die forging.

y In open die forging, the metal is compressed by repeated
blows by a mechanical
manipulated manually.
hammer and
shape is
y In closed die forging,

forging the desired configuration is
obtained by squeezing the workpiece between two

shaped and closed dies.
dies
Rev.1
144
Ad t
fF i
AdvantagesofForging
Di d t
fF i
DisadvantagesofForging
S 1996
996
IES
y Discrete shape of product can be produced.

produced
y Costly
Which
is
off
Whi h one off the
th following
f ll i
i an advantage
d
t
y Mechanical properties and reliability of the materials
y Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
forging?
g g
increases due to improve in crystal structure.
y Forging operations are limited to simple shapes and has
y In forging favorable grain orientation of metal is
obtained that strengthen the component but forging

distorts the previously created uni
unidirectional
directional fibre.
fibre
limitations for parts having undercuts,

undercuts reentrant
surfaces, etc
(a) Good surface finish

(b) Low tooling cost
(c) Close tolerance
y Forging reduces the grain size of the metal, which
(d) Improved physical property.
increases strength and toughness.

y Fatigue and creep strength increases.
increases
145
146
IES 2005
IES
IES 2013
IES2013
IES 2012
IES
Intheforgingprocess:
1. Forging reduces the grain size of the metal, which
1.Themetalstructureisrefined
results in a decrease in strength and toughness.
2.Originalunidirectionalfibers aredistorted.
3.Poorreliability,asflawsarealwaysthereduetointense
2. Forged
d components can be
b provided
d d with
h thin
h
sections, without reducing the strength.
working
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
4 Partareshapedbyplasticdeformationofmaterial
4.Partareshapedbyplasticdeformationofmaterial
(a)1,2and3
(b)1,3and4
(c)1,2and4
(d)2,3and4
148
(a) Only 1
(b)
Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d)
Neither 1 nor 2
ISRO 2013
ISRO2013
149
F
bilit
Forgeability
Which of the following processes induce more

stress in the metal?
( ) Hot rolling
(a)
y The forgeability of a metal can be defined as its
capability to undergo deformation by forging without

cracking.
low force has good forgeability.
(c) Swaging
y Upsetting test and Hot

Hottwist
twist test are used to determine
forgeability.
(d) Turning
y Forgeability increases with temperature.

151
Page 76 of 205
Statement (I): It is difficult to maintain close

tolerance
in
l
i normall forging
f
i operation.
i
Statement (II): Forging is workable for simple
shapes
h
and
d has
h
li i i
limitation
f
for
parts having
h i
undercuts.
( ) Both
(a)
B h Statement
S
(I) and
d Statement
S
(II) are
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true 150
IES 2012
IES
y Metal which can be formed easily without cracking, with
(b) Forging
147
152
Which of the following statements is correct for

forging?
(a) Forgeability is property of forging tool,
tool by which
forging can be done easily.
(b) Forgeability
F
bilit decreases
d
with
ith temperature
t
t
upto
t lower
l
critical temperature.
(c) Certain mechanical properties of the material are
influenced by forging.
(d) Pure metals have good malleability, therefore, poor
g gp
properties.
p
forging
Rev.1
153
D ft
Draft
Fl h
Flash
S 2006
IES
y The draft provided on the sides for withdrawal of the
forging.
y Adequate draft should be providedat least 3o for
aluminum and 5 to 7o for steel.

y Internal surfaces require more draft than external
surfaces. During cooling,

surfaces
cooling forging tends to shrink towards
its centre and as a result, the external surfaces are likely
to be separated,
separated whereas the internal surfaces tend to
cling to the die more strongly.
Assertion (A): Forging dies are provided with taper

or draft angles on vertical surfaces.
Reason (R): It facilitates complete filling of die
cavity and favourable grain flow.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
154
Fl h
Flash
The excess metal added to the stock to ensure complete

filling of the die cavity in the finishing impression is
called Flash.
155
156
IES 2014
IES
Contd
y A flash acts as a cushion for impact blows from the

finishing impression and also helps to restrict the
outward flow of metal, thus helping in filling of thin ribs
and bosses in the upper die.
y The amount of flash depends on the forging size and
may vary from 10 to 50 per cent.

y The forging load can be decreased by increasing the
flash thickness.
thickness
S 2002
IAS
In hot die forging, thin layer of material all around

the forging is
(a) Gutter space,
space which fills up hot gases
(b) Flash, the width of it is an indicator of the pressure
d l
developed
d in
i the
th cavity
it
(c) Coining, which indicates the quality of the forging
(d) Cavity, which is filled with hot impurities in the
material
157
G tt
Gutter
158
G tt
Gutter
y In addition to the flash, provision should be made in the
die for additional space so that any excess metal can flow
and help in the complete closing of the die. This is called
gutter.
Considerthefollowingstatementsrelatedto
forging:
1 Flashisexcessmaterialaddedtostockwhichflows
1.
aroundpartingline.
2. Flashhelpsinfillingofthinribsandbossesinupper
Fl hh l i filli fthi ib db
i
die.
3. Amountofflashdependsuponforgingforce.
Whichoftheabovestatementsarecorrect?
(a) 1,2and3 (b) 1and2
(c) 1and3
(d) 2and3
159
S 1993,GATE1994(PI)
993 G
99 ( )
IES
Contd.
y Without
excessively
With t a gutter,
tt a flash
fl h may become
b
i l thick,
thi k
not allowing
g the dies to close completely.
p
y
Which
Whi h
one
off
the
th
following
f ll i
manufacturing
f t i
processes requires
p
q
the p
provision of gutters?
g
y Gutter depth and width should be sufficient to
accommodate the extra, material.
(a) Closed die forging

(b) Centrifugal casting
(c) Investment casting
(d) Impact extrusion
160
Page 77 of 205
161
Rev.1
162
Sequentialstepsinvolvedincloseddieforging
S 1997
99
IES
) In drop
p forging
g g besides the p
Assertion ((A):
provision
for flash, provision is also to be made in the forging
die for additional space called gutter.
Reason (R): The gutter helps to restrict the outward
flow of metal thereby helping to fill thin ribs and
bases in the upper die.
( )
GATE1989(PI)
Atthelasthammerstroketheexcessmaterialfrom
F ll i
Fulleringor
swaging
Edgingorrolling
R d i
ti d ki itl
Reducingcrosssectionandmakingitlonger.
Bending
Requiredforthosepartswhichhaveabent
shape
thefinishingcavityofaforgingdieispushed
into..
163
164
E
l
Example
Preformshape.Gathersthematerialas
Preformshape Gathersthematerialas
requiredinthefinalforging.
Drawingorcogging Likefulleringbutc/sofonlyoneend is
reduced
Flattening
Flattenthestocksothatitfitsproperlyinto
thefinishingimpression.
Blocking
g
Semifinishingimpression,Impartstothe
g p
, p
forgingitsgeneralbutnotexactorfinalshape.
Finishing
g
Finalimpression,FlashlandandGutter
p
,
provided tothedie.
Trimmingorcutoff Removalofflashpresent aroundforging 165
S 1998
998
IES
S 2001
200
IES
Which
processes is
Whi h one off the
th following
f ll i
i mostt
Intheforgingoperation,fulleringisdoneto
I th f
i
ti
f ll i i d
t
commonly
y used for the forging
g g of bolt heads of
(a) Drawoutthematerial
hexagonal shape?
(b) Bendthematerial
(a) Closed die drop forging
(c) Upsetthematerial
(b) Open die upset forging
(d) Extrudingthematerial
( ) Close
(c)
Cl
di press forging
die
f i
(d) Open die progressive forging
166
S 2003
IES
and in the p
process making
g it longer
g is termed as
(b)
Punching
(c) Upsetting (d)
Extruding
168
S 2005
200
IES
IES2011
A forging
f
i method
th d for
f reducing
d i the
th diameter
di
t off a bar
b
(a) Fullering
167
169
Which of the following processes belong to forging

operation ?
1. Fullering
F ll i
2. Swaging
3. Welding
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
( ) 1 and
(c)
d 3 only
l
(b) 1, 2 and 3 only
Page 78 of 205
170
The
the
or flash
a
Th process off removing
i
th burrs
b
fl h from
f
forged
g component
p
in drop
p forging
g g is called:
(a) Swaging
(b)
(c) Trimming (d)
Perforating
Fettling
Rev.1
171
S 2002
IES
S 2003
IES
Consider the following steps involved in hammer

forging a connecting rod from bar stock:
1 Blocking 2.
1.
2
Trimming
3. Finishing 4.
Fullering
5. Edging
Which of the following is the correct sequence of
operations?
(a) 1, 4, 3, 2 and 5
(b) 4, 5, 1, 3 and 2
(c) 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1
(d) 5, 1, 4, 2 and
d3
Consider the following steps in forging a connecting

rod from the bar stock:
1 Blocking 2.
1.
2
Trimming
3. Finishing 4.
Edging
Select the correct sequence of these operations using the
codes given below:
Codes:
(a) 11234
234
(b) 22341
341
(c) 3412
(d) 4132
172
IES 2012 C
ti
l
IES2012Conventional
S 2001
200
IAS
Match List I (Forging operations) with List II (Descriptions)
and
the
d select
l
h correct answer using the
h codes
d given below
b l
the Lists:
List I
List II
A. Flattening
1.
Thickness is reduced continuously at
different sections along length
B
B.
D
Drawing
i
2.
M l is
Metal
i displaced
di l d away from
f
centre,
reducing thickness in middle and
increasing length
C. Fullering
3.
Rod is pulled through a die
D. Wire drawing 4.
Pressure a workpiece between two flat
dies
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
((a)) 3
2
1
4
((b))
4
1
2
3
(c) 3
1
2
4
(d)
4
2
1
3
173
174
D
F i
DropForging
In forging define the terms

(i) Edging
(ii) Fullering
F ll i
and (iii) Flash
y The
forging
halves.
The
Th drop
d
f i die
di consists
i t off two
t
h l
Th lower
l
half of the die is fixed to the anvil of the machine,, while

the upper half is fixed to the ram. The heated stock is
kept in the lower die while the ram delivers four to five
bl
blows
on the
th metal,
t l in
i quick
i k succession
i so that
th t the
th metal
t l
spreads
p
and completely
p
y fills the die cavity.
y When the two
die halves close, the complete cavity is formed.
y Drop forging is used to produce small components.
175
S 1994,ISRO2010
99 S O 20 0
IES
178
y Metal is squeezed gradually by a hydraulic or mechanical
p
p
g closing
g of
press and component
is p
produced in a single
die, hence the dimensional accuracy is much better than
p forging.
g g
drop
Drop forging is used to produce

(a) Small components
(b) Large
L
components
t
(c) Identical Components in large numbers
(d) Mediumsize components
Page 79 of 205
177
PressForging
S 2000
IAS
In drop forging, forging is done by dropping

(a) The work piece at high velocity
(b) The
Th hammer
h
att high
hi h velocity.
l it
(c) The die with hammer at high velocity
(d) a weight on hammer to produce the requisite
p
impact.
176
179
Rev.1
180
IES 2011
IES2011
AdvantagesofPressForgingoverDropForging
y Press
forging
forging
P
f i is
i faster
f t than
th drop
d
f i
y Alignment of the two die halves can be more easily
maintained than with hammering.

y Structural quality of the product is superior to drop
forging.
y With
Wi h ejectors
j
i the
in
h top and
d bottom
b
di it
dies,
i is
i possible
ibl to
handle
a d e reduced
educed d
diee d
drafts.
a ts.
181
Consider the following statements :

1.
1 Any metal will require some time to undergo
complete plastic deformation particularly if
deforming metal has to fill cavities and corners of
small radii.
2. For
F larger
l
work
k piece
i
off metals
t l that
th t can retain
t i
toughness at forging temperature it is preferable to
u forge
use
f
press rather
th than
th forge
f
h
hammer.
(a) 1 and 2 are correct and 2 is the reason for 1
(b) 1 and 2 are correct and 1 is the reason for 2
((c)) 1 and 2 are correct but unrelated
(d) 1 only correct
IFS2011
What advantages does press forging have over drop
forging ? Why are pure metals more easily cold worked
th alloys
than
ll
?
[5 marks]
[5marks]
182
183
M hi F i
MachineForging
U tF i
UpsetForging
R ll F i
RollForging
y Unlike
or press forging
where
the
U lik the
th drop
d
f i
h
th material
t i l is
i
y Increasing
I
i the
th diameter
di
t off a material
t i l by
b compressing
i its
it
y When
the
Wh the
th rolls
ll are in
i the
th open position,
iti
th heated
h t d stock
t k
drawn out,, in machine forging,

g g, the material is onlyy upset
p
to get the desired shape.
length.
g
is advanced up
p to a stop.
p As the rolls rotate,, theyy g
grip
p and
y Employs split dies that contain multiple positions or
roll down the stock. The stock is transferred to a second

set of grooves. The rolls turn again and so on until the
cavities.
piece
i
i finished.
is
fi i h d
184
185
R ll F i
RollForging
Contd.
y A rapid process.
process
186
S ith F i
SmithForging
k
ll
SkewRolling
y Blacksmith uses this forging method
y Skew rolling produces
metal ball
y Quality of the product depends on the skill of the
operator.
y Round
stock is fed
continuouslyy to two
specially
designed
pp
g rolls.
opposing
y Not used in industry.

industry
y Metal is forged by each
187
off the
h grooves in
i the
h rolls
ll
and emerges from the
end
d as a metall ball.
b ll
Page 80 of 205
188
Rev.1
189
ForIESOnly
IES 2008
S 2005
200
IES
yp of Forging)
g g) with List II (Operation)
( p
)
Match List I ((Type
and select the correct answer using the code given
below the Lists:
List I
List II
A. Drop Forging 1. Metal is gripped in the dies and
pressure is
i applied
li d on the
h heated
h
d end
d
B. Press Forging 2. Squeezing action
C Upset
C.
U
F i
Forging
3. Metal
M l is
i placed
l d between
b
rollers
ll
and
d
pushed
D Roll Forging 4.
D.
4 Repeated hammer blows
blo s
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 4
(a)
1
2
3
(b) 3
2
1
4
(c) 4
2
1
3
(d) 3
1
2
4190
Match ListI with ListII and select the correct answer using
the code given below the lists:
ListI (Forging Technique)
ListII (Process)
A.SmithForging
1. Materialisonlyupsettogetthe
desiredshape
B.DropForging
p
g g
2.Carriedoutmanuallyopendies
y p
C.PressForging
3. Done in closed impression dies by
hammers in blows
D.MachineForging 4. Done in closed impression dies by
continuous squeezing force
Code: A
(a) 2
(c) 2
B
3
1
C
4
4
D
1
3
(b)
(d)
A
4
4
B
3
1
C
2
2
D
1
3 191
High Velocity Forming (HVF)

HighVelocityForming(HVF)
y The process deforms metals by using very high velocities,
provided
id d on the
h movements off rams and
d dies.
di
y As K.E
K E V2, high energy is delivered to the metal with
relatively small weights (ram and die).

y Cost and size of machine low.
y Ram strokes short (due to high acceleration)
y Productivity high, overall production cost low
y Used for Alloy steel, titanium, Al, Mg, to fabricate one
piece complex components of smaller size like valve,

valve
rocket component.
192
IES2013
S
(I) In
I high
hi h velocity
l i forming
f
i
hi h
Statement
(I):
process, high
energy can be transferred to metal with relatively small
weight.
i ht
Statement (II): The kinetic energy is the function of
mass and velocity.
((a)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are individuallyy
()
Statement (I)
Statement (I)
193
IFS2011
IAS2011Main
Writefouradvantagesofhighvelocityformingprocess.
[
[2marks]
k ]
Compare Smith forging, drop forging, press

forging and upset forging. Mention three points
for each.
[ Marks]
[10
M k ]
194
195
ForIESOnly
Flashless forging
y The work material is completely surrounded by the die
cavity during compression and no flash is formed.

formed
y Most important requirement in flashless forging is that
the work
ork volume
olume must equal the space in the die cavity
ca it to
a very close tolerance.
196
L b i ti f F i
LubricationforForging
S 2008
IES
The balls of the ball bearings are manufactured
from steel rods. The operations involved are:
1 Ground
1.
2. Hot forged on hammers
3. Heat treated
4. Polished
4
What is the correct sequence of the above
operations from start?
(a) 3241
(b) 3214
( ) 2314
(c)
(d) 2341
Page 81 of 205
197
y Lubricants
friction,
wear, deforming
forces
L bi
t influence:
i fl
f i ti
d f
i
f
and flow of material in diecavities,, nonsticking,

g,
thermal barrier.
y For hot forging: graphite, MoS2 and sometimes molten
glass.
l
y For cold forging: mineral oil and soaps.
soaps
y In hot
ot forging,
o g g, tthee lubricant
ub ca t iss app
applied
ed to tthee d
dies,
es, but in
cold forging, it is applied to the workpiece.

Rev.1
198
F i D f t
ForgingDefects
F i D f t
ForgingDefects
Contd.
y Scale Pits: Irregular depressions on the surface due to
y Unfilled
Die
U fill d Sections:
S ti
Di cavity
it is
i nott
improper cleaning of the stock.

y Die Shift: Due to Misalignment of the two die halves or
making the two halves of the forging to be of improper
shape.
shape
y Flakes: Internal ruptures caused by the improper
cooling.
li
y Improper Grain Flow: This is caused by the improper
design of the die, which makes the flow of metal not
flowing the final intended directions.
completely
p
y filled,, due to improper
p p
design of die
y Cold Shut or fold: A small crack at
the
h corners off the
h forging.
f
Cause:
improper design of the die
199
S 1998
998
IAS
The forging defect due to hindrance to smooth flow
of metal in the component called 'Lap' occurs
because
(a) The corner radius provided is too large
(b) The
Th corner radius
di provided
id d is
i too
t small
ll
(c) Draft is not provided
(d) The shrinkage allowance is inadequate
F i D f t
ForgingDefects
Contd.
y Forging
Laps:
These
are folds
F
i
L
Th
f ld off metal
t l squeezed
d
together
g
during
g forging.
g g Theyy have irregular
g
contours
and occur at right angles to the direction of metal flow.
y Hot tears and thermal cracking: These are surface
cracks
k occurring due
d to nonuniform
f
cooling
l
f
from
the
h
forging stage or during heat treatment.
treatment
200
IES2011
Assertion (A) : Hot tears occur during forging
because of inclusions in the blank material
Reason (R) : Bonding between the inclusions
and the parent material is through physical
g
and chemical bonding.
p
of A
correct explanation
p
of A
the correct explanation
202
201
( )
GATE2008(PI)
Matchthefollowing
Group1
P. Wrinkling
Q.Centreburst
R.Barrelling
g
S.Coldshut
Group2
1.Upsetting
2.Deepdrawing
33.Extrusion
4.Closeddieforging
(a)P 2,Q 3,R 4,S1

(c)P 2,Q
(c)P
2 Q 3,R
3 R 1,S4
1 S 4
(b)P 3,Q 4,R 1,S2

(d)P 2,Q
(d)P
2 Q 4,R
4 R 3,S1
3 S 1
203
204
IES2013
Barrelling
IES 2007
Sometimes the parting plane between two forging
dies is not a horizontal plane, give the main reason
for this design aspect, why is parting plane
provided in closed die forging?
provided,
[
[2marks]
]
205
Inhomogeneousdeformationwithbarreling oftheworkpiece
Page 82 of 205
206
Consider the following statements pertaining to the

opendie forging of a cylindrical specimen between
two flat dies:
1. Lubricated specimens show more surface movement
than
h unlubricated
l bi
d ones.
2. Lubricated specimens show less surface movement
than unlubricated ones.
33. Lubricated specimens
p
show more barrelling
g than un
lubricated ones.
4. Lubricated specimens shows less barrelling than un
un
lubricated ones.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 Rev.1(d) 2 and 4207
ForIESOnly
Di M t i l Sh ld h
DieMaterialsShouldhave
G
20 0 ( )
GATE2010(PI)
,
g
y
y Goodhardness,toughnessandductilityatlowand
Hot
solid
forging,
H t die
di steel,
t l used
d for
f large
l
lid dies
di in
i drop
d
f i
elevatedtemperatures
should necessarilyy have
y Adequatefatigueresistance
(a) high strength and high copper content
y Sufficienthardenability
y Lowthermalconductivity
(b) high hardness and low hardenability
y Amenabilitytoweldrepair
(c) high toughness and low thermal conductivity
y Goodmachinability
(d) high hardness and high thermal conductivity
Material:CrMoValloyedsteelandCrNiMoalloyed
steel.
208
209
210
ForIESOnly
IES2013
Statement (I): In power forging energy is provided by
compressed air or oil pressure or gravity.
Statement (II): The capacity of the hammer is given by
the total weight,
weight which the falling pans weigh.
weigh
t
true
and
d Statement
St t
t (II) is
i the
l
ti
off
Statement (I)
(b) Both
h Statement (I)
( ) and
d Statement (II)
( ) are individually
d d ll
Statement (I)
()
211
G
20
GATE2014
engineering
g
g strain ((E ) in a uniaxial tension test is
(a)E =ln(1+T )
(b)E =ln(1 T )
(c) T =ln(1+E )
(d)T =ln(1 E )
214
True stress ( T ) = (1 + )
L
True strain ( T ) = ln(1 + ) = ln
Lo
Ao
= ln
A
212
GATE1992,ISRO2012,VS2013
The
true
strain
Th relationship
l ti
hi between
b t
t
t i (
( T ) and
d
S
&
S i
TrueStress&TrueStrain
Thetruestrainforalowcarbonsteelbarwhichis
doubledinlengthbyforgingis
(a) 0.307
(b) 0.5
(c) 0.693
(d) 1.0
Page 83 of 205
215
do
= 2 ln d
213
G
200
GATE2007
In open
die forging, a disc of diameter 200 mm and
opendie
height 60 mm is compressed without any barreling
effect. The final diameter of the disc is 400 mm. The
true strain is
(a) 1.986
1 986
(b) 1.686
1 686
(c) 1.386
(d) 0.602
Rev.1
216
StrainHardening&FlowStress
y In the p
plastic region,
g , the material behaviour is expressed
p
by the flow curve:
= K
Where K is strength coefficient and n is strainhardening

(or workhardening) exponent and at UTS, = n
Strain rate effects

Strainrateeffects
A
AverageFlowStress
Fl
S
y Average
(mean)
stress
is
A
(
) flow
fl
t
i nott on the
th basis
b i off
instantaneous flow stress, but on an average value over

th stress
the
t
strain
t i curve from
f
th beginning
the
b i i off strain
t i to
t
the final (maximum) value that occurs during
d f
deformation.
ti
A erage flow
Average
flo stress ( o ) =
K nf
y Strainrateeffect(hotWorking)
o = C m
1 dh v
Platen Velocity
= =
h dt h Instantaneous height
1+ n
Here f is the maximum strain value during deformation.

217
218
219
ForIESOnly
GATE 2006
GATE2006
G
20 2 SameQGATE2012(PI)
GATE2012
g of a material is 400
4
The ultimate tensile strength
MPa and the elongation up to maximum load is
35%. If the material obeys
35
y p
power law of hardening,
g,
then the true stresstrue strain relation (stress in
plastic deformation range
g is:
MPa)) in the p
(a) = 540 0.30 (b) = 775 0.30
0 35 (d) = 775 0.35
0 35
( ) = 540 0.35
(c)
Asolidcylinderofdiameter100mmandheight50mm
A lid li d fdi
t
dh i ht
isforgedbetweentwofrictionlessflatdiestoaheightof
g
g
25mm.Thepercentagechangeindiameteris
(a)0
(b)2.07
(c)20.7
(d)41.4
220
221
ForIESOnly
Assumption
IESConventionalOnly
ForIESOnly
IES 2012
IES
y Forging force is maximum at the end of the forging.

y Coefficient of friction is constant between workpiece and
dies (platens).
(platens)
y Thickness of the workpiece is small compared with other
dimensions, and the variation of stress field along y

direction is negligible.
y Length is much more than width, problem is plain strain
type.
222
ForIESOnly
R t
l B F i
RectangularBarForging
Assumptions adopted in the analysis of open die forging

are
1 Forging force attains maximum value at the middle of
1.
the operation.
2. Coefficient
C ffi i t off friction
f i ti is
i constant
t t between
b t
work
k piece
i
and die
2. Stress in the vertical (Ydirection) is zero.
((a)) 1 and 2
((b)) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3
y The entire workpiece is in the plastic state during the
process.
223
Page 84 of 205
224
Rev.1
225
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
2007 C
ti
l
IES
S 2005Conventional
200 C
i
l
IES
A strip
24 mm x 24
t i off lead
l d with
ith initial
i iti l dimensions
di
i
mm x 150
5 mm is forged
g between two flat dies to a
final size of 6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm. If the
coefficient of friction is 0.25, determine the
maximum
i
f i force.
forging
f
Th average yield
The
i ld stress
t
off
lead in tension is 7 N/mm2
ForIESOnly
IES 2006
2006 Conventional
C
ti
l
IES
A cylinder of height 60 mm and diameter 100 mm is

forged at room temperature between two flat dies. Find
the die load at the end of compression to a height 30
mm, using slab method of analysis. The yield strength of
the work material is given as 120 N/mm2 and
the
coefficient of friction is 0.05. Assume that volume is
constant after deformation. There is no sticking. Also
find mean die pressure.
[20Marks]
A certain disc of lead of radius 150 mm and thickness 50

mm is reduced to a thickness of 25 mm by open die
forging. If the co
coefficient
efficient of friction between the job and
die is 0.25, determine the maximum forging force. The
average shear yield stress of lead can be taken as 4
N/mm2.
[10 Marks]
[10]
226
227
228
ForIESOnly
P ti P bl
1
PracticeProblem1
GATE2014(PI)
GATE1987
Inforgingoperationthestickingfrictioncondition
occursnearthe(Centre/ends)
p
g g, a circular disc is g
y
In an open
die forging,
gradually
compressed between two flat platens. The
exponential decay of normal stress on the flat face
of the disc, from the center of the disc towards its
periphery, indicates that
(a) there is no sticking friction anywhere on the flat face
of the disc
(b) sticking friction and sliding friction coexist on the
flat face of the disc
(c) the flat face of the disc is frictionless
(d) there is only sticking friction on the flat face of the
disc
229
y A strip of metal with initial dimensions 24 mm x 24 mm
x 150 mm is forged between two flat dies to a final size of

6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm. If the coefficient of friction is
0.05, determine the maximum forging force. Take the
average yield strength in tension is 7 N/mm2
[Ans. 178.24 kN]
230
ForIESOnly
231
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
P ti P bl
2
PracticeProblem2
P ti P bl
3
PracticeProblem3
P ti P bl
4
PracticeProblem4
y A circular disc of 200 mm in diameter and 100 mm in
y A cylindrical specimen 150 mm in diameter and 100 mm
y A circular disc of 200 mm in diameter and 70 mm in
height is compressed between two flat dies to a height of
in height is upsetted by open die forging to a height of 50
height is forged to 40 mm in height. Coefficient of
50 mm. Coefficient of friction is 0.1 and average yield
mm. Coefficient of friction is 0.2 and flow curve
friction is 0.05. The flow curve equation of the material
strength in compression is 230 MPa. Determine the

maximum die pressure.
pressure
f = 1030
MPa . Calculate the maximum
f = 200(0.01 + ) 0.41 MPa

MP
. Determine maximum
forging load, mean die pressure and maximum pressure.
[Ans. 46.26 MN]
[ Ans. 9.771 MN, 178 MPa, 221 MPa]
the equation
232
is given by
forging force.
[Hint. First calculate true strain and put the value in
[Ans. 405 MPa]

equation is
0.17
f = 1030
0.17
=y
Page 85 of 205
[Hint. First calculate true strain and put the value in

the equation
233
f = 200(0.01 + ) 0.41 = y
]
Rev.1
234
ForIESOnly
Practice Problem 5
{GATE2010
(PI)}
PracticeProblem
5{GATE
2010(PI)}
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
Contd.
IFS 2012
IFS2012
PracticeProblem5{GATE2010(PI)}
During open die forging process using two flat and parallel dies,
Discuss Tresca and Von Mises yield criterion for metal
a solid
lid circular
i l steel
t l disc
di off initial
i iti l radius
di (R IN ) 200 mm andd initial
i iti l
height (H IN ) 50 mm attains a height (H FN ) of 30 mm and radius of R FN .
iii.In the region 0 r R SS ,sticking condition prevails

The value of R SS (in mm), where sticking condition changes to sliding
Along the die-disc interfaces.
friction, is
(a) 241.76
R
IN
i. the coefficient of friction ( ) is: = 0.35 1 + e RFN
ii iin the
ii.
h region
i R ss r RFN ,sliding
lidi friction
f i i prevails,
il and
d
(b) 254.55
(c) 265.45
forming operations. Also derive tensile and shear yield

stress relationships for their approaches. Which of these
criterion is more realistic? Why ?
(d) 278.20
[ M k ]
[10Marks]
2
( RFN r )
H FN
p = 3Ke
K
and
d = p,
where p and are the normal and shear stresses, respectively;
K is the shear yield strength of steel and r is the radial distance
of any point
235
(contd ........)
Option
Q. No
Option
2
3
A
A
7
8
C
C
237
Extrusion&Drawing
WorkbookCh15:Forging
Q. No
236
E t i
Extrusion
q
g toothpaste
p
y The extrusion p
process is like squeezing
out of
a tube.
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
238
y Steels, stainless steels, and nickelbased alloys are

y Metal
through
M t l is
i compressed
d and
d forced
f
d to
t flow
fl
th
h a
difficult
diffi l to extrude.
d (high
(hi h yield
i ld strengths,
h welding
ldi with
ih
suitablyy shaped
p die to form a p
product with reduced but
wall).
a ). Use p
phosphatebased
osp ate based a
and
d molten
o te
glass
g
ass
constant cross section.
lubricants .
y Metal will undergo triaxial compression.

y Hot extrusion is commonly employed.
y Lead,
L d copper, aluminum,
l i
magnesium,
i
and
d alloys
ll
off these
h
metals
eta s aaree co
commonly
o y eextruded.
t uded.
241
240
239
Page 86 of 205
242
S 2007
200
IES
g is the correct
Which one of the following
statement?
((a)) Extrusion is used for the manufacture of seamless
tubes.
((b)) Extrusion is used for reducing
g the diameter of round
bars and tubes by rotating dies which open and close
rapidly on the work?
(c) Extrusion is used to improve fatigue resistance of the
metal by setting up compressive stresses on its surface
(d) Extrusion comprises pressing the metal inside a
chamber to force it out by high pressure through an
orifice which is shaped to provide the desired from of the
finished part.
Rev.1
243
E t i R ti
ExtrusionRatio
Ad t
fE t i
AdvantagesofExtrusion
IES 2012
IES
y Ratio
R ti off the
th crosssectional
ti
l area off the
th billet
bill t to
t the
th cross
y Any
An crosssectional
cross sectional shape can be extruded
e truded from the
nonferrous metals.
sectional area of the product.

p
y Many shapes (than rolling)
y about 40: 1 for hot extrusion of steel
y No draft
y 400: 1 for aluminium
y Huge
H
reduction
d i in
i cross section.
i
Extrusion process can effectively reduce the cost of

product through
(a) Material saving
(b) process time saving
(c) Saving in tooling cost
((d)) saving
g in administrative cost
y Conversion from one product to another requires only a
single die change

y Good dimensional precision.
244
S 2009
IES
Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) In extrusion process, thicker walls can be obtained
by increasing the forming pressure
(b) Extrusion is an ideal process for obtaining rods from
metal
t l having
h i poor density
d it
(c) As compared to roll forming, extruding speed is high
(d) Impact extrusion is quite similar to Hooker's process
g the flow of metal being
g in the same direction
including
245
Li it ti
fE t i
LimitationofExtrusion
A li ti
Application
y Cross
section
mustt be
for
C
ti
b uniform
if
f the
th entire
ti length
l
th off
y Working
off poorly
metals
W ki
l plastic
l ti and
d non ferrous
f
t l and
d
the product.
p
alloys.
y
y Manufacture
of
sections
and
of
complex
y Medium and small batch production.

y Manufacture
M
f
off parts off high
hi h dimensional
di
i
l accuracy.
248
249
G
99
GATE1994
Metal extrusion process is generally used for

producing
(a) Uniform solid sections
(b) Uniform hollow sections
(c) Uniform solid and hollow sections
((d)) Varying
y g solid and hollow sections.
Extrusion
The process of hot extrusion is used to produce

(a) Curtain rods made of aluminium
(b) Steel
St l pipes/or
i / domestic
d
ti water
t supply
l
(c) Stainless steel tubes used in furniture
(d) Large shape pipes used in city water mains
Hot
Direct
Cold
Indirect
Forward
Hydrostatic
pipes
configuration.
247
S 1994
99
IES
246
250
Page 87 of 205
251
Backward
C ld
Cold
Extrusion
Forging
g g
Rev.1
Impact
Extrusion
252
IAS 2012main
2012
i
IAS
S 1999
999
IES
Which one of the following is the correct
temperature range for hot extrusion of aluminium?
(a) 300340
300 340C
C (b) 350400
350 400C
C
(c) 430480C (d) 550650C
H tE t i P
HotExtrusionProcess
Classify
with
Cl if the
th process off extrusion
t i
ith the
th help
h l off
sketches.
y The
range for
is
Th temperature
t
t
f hot
h t extrusion
t i off aluminum
l i
i
43 4
430480C
y Used to produce curtain rods made of aluminum.
y Design of die is a problem.
y Either direct or indirect method used.
253
254
255
Di t E t i
DirectExtrusion
S 2009
IES
S 1993
993
IES
y A solid ram drives the entire billet to and through a
What is the major problem in hot extrusion?

(a) Design of punch
(b) Design of die
( ) Wear
(c)
W and
d tear
t
off die
di
(d) Wear
W off punch
h
stationary die and must provide additional power to

overcome the frictional resistance between the surface of the
moving billet and the confining chamber.
256
Assertion (A): Direct extrusion requires larger force

than indirect extrusion.
Reason (R): In indirect extrusion of cold steel,
steel zinc
phosphate coating is used.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
257
S 2000
IES
I di t E t i
IndirectExtrusion
g statements:
In forward extrusion process
1. The ram and the extruded p
product travel in the same
direction.
2. The ram and the extruded p
product travel in the opposite
pp
direction.
3. The speed of travel of the extruded product is same as that
off the
h ram.
4. The speed of travel of the extruded product is greater than
that of the ram.
ram
Which of these Statements are correct?
( ) 1 and
(a)
d3
(b) 2 and
d3
(c) 1 and 4 For-2015
(d) (IES,
2 andGATE
4
& PSUs)
259
y A hollow ram drives the die back through a stationary,
258
I di t E t i
IndirectExtrusion
Contd
confined billet.
y Required
is
(25
R
i d force
f
i lower
l
( to
t 30%
% less)
l )
y Low process waste.
waste
y Since no relative motion, friction between the billet and
th chamber
the
h b is
i eliminated.
li i t d
Page 88 of 205
260
Rev.1
261
IES 2012
IES
S 2007
200
IES
Which of the following are correct for an indirect hot

extrusion process?
1 Billet remains stationary
1.
2. There is no friction force between billet and container
walls.
ll
3. The force required on the punch is more in
comparison to direct extrusion.
4. Extrusion p
4
parts have to be p
provided a support.
pp
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) 1,
1 2 and 4 only
(d) 2,
2 3 and 4 only
S 2004
200
IAS
Assertion (A): Greater force on the plunger is required

in case of direct extrusion than indirect one.
Reason (R): In case of direct extrusion, the direction of
the force applied on the plunger and the direction of
the movement of the extruded metal are the same.
explanation
p
of A
correct explanation
p
of A
262
263
C ld E t i
ColdExtrusion
B k
d ld t i
Backwardcoldextrusion
y Used
U d with
ith lowstrength
l
t
th metals
t l such
h as lead,
l d tin,
ti zinc,
i
y The
the
Th metal
t l is
i extruded
t d d through
th
h the
th gap between
b t
th
and aluminum to p
produce collapsible
p
tubes for
264
I
tE t i
ImpactExtrusion
punch and die opposite

p
pp
to the p
punch movement.
toothpaste, medications, and other creams; small "cans"
y For softer materials such as aluminium and its alloys.
for shielding electronic components and larger cans for
y Used for making collapsible tubes, cans for liquids and
f d and
food
d beverages.
b
Assertion (A): Indirect extrusion operation can be

performed either by moving ram or by moving the
container.
Reason (R): Advantage in indirect extrusion is less
quantity of scrap compared to direct extrusion.
extrusion
l
ti off A
similar articles.
y Now
Nowadays
a days also been used for forming mild steel parts.
parts
y The
h extruded
d d parts are stripped
d by
b the
h use off a stripper
265
S 2008,GATE1989(PI)
2008 G
989( )
IES
manufacture of collapsible
p
toothpaste
p
tubes?
(b)
Direct extrusion
(c) Deep drawing
(d)
Piercing
268
The extrusion process (s) used for the production of

toothpaste tube is/are
1 Tube extrusion
1.
2. Forward extrusion
3. Impact extrusion
g the codes g
given below:
Codes:
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 3 only
Page 89 of 205
plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
267
IES 2014
IES
S 2003
IES
Which
Whi h one off the
th following
f ll i methods
th d is
i used
d for
f the
th
(a) Impact extrusion
266
269
A toothpaste tube can be produced by

(a) Solid forward extrusion
(b) Solid
S lid backward
b k
d extrusion
t i
(c) Hollow backward extrusion
(d) Hollow forward extrusion
Rev.1
270
H k M th d
HookerMethod
IAS2010Main
How
are
metal
toothpaste
tubes
H k M th d
HookerMethod
/p
y The ram/punch
has a shoulder and acts as a mandrel.
y A flat blank of specified diameter and thickness is placed in a
made
commercially ? Draw the tools configuration with

y
the help of a neat sketch.

[30Marks]
y
y
y
271
H d t ti E t i
HydrostaticExtrusion
272
H d t ti E t i
Contd.
y Temperature is limited since the fluid acts as a heat sink
y High
Highpressure
pressure fluid applies the force to the workpiece
through a die.
is forward extrusion, but the fluid pressure
surrounding the billet prevents upsetting.

y Billetchamber
Bill
h b
fi i
friction
i
is
eliminated,
li i
d
and
d
the
h
pressurized
p
essu ed fluid
u d acts as a lubricant
ub ca t bet
between
ee tthee b
billet
et
and the die.
274
275
S 2000
IAS
pp
Application
y Claddingofmetals
y Makingwiresforlessductilematerials
277
Page 90 of 205
and the common fluids (light hydrocarbons and oils)

burn or decomposes at moderately low temperatures.
y The metal deformation is performed in a high
compression environment.
environment
Crack formation is
suppressed, leading to a phenomenon known as
pressure induced ductility.
pressureinduced
ductility
y Relatively brittle materials like cast iron, stainless steel,
molybdenum,
l bd
t
tungsten
t
and
d various
i
i t
intermetallic
t lli
compounds can be plastically deformed without
f t
fracture,
and
d materials
t i l with
ith limited
li it d ductility
d tilit become
b
highly plastic.
276
S 2006
IES
Assertion (A): Brittle materials such as grey cast

iron cannot be extruded by hydrostatic extrusion.
Reason(R): In hydrostatic extrusion,
extrusion billet is
uniformly compressed from all sides by the liquid.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
y Extrusionofnuclearreactorfuelrod
273
H d t ti E t i
Contd.
y Another
off cold
A th type
t
ld extrusion
t i process.
y It
suitable die and is forced through the opening of the die with
the punch
when the punch starts downward movement. Pressure is
exerted
d by
b the
h shoulder
h ld off the
h punch,
h the
h metall being
b i forced
f
d
to flow through the restricted annular space between the
punch and the opening in the bottom of the die.
die
In place of a flat solid blank, a hollow slug can also be used.
If the tube sticks to the punch on its upward stroke,
stroke a
stripper will strip it from the punch.
Small copper tubes and cartridge cases are extruded by this
method.
278
What does hydrostatic pressure in extrusion process

improve?
(a) Ductility
(b) Compressive strength
(c) Brittleness
(d) Tensile strength
Rev.1
279
( )
GATE1990(PI)
Semi brittle materials can be extruded by
(a) Impact extrusion
(b) Closed cavity extrusion
(c) Hydrostatic extrusion
(d) Backward
B k
d extrusion
i
280
S 2001
200
IES
L b i ti f E t i
LubricationforExtrusion
g statements are the salient

features of hydrostatic extrusion?
1. It is suitable for soft and ductile material.
2. It is suitable for highstrength superalloys.
p
3.The billet is inserted into the extrusion chamber and pressure
is applied by a ram to extrude the billet through the die.
4. The billet is inserted into the extrusion chamber where it is
surrounded
d d by
b a suitable
i bl liquid.
li id The
Th billet
bill is
i extruded
d d
through the die by applying pressure to the liquid.
Select the correct answer
ans er using the codes given
gi en below:
belo
Codes:
( ) 1 and
(a)
d3
(b) 1 and
d4
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 2 and 4
281
y For hot extrusion glass is an excellent lubricant with
steels, stainless steels and high temperature metals and

alloys.
y For cold extrusion, lubrication is critical, especially with
steels because of the possibility of sticking (seizure)
steels,
between the workpiece and the tooling if the lubrication
breaks down.
down Most effective lubricant is a phosphate
conversion coating on the workpiece.
282
ForIESOnly
IES 2014
IES2009Conventional
ProcessvariablesinExtrusion
Explain
below.
E l i the
th processes off extrusion
t i given
i
b l
Indicate one typical product made through each of these
processes:
(i) Direct Extrusion
(ii) Indirect Extrusion
(iii) Hydrostatic Extrusion
1. Experimental studies of flow

2 Temperature and Metallurgy: Variations in temperature
2.
during extrusion seem to influence flow behaviour in
number of ways. As indicated, flow patterns may be
changed considerably by rendering the temperature
distribution in the container. It is known that the extrusion
pressure may be lowered if either the temperature of the
billet or the velocity of the stem is increased, and that there
are certain limitations,
limitations because the material starts melting
or cracking if it is leaves the die with too high temperature.
(i ) Impact
(iv)
I
t Extrusion
E t i
StatementI: For high extrusion pressure, the initial

p
g
of billet should be high.
temperature
StatementII: As the speed of hot extrusion is
y lead to melting
g of alloy
y
increased, it may
constituents
explanation
l
i off Statement
S
(I)
283
285
ForIESOnly
Extrusion Defects
ExtrusionDefects
y Surface crack due to high temperature, high speed,
high friction etc.

etc
y Bamboo defects at low temperature due to sticking of
metals
l in
i die
di land.
l d
y Pipe defects or tail pipe or fishtailing, during
extrusion surface oxides and impurities are driven
towards the centre of the billet, like funnel called pipe.
y Centre Burst or Chevron defect are attributed to a
y
tensile stress at the centreline in the
state of hydrostatic
deformation zone in the die. Tendency increases with
g die angle
g and amount of impurities.
p
Tendencyy
increasing
decrease with increasing extrusion ratio and friction.
286
IAS 2012main
2012
i
IAS
20 0
JWM2010
p
p
Assertion ((A)) : Extrusion speed
depends
on work
material.
Reason (R) : High extrusion speed causes cracks in
the material.
(b) Both
B h A and
i di id ll true but
b R is
i not the
h
((d)) A is false but R is true
Page 91 of 205
287
Enumeratetheconditionsunderwhichcentralburst
E
t th
diti
d hi h t lb t
mayoccur.Wheredoesa'pipe'occur?
y
pp
Rev.1
288
GATE2014
With respect to metal working, match Group A with Group B

GroupA
GroupB
P:Defectinextrusion
I:alligatoring
Q:Defectinrolling
II:scab
R:Productofskew
d
f k
f h l
III:fishtail
rolling
S:Productofrolling
IV:seamlesstube
throughclustermill
V:thinsheetwithtighttolerance
VI:semifinishedballsofballbearing
g
(a)
(c)
P
II
III
Q
III
I
R
VI
IV
S
V
VI
(b)
(d)
P
III
I
Q
I
II
R
VI
V
S
V
VI
289
Wi D
i
WireDrawing
Wi D
i
WireDrawing
Contd.
y A cold
process to
from
rods
ld working
ki
t obtain
bt i wires
i
f
d off
bigger
gg diameters through
g a die.
y Same process as bar drawing except that it involves
smallerdiameter material.
y At the start of wire drawing, the end of the rod or wire to
be drawn is pointed (by swaging etc.)

etc ) so that it freely
enters the die orifice and sticks out behind the die.
290
Wi D
i
WireDrawing
Contd.
291
S 2007
200
IES
y Wire
Wi getting
tti continuously
ti
l wound
d on the
th reel.
l
y For fine wire,
wire the material may be passed through a
number of dies, receiving successive reductions in
Which metal forming process

manufacture of long steel wire?
(a) Deep drawing
(b) Forging
(c) Drawing
(d) Extrusion
S 2009
IES
is
used
for
Which one of the following stress is involved in the

wire drawing process?
(a) Compressive
(b) Tensile
(c) Shear
(d) Hydrostatic stress
diameter, before being coiled.

y The wire is subjected to tension only. But when it is in
contact with dies then a combination of tensile,

tensile
compressive and shear stresses will be there in that
portion only.
292
293
S 2005
200
IES
Which of the following types of stresses is/are
involved in the wiredrawing operation?
(a) Tensile only
(b) Compressive only
(c) A combination of tensile and compressive stresses
((d)) A combination of tensile, compressive
p
and shear
stresses
CleaningandLubricationinwireDrawing
GATE1987
g
y
p
g
y Cleaningisdonetoremovescaleandrustbyacidpickling.
Forwiredrawingoperation,theworkmaterial
shouldessentiallybe
(a)Ductile
(b)Tough
( )
(c)Hard
( )
(d)Malleable
294
y Lubrication boxes precede the individual dies to help reduce
friction drag and prevent wear of the dies.

dies
y Sulling: The wire is coated with a thin coat of ferrous
hydroxide which when combined with lime acts as filler for

the lubricant.
lubricant
y Phosphating: A thin film of Mn, Fe or Zn phosphate is
applied on the wire.

y Electrolytic coating: For very thin wires,
wires electrolytic coating
295
Page 92 of 205
296
of copper is used to reduce friction.
Rev.1
297
IES 2010
IES2010
S 2000
IES
) Pickling
g and washing
g of rolled rods
Assertion ((A):
is carried out before wire drawing.
Reason (R): They lubricate the surface to reduce
friction while drawing wires.
(b) Both
B h A and
i di id ll true but
b R is
i NOT the
h
S 1995
99
IAS
Which one of the following lubricants is most

suitable for drawing mild steel wires?
(a) Sodium stearate
(b) Water
(c) Limewater
(d) Kerosene
298
The following operations are performed while

preparing the billets for extrusion process:
1 Alkaline cleaning
1.
2. Phosphate coating
3. Pickling
4. Lubricating
4
g with reactive soap.
p
The correct sequence of these operations is
(a) 3,
3 1,
1 4,
4 2
(b) 1,
1 3,
3 2,
2 4
(c) 1, 3. 4, 2
(d) 3, 1, 2, 4
299
300
ForIESOnly
IES 2014
S 1996
996
IES
In wire drawing process, the bright shining surface
on the wire is obtained if one
(a) does not use a lubricant
(b) uses solid powdery lubricant.
(c) uses thick paste lubricant
((d)) uses thin film lubricant
BundleDrawingg
In this process, many wires (as much as several
thousand) are drawn simultaneously as a bundle. To
preventt sticking,
ti ki
th wires
the
i
are separated
t d from
f
each
h
other byy a suitable material. The crosssection of the
wires is somewhat polygonal.
StatementI: In drawing process, crosssection of

round wire is reduced by pulling it through a die
StatementII: Bundle drawing produces wires that
are polygonal in crosssection rather than round
i di id ll true
individually
t
and
d Statement
St t
t (II) is
i the
th correctt
(b) Both
h Statement (I)
( ) and
d Statement (II)
( ) are
explanation
l
off Statement (I)
()
301
Wi D
i Di
WireDrawingDie
303
R d dT b D
i
RodandTubeDrawing
y Rod drawing is similar to wire drawing except for the fact
y Die
i materials:
i l tooll steels
l or tungsten carbides
bd
or
For-2015
(IES,
GATE
& PSUs)
polycrystalline
diamond
(for
fine wire)
304
that the dies are bigger because of the rod size being
larger than the wire.
y The tubes are also first pointed and then entered
through the die where the point is gripped in a similar
way as the bar drawing and pulled through in the form
desired along a straight line.
line
y When the final size is obtained, the tube may be
annealed
l d and
d straightened.
t i ht
d
y The practice of drawing tubes without the help of an
internal mandrel is called tube sinking.
Page 93 of 205
305
Back
Rev.1
306
R d dT b D
i
RodandTubeDrawing
Contd
S
i
k
di
Swagingorkneading
;
( ),
( )
IES1993;GATE1994(PI),2014(PI)
y The
its
Th hammering
h
i off a rod
d or tube
t b to
t reduce
d
it diameter
di
t
A moving mandrel is used in
TubeSinking
FixedPlugDrawing
where the die itself acts as the hammer.
(a) Wire drawing
(b) Tube drawing
(c) Metal Cutting
(d) Forging
y Repeated blows are delivered from various angles,
causing the metal to flow inward and assume the shape

off the
h die.
d
y It is cold working.
working The term swaging is also applied to
processes where material is forced into a confining die to

FloatingplugDrawing
MovingMandrel
307
308
S
i
k
di Contd
Swagingorkneading
S 1993
993
IES
310
311
S 1999
999
IES
p
Match List I (C
(Components
of a table fan)) with List II
(Manufacturing processes) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the Lists:
List I
List II
A. Base with stand
1.
Stamping
p g and
pressing
g
B. Blade
2.
Wire drawing
C. Armature coil wire
3.
Turning
D Armature shaft
D.
4
4.
Casting
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
3
2
1
(b) 2
1
4
3
(c) 2
3
4
1
(d) 4
1
2
3312
S 1996
996
IES
Match ListI with ListII and select the correct

ListI
ListII
A. Drawing
1.
Soap solution
B Rolling
B.
2
2.
Camber
C. Wire drawing
3.
Pilots
D Sheet metal operations using 4.
D.
4
Crater
progressive dies
5.
Ironing
C d A B
Code:A
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
5
1
4
(b) 4
1
5
3
(c) 5
2
3
4
(d) 5
2
1
3
313
S 1994
99
IES

List I (Metal/forming process) List II (Associated force)
A. Wire drawing
A
B. Extrusion
C. Blanking
D. Bending
g
Codes:A B
C
(a) 4
2
1
(c) 2
3
1
11.
2.
3.
4.
4
D
3
4
(b)
(d)
Shear force
Tensile force
Compressive force
Spring
p g back force
A
B
C
D
2
1
3
4
4
3
2
1
Page 94 of 205
309
S 2000
IES
Tandem drawing of wires and tubes is necessary

because
(a) It is not possible to reduce at one stage
(b) Annealing is needed between stages
(c) Accuracy in dimensions is not possible otherwise
((d)) Surface finish improves
p
after everyy drawing
g stage
g
reduce its diameter.
314
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswer
ListI(Metalfarmingprocess)ListII(Asimilarprocess)
A.
B
B.
C.
D.
Blanking
Coining
C
i i
Extrusion
Cupdrawing
Codes:A
( ) 2
(a)
(c) 3
B
3
2
C
4
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
D
1
5
(b)
(d)
Wiredrawing
Pi i
Piercing
Embossing
Rolling
Bending
A
B
C
2
3
1
2 Rev.1
3
1
D
4
5315
S 1993,ISRO2010
993 S O 20 0
IES
S 2002
IES
Match List I with List II and select the correct

answer using the codes given below the lists:
property)
p y) List II ((Related to))
List I ((Mechanical p
A. Malleability
1.
Wire drawing
B Hardness
B.
2
2.
Impact loads
C. Resilience
3.
Cold rolling
D Isotropy
D.
4
4.
Indentation
5.
Direction
C d A B
Codes:A
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
2
1
3
(b) 3
4
2
5
(c) 5
4
2
3
(d) 3
2
1
5
S 2001
200
IAS

answer:
List I (Parts)
List II (Manufacturing processes)
A. Seamless tubes
1. Roll forming
B Accurate
B.
A
and
d smooth
h tubes
b
2.
Sh peening
Shot
i
C. Surfaces having higher
3.
Forging
hardness and fatigue strength4.
Cold forming
Codes:
A
B
C
A
B
C
(a) 1
4
2
(b) 2
3
1
( ) 1
(c)
3
2
(d) 2
4
1
316
IES 2011
IES2011
S 2002
IAS
) In wiredrawing
g process,
p
, the rod
Assertion ((A):
crosssection is reduced gradually by drawing it
several times in successively reduced diameter dies.
Reason (R): Since each drawing reduces ductility of
the wire, so after final drawing the wire is
normalized.
319
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswerusing
thecodegivenbelowthelists:
ListI
ListII
Seamless long steel tubes are manufactured by rolling,

drawing and
322
SeamlesstubeManufacturingg
1.Rolling
A.Connectingrods
1.Welding
2Extrusion
B.Pressurevessels
2.Extrusion
3.TubeDrawing
C Machinetoolbeds
C.Machinetoolbeds
3 Forming
3.Forming
4.Spinning
S i i
D.Collapsibletubes
p
4.Casting
g
Codes
C
d
A
( ) 2
(a)
(c)
2
B
1
4
C
4
1
D
3
3
(b)
(d)
A
3
3
B
1
4
C
4
1
D
2
2320
IAS 1994
IAS1994
( )
GATE1991(PI)
317
Match List I (Products) with List II (Suitable

processes) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the Lists:
List I
List II
A Connecting
A.
C
ti rods
d
1.
W ldi
Welding
B. Pressure vessels
2.
Extrusion
C. Machine tool beds
3.
Forging
D. Collapsible tubes
4.
Casting
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 3
(a)
1
4
2
(b) 4
1
3
2
(c) 3
2
4
1
(d) 4
2
3
1 318
g methods can be used for

manufacturing 2 metre long seamless metallic
tubes?
1. Drawing
2. Extrusion
3 Rolling
3.
4 Spinning
4.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
Codes:
((a)) 1 and 3
((b)) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
Page 95 of 205
323
IES2012Conventional
Howaretheseamlesstubesproduced?
Rev.1
324
ExtrusionLoad
y Approximate
method (Uniform
friction) work formula
A
P = Ao o ln o
Af
d
d2
= 2 o o ln o
4
df
deformation,
no
y Approximate
method (Uniform
d o2
o ln ( R )
=
4
y For real conditions
A
P = KAo ln o
A
f
F
i d i Wi
T b d
i
ForcerequiredinWireorTubedrawing
ExtrusionStress
E =
A
P
= o ln o
A0
Af
deformation,
d
= 2 o ln o
df
no
= o ln ( R )
y For real conditions
d
d o2
=
K ln o
2
d
4
E =
K = extrusion constant.
A
P
= K ln o
A
A0
f
d
= 2 K ln o
df
y Approximate
method (Uniform
A
P = Af o ln o
A
f
Drawing
g Stress
d =
deformation,
d
d 2f
=
2
o ln o
d
4
A
P
= o ln o
A
Af
f
d
= 2 o ln o
df
no
K = extrusion constant.
325
326
G
2003
GATE2003
327
G
2006
GATE2006
GATE 2009(PI)
A brass
billet
its
b
bill t is
i to
t be
b extruded
t d d from
f
it initial
i iti l
Using
U i direct
di t extrusion
t
i process, a round
d billet
bill t off 100
In
diameter
I a wire
i drawing
d
i operation,
ti
di
t off a steel
t l wire
i
diameter of 100 mm to a final diameter of 550 mm.
mm length
g
and 550 mm diameter is extruded.
is reduced from 10 mm to 8 mm. The mean flow
The working temperature of
700C and the
Considering an ideal deformation process (no
stress of the material is 400 MPa. The ideal force
extrusion constant is 250 MPa. The force required
friction and no redundant work), extrusion ratio 4,
required
f extrusion
for
t
i is
i
and
d average flow
fl
stress
t
off material
t i l 300 MPa,
MP the
th
redundant
d d t work)
k) is
i
(a) 4.48
4 48 kN
(b)
8 97 kN
8.97
(c) 20.11 kN
(d)
31.41 kN
(a) 5.44
5 44 MN
(b)
2 72 MN
2.72
pressure ((in MPa)) on the ram will be

p
(c) 1.36 MN
(d)
0.36 MN
(a) 416
(b) 624
(c) 700
(d) 832
328
GATE 2008
(PI) Linked S2
GATE
2008(PI)LinkedS
2
A 10 mm diameter annealed steel wire is drawn
A 10 mm diameter annealed steel wire is drawn
through a die at a speed of 0.5 m/s to reduce the
through a die at a speed of 0.5 m/s to reduce the
diameter by 20%. The yield stress of the material is
diameter by 20%. The yield stress of the material is
800 MPa.
MPa
800 MPa.
MPa
g
g friction and strain hardening,
g, the stress
Neglecting
power required
q
for the drawing
gp
process ((in kW))
The p
required for drawing (in MPa) is
is
(a) 178.5 (b) 357.0
(a) 8.97
(d) 2575.0
331
drawing
(ignoring
friction
329
GATE 2008
(PI) Linked S1
GATE
2008(PI)LinkedS
1
(c) 1287.5
for
and
330
G
200 G
200 ( )
GATE2001,GATE2007(PI)
For
F rigid
i id perfectlyplastic
f tl l ti work
k material,
t i l negligible
li ibl
interface friction and no redundant work,, the
theoretically maximum possible reduction in the
wire drawing operation is
(b) 14.0
(c) 17.95
(d) 28.0
Page 96 of 205
332
( ) 0.36
(a)
(b)
0.63
(c) 1.00
1 00
(d)
2 72
2.72
Rev.1
333
IES 2014
IES
Wire Drawing
WireDrawing
G
996
GATE1996
In wire
drawing
operation, the maximum
wiredrawing
reduction per pass for perfectly plastic material in
ideal condition is
(a) 68 %
(b) 63 %
( ) 58
(c)
8%
(d) 50%
%
A wire of 0.1 mm diameter is drawn from a rod of 15

mm diameter. Dies giving reductions of 20%, 40%
and 80% are available. For minimum error in the
final size, the number of stages and reduction at
each stage respectively would be
(a) 3 stages and 80% reduction for all three stages
(b) 4 stages
t
and
d 80%
8 % reduction
d ti
f first
for
fi t three
th
stages
t
followed by a finishing stage of 20% reduction
(c) 5 stages and reduction of 80%, 80%.40%, 40%, 20%
in a sequence
(d) none of the above
334
MaximumReductionperpass
o =
o (1 + B )
B
2B
2B
Without back stress, b
o =
o (1 + B )
B
2B
rf
1
ro
337
GATE 2011(PI)CommonDataS2
GATE
2011 (PI) Common Data S2
In a multipass drawing operation, a round bar of 10 mm
diameter and 100 mm length is reduced in crosssection
by drawing it successively through a series of seven dies
of decreasing exit diameter. During each of these
drawing operations, the reduction in crosssectional area
is 35%. The yield strength of the material is 200 MPa.
Ignore strain hardening.
Neglectingfrictionandredundantwork,theforce(in
) q
g
g
,
kN)requiredfordrawingthebarthroughthefirstdie,is
(a)15.71
(b)10.21
(c)6 77
(c)6.77
(d)4 39
(d)4.39
340
f
336
GATE
2011 (PI) Common Data S1
A 12.5
12 5 mm diameter rod is to be reduced to 10 mm
diameter by drawing in a single pass at a speed of 100
/
Assuming
g a semi die angle
g of 5o and coefficient
m/min.
of friction between the die and steel rod as 0.15,
calculate:
(i) The power required in drawing
((ii)) Maximum p
possible reduction in diameter of the rod
(iii) If the rod is subjected to a back pressure of 50
2 , what would be the draw stress and maximum
/
N/mm
possible reduction ?
2.
400 N/mm
/
Take stress of the work material as 4
[15Marks]
r r
1 f + f . b
ro ro
2B
2B
rf rf
1 + . b
ro ro
335
With back stress, b
d =
o (1 + B )
In a multipass drawing operation, a round bar of 10 mm

diameter and 100 mm length is reduced in crosssection
by drawing it successively through a series of seven dies
of decreasing exit diameter. During each of these
drawing operations, the reduction in crosssectional area
is 35%. The yield strength of the material is 200 MPa.
Ignore strain hardening.
The total true strain applied and the final length (in
), respectively,
p
y, are
mm),
(a) 2.45 and 8 17
(b) 2.45 and 345
(c) 3.02
3 02 and 2043
(d) 3.02
3 02 and 3330
338
G
20
GATE
2014
A metal
t l rod
d off initial
i iti l length
l
th
339
S 1997
99
IAS
is
i subjected
bj t d to
t a
drawing
g p
process. The length
g
of the rod at any
y
instant is given by the expression, L(t) = Lo(1 + t2)
where t is the time in minutes. The true strain rate
Extrusion force DOES NOT depend upon the

(a) Extrusion ratio
(b) Type
T
off extrusion
t i process
(c) Material of the die
(d) Working temperature
att the
th end
d off one minute
i t is
i ..
Page 97 of 205
341
Rev.1
342
Wire Drawing Analysis (Home Work)

WireDrawingAnalysis(HomeWork)
S 2012
20 2
IES
Write the process variables in wire drawing.
Ans.
1. Reduction
R d ti in
i cross sectional
ti
l area
2. Die angle
3. Friction
( x + d x ) ( r + dr )
d x 2 o 2 ( o x )
+
+
cot = 0
dr
r
r
Let cot = B
or B x (1 + B ) o = ( rC )
Thefore, two principal stresses are x and Px

Both Tresca
Tresca'ss and Von-Mises
Von Mises criteria will give
x + Px = o
344
IFS 2013
IFS2013
or x =
Integrating both side
r
1
ro
Drawing stress ( d ) =
2B
r 2 B
+ . b
ro
o (1 + B )
Hint: Drawing Stress
r r
1 f + f . b
ro ro
2B
346
2B
347
at r = ro
Extrusion Analysis (Home Work)

ExtrusionAnalysis(HomeWork)
For a round bar both wire drawing and extrusion will give
same equation except B.C
B x (1 + B ) o = ( rC
C)
B.C s at r = rf , x = 0
xo =
o (1 + B )
B
2B
Extrusion ratio, R =
(at exit stress is zero)
(1 + B ) o 2 B
C =
rf
or x =
r
1 o
rf
2B

1 r
B For-2015
rf GATE
(IES,
& PSUs)
xo =
o (1 + B )
349
o (1 + B )
B
345
An aluminium rod, 6.25 mm diameter, is drawn into

a wire
5.60
Neglecting
friction
i
6 mm diameter.
di
N l i
f i i
between the rod and the dies, determine the
d
drawing
i
stress and
d the
h reduction
d i
i area when
in
h
the
h
yield stress for aluminium is 35 N/mm2. Also
calculate
l l
the
h tangential
i l stress at the
h exit.
i [8Marks]
[8 M k ]
B b (1 + B ) o 2 B
C =
ro
o (1 + B )
and x = Px = ( o x )
2B
B.C s at r = ro , x = b
d x 2
= B x (1 + B ) o
dr
r
d x
2
or
= dr
B x (1 + B ) o r
1
ln B x (1 + B ) o = 2 ln ( rC )
B
{Cis integration cont.}
dx
x r 2 + x cos 2 r
cos
dx
+ Px sin 2 r
=0
cos

Dividing by r 2 dr and taking dx/dr = cot we get

d x 2
2
+ ( x + Px ) + x cot = 0
d
dr
r
r
Vertical component
p
of Px Px due to small half die
angles and that of x can be neglected.
Th equilibrium
The
ilib i equation
ti iin x-direction
di ti will
ill bbe
2
or x 2rdr + d x r 2 + 2r x dx + Px 2rdx tan = 0
2B
h
= o
h
f
A
P
= o ln o
A
Af
f
x = Px = ( o x )
at Exit = P = ( o d ) = 0
348
If effect of container friction is considered

p f = ram pressure required by container friction
Ao ro
=
Af rf
r
= 2 o ln o
rf
For Tangential Stress i.e. Shear Stress
d =
i = uniform interface shear stress between

2
billet and container wall
for round bar
p f . r0 2 = 2 r0 i L or p f =
for flat stock
2 i L
ro
Total Extrusion Pressure(Pt ) = xo + p f

and Extrusion Load = pt . r0 2
1 R 2 B
Page 98 of 205
350
Rev.1
351
WorkbookCh17:Extrusion
Q. No
Option
Q. No
Option
2
3
C
D
9
10
B
A
11
12
6
7
C
B
13
WorkbookCh16:Drawing
Q. No
Option
2
3
4
C
C
B
5
6
C
D
SheetMetalOperation
p
BySKMondal
352
353
354
Piercing(Punching)andBlanking
Pi i (P hi ) d Bl ki
Piercing(Punching)andBlanking
SheetMetal
y Product has light weight and
versatile shape as
compared to forging/casting
y Most commonly used
low carbon steel sheet (cost,
g formability)
y
strength,
y In blanking, the piece being punched out becomes
the workpiece and any major burrs or undesirable

features should be left on the remaining strip.
y Aluminium and titanium for aircraft and aerospace

y Sheet metal has become a significant material for,
for
y In piercing (Punching), the punchout is the scrap
automotive bodies and frames,
and the remaining strip is the workpiece.

workpiece
office furniture
y Piercing
Pi i and
d blanking
bl ki are shearing
h i operations.
ti
frames for home appliances
y Both
ot do
donee o
on so
somee form
o o
of mechanical
ec a ca p
press.
ess.
355
356
357
Clearance(VIMP)
(
)
y Die opening must be larger than punch and known as
clearance.
y Punching
Punch = size of hole

Die = punch size +2 clearance
y
Remember: In punching punch is correct size.

size
y Blanking
Die = size of product

Punch = Die size 22 clearance
y
Remember: In blanking die size will be correct.
Punching
y Note: In punching clearance is provided on Die
358
In Blanking clearance
on punch
Page 99 is
of provided
205
359
Blanking
Rev.1
360
ClearanceContd.
y The
clearance
is
determined
with
following
equation
E
l
Example
Clearancein%
y If the allowance for the material is a = 0.075 given then
C = 0.0032
0 0032t
C = 0.075 x thickness of the sheet
y Where is the shear strength of the material in

2(MPa)
N/
N/mm
(MP )
Determine the die and punch sizes for blanking a circular

disc of 20mm diameter from a sheet whose thickness is 1.5
mm.
Shear strength of sheet material = 294 MPa
y If clearance is 1% given then

Also determine the die and punch sizes for punching a
circular hole of 20mm diameter from a sheet whose
thickness is 1.5
1 5 mm.
mm
C = 0.01 x thickness of the sheet
y Total
T l clearance
l
b
between
punch
h and
d die
di size
i will
ill be
b
ttwice
ce tthese
ese C
C i.e.
.e. 2C
C
361
G
2003
GATE2003
A metal
t l disc
di off 20 mm diameter
di
t is
i to
t be
b punched
h d
from a sheet of 2 mm thickness. The p
punch and the
die clearance is 3%. The required punch diameter is
(a) 19.88 mm (b)
19.94 mm
(c) 20.06 mm (d)
20.12 mm
362
363
P hi F
d Bl ki F
PunchingForceandBlankingForce
CapacityofPressforPunchingandBlanking
Fm ax = Lt
dt
3
364
E
l
Example
Estimate
to
E ti t the
th blanking
bl ki force
f
t cutt a blank
bl k 25 mm wide
id
and 330 mm long
g from a 1.55 mm thick metal strip,
p, if the
ultimate shear strength of the material is 450 N/mm2.
Also determine the work done if the percentage
penetration
t ti is
i 25 percentt off material
t i l thickness.
thi k
367
Fmax C
[WhereCisaconstantandequalto1.1to1.75depending
upontheprofile]
Thepunchingforceforholeswhicharesmallerthanthestock
thicknessmaybeestimatedasfollows:
Fmax =
P
Presscapacitywillbe=
it illb
d
t
365
GATE2014
IAS2011Main
A rectangular hole of size 100 mm 50 mm is to be

made
d on a 5 mm thick
thi k sheet
h t off steel
t l having
h i
ultimate tensile strength and shear strength of 500
MP and
MPa
d 300 MPa,
MP respectively.
ti l The
Th hole
h l is
i made
d
by punching process. Neglecting the effect of
clearance the punching force (in kN) is
clearance,
(a) 300
(b) 450
(c) 600
(d) 750
Page 100 of 205
366
368
For punching a 10 mm circular hole, and cutting a

rectangular
t
l blank
bl k off 50 x 200 mm from
f
a sheet
h t off 1
mm thickness (mild steel, shear stress = 240
2),
N/
N/mm
) Calculate,
C l l t in
i each
h case :
(i) Size of punch
(ii) Size of die
((iii)) Force required.
q
[[10Marks]]
Rev.1
369
Mi i
Di
t
f Pi i
MinimumDiameterofPiercing
IES 2014
IES
S 1999
999
IES
A hole
h l is
i to
t be
b punched
h d in
i a 15 mm thick
thi k plate
l t
having
g ultimate shear strength
g of 33Nmm2. If the
s d.t
dt
Piercingpressure,=Strengthofpunch,
Pi
i
St
th f
h c 4 d2
allowable crushing stress in the punch is 6 Nmm2,

the diameter of the smallest hole which can be
punched
h d is
i equall to
t
(a) 15 mm
(b)
30 mm
(c) 60 mm
(d)
120 mm
370
A hole of diameter 35 mm is to be punched in a

sheet metal of thickness t and ultimate shear
strength 400 MPa, using punching force of 44 kN.
The maximum value of t is
(a) 0.5
0 5 mm
(b) 10 mm
(c) 1 mm
((d)) 2 mm
371
IES 2013
IES2013
S O 2008 20
ISRO2008,2011
372
EnergyandPowerforPunchingandBlanking
With a punch
which
crushing
h for
f
hi h the
th maximum
i
hi
A hole of diameter d is to be punched in a plate of
stress is 4 times the maximum shearing

g stress of the
thickness t. For the plate material, the maximum
plate, the biggest hole that can be punched in the
crushing stress is 4 times the maximum allowable
plate would be of diameter equal to

1
( ) Thi
(a)
Thickness
k
off plate
l t
4
1
(b) Thickness of plate
2
(c) Plate thickness
(d) 2 Plate thickness
shearing stress. For punching the biggest hole, the
Ideal Energy (E in J) = maximum force x punch travel = Fmax ( p t )

(Unit:Fmax in kN and t in mm othrwise use Fmax in N and t in m)
Where p is percentage penetration required for rupture
EN
60
[Where N = actual number of stroke per minute]
Ideal power in press ( P inW ) =
ratio of diameter of hole to plate thickness should
Actual Energy ( E in J ) = Fmax ( p t ) C
be equal to:
Where C is a constant and equal to 1.1 to 1.75 depending upon the profile
(a)
1
4
(c) 1
EN
60
Wh E iis actuall energy and
WhereE
d iis efficiency
ffi i
off the
h press
Actual power in press ( P inW ) =
(b) 2
(d) 2
373
374
Sh
P h
ShearonPunch
375
ForcerequiredwithshearonPunch
d
h h
h
y To
shearing
shear
is
off
T reduce
d
h i force,
f
h
i ground
d on the
th face
f
F=
the die or punch.

p
y It distribute the cutting
g action over a p
period of time.
Fmax pt
S
Wherep=penetrationofpunchasafraction
S=shearonthepunchordie,mm
y Shear only reduces the maximum force to be applied but
total work done remains same.
376
Page 101 of 205
377
Rev.1
378
E
l
Example
Example
y A hole, 100 mm diameter, is to be punched in steel plate
5.6
6 mm thick.
thi k The
Th ultimate
lti t shear
h
stress
t
i 550 N/
is
N/mm2 .
With normal clearance on the tools,, cutting
g is complete
p
at 40 per cent penetration of the punch. Give suitable
shear angle for the punch to bring the work within the
capacity
it off a 30T
T press.
G
20 0 S
i k d
GATE2010StatementLinked1
A washer with a 12.7 mm internal hole and an outside

diameter of 25.4 mm is to be made from 1.5 mm thick
strip.
p The ultimate shearing
g strength
g of the material of
the washer is 280 N/mm2.
((a)) Find the total cutting
g force if both p
punches act at
the same time and no shear is applied to either punch
or the die.
(b) What will be the cutting force if the punches are
staggered, so that only one punch acts at a time.
(c) Taking 60% penetration and shear on punch of 1
mm, what will be the cutting
g force if both p
punches act
together.
379
380
Fi Bl ki
FineBlanking
G
20 0 S
i k d2
GATE2010StatementLinked2
Q
Statement for Linked Answer Questions:
In a shear cutting operation, a sheet of 5mm thickness
is cut along a length of 200 mm. The cutting blade is 400
mm long and zeroshear
zero shear (S = 0) is provided on the edge.
edge
The ultimate shear strength of the sheet is 100 MPa and
penetration to thickness ratio is 0.2. Neglect friction.
Statement for Linked Answer Questions:

In a shear cutting operation, a sheet of 5 mm thickness
is cut along a length of 200 mm. The cutting blade is 400
mm long and zeroshear (S = 0) is provided on the edge.
The ultimate shear strength
g of the sheet is 100 MPa and
penetration to thickness ratio is 0.2. Neglect friction.
400
Assuming force vs displacement curve to be rectangular,

the work done (in J) is
(a) 100 (b) 200 (c)
250 (d) 300
381
y Slitting moving rollers trace out complex paths during
Fine Blanking dies are designed that have small

clearances and pressure pads that hold the material
while it is sheared. The final result is blanks that have
extremely close tolerances.
cutting (like a can opener).

y Perforating: Multiple holes which are very small and
close together
g
are cut in flat work material.
400
y Notching: Metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet,
strip or blank.
S
A shear of 20 mm (S = 20 mm) is now provided on the

blade. Assuming force vs displacement curve to be
trapezoidal, the maximum force (in kN) exerted is
382
(a) 5
(b) 10
(c)
20
(d) 40
383
y Trimming Cutting unwanted excess material from the
periphery of a previously formed component.

component
384
y Lancing A hole is partially cut and then one side is bent
down to form a sort of tab or louver.

louver No metal removal,
removal no
y Shaving
g Accurate dimensions of the p
part are obtained byy
scrap.
removing a thin strip of metal along the edges.
y Sq
Squeezing
g Metal is caused to flow to all p
portions of a die
cavity under the action of compressive forces.

385
Page 102 of 205
386
Rev.1
387
y Steel
St l Rules
R l soft
ft materials
t i l are cutt with
ith a steel
t l strip
ti
shaped
p so that the edge
g is the p
pattern to be cut.
y Nibbling a single punch is moved up and down rapidly,
Di ki
Dinking
El ti
i b k
Elasticrecoveryorspringback
strength materials, such as

y Used to blank shapes from low
lowstrength
y Total
= elastic
+ plastic
T t l deformation
d f
ti
l ti deformation
d f
ti
l ti
rubber, fiber, or cloth.

y The shank of a die is either struck with a hammer or mallet or
the entire die is driven downward by some form of
mechanical press.
p
each time cutting off a small amount of material. This
deformation.
y At the end of a metal working operation, when the
allows
ll
a simple
l die
d to cut complex
l slots.
l
pressure is released, there is an elastic recovery and the

total deformation will get reduced a little.
little This
phenomenon is called as "spring back".
388
El ti
i b k Contd..
Elasticrecoveryorspringback
y More important in cold working.
working
y It depends on the yield strength. Higher the yield
strength, greater spring back.
389
390
S 2003
IAS
S 0 2013
20 3
ISR0
The 'spring
spring back
back' effect in press working is
(a) Elastic recovery of the sheet metal after removal of
the load
(b) Regaining the original shape of the sheet metal
(c) Release of stored energy in the sheet metal
((d)) Partial recoveryy of the sheet metal
Spring
S i back
b k in
i metal
t l forming
f
i depends
d
d on
(a) Modulus of Elasticity
(b) Load Applied
pp
(c) Strain Rate
(d) None of these
y To compensate this,
this the cold deformation be carried
beyond the desired limit by an amount equal to the

spring back.
391
P hi P
PunchingPress
PunchandDiematerial
y
Commonlyused toolsteel
Forhighproduction carbides
392
394
Page 103 of 205
393
B lt
l t
Bolsterplate
395
Rev.1
396
B lt
l t
Bolsterplate
Contd....
P h l t
Punchplate
y When
Wh many dies
di are to
t run in
i the
th same press att different
diff
t
times,, the wear occurring

g on the p
press bed is high.
g The
bolster plate is incorporated to take this wear.
St i
Stripper
y Used
U d to
t locate
l t and
d hold
h ld the
th
punch in p
p
position.
y This is a useful way of
y Relatively cheap and easy to replace.
mounting,
y Attached to the press bed and the die shoe is then
small
ll punches.
h
especially
for
attached to it.
it
397
St i
Stripper
Contd....
pp removes the stock from the p
y The stripper
punch after a
piercing or blanking operation.
398
K k t
Knockout
Pit
Pitman
y Knockout is a mechanism, usually connected to and
y It is
i a connecting
ti rod
d which
hi h is
i used
d to
t transmit
t
it motion
ti
operated by the press ram, for freeing a work piece from

a die.
Ps = KLt
399
from the main drive shaft to the p

press slide.
Where Ps =strippingforce,kN
L i t f t
L=perimeterofcut,mm
t=stockthickness,mm
K=strippingconstant,
K
strippingconstant
=0.0103forlow carbonsteelsthinnerthan1.5mmwith
thecutattheedgeornearaprecedingcut
=0.0145forsamematerialsbutforothercuts
=0.0207forlow
7
carbonsteelsabove1.5mmthickness
5
=0.0241forhardermaterials
400
D
l i
Dowelpin
401
402
GATE2011
The shear strength of a sheet metal is 300 MPa.
MPa The
blanking force required to produce a blank of 100
mm diameter from a 1.5
1 5 mm thick sheet is close to
(a) 45 kN
(b) 70 kN
(c) 141
4 kN
(d) 3500 kN
( )
GATE 2009(PI)
A disk of 200 mm diameter is blanked from a strip
of an aluminum alloy of thickness 3.2 mm. The
material shear strength to fracture is 150 MPa. The
blanking force (in kN) is
((a)) 291
9
403
Page 104 of 205
404
((b)) 3301
((c)) 3311
((d)) 3321
Rev.1
405
GATE 2013 (PI)

GATE2013(PI)
S O 2009
ISRO2009
Circular blanks of 10 mm diameter are punched

from an aluminium sheet of 2 mm thickness. The
shear strength of aluminium is 80 Mpa. The
G
200
GATE2007
The force required to punch a 25 mm hole in a

mild
ild steel
t l plate
l t 10 mm thick,
thi k when
h ultimate
lti t shear
h
minimum
i i
punching
hi force
f
required
i d in
i kN is
i
stress of the plate is 500 N/mm2 will be nearly
(a) 2.57
2 57
(a) 78 kN (b) 393 kN (c) 98 kN (d) 158 kN
(b) 3.29
The force requirement in a blanking operation of

low carbon steel sheet is 5.0 kN. The thickness of
the sheet is t
t and diameter of the blanked part is
d. For the same work material, if the diameter of
the blanked part is increased to 1.5 d and thickness
is reduced to 0.4 t, the new blanking force in kN is
(a) 3.0
3 0 (b) 4.5
45
(c) 5.0 (d) 8.0
(c) 5.03
(d) 6.33
406
G
200
GATE2004
10 mm diameter holes are to be punched in a steel
sheet of 3 mm thickness. Shear strength of the
material is 400 N / mm2 and penetration is 40%.
Shear provided on the punch is 2 mm. The blanking
force during the operation will be
(a) 22.6 kN
(b) 37.7 kN
( ) 61.6
(c)
6 6 kN
(d) 94.3 kN
407
G
2002
GATE2002
Calculate the punch size in mm, for a circular

blanking operation for which details are given
below.
Size of the blank
25 mm
Thickness of the sheet
2 mm
Radial clearance between
bet een punch and die 0.06
0 06 mm
Die allowance
0.05 mm
( ) 24.83
(a)
(b) 24.89
(c) 25.01
(d) 25.17
412
A blank of 50 mm diameter is to be sheared from a

sheet of 2.5 mm thickness. The required radial
clearance between the die and the punch is 6% of
sheet thickness. The punch and die diameters (in mm)
for this blanking operation, respectively, are
(a) 50.00
50 00 and 50.30
50 30
(b) 50.00
50 00 and 50.15
50 15
(c) 49.70 and 50.00
(d) 49.85 and 50.00
410
G
200
GATE2001
In a blanking operation, the clearance is provided

on
(a) The die
(b) Both the die and the punch equally
(c) The punch
((d)) Brittle the p
punch nor the die
( )
GATE2008(PI)
GATE 2012
409
408
G
996
GATE1996
The cutting force in punching and blanking

operations mainly depends on
(a) The modulus of elasticity of metal
(b) The shear strength of metal
(c) The bulk modulus of metal
((d)) The yyield strength
g of metal
Page 105 of 205
411
413
A 50 mm diameter disc is to be punched out from a

carbon steel sheet 1.0 mm thick. The diameter of
the punch should be
(a) 49.925 mm (b) 50.00 mm
( ) 50.075 mm (d) none off the
(c)
th above
b
Rev.1
414
S 1994
99
IES
S 2002
IES
In sheet metal blanking, shear is provided on

punches and dies so that
(a) Press load is reduced
(b) Good cut edge is obtained.
(c) Warping of sheet is minimized
((d)) Cut blanks are straight.
g
415
S 2006
IES
Consider the following statements related to

piercing and blanking:
1 Shear on the punch reduces the maximum cutting
1.
force
2. Shear
Sh
i
increases
th capacity
the
it off the
th press needed
d d
3. Shear increases the life of the punch
4. The total energy needed to make the cut remains
provision of shear
unaltered due to p
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 3 and 4
416
S 2004
200
IES
In which one of the following is a flywheel generally

employed?
(a) Lathe
(b) Electric motor
(c) Punching machine
(d) Gearbox
A blank of 30 mm diameter is to be produced out of

10 mm thick sheet on a simple die. If 6% clearance is
recommended, then the nominal diameters of die
and punch are respectively
(a) 30.6
30 6 mm and 29.4
29 4 mm
(b) 30.6 mm and 30 mm
(c) 30 mm and 29.4 mm
((d)) 330 mm and 28.8 mm
421
417
For 50% penetration of work material, a punch with

single shear equal to thickness will
(a) Reduce the punch load to half the value
(b) Increase the punch load by half the value
(c) Maintain the same punch load
((d)) Reduce the p
punch load to q
quarter load
419
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
S 2000
IAS
In blanking operation the clearance provided is

(a) 50% on punch and 50% on die
(b) On
O die
di
(c) On punch
(d) On die or punch depending upon designers choice
S 1997
99
IES

If the size of a flywheel in a punching machine is
increased
(a) Then the fluctuation of speed and fluctuation of
energy will
ill both
b th decrease
d
(b) Then the fluctuation of speed will decrease and the
fluctuation of energy will increase
((c)) Then the fluctuation of speed
p
will increase and the
fluctuation of energy will decrease
(d) Then the fluctuation of speed and fluctuation of
energy both will increase
418
S 1995
99
IAS
S 1994
99
IAS
Circular blanks of 35 mm diameter are punched

from a steel sheet of 2 mm thickness. If the
clearance per side between the punch and die is
to be kept as 40 microns, the sizes of punch and
di should
die
h ld respectively
i l be
b
(a) 35+0.00 and 35+0.040 (b) 350.040 and 350.080

(c) 350.080 and 35+0.00 (d) 35+0.040 and 350.080
Page 106 of 205
420
422
In a blanking operation to produce steel washer, the

maximum punch load used in 2 x 105 N. The plate
thickness is 4 mm and percentage penetration is 25.
The work done during this shearing operation is
(a) 200J
(b) 400J
(c) 600 J
(d) 800 J
Rev.1
423
S 2002
IAS
S 2007
200
IAS
In deciding the clearance between punch and die in

press work in shearing, the following rule is helpful:
(a) Punch size controls hole size die size controls blank
size
(b) Punch
P
h size
i controls
t l both
b th hole
h l size
i and
d blank
bl k size
i
(c) Die size controls both hole size and blank size
(d) Die size controls hole size, punch size controls blank
size
For punching operation the clearance is provided

on which one of the following?
(a) The punch
(b) The die
(c) 50% on the punch and 50% on the die
((d)) 1/3rd
3 on the p
punch and 2/3rd
3 on the die
424
S 2002
IES
S 1995
99
IAS
Assertion (A): A flywheel is attached to a punching
press so as to reduce its speed fluctuations.
Reason(R): The flywheel stores energy when its
speed increase.
(b) Both
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
b t R is
but
i nott the
th
425
426
S 2003
IAS
Which one is not a method of reducing cutting

forces to prevent the overloading of press?
(a) Providing shear on die
(b) Providing shear on punch
(c) Increasing die clearance
((d)) Stepping
pp g p
punches
S 2000
IES
Match List I (Presspart) with List II (Function) and select the

correct answer using
below
the
i the
h codes
d given
i
b l
h lists:
li
ListI
ListII
((Presspart)
p )
((Function))
(A) Punch plate
1.
Assisting withdrawal of the punch
(B) Stripper
2.
Advancing the workpiece through correct
di t
distance
(C) Stopper
3.
Ejection of the workpiece from die cavity
((D)) Knockout
4.
4
Holding
g the small p
punch in the p
proper
p
position
Codes: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
3
2
1
(b)
2
1
4
3
(c) 4
1
2
3
(d)
2
3
4
1
427
Best position of crank for blanking operation in a

mechanical press is
(a) Top dead centre
(b) 20 degrees below top dead centre
(c) 20 degrees before bottom dead centre
((d)) Bottom dead centre
428
429
D
i
Drawing
S 1999
999
IES
Assertion (A): In sheet metal blanking operation,
clearance must be given to the die.
Reason (R): The blank should be of required
dimensions.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
430
y Drawing
D
i is
i a plastic
l ti deformation
d f
ti process in
i which
hi h a flat
fl t
sheet or p
plate is formed into a threedimensional p
part
with a depth more than several times the thickness of
the metal.
y As a punch
h descends
d
d into a mating die,
d
the
h metall
Drawing
Page 107 of 205
assumes the desired configuration.

configuration
431
Rev.1
432
Blank Size
BlankSize
D
i
Drawing
y Hot
is
H t drawing
d
i
i used
d for
f thickwalled
thi k
ll d parts
t off simple
i l
geometries,, thinning
g
g takes p
place.
D = d 2 + 4dh
Whend>20r
D = d 2 + 4dh 0.5r when15r d 20r
y Cold drawing uses relatively thin metal, changes the
thickness very little or not at all, and produces parts in a
D=
( d 2r )
+ 4d ( h r ) + 2 r ( d 00.7
7r )
when d < 10r
wide
d variety off shapes.
h
433
434
S 1994
99
IES
G
2003
GATE2003
For
F obtaining
bt i i a cup off diameter
di
t 25 mm and
d height
h i ht 15
A shell
h ll off 100 mm diameter
di
t and
d 100 mm height
h i ht with
ith
mm by
y drawing,
g, the size of the round blank should
the corner radius of 0.4

4 mm is to be p
produced by
y
be approximately
cup drawing. The required blank diameter is
(a) 42 mm
(b)
44 mm
(a) 118 mm
(b)
161 mm
(c) 46 mm
(d)
48 mm
(c) 224 mm
(d)
312 mm
435
ISRO2011
The initial blank diameter required to form
a cylindrical
li d i l cup off outside
id diameter
di
'd and
d
total height
g 'h' having
g a corner radius 'r' is
obtained using the formula
(a ) Do = d 2 + 4dh 0.5
0 5r
(b) Do = d + 2h + 2r
(c) Do = d 2 + 2h 2 + 2r
436
437
438
S 2013Main
20 3
i
IAS
y Drawing Force
P = dt C
d
A cup, off 50 mm diameter

di
t and
d 100 mm height,
h i ht is
i to
t be
b
drawn from low carbon steel sheet. Neglecting
g
g the
y Blank Holding Force
influence of thickness and corner radii:
Blank holding force required depends on the

wrinkling tendency of the cup. The maximum
li it is
limit
i generally
ll to
t be
b onethird
thi d off the
th drawing
d
i
force.
y Draw Clearance
Punch diameter = Die opening diameter 2.5
25t
(d ) Do = d 2 + 4dh 0.5r
439
(i) Calculate the blank diameter

(ii) Decide whether it can be drawn in a single draw, if
maximum reduction permitted is 40%.
40%
[ 0 a s]
[10marks]
Page 108 of 205
440
Rev.1
441
D
d
i
Deepdrawing
S 20 3
IFS2013
A symmetrical
with
t i l cup off circular
i
l cross section
ti
ith
diameter 4
40 mm and height
g 60 mm with a corner
radius of 2 mm is to be obtained in C20 steel of 0.6
mm thickness. Calculate the blank size for the
d
drawn
cup. Will it be
b possible
ibl to
t draw
d
th cup in
the
i
S 2008
IES
g when cup height

g is more than half the diameter is
y Drawing
termed deep drawing.
y Easy with ductile materials.
y Due to the radial flow of material,
material the side walls increase in
thickness as the height is increased.
A cylindrical vessel with flat bottom can be deep

drawn by
(a) Shallow drawing
(b) Single action deep drawing
(c) Double action deep drawing
((d)) Triple
p action deep
p drawing
g
y A cylindrical vessel with flat bottom can be deep drawn by
single
g step?
p
double action deep drawing.
[10Marks]
y Deep drawing is a combination of drawing and stretching.

stretching
442
D
D
bilit
DeepDrawability
p
g
StressesonDeepDrawing
y There is a limiting drawing ratio (LDR), after which the
punch will pierce a hole in the blank instead of drawing.
y In wall of the cup:
y This ratio depends upon material, amount of friction
uniaxial
present etc.
present,
etc
S 1997
99
IES
Fi draw:Reduction
First
d
R d i = 50 %
Second draw:Reduction = 30 %
446
447
S 1998
998
IES
A cup off 10 cm height

h i ht and
d 5 cm diameter
di
t is
i to
t be
b
made from a sheet metal of 2 mm thickness. The
number of deductions necessary will be
(a) One
(b) Two
( ) Three
(c)
Th
(d) Four
Reduction = 1 100% = 50%

D
Thumb rule:
Third draw:Reduction = 25 %
Fourth draw:Reduction = 16 %
Fifth draw:Reduction = 13 %
y Limiting
t g d
drawing
a
g ratio
at o ((LDR)) iss 1.6
.6 to 2.3
.3
445
y Theaveragereductionindeepdrawing
d
= 0.5
D
diameter of the cup

p drawn . i.e. D/d.
/
Biaxial
Bi
i l tension
t i and
d
compression
444
LimitingDrawingRatio(LDR)
y The
blank
to
Th ratio
ti off the
th maximum
i
bl k diameter
di
t
t the
th
y In flange of blank:
simple
tension
443
448
Assertion (A): The first draw in deep drawing operation

can have up to 60% reduction, the second draw up to
40% reduction and,, the third draw of about 330% only.
4
y
Reason (R): Due to strain hardening, the subsequent
draws in a deep
p drawing
g operation
p
have reduced
percentages.
explanation of A
Page 109 of 205
449
IFS 2009
y What is deep drawing process for sheet metal
forming? Explain the function of a blank holder.

What is drawing ratio and how is the drawing ratio
increased ?
[[10 marks]]
Rev.1
450
ForIESOnly
Di D i
DieDesign
ForIESOnly
P
i dies
di
Progressive
Perform two or more operations simultaneously in a single
stroke of a punch press,
press so that a complete component is
obtained for each stroke.
y Progressivedies
P
i di
ForIESOnly
Progressivepiercingandblankingdiefor
makingasimplewasher.
making a simple washer.
Compound dies
All the necessary operations are carried out at a single
station, in a single
g stroke of the ram. To do more than one set
of operations, a compound die consists of the necessary sets
of punches and dies.
y Compounddies
C
ddi
y Combinationdies
C
bi ti di
Combination dies
A combination die is same as that of a compound die with
the main difference that here noncutting operations such as
bending and forming are also included as part of the
operation.
operation
451
Back
453
452
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
IFS 2013
IFS2013
M th d f
ki
i l
h i
d i i
d
Methodformakingasimplewasherinacompoundpiercingand
blankingdie.Partisblanked(a)andsubsequentlypierced
(b)Theblankingpunchcontainsthedieforpiercing.
(b) The blanking punch contains the die for piercing
y Differentiate
Diff
ti t
among
the
th
simple,
i l
L b i ti
Lubrication
compound
d
and
d
progressive
p
g
dies.
y Indrawingoperation,properlubricationisessentialfor
d
l b
lf
1. Toimprovedielife.
T i
di lif
[6 Marks]
2 Toreducedrawingforces.
2.
Toreducedrawingforces
3 Toreducetemperature.
3.
Toreducetemperature
4 Toimprovesurfacefinish.
4.
Toimprovesurfacefinish
Back
454
S 2007
200
IAS
In drawing operation, proper lubrication
essential for which of the following reasons?
1 To improve die life
1.
2. To reduce drawing forces
3. To reduce temperature
4. To improve
4
p
surface finish
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1,
1 3 and 4 only
(c) 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
is
457
455
456
D f t i D
i
i kl
DefectsinDrawing
wrinkle
D f t i D
i
F t
DefectsinDrawing
Fracture
y An insufficient blank holder pressure causes wrinkles to
y Further, too much of a blank holder pressure and friction
develop on the flange, which may also extend to the wall

of the cup.
may cause a thinning of the walls and a fracture at the

flange, bottom, and the corners (if any).
Page 110 of 205 WallWrinkle

FlangeWrinkle
458
Rev.1
459
D f t i D
i
i
DefectsinDrawingearing
D f t i D
i
i t ik
DefectsinDrawing
missstrike
D f t i D
i
O
l
DefectsinDrawing
Orangepeel
y While drawing a rolled stock, ears or lobes tend to occur
y Due to the misplacement of the stock, unsymmetrical
y A surface roughening (defect) encountered in forming
because of the anisotropy induced by the rolling

operation.
flanges may result. This defect is known as miss strike.
products from metal stock that has a coarse grain size.

y It is due to uneven flow or to the appearance of the
overly large grains usually the result of annealing at too

high a temperature.
temperature
460
Stretcher strains (like Luders Lines)

Stretcherstrains(likeLuders
ast c de
o at o due to inhomogeneous
o oge eous
y Caused by p
plastic
deformation
461
G
2008
GATE2008
Surfacescratches
y Dieorpunchnothavingasmoothsurface,insufficient
yielding.
y These lines can crisscross the surface of the workpiece and
lubrication
may be visibly objectionable.

objectionable
y Low carbon steel and aluminium shows more stretcher
strains.
463
S 1997
99
IAS
466
In the deep drawing of cups, blanks show a tendency to

wrinkle up around the periphery (flange).
The most likely cause and remedy of the phenomenon are,
respectively,
(A) Buckling due to circumferential compression; Increase
blank holder pressure
(B) High blank holder pressure and high friction; Reduce
blank holder pressure and apply lubricant
(C) High temperature causing increase in circumferential
length: Apply coolant to blank
(D) Buckling due to circumferential compression; decrease
blank holder pressure
464
G
999
GATE1999
Which one of the following factor promotes the

tendency for wrinking in the process of drawing?
(a) Increase in the ratio of thickness to blank diameter
of work material
(b) Decrease
D
i the
in
th ratio
ti thickness
thi k
t blank
to
bl k diameter
di
t off
work material
(c) Decrease in the holding force on the blank
((d)) Use of solid lubricants
462
G
2006
GATE2006
Identify the stress state in the FLANCE portion of a

PARTIALLYDRAWN CYLINDRICAL CUP when deep
drawing without a blank holder
(a) Tensile in all three directions
(b) No
N stress
t
i the
in
th flange
fl
att all,
ll because
b
th
there
i no
is
blankholder
(c) Tensile stress in one direction and compressive in
the one other direction
(d) Compressive in two directions and tensile in the
third direction
Page 111 of 205
465
467
Match the items in columns I and II.

Column I
Column II
P Wrinkling
P.
1
1.
Yield point elongation
Q. Orange peel
2.
Anisotropy
R Stretcher
R.
S
h strains
i
3.
L
Large
grain
i size
i
S. Earing
4.
Insufficient blank holding
force
5.
Fine grain size
6.
Excessive blank holding force
(a) P 6, Q 33, R 1, S 2 (b) P 4, Q 55, R 6, S 1
(c) P 2, Q 5, R 3, S 4 (d) P 4, Q 3, R 1, S 2
Rev.1
468
S 1999
999
IES
Spinning
S 1994
99
IAS
Consider the following statements: Earring in a

drawn cup can be due to nonuniform
1 Speed of the press
1.
2. Clearance between tools
3. Material properties
4. Blank holding
4
g
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 (b) 2,
2 3 and 4
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
469
Consider the following factors

1. Clearance between the punch and the die is too
small.
small
2. The finish at the corners of the punch is poor.
3. The finish at the corners of the die is poor.
4. The p
4
punch and die alignment
g
is not p
proper.
p
The factors responsible for the vertical lines parallel to
the axis noticed on the outside of a drawn cylindrical cup
would include.
(a) 2,
2 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 4
(d) 1, 3 and 4
470
471
S i i
Spinning
S i i
Spinning
y Spinning is a coldforming operation in which a
rotating disk of sheet metal is shaped over a male

form, or mandrel.
y Localized
L li d pressure is
i applied
li d through
th
h a simple
i l
roundended wooden or metal tool or small roller,,

which traverses the entire surface of the part
1.
1 A mandrel (or die for internal pieces) is placed on a
rotating axis (like a turning center).
2 A blank or tube is held to the face of the mandrel.
2.
mandrel
3. A roller is pushed against the material near the
center
t off rotation,
t ti
and
d slowly
l l moved
d outwards,
t
d pushing
hi
the blank against the mandrel.
4. The part conforms to the shape of the mandrel (with
some springback).
5. The process is stopped, and the part is removed and
trimmed.
472
473
474
G
992
GATE1992
tc = tb sin
S 1994
99
IES
Thethicknessoftheblankneededtoproduce,by
Th thi k
fth bl k
d dt
d
b
The
off the
Th mode
d off deformation
d f
ti
th metal
t l during
d i
p
powerspinningamissileconeofthickness1.5mm
p
g
5
spinning
p
g is
andhalfconeangle30,is
(a) Bending
(a) 3.0mm
(b)
2.5mm
(b) Stretching
(c) 2.0mm
(d)
1.5mm
(c) Rolling and stretching

(d) Bending and stretching.
475
Page 112 of 205
476
Rev.1
477
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
HERF
IFS2011
y High Energy
Energ Rate Forming,
Forming also known
kno n as HERF or explosive
e plosi e
Comparemetalspinningwithpresswork.
forming can be utilised to form a wide variety of metals, from
[
[2marks]
k ]
HighEnergyRateForming(HERF)
aluminum to high strength alloys.

y Applied a large amount of energy in a very sort time interval.
y HERF makes it possible to form large work pieces and
difficulttoform metals with lessexpensive equipment and

tooling required.
y No springback
478
479
ForIESOnly
Underwater
explosions.
480
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
Underwater explosions
Underwaterexplosions
Underwater Explosions
UnderwaterExplosions
y A shock
(normally
h k wave in
i the
th fluid
fl id medium
di
(
ll water
t ) is
i
Electromagnetic
(th f
(theuseof
rapidlyformed
g
)
magneticfields).
HERF
generated byy detonating

g
g an explosive
p
charge.
g
Underwaterspark
discharge(electro
hydraulic)
hydraulic).
y TNT and dynamite for higher energy and gun powder for
lower energy is used.

y Used for parts of thick materials.
Internal
combustionof
gaseous
mixtures.
y Employed
E l d
Pneumatic
mechanical
means
i
in
A
Aerospace,
aircraft
i
f
i d
industries
i
and
d
automobile
auto
ob e related
e ated co
components.
po e ts.
481
482
ForIESOnly
483
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
El t h d li F
i
ElectrohydraulicForming
ElectromagneticorMagneticPulseForming
y An operation using electric discharge in the form of
y Based on the principle that the electromagnetic field of
sparks to generate a shock wave in a fluid is called

electrohydrulic
l
h d l forming.
f
an induced current always opposes the electromagnetic

field of the inducing current.
y A capacitor bank is charged through the charging circuit,

circuit
y A large
l
capacitor
it bank
b k is
i discharged,
di h
d producing
d i a currentt
subsequently, a switch is closed, resulting in a spark

within
i hi the
h electrode
l
d gap to discharge
di h
the
h capacitors.
i
surge through a coiled conductor.

y If the coil has been p
placed within a conductive cylinder,
y
y Energy level and peak pressure is lower than underwater
explosions but easier and safer.

y Used for bulging operations in small parts.
484
Page 113 of 205
485
around a cylinder, or adjacent the flat sheet of metal, the

g induces a secondaryy current in the workpiece,
p
discharge
causing it to be repelled from the coil and conformed to
Rev.1
486
a die or mating workpiece.
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
IES2011
ElectromagneticorMagneticPulseForming
y The
Th process is
i very rapid
id and
d is
i used
d primarily
i
il to
t expand
d
High
process used
h energy rate forming
f
d for
f
or contract tubing,
g, or to p
permanentlyy assemble
forming components from thin metal sheets or
component parts.
deform thin tubes is:
y This process is most effective for relatively thin materials
(
(0.25
to 1.25 mm thick).
h k)
(a) Petroforming
(b) Magnetic pulse forming
(c) Explosive forming
(d) electrohydraulic
electro hydraulic forming
487
488
489
IES 2010
IES2010
20 0
JWM2010
( ) : In magnetic
g
p
g method,,
Assertion (A)
pulseforming
magnetic field produced by eddy currents is used to
p
create force between coil and workpiece.
Reason (R) : It is necessary for the workpiece
material to have magnetic properties.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
l
ti off A
490
S 2007
200
IES
g energy
gy rate forming
g
Assertion ((A)) : In the high
method, the explosive forming has proved to be an
g energy
g at high
g rate and
excellent method of utilizing
utilizes both the high explosives and low explosives.
Reason ((R):
) The g
gas p
pressure and rate of detonation
can be controlled for both types of explosives.
explanation of A
491
S 2009
IES
S 2005
200
IES
Which
Whi h
one off
the
following
th
f ll i
metal
t l
forming
f
i
processes is not a high

p
g energy
gy rate forming
gp
process?
(a) Electromechanical forming
(b) Rollforming
(c) Explosive forming
(d) Electrohydraulic forming
492
IES2013Conventional
Which
is
Whi h one off the
th following
f ll i
i a high
hi h energy rate
t
Magnetic
M
ti forming
f
i is
i an example
l of:
f
forming
gp
process?
(a) Cold forming
(b)
Hot forming
(a) Roll forming
(c) High
g energy
gy rate forming
g
(d)
Roll forming
g
y Name at least four methods by which high energy
release rates are obtained.

y Why might less springback be observed in HERF?
(b) Electrohydraulic forming
[5marks]
(c) Rotary forging

(d) Forward extrusion
493
Page 114 of 205
494
Rev.1
495
St t h F
i
StretchForming
St t h F
i
StretchForming
Contd......
g sheet metal p
y Produce large
parts in low or limited
quantities.
y A sheet of metal is g
gripped
pp byy two or more sets of jjaws
that stretch it and wrap it around a single form block.
y Because most of the deformation is induced by
y the
tensile stretching, the forces on the form block are far
less than those normally encountered in bending or
forming.
y There is very little springback, and the workpiece
conforms very closely to the shape of the tool.
y Because the forces are so low, the form blocks can often
be made of wood, lowmeltingpoint metal, or even
plastic.
496
St t h F
i
StretchForming
Contd......
St t h F
i
StretchForming
Contd......
y Popular
P
l in
i the
th aircraft
i
ft industry
i d t and
d is
i frequently
f
tl used
d to
t
form aluminum and stainless steel

y Lowcarbon steel can be stretch formed to produce large
panels for the automotive and truck industry.
497
498
I i
Ironing
G
2000
GATE2000
A 1.5 mm thick sheet is subject to unequal biaxial
stretching and the true strains in the directions of
stretching are 0.05 and 0.09. The final thickness of
the sheet in mm is
(a) 1.414
1 414
(b) 1.304
1 304
(c) 1.362
(d) 289
y The
cylinder
Th process off thinning
thi i the
th walls
ll off a drawn
d
li d by
b
passing
p
g it between a p
punch and die whose separation
p
is
less than the original wall thickness.
y The walls are thinned and lengthened, while the
thickness
h k
off the
h base
b
remains unchanged.
h
d
y Examples of ironed products include brass cartridge
cases and the thinwalled beverage can.

499
500
501
ForIESOnly
I i
Ironing
Contd....
I i F
IroningForce
E b i
Embossing
y Neglecting the friction and shape of the die, the ironing
y It is
the
i a very shallow
h ll drawing
d
i operation
ti where
h
th depth
d th off
force can be estimated using the following equation.
the draw is limited to one to three times the thickness of

the metal, and the material thickness remains largely
t
F = dt tt av ln o
tt
502
Page 115 of 205
unchanged.
503
Rev.1
504
C i i
Coining
di
Bending
y Coining
C i i is
i essentially
ti ll a coldforging
ld f i operation
ti exceptt for
f
y Coining is used for making coins, medals and similar
articles.
l
y The strain on the outermost fibers of the bend is
Bendallowance,
Bendallowance
Lb =(R+kt)
the fact that the flow of the metal occurs onlyy at the top
p
layers and not the entire volume.
di
Bending
=
where
R=bendradius
k=constant(stretchfactor)
For R > 2t
k = 0.5
05
For R < 2t
1
2R
+1
t
k = 0.33
t=thicknessofmaterial
=bendangle(inradian)
505
506
507
ForIESOnly
BendingForce
Bending
Force
Kl ut t 2
F=
IES 1998
IES1998
G
200
GATE2005
The bending force required for Vbending,

V bending U
U
bending and Edge bending will be in the ratio
Where l =Bend length = width of the stock, mm

ut = Ultimate tensile strength, MPa (N/mm 2 )
of
t = blank
bl k thickness,
thi k
mm
w = width of die-opening, mm
(a) 1 : 2 : 0.5
(b) 2: 1 : 0.5
( ) 1: 2 : 1
(c)
( ) 1: 1 : 1
(d)
A 2 mm thick metal sheet is to be bent at an angle of

one radian with a bend radius of 100 mm. If the
stretch factor is 0.5, the bend allowance is
(a) 99 mm
(b) 100 mm
( ) 101 mm
(c)
(d) 102 mm
2mm
K = die
die-opening
opening factor , (can be used followin table)
Condition
V-Bending
U-Bending
Edge-Bending
W < 16t
1 33
1.33
2 67
2.67
0 67
0.67
W > = 16t
1.20
2.40
0.6
1 radian
ForUorchannelbendingforcerequiredisdoublethanV bending
ForUorchannelbendingforcerequiredisdoublethanV
ForedgebendingitwillbeaboutonehalfthatforV bending
508
509
510
ForIESOnly
S
ki
Spanking
y During
the
D i bending,
b di
th area off the
th sheet
h t under
d the
th punch
h
has a tendencyy to flow and form a bulge

g on the outer
surface.
y The lower die should be provided with mating surfaces,
so that
h when
h the
h punch
h and
d die
d are completely
l l closed
l d on
the blank,
blank any bulging developed earlier will be
completely presses or spanked out.
511
Page 116 of 205
512
Rev.1
513
G
200
GATE2007
g metal
Match the correct combination for following
working processes.
Associated state of stress
Processes
P. Blanking
1.
Tension
Q Stretch Forming 2.
Q.
2
Compression
R. Coining
3.
Shear
S Deep Drawing
S.
4
4.
Tension and Compression
5.
Tension and Shear
C d P Q
Codes:P
R
S
P
Q
R
S
(a) 2
1
3
4
(b) 3
4
1
5
(c) 5
4
3
1
(d) 3
1
2
4
G
200
GATE2004
Match the following metal forming processes with their
associated stresses in the workpiece.
Metalformingprocess
lf
i
1.Coining
2.WireDrawing
3 Blanking
3.Blanking
4.DeepDrawing
D D
i
(a) 1S, 2P, 3Q, 4R
(c) 1P, 2Q, 3S, 4R
Typeofstress
f
P.Tensile
Q.Shear
R Tensileand
R.Tensileand
compressive
S C
S.Compressive
i
(b) 1S, 2P, 3R, 4Q
(d) 1P, 2R, 3Q, 4S
514
515
S 1999
999
IAS
S 1997
99
IAS
(
) with List II ((Production of p
Match List I (Process)
parts))
below the lists:
ListI
ListII
A. Rolling
1.
Discrete parts
B. Forging
2.
Rod and Wire
C. Extrusion 3.
Wide variety of shapes with thin
walls
ll
D. Drawing
4.
Flat plates and sheets
5.
Solid
l d and
d hollow
h ll parts
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 2
(a)
5
3
4
( ) 1
(b)
2
5
4
(c) 4
1
3
2
(d) 4
1
5
2517
Match List
II
ListII (metal forming process) with List
ListII
(Associated feature) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the Lists:
Listl
List II
A Blanking
A.
Bl ki
1.
Sh
Shear
angle
l
B. Flow forming
2.
Coiled stock
C. Roll forming
3.
Mandrel
D. Embossing
4.
Closed matching dies
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 1
(a)
3
4
2
(b) 3
1
4
2
(c) 1
3
2
4
(d) 3
1
2
4518
WorkbookCh18:SheetMetalForming
Q. No
Option
Q. No
Match the following

Product
Process
P Moulded
P.
M ld d luggage
l
1.
I j ti moulding
Injection
ldi
Q. Packaging containers for liquid 2.
Hot rolling
R. Long structural shapes 3.
Impact extrusion
S. Collapsible tubes
4.
Transfer moulding
5.
Blow moulding
6
6.
C i i
Coining
(a) P1 Q4 R6 S3
(b) P4 Q5 R2 S3
(c) P1 Q5 R3 S2
(d) P5 Q1 R2 S2
516
IES 2010
IES2010
g statements:
The material properties which principally
determine how well a metal may be drawn are
1. Ratio of yield stress to ultimate stress.
2.Rate of increase of yield stress relative to
progressive
p
g
amounts of cold work.
3. Rate of work hardening.
Whi h off the
Which
th above
b
statements
t t
t is/are
i /
correct?
t?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
519
gy
PowderMetallurgy
Option
1
2
C
B
10
11
C
C
12
13
14
15
16
controlled atmosphere to bond the contacting
8
9
A
A
17
surfaces of the particles and establish the desired
y Powder metallurgy is the name given to the
PowderMetallurgy
gy
process by which fine powdered materials are

bl d d
blended,
pressed
d
i t
into
d i d
desired
shape
h
((compacted),
p
) and then heated ((sintered)) in a
properties.
520
Page 117 of 205

BySKMondal
521
Rev.1
522
ManufacturingofPowder
g
S 2003
IAS
Atomizationusingagasstream
S 2007
200
IAS
Assertion (A): Atomization method for production of

metal powders consists of mechanical disintegration of
molten stream into fine particles.
p
Reason (R): Atomization method is an excellent means
of making
gp
powders from high
g temperature
p
metals.
explanation
p
of A
correct explanation
p
of A
Molten metal is
forced through a
small orifice and
is disintegrated by
a
jet
of
compressed air,
inert g
gas or water
jet,. It is used for
low melting point
materials, brass,
bronze, Zn, Tn,
Al Pb etc.
Al,
etc
523
) Mechanical disintegration
g
Assertion ((A):
of a
molten metal stream into fine particles by means of
a jet of compressed air is known as atomization.
Reason (R): In atomization process inertgas or
water cannot be used as a substitute for compressed
air.
524
525
Manufacturing of Powder
S 1999
999
IES
Assertion (A): In atomization process of manufacture of
metal powder, the molten metal is forced through a
small orifice and broken up
p by
y a stream of compressed
p
air.
Reason ((R):
) The metallic p
powder obtained by
y
atomization process is quite resistant to oxidation.
explanation of A
526
Reduction
( )
GATE2011(PI)
y Metal oxides are turned to pure metal powder when
exposed
d to
t below
b l
melting
lti
point
i t gases results
lt in
i a
product of cake of sponge
p
p g metal.
y The irregular spongelike particles are soft, readily
Which of
the following powder production
methods produces spongy and porous particles?

(a) Atomization
compressible, and give compacts of good presinter
( ) Reduction of metal oxides

(b)
((green)
green ) strength
(c) Electrolytic deposition
y Used for iron, Cu, tungsten,

g
molybdenum,
y
Ni and
Cobalt.
(d) Pulverization
527
528
OnlyforIES
Comminution
Grinding
y Granular material, which may be coarsely atomized
This metallic powder is nothing but the unburnt tiny

chips formed during the process of grinding.
grinding
powder, is fed in a stream of gas under pressure through

a venturi and is cooled and thereby embrittled by the
adiabatic expansion of the gas before impinging on a
target on which
hi h the
h granules
l shatters
h
IES 2013 C
ti
l
IES2013Conventional
Explain the terms comminution and reduction used in
powder metallurgy.
metallurgy
[
[2marks]
]
y Process is used for p

production of veryy fine p
powders such
529
as are required for injection moulding . Brittle materials

such as intermetallic
inter metallic compounds,
compounds ferroalloys
ferro alloys ferro
ferro
Pageare
118produces
of 205
chromium, ferrosilicon
530
Rev.1
531
g
IES 2012
IES
Electrolytic Deposition
M
f t i
fP d
In electrolysis
(a) For making copper powder, copper plate is made
cathode in electrolyte tank
(b) For making aluminum powder, aluminum plate is
made
d anode
d
(c) High amperage produces powdery deposit of cathode
metal on anode
((d)) Atomization p
process is more suitable for low melting
g
point metals
y Used
copper, silver
U d for
f iron,
i
il
y Process is similar to electroplating.
y For making copper powder, copper plates are placed as
anode in the tank of electrolyte, whereas the aluminium

plates are placed in the electrolyte to act as cathode.
Wh DC currentt is
When
i passed,
d the
th copper gets
t deposited
d
it d
on cathode. The cathode plated are taken out and
powder is scrapped off. The powder is washed, dried and
pulverized to the desired grain size.
y The cost of manufacturing is high.
532
Granulations as metals are cooled they are stirred rapidly

Machining coarse powders such as magnesium
Milling crushers and rollers to break down metals. Used for
brittle materials.
materials
Shooting drops of molten metal are dropped in water, used
for low melting point materials.
Condensation Metals are boiled to produce metal vapours
and then condensed to obtain metal powders. Used for Zn,
Mg, Cd.
533
G
20 ( )
GATE2014(PI)
IES 2010
IES2010
S 2000
IAS
Which one of the following methods is NOT used

for producing metal powders?
(a) Atomization
(b) Compaction
(c) Machining and grinding
((d)) Electrolysis
y
Consider the following processes:

1. Mechanical pulverization
2. Atomization
At i ti
3. Chemical reduction
4. Sintering
Which of these processes are used for powder
preparation in powder metallurgy?
(a) 2,
2 3 and 4 (b) 1,
1 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4
535
534
Metallic powders can be produced by

(a) Atomization
(b) Pulverization
(c) Electro
Electrodeposition
deposition process
(d) All of the above
536
537
ConventionalQuestions
Characteristics of metal powder:
y Fineness: refers to particle size of powder, can be
determined either by pouring the powder through a sieve or
by microscopic testing. A standard sieves with mesh size
varies between (100) and (325) are used to determine
particle size and particle size distribution of powder in a
certain range.
range
y Particle size distribution: refers to amount of each particle
size
i in
i the
th powder
d andd have
h
a greatt effect
ff t in
i determining
d t
i i
flowability, apparent density and final porosity of product.
538
Discuss the terms fineness and particle size

distribution in powder metallurgy. [IES2010, 2 Marks]
Ans.
Fineness: Is the diameter of spherical shaped particle and
mean diameter of non
nonspherical
spherical shaped particle.
particle
Particle size distribution: Geometric standard deviation
(a measure for the bredth or width of a distribution), is the
ratio of particle size diameters taken at 84.1 and 50% of the
cumulative
l i undersized
d i d weight
i h plot,
l respectively
i l and
d mean
mass diameter define the particle size distribution.
Page 119 of 205
539
Rev.1
540
Bl di
Blending
S 1999
999
IES
g or mixing
g operations
p
y Blending
can be done either dryy or wet.
The correct sequence of the given processes in

manufacturing by powder metallurgy is
(a) Blending,
Blending compacting,
compacting sintering and sizing
(b) Blending, compacting, sizing and sintering
(c) Compacting, sizing, blending and sintering
((d)) Compacting,
p
g blending,
g sizing
g and sintering
g
y Lubricants such as graphite or stearic acid improve the flow
characteristics and compressibility at the expense of reduced

st e gt .
strength.
y Binders
produce
the
reverse
effect
of
lubricants.
Thermoplastics or a watersoluble methylcellulose binder is

used.
y Most lubricants or binders are not wanted in the final
product and are removed ( volatilized or burned off)

541
IES 2013 C
ti
l
IES2013Conventional
542
Compacting
Compacting
Why lubricants are used to mix the metal powders?
543
y Powder is pressed into a green compact
[
[2marks]
k ]
y 40 to
t 1650
6 MPa
MP pressure (Depends
(D
d on materials,
t i l
product complexity)
p
p
y)
y Still very porous, ~70% density
y May be done cold or warm (higher density)
544
Sintering
545
S 2002
IES
( )
GATE2010(PI)
y Controlledatmosphere:nooxygen
In powder metallurgy, sintering of a component
y Heatto0.75
Heatto0 75*Tmelt
Tmelt
(a) Improves strength and reduces hardness
y Particlesbindtogether,diffusion,recrystalization
andgraingrowthtakesplace.
(b) Reduces brittleness and improves strength
y Partshrinksinsize
546
The rate of production of a powder metallurgy part

depends on
(a) Flow rate of powder
(b) Green strength of compact
(c) Apparent density of compact
((d)) Compressibility
p
y of p
powder
(c) Improves hardness and reduces toughness
y Densityincreases,upto95%
(d) Reduces
R d
porosity
i and
d increases
i
bi l
brittleness
y Strengthincreases,Brittlenessreduces,Porosity
decreases Toughnessincreases
decreases.Toughnessincreases.
547
Page 120 of 205
548
Rev.1
549
C ld I t ti Pressing(CIP)
P
i (CIP)
ColdIsostatic
y The
Th powder
d is
i contained
t i d in
i a flexible
fl ibl mould
ld made
d off
y Metal powders are compacted by many methods,
but sintering is required to achieve which

property?
t ? What
Wh t is
i hot
h t isostatic
i
t ti pressing?
i ?
ColdIsostatic Pressing
rubber or some other elastomer material

y The flexible mould is then pressurized by means of
highpressure water or oil. (same pressure in all
[
[2Marks]
]
d
directions)
)
y No lubricant is needed
y High
g aand
du
uniform
o de
density
s ty ca
can be ac
achieved
e ed
550
551
552
Hot Isostatic Pressing(HIP)

HotIsostatic
Pressing (HIP)
S 1997
99
IAS
y Is carried out at high temperature and pressure using a
) C
Assertion ((A):
Close dimensional tolerances are
NOT possible with isostatic pressing of metal
powder in powder metallurgy technique.
Reason (R): In the process of isostatic pressing, the
pressure is equal in all directions which permits
uniform density of the metal powder.
gas such as argon.

y The
Th flexible
fl ibl mould
ld is
i made
d off sheet
h t metal.
t l (Due
(D to
t high
hi h
temperature)
p
y Compaction
and
sintering
are
completed
simultaneously.
y Used
U d in
i the
th production
d ti off billets
bill t off superalloys,
ll
hi h
high
speed
p
steels, titanium, ceramics, etc, where the integrity
g y
of the materials is a prime consideration
553
554
555
ForIESOnly
Metal Injection Moulding

MetalInjectionMoulding
Spray Deposition
SprayDeposition
g
y Fine metal p
powders are blended with an organic
binder such
generation process.
y Spray deposition is a shape
shapegeneration
as a polymer or a waxbased binder.
y Basic components of a spray deposition process
y Whatisisostatic pressingofmetalpowders?
y Whatareitsadvantage?
[2Marks]
y The powderpolymer
powder polymer mixture is then injected into split dies,
dies
(a) Atomiser
(b) Spray chamber with inert atmosphere
(c) Mould for producing preforms.
preheated to remove the binder and, finally, sintered.

y Volumetric shrinkage during sintering is very high.
y After
Af the
h metall is
i atomised,
i d it
i is
i deposited
d
i d into
i
a cooler
l
preformed mould.
mechanical properties same as wrought product

556
y Complex shapes that are impossible with conventional
compaction.
y Good
G d dimensional
di
i
l accuracy.
y Achieve density above 99%, fine grain structure,

ForIESOnly
Page 121 of 205
557
y High
g p
production rate.
y Good mechanical properties.
Rev.1
558
ForIESOnly
ForIESOnly
Roll Compaction
RollCompaction
E l i C
ExplosiveCompaction
ti
y Powders are compacted by passing between two rolls
g Energy
gy Rate Forming
g ((HERF)) or Explosive
p
g
y High
Forming
rotating in opposite direction.
of the metal powders at rather higher velocities 3500 m/s

p
of compaction
p
during
g the
than that of the usual speed
ordinary die compacting.
y The powders are put in a container and are forced by a
ram between two rotating rolls, and is compacted into a

continuous strip at speeds of up to 0.5
0 5 m/s.
m/s
y Higher
Hi h green densities
d iti
y Sheet metal for electrical and electronic components

p
and
y Higher
g e ssintered
te ed st
strength
e gt
for coins can be made by this process.
y More uniform density distribution
y The rolling processes can be carried out at room or at
elevated temperature.
559
560
561
ForIESOnly
ISRO 2013
ISRO2013
LiquidPhaseSintering
y During sintering a liquid phase,
phase from the lower MP
component, may exist

y Alloying
All i may take
t k place
l
att the
th particleparticle
ti l
ti l interface
i t f
y Molten component may surround the particle that has
not melted
y High
g compact
p densityy can be q
quicklyy attained
y Important variables:
y Nature of alloy,
alloy molten component/particle wetting,
wetting
capillary action of the liquid
Following
powder
F ll i is
i a process used
d to
t form
f
d metal
t l to
t
shape
p
(a) Sintering
(b) Explosive Compacting
(c) Isostatic Molding
(d) All of these
562
P d ti
f
t
Productionofmagnets
Ad t
Advantages
y Goodtolerancesandsurfacefinish
y AlNiFeisusedforpermanentmagnets
y Highlycomplexshapesmadequickly
y Sinteringisdoneinawirecoiltoalignthemagnetic
Si t i i d
i i ilt li th
ti
y Canproduceporouspartsandhardtomanufacture
C d
t dh dt
f t
polesofthematerial
y H2 isusedtorapidlycoolthepart(tomaintainmagnetic
alignment)
y Totalshrinkageisapproximately37%(foraccurateparts
anextrasinteringstepmaybeaddedbeforemagnetic
g p
y
g
alignment)
y Thesinteringtemperatureis600
Thesinteringtemperatureis600CinH
CinH2
materials(e.g.cementedoxides)
y Poresinthemetalcanbefilledwithother
materials/metals
y Surfacescanhavehighwearresistance
y Porositycanbecontrolled
y Lowwaste
y Automationiseasy
A t
ti i
565
y For high tolerance parts, a sintering part is put back into
a die and repressed. In general this makes the part more

accurate with a better surface finish.
y A part has many voids that can be impregnated. One
method is to use an oil bath.
bath Another method uses
vacuum first, then impregnation.
y A partt surface
f
can be
b infiltrated
i filt t d with
ith a low
l melting
lti point
i t
metal to increase density, strength, hardness, ductility
and
d impact
i
t resistance.
i t
y Plating, heat treating and machining operations can also
be used.
563
50:50Fe Alalloysisusedformagneticparts
y 50:50FeAlalloysisusedformagneticparts
F t
f PM
d t
FeaturesofPMproducts
Page 122 of 205
564
Ad t
Advantages
Contd.
y Physicalpropertiescanbecontrolled
y Variationfromparttopartislow
p
p
y Hardtomachinemetalscanbeusedeasily
y Nomoltenmetals
y Noneedformany/anyfinishingoperations
y Permitshighvolumeproductionofcomplexshapes
y Allowsnontraditionalalloycombinations
y
566
y Goodcontroloffinaldensity
Rev.1
567
Di d t
Disadvantages
S 2007
200
IES
( )
GATE 2009(PI)
Which of the following process is used to
manufacture products with controlled porosity?
(a) Casting
( ) welding
(b)
y Metalpowdersdeterioratequicklywhenstored
What are the advantages of powder metallurgy?

1. Extreme purity product
2. Low
L labour
l b
costt
3. Low equipment cost.
Select the correct answer using the code given below
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
improperly
y Fixedandsetupcostsarehigh
y Partsizeislimitedbythepress,andcompressionofthe
powderused.
d d
y Sharpcornersandvaryingthicknesscanbehardto
produce
y Nonmoldablefeaturesareimpossibletoproduce.
p
p
(c) formation
(d) Powder metallurgy
568
IES 2012
IES
569
S 2006
IES
) Parts made byy powder

p
gy do not
Statement ((I):
metallurgy
have as good physical properties as parts casted.
) Particle shape
p in p
powder metallurgy
gy
Statement ((II):
influences the flow characteristic of the powder.
((a)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are
S 2004
200
IES
Which of the following are the limitations of

powder metallurgy?
1 High tooling and equipment costs.
1.
costs
2. Wastage of material.
3. It cannot be automated.
4. Expensive
4
p
metallic p
powders.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) Only 1 and 2
(b) Only 3 and 4
(c) Only 1 and 4
(d) Only 1, 2 and 4
571
Applications
IES 2010
IES2010
Consider the following parts:
1. Grinding wheel
2. Brake lining
3 Self
3.
Selflubricating
lubricating bearings
Which of these parts are made by powder
metallurgy
ll
technique?
h i
?
((a)) 1,, 2 and 3
((b)) 2 onlyy
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 2 only
574
Consider the following factors:

1. Size and shape that can be produced economically
2. Porosity
P
it off the
th parts
t produced
d d
3. Available press capacity
4. High density
Which of the above are limitations of powder
metallurgy?
(a) 1,
1 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
572
y Oilimpregnated bearings made from either iron or
copper alloys for home appliance and automotive

applications
y P/M filters can be made with pores of almost any size.
y Pressure or flow regulators.
regulators
y Small gears, cams etc.
y Products
P d
where
h
the
h combined
bi d properties
i off two or more
metals (or both metals and nonmetals) are desired.
y Cementedcarbidesareproducedbythecold
compactionoftungstencarbidepowderinabinder,such
ascobalt(5to12%),followedbyliquidphasesintering.
570
Page 123 of 205
573
S 1998
998
IAS
575
Throwaway tungsten
manufactured by
(a) Forging
(c) Powder metallurgy
carbide
(b)
(d)
tip
tools
are
Brazing
Extrusion
Rev.1
576
S 2009
IES
Which
Whi h off the
th following
f ll i cutting
tti tool
t l bits
bit are made
d by
b
The binding material used in cemented carbide

cutting
tti tools
t l is
i
(a) graphite
(b) tungsten
((c)) nickel
(d) cobalt
powder metallurgy
p
gy p
process?
(a) Carbon steel tool bits
(b)
Stellite tool bits
(c) Ceramic tool bits
(d)
HSS tool bits
S 2003
IAS
( )
GATE 2011(PI)
577
S 1997
99
IES
Which of the following are produced by powder

metallurgy process?
1 Cemented carbide dies
1.
2. Porous bearings
3. Small magnets
4. Parts with intricate shapes
4
p
Codes:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
578
579
P
Si t i
Pre
Sintering
S 2001
200
IES
Which of the following components can be

manufactured by powder metallurgy methods?
1 Carbide tool tips
1.
2
2.
Bearings
3. Filters
4.
Brake linings
((a)) 1, 3 and 4 ((b)) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Carbide
tipped cutting tools are manufactured by
Carbidetipped
powder metal technology process and have a
composition of
(a) ZirconiumTungsten (35% 65%)
(b) Tungsten
T
t carbideCobalt
bid C b lt (90%
( % 10%)
%)
(c) Aluminium oxide Silica (70% 30%)
(d) NickelChromium Tungsten (30% 15% 55%)
580
S 2003
IAS
In parts produced by powder metallurgy process,
presintering is done to
(a) Increase the toughness of the component
(b) Increase the density of the component
(c) Facilitate bonding of nonmetallic particles
((d)) Facilitate machining
g of the p
part
y If a partt made
it will
d by
b PM needs
d some machining,
hi i
ill be
b
rather veryy difficult if the material is veryy hard and

strong. These machining operations are made easier by
the presintering operation which is done before
sintering
i t i operation.
ti
581
582
R
i
Repressing
I filt ti
Infiltration
y Repressing
is
the
R
i
i performed
f
d to
t increase
i
th density
d it and
d
y Component
meltingtemperature
C
t is
i dipped
di
d into
i t a low
l
lti t
t
alloyy liquid
q
improve
p
the mechanical p
properties.
p
y Further improvement is achieved by resintering.
y The liquid would flow into the voids simply by capillary
action, thereby decreasing the porosity and improving

the
h strength
h off the
h component.
y The process is used quite extensively with ferrous parts
using copper as an infiltrate but to avoid erosion, an alloy

583
Page 124 of 205
584
of copper containing iron and manganese

Rev.1is often used.
585
I
ti
Impregnation
Oil i
dP
B
B i
OilimpregnatedPorousBronzeBearings
GATE2011
y Impregnation is similar to infiltration
The
h operation in which
h h oill is permeated
d into the
h
y PM component is kept in an oil bath. The oil penetrates
pores of a powder metallurgy product is known
into the voids by capillary forces and remains there.

there
y The oil is used for lubrication of the component when
necessary. During
D i the
th actual
t l service
i conditions,
diti
th oil
the
il is
i
released slowly to provide the necessary lubrication.
y The components can absorb between 12% and 30% oil by
volume.
y It is being used on P/M selflubricating bearing
p
since the late 1920's.
9
components
as
(a) mixing
(b) sintering
(c) impregnation
(d) Infiltration
586
S 1996
996
IAS
587
In powder metallurgy, the operation carried out to

improve the bearing property of a bush is called
(a) infiltration (b) impregnation
(c) plating
(d) heat treatment
589
S 2007
200
IAS
592
The process of impregnation in powder metallurgy

technique is best described by which of the following?
(a) After sintering operation of powder metallurgy,
metallurgy rapid
cooling is performed to avoid thermal stresses.
(b) Low
L
melting
lti point
i t metal
t l is
i filled
fill d in
i the
th pores off a
sintered powder metallurgy product
(c) Liquid oil or grease is filled in the pores of a sintered
powder metallurgy product
(d) During sintering operation of powder metallurgy,
p heating
g is p
performed to avoid sudden p
produce of
rapid
high internal pressure due to volatilization of lubricant
590
S 2004
200
IAS
Consider the following basic steps involved in the

production of porous bearings:
1 Sintering
1.
2. Mixing
3. Repressing
4. Impregnation
4
p g
5. Colddiecompaction
Which one of the following is the correct sequence of the
above steps?
IES 2014
IES
S 1998
998
IES
Which one of the following processes is performed

in powder metallurgy to promote selflubricating
properties in sintered parts?
(a) Infiltration (b) Impregnation
( ) Plating
(c)
Pl ti
(d) Graphitization
G hiti ti
588
The following are the constituent steps in the

process of powder metallurgy:
1 Powder conditioning
1.
2. Sintering
3. Production of metallic powder
4. Pressing
4
g or compacting
p
g into the desired shape
p
Indentify the correct order in which they have to be
performed and select the correct answer using the codes
given below:
(a) 1234
1234
(b) 3142
3142
(c) 2413
(d) Page
4321
125 of 205
593
591
S 2001
200
IES
Match
List
(Components)
with
List
II
ListII
ListII
(Manufacturing Processes) and select the correct
List I
List II
A Car
A.
C body
b d (metal)
( t l) 1.
M hi i
Machining
B. Clutch lining
2.
Casting
C. Gears
3.
Sheet metal pressing
D. Engine block
4.
Powder metallurgy
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 3
(a)
4
2
1
(b) 4
3
1
2
(c) 4
3
2
1
(d) 3 Rev.1
4
1
2594
GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE2008(PI)
Matchthefollowing
Group 1
P Mulling
P.Mulling
Q.Impregnation
R.Flashtrimming
l h
S.Curing
g
Group2
1 Powdermetallurgy
1.Powdermetallurgy
2.Injection moulding
3.ProcessingofFRPcomposites
f
4.Sandcasting
g
( )
(a)P
4,Q
4,
Q 3,
3,R 2,S
,
1
(c)P 2,Q 1,R 4,S 3
y Explain
are blended.
E l i why
h metal
t l powders
d
bl d d Describe
D
ib
what happens
pp
during
g sintering.
g [[IES2010,, 2 Marks]]
Enumerate the steps involved in powder

powder metallurgy
metallurgy
process. Discuss these steps. Name the materials used
in powder
powder metallurgy
metallurgy.. What are the limitations of
powder metallurgy?
[IES2005, 10 Marks]
( )
(b)P
2,Q
, Q 4,
4,R 3,
3,S 1
(d)P 4,Q 1,R 2,S 3
595
596
598
599
597
WorkbookCh12:PowderMetallurgy
gy
Q. No
1
Option
D
Q. No
5
Option
C
2
3
B
C
6
7
B
D
Page 126 of 205
Rev.1
Introduction
y Cementedcarbides,
y Success in metal cutting depends on selection of the
CuttingToolMaterials
BySKMondal
proper cutting tool (material and geometry) for a given

work material.
y A wide range
g of cutting
g tool materials is available with
a variety of properties, performance capabilities, and
cost.
y These include:
y High carbon Steels and low/medium alloy steels,
steels
y Highspeed steels,
y Cast cobalt
b l alloys,
ll
y Castcarbides,
Castcarbides
y Coatedcarbides,
y Coatedhighspeedsteels,
dh h
d
l
y Ceramics,
y Cermets,
y Whiskerreinforcedceramics,
Whiskerreinforcedceramics
y Sialons,
y Sinteredpolycrystallinecubicboronnitride(CBN),
d l
ll
b b
d (
)
y Sinteredpolycrystallinediamond,andsinglecrystal
naturaldiamond.
2
Contd
Carbon Steels
CarbonSteels
y Limited tool life. Therefore, not suited to mass
production.
production
y Can be formed into complex shapes for small production
runs
y Low cost
y Suited
S i d to hand
h d tools,
l and
d wood
d working
ki
y Carbon content about 0.9 to 1.35% with a hardness
FIGURE:Improvementsincuttingtoolmaterialshavereduced
machiningtime.
ABOUT 62
6 C Rockwell
R k ll
y Maximum cutting speeds about 8 m/min. dry and used
upto 250oC
y The hot hardness value is low. This is the major factor in
tooll life.
lif
4
S 1997
99
IAS
Highspeedsteel
Assertion (A): Cutting tools made of high carbon

steel have shorter tool life.
Reason(R): During machining,
machining the tip of the cutting
tool is heated to 600/700C which cause the tool tip
to lose its hardness.
hardness
l
ti off A
Fig.Productivityraisedbycuttingtoolmaterials
y These
steels
metals
Th
t l are used
d for
f cutting
tti
t l att a much
h
higher cutting speed than ordinary carbon tool steels.

y The high speed steels have the valuable property of
retaining their hardness even when heated to red heat.
y Most of the high speed steels contain tungsten as the
y g element, but other elements like cobalt,
chief alloying
chromium, vanadium, etc. may be present in some
p p
proportion.
Page 127 of 205
Rev.1
9
Contd
IES 2013
IES2013
y WithtimetheeffectivenessandefficiencyofHSS
(too s) a d t e app cat o a ge e e g adua y

(tools)andtheirapplicationrangeweregradually
enhancedbyimprovingitspropertiesandsurface
conditionthrough
y Refinementofmicrostructure
y AdditionoflargeamountofcobaltandVanadiumto
g
increasehothardnessandwearresistance
respectively
y Manufacturebypowdermetallurgicalprocess
y Surfacecoatingwithheatandwearresistive
g
materialslikeTiC ,TiN ,etcbyChemicalVapour
Deposition(CVD)orPhysicalVapourDeposition
(PVD)
Vanadium in high speed steels:

((a)) Has a tendencyy to p
promote decarburization
(b) Form very hard carbides and thereby increases the
wear resistance of the tool
(c) Helps in achieving high hot hardness
(d) Has
H a tendency
d
to promote retention
i off Austenite
A
i
10
1841Highspeedsteel
chromium and 1 per cent vanadium.
y It is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool
steels.
y It is widely used for drills, lathe, planer and shaper
g cutters, reamers, broaches, threading
g
tools, milling
dies, punches, etc.
Thebladeofapowersawismadeof
Th bl d f
i d f
(a) Boronsteel
(b) Highspeedsteel
(c) Stainlesssteel
(d) Malleablecastiron
16
12
IES2007
Thecorrectsequenceofelementsof1841HSS
Th
t
f l
t f 8
HSS
toolis
( ) W,Cr,V
(a)
(b) Mo,Cr,V
(c) Cr,Ni,C
(d) Cu,Zn,Sn
Cu Zn Sn
13
IES1993
Whichofthefollowingprocessescanbeusedfor
productionthin,hard,heatresistantcoatingatTiN,
onHSS?
1. Physicalvapour deposition.
Sinteringunderreducingatmosphere.
te g u de educ g at osp e e.
2.. S
3. Chemicalvapour depositionwithposttreatment
4. Plasmaspraying.
Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelow:
Codes:
(a) 1and3
(b) 2and3
(c) 2and4
(d) 1and4
11
IES2003
y This
4 per centt
Thi steel
t l contains
t i 18
8 per centt tungsten,
t
t
IAS1997
Cuttingtoolmaterial1841HSShaswhichoneof
C tti t l t i l 8
HSSh hi h
f
thefollowingcompositions?
( ) 18%W,4%Cr,1%V
(a)
( ) 18%Cr,4%W,1%V
(b)
(c) 18%W,4%Ni,1%V
(d) 18%Cr,4%Ni,1%V
14
15
Molybdenumhighspeedsteel
Superhighspeedsteel
y This
6 per centt
Thi steel
t l contains
t i 6 per centt tungsten,
t
t
y This
called
Thi steel
t l is
i also
l
ll d cobalt
b lt high
hi h speed
d steel
t l
molybdenum, 4 per cent chromium and 2 per cent

vanadium.
di
y It has excellent toughness and cutting ability.
y The molybdenum high speed steels are better and
p than other types
yp of steels.
cheaper
y It is particularly used for drilling and tapping
operations.
because cobalt is added from 2 to 15 per cent, in order

t increase
to
i
th cutting
the
tti
efficiency
ffi i
especially
i ll att high
hi h
temperatures.
y This steel contains 20 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent
chromium, 2 per cent vanadium and 12 per cent cobalt.
Page 128 of 205
17
Rev.1
18
IES1995
IES2000
Thecompositionsofsomeofthealloysteelsareas
under:
1 18W4Cr1V
1.
2. 12Mo1W4Cr1V
3. 6Mo6W4Cr1V
6M 6W C V
4. 18W8Cr1V
Thecompositionsofcommonlyusedhighspeedsteels
wouldinclude
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and3
(c) 1and4
(d) 1and3
Percentageofvariousalloyingelementspresent
P
t
f i
ll i l
t
t
indifferentsteelmaterialsaregivenbelow:
1. 18%W;4%Cr;1%V;5%Co;0.7%C
2. 8%Mo;4%Cr;2%V;6%W;0.7%C
3. 27%Cr;3%Ni;5%Mo;0.25%C
4 18%Cr;8%Ni;0.15%C
4.
18%Cr;8%Ni;0 15%C
Whichoftheserelatetothatofhighspeedsteel?
( ) 1and3
(a)
d
(b) 1and2
d
(c) 2and3
(d) 2and4
19
IAS2001
Assertion(A):ThecharacteristicfeatureofHigh
speedSteelisitsredhardness.
Reason(R):ChromiumandcobaltinHighSpeed
promotemartensite formationwhenthetooliscold
worked.
(a) BothAandRareindividuallytrueandRisthecorrect
explanationofA
( ) AistruebutRisfalse
(c)
Ai
b Ri f l
22
Castcobaltalloys/Stellite
y Cast
cobalt
are cobaltrich,
carbon
C
b l alloys
ll
b l i h chromiumtungsten
h
i
b
y
y
y
cast alloys having properties and applications in the

intermediate range
g between highspeed
g p
steel and cemented
carbides.
Although comparable in roomtemperature hardness to high
speed
d steell tools,
l cast cobalt
b l alloy
ll tools
l retain
i their
h i hardness
h d
to
a much higher temperature. Consequently, they can be used at
higher
g
cutting
g speeds
p
((25%
5 higher)
g ) than HSS tools.
Cutting speed of up to 80100 fpm can be used on mild steels.
Cast cobalt alloys
y are hard as cast and cannot be softened or
heat treated.
Cast cobalt alloys contain a primary phase of Corich solid
solution strengthened by
b Cr and W and dispersion hardened by
b
complex hard, refractory carbides of W and Cr.
25
Contd
ThemainalloyingelementsinhighspeedSteelin
Th i ll i l
t i hi h
dSt li
orderofincreasingproportionare
( ) Vanadium,chromium,tungsten
(a)
(b) Tungsten,titanium,vanadium
g
(c) Chromium,titanium,vanadium
(d) Tungsten,chromium,titanium
Tungsten chromium titanium
20
IAS1994
Assertion(A):Forhighspeedturningofmagnesium
Assertion(A):Forhigh speedturningofmagnesium
alloys,thecoolantorcuttingfluidpreferrediswater
misciblemineralfattyoil.
Reason(R):Asarule,waterbasedoilsarerecommended
forhighspeedoperationsinwhichhightemperaturesare
generatedduetohighfrictionalheat Waterbeingagood
generatedduetohighfrictionalheat.Waterbeingagood
coolant,theheatdissipationisefficient.
((a)) BothAandRareindividuallytrueandRisthecorrect
y
explanationofA
(b) BothAandRareindividuallytruebutRisnot thecorrect
explanationofA
l
i fA
IES1992
21
IAS 2013Main
CompareHSSandceramictoolswithregardtotheir
applicationinhighspeedmachining.
23
y Other elements added include V, B, Ni, and Ta.

y Tools of cast cobalt alloys are generally cast to shape and
finished
f
h d to size by
b grinding.
d
y They are available only in simple shapes, such as single
point
i t tools
t l and
d saw blades,
bl d
b
because
off limitations
li it ti
i the
in
th
casting process and expense involved in the final shaping
(grinding). The high cost of fabrication is due primarily to
the high hardness of the material in the ascast condition.
y Materials machinable with this tool material include plain
p
carbon steels, alloy steels, nonferrous alloys, and cast iron.
y Cast cobalt alloys are currently being phased out for
cuttingtool applications because of increasing costs,
shortages of strategic raw materials (Co, W, and Cr), and
the development of other,
other superior tool materials at lower
cost.
Page 129 of 205
26
24
IES2011
Stellite is a nonferrous
non ferrous cast alloy composed of:
(a) Cobalt, chromium and tungsten
(b) Tungsten, vanadium and chromium
((c)) Molybdenum,
y
tungsten
g
and chromium
(d)Tungsten, molybdenum, chromium and vanadium
Rev.1
27
CementedCarbide
IAS 2013Main
y Cemented carbide tool materials based on TiC have
y Carbides,
which
alloys,
are also
called,
C bid
hi h are nonferrous
f
ll
l
ll d
Whatarethedesirablepropertieswhileselectingatool
materialformetalcuttingapplications?
y
y
sintered (or cemented) carbides because they are

manufactured by powder metallurgy techniques.
techniques
Most carbide tools in use today are either straight
g
carbide ((WC)) or multicarbides of WTi or W
tungsten
TiTa, depending on the work material to be machined.
Cobalt is the binder.
These tool materials are much harder, are chemically more
stable, have better hot hardness, high stiffness, and lower
fi i
friction,
and
d operate at higher
hi h cutting
i speeds
d than
h do
d HSS.
HSS
They are more brittle and more expensive and use strategic
metals
t l (W,
(W Ta,
T Co)
C ) more extensively.
t i l
29
Contd
28
30
Contd
IES1995
y Speeds up to 300 fpm are common on mild steels
Thestraightgradesofcementedcarbidecutting
toolmaterialscontain
(a) Tungstencarbideonly
(b) Tungstencarbideandtitaniumcarbide
(c) Tungstencarbideandcobalt
(d) Tungstencarbideandcobaltcarbide
T
t bid d b lt bid
y Hot hardness properties are very good

y Coolants
C l t and
d lubricants
l bi
t can be
b used
d to
t increase
i
t l
tool
life, but are not required.

y Special alloys are needed to cut steel
31
Contd
S 1994
99
IAS
Assertion (A): Cemented carbide tool tips are
produced by powder metallurgy.
Reason (R): Carbides cannot be melted and cast.
cast
l
ti off A
((c)) A is true but R is false
bee
e oped, p
a y for
o
auto industry
dust y
been de
developed,
primarily
applications using predominantly Ni and Mo as a
binder. These are used for higherspeed (> 1000
ft/min) finish machining of steels and some malleable
cast irons.
y Cemented carbide tools are available in insert form in
many different shapes; squares, triangles, diamonds,
and
d rounds.
d
y Compressive strength is high compared to tensile
strength,
t
th therefore
th f
th bits
the
bit are often
ft brazed
b
d to
t steel
t l
shanks, or used as inserts in holders.
y These
Th
i
inserts
t may often
ft have
h
negative
ti rake
k angles.
l
34
32
Tablebelowshowsdetailgroupingofcementedcarbidetools
ThestandardsdevelopedbyISOforgroupingofcarbidetools
andtheirapplicationrangesaregiveninTablebelow.
ISO Code
Colour Code
ISO
Application
group
Application
For machining long chip forming

common materials like plain carbon
and low alloy steels
For machining long or short chip

forming ferrous materials like
Stainless steel
33
For machining short chipping,

ferrous and nonferrous material
and
d non metals
t l like
lik Cast
C t IIron,
Brass
Page
130etc.
of 205
35
Material
Process
P01
Steel Steel castings

Steel,
Precision and finish machining,

machining high speed
P10
Steel, Steel castings
P20
Steel, steel castings,

malleable cast iron
Turning, threading, and milling high speed,

small chips
Turning, milling, medium speed with small chip
section
P30

malleable cast iron
Turning, milling, medium speed with small chip

section
P40
Steel and steel casting

with sand inclusions
Turning planning
Turning,
planning, low cutting speed
speed, large chip
section
P50
Steel and steel castings Operations requiring high toughness turning,

of medium or low tensile planning, shaping at low cutting speeds
strength
Rev.1
36
K01
K10
K20
K30
K40
M10
M20
M30
M40
Hard grey C.l., chilled casting,

Turning, precision turning and boring, milling,
Al. alloys with high silicon
scraping
Grey
C.l.
hardness
> 220 HB
HB.
Turning,
milling,
boring,
reaming,
broaching,
G
C
l h
d
T i
illi
b i
i
b
hi
Malleable C.l., Al. alloys
scraping
containing Si
Grey C.l.
C l hardness up to 220
Turning milling
Turning,
milling, broaching,
broaching requiring high
HB
toughness
Soft grey C.l. Low tensile
Turning, reaming under favourable conditions
strength steel
Soft non-ferrous metals
Turning milling etc.
Turning, milling, medium cutting speed and medium
manganese steel, grey C.l.
chip section
Steel casting,
casting austentic steel,
steel Turning,
Turning milling
milling, medium cutting speed and medium
manganese steel,
chip section
spherodized C.l., Malleable
C.l.
Steel, austenitic steel,
Turning, milling, planning, medium cutting speed,
spherodized C.l. heat
medium or large chip section
resisting alloys
f turning, specially in automatic
Free cutting steel, low tensile
Turning, profile
strength steel, brass and light
machines.
alloy
37
IES1999
Ceramics
MatchListI(ISOclassificationofcarbidetools)withList
M hLi I(ISO l ifi i f bid
l ) i hLi
II(Applications)andselectthecorrectanswerusingthe
codesgivenbelowtheLists:
g
ListI
ListII
A. P10
1.
Nonferrous,roughingcut
g g
B. P50
2.
Nonferrous,finishingcut
C. K10
3.
Ferrousmaterial,roughingcut
D. K50
4.
Ferrousmaterial,finishingcut
Code: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 4
(a)
3
1
2
( )
(b)
3
4
2
1
(c) 4
3
2
1
(d)
3
4
1
2
y Ceramics
C
i are essentially
i ll alumina
l i ( Al2O3 ) based
b d high
hi h
ceramic
i turning.
i
y The main problems of ceramic tools are their low
strength, poor thermal characteristics, and the
tendency to chipping.
y They are not suitable for intermittent cutting or for low
g speeds.
p
cutting
y Very high hot hardness properties
y Often used as inserts in special holders.
holders
Comparisonofimportantpropertiesofceramicandtungstencarbidetools 40
y
y
y
technique this material is very tough but prone to builtup

edge formation in machining steels
Developing SIALON deriving beneficial effects of Al2O3
and
d Si3N4
S
Adding carbide like TiC (5 ~ 15%) in Al2O3 powder to
i
impart
t toughness
t
h
and
d thermal
th
l conductivity
d ti it
Reinforcing oxide or nitride ceramics by SiC whiskers, which
enhanced strength,
strength toughness and life of the tool and thus
productivity spectacularly.
Toughening Al2O3 ceramic by adding suitable metal like
silver which also impart thermal conductivity and self
gp
property;
p y this novel and inexpensive
p
tool is still
lubricating
in experimental stage.
43
Contd
39
Contd
38
y It is possible to get mirror finish on cast iron using
y Introducing nitride ceramic (Si3N4) with proper sintering
refractory materials introduced specifically for high

speed machining of difficult to machine materials and
cast iron.
y These can withstand very high temperatures,
temperatures are
chemically more stable, and have higher wear
resistance than the other cutting tool materials.
materials
y In view of their ability to withstand high temperatures,
they can be used for machining at very high speeds of
the order of 10 m/s.
y Theycanbeoperatedatfromtwotothreetimesthe
cuttingspeedsoftungstencarbide.
y Through last few years remarkable improvements in
strength and toughness and hence overall performance

of ceramic tools could have been possible by several
means which include;
y Sinterability,
microstructure,
strength
and
toughness of Al2O3 ceramics were improved to
some extent by adding TiO2 and MgO,
y Transformation
T
f
i
toughening
h i
b adding
by
ddi
appropriate
i
amount of partially or fully stabilised zirconia in
Al O powder,
Al2O3
d
y Isostatic and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) these are
very effective but expensive route.
41
Contd
y Cutting fluid, if applied should in flooding with
copious quantity of fluid,

fluid to thoroughly wet the entire
machining zone, since ceramics have very poor
thermal shock resistance.
resistance Else,
Else it can be machined
with no coolant.
y Ceramic
C
i tools
l are used
d for
f machining
hi i
work
k pieces,
i
which have high hardness, such as hard castings, case
h d
hardened
d and
d hardened
h d
d steel.
l
y Typical products can be machined are brake discs,
brake drums, cylinder liners and flywheels.
Page 131 of 205
44
42
Contd
HighPerformanceceramics(HPC)
SiliconNitride
(i)Plain
(ii)SIALON
(iii)Whiskertoughened
Aluminatoughned by
(i)Zirconia
(ii)SiC whiskers
(iii)Metal(Sil eretc)
(iii)Metal(Silveretc)
Rev.1
45
IES 2013
IES2013
IES 2010
IES2010
Constituents of ceramics are oxides of
different materials, which are
( ) Cold
(a)
C ld mixed
i d to
t make
k ceramic
i pallets
ll t
((b)) Ground,, sintered and p
palleted to make readyy
ceramics
(c) Ground,
Ground washed with acid,
acid heated and cooled
(d) Ground, sintered, palleted and after calcining
cooled in oxygen
Sialon ceramicisusedas:
((a)Cutting
)
g tool material
(b)Creep resistant
(c)Furnacelinens
(d)Highstrength
46
IES1997
Considerthefollowingcuttingtoolmaterialsusedfor
C
id h f ll i
i
l
i l
df
metalcuttingoperationat
highspeed:
1. Tungstencarbide
2 Cementedtitaniumcarbide
2.
3. Highspeedsteel
4. Ceramic
C
i
Thecorrectsequenceinincreasingorderoftherangeof
cuttingspeedsforoptimumuseofthesematerialsis
(a) 3,1,4,2
(b) 1,3,2,4
(c) 3,1,2,4
3124
(d) 1,3,4,2
1342
52
48
IES2007
Amachinistdesirestoturnaroundsteelstockof
outsidediameter100mmat1000rpm.The
materialhastensilestrengthof75kg/mm2.The
depthofcutchosenis3mmatafeedrateof0.3
mm/rev.Whichoneofthefollowingtool
h h
f h f ll
l
materialswillbesuitableformachiningthe
componentunderthespecifiedcutting
d
h
f d
conditions?
(a) Sinteredcarbides
(b) Ceramic
((c)) HSS
((d)) Diamond
49
IAS2000
usingthecodesgivenbelowthelists:
ListI(Cuttingtools)
(
g
)
ListII(Majorconstituent)
( j
)
A. Stellite
l.
Tungsten
B. H.S.S.
2.
Cobalt
C. Ceramic
3.
Alumina
D. DCON
4.
Columbium
5.
Ti i
Titanium
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 5
1
3
4
(b)
2
1
4
3
(c) 2
1
3
4
(d) 2
5
3
4
47
IES1996
Assertion(A):Ceramictoolsareusedonlyforlight,
A
i (A) C
i
l
d l f li h
smoothandcontinuouscutsathighspeeds.
Reason(R):Ceramicshaveahighwearresistanceand
hightemperatureresistance.
(a) BothAandRareindividuallytrueandRisthe
((c)) AistruebutRisfalse
IAS1996
Whichoneofthefollowingisnotaceramic?
(a) Alumina
(b) Porcelain
(c) Whisker
(d) Pyrosil
50
51
IAS2003
CoatedCarbideTools
Atroomtemperature,whichoneofthefollowing
isthecorrectsequenceofincreasinghardnessof
thetoolmaterials?
(a) CastalloyHSSCeramicCarbide
y
(b) HHCastalloyCeramicCarbide
(c) HSSCastalloyCarbideCeramic
(d) CastalloyHSSCarbideCeramic
y Coated
the
d tools
l are becoming
b
h norm in the
h metalworking
l
k
Page 132 of 205
53
industry because coating , can consistently improve, tool

lif 200 or 300%
life
% or more.
y In cutting tools, material requirements at the surface of the
tooll need
d to be
b abrasion
b i
resistant,
i
h d and
hard,
d chemically
h i ll
inert to prevent the tool and the work material from
interacting chemically with each other during cutting.
cutting
y A thin, chemically stable, hard refractory coating of TiC,
TiN or Al2O3 accomplishes this objective.
TiN,
objective
y The bulk of the tool is a tough, shockresistant carbide that
can withstand
ith t d hightemperature
hi h t
t
plastic
l ti deformation
d f
ti
and
d
resist breakage.
Rev.1
54
Contd
y The coatings must be fine grained, & free of binders
and porosity.
porosity
y Naturally, the coatings must be metallurgically bonded
to the
h substrate.
b
y Interface coatings are graded to match the properties
of the coating and the substrate.
y The coatings
g must be thick enough
g to p
prolong
g tool life
but thin enough to prevent brittleness.
y Coatings should have a low coefficient of friction so
that the chips do not adhere to the rake face.
y Multiple coatings are used,
used with each layer imparting
its own characteristic to the tool.
55
Contd
IAS1999
y The
most
successful
combinations
are
TiN/TiC/TiCN/TiN and TiN/TiC/ Al2O3 .
y Chemical vapour
p
deposition
p
((CVD)) is the technique
q
used to coat carbides.
56
Contd
TiNCoatedHighSpeedSteel
provide as dramatic improvements in cutting speeds as
do coated carbides, with increases of 10 to 20% being
typical.
y In addition to hobs, gearshaper cutters, and drills,
g coated by TiN now includes reamers, taps,
HSS tooling
chasers, spadedrill blades, broaches, bandsaw and
circular saw blades, insert tooling, form tools, end
mills, and an assortment of other milling cutters.
Cermets
y These sintered hard inserts are made by combining cer from
y
y
y
y
y
ceramics
metall (binder)
i like
lik TiC,
TiC TiN or TiCN and
d met
from
f
(bi d )
like Ni, NiCo, Fe etc.
H d more chemically
Harder,
h i ll stable
t bl and
d hence
h
more wear resistant
i t t
More brittle and less thermal shock resistant
Wt% off binder
bi d metal
t l varies
i from
f
10 to
t 20%.
%
Cutting edge sharpness is retained unlike in coated carbide
inserts
Can machine steels at higher cutting velocity than that used for
tungsten carbide,
carbide even coated carbides in case of light cuts.
cuts
Modern cermets with rounded cutting edges are suitable for
finishing and semi
semifinishing
finishing of steels at higher speeds, stainless
steels but are not suitable for jerky interrupted machining and
GATEmaterials.
& PSUs)
61
machining ofFor-2015
aluminium(IES,
and similar
best process for coating HSS,

HSS primarily because it is a
relatively low temperature process that does not
exceed the tempering point of HSS.
HSS
y Therefore, no subsequent heat treatment of the
cutting
i tooll is
i required.
i d
y The advantage of TiNcoated HSS tooling is reduced
tool wear.
y Less tool wear results in less stock removal during
g tool
regrinding, thus allowing individual tools to be
g
more times.
reground
59
Contd
58
y Physical vapour deposition (PVD) has proved to be the
y Coated highspeed steel (HSS)

(
) does not routinely
Thecoatingmaterialsforcoatedcarbidetools,
includes
(a) TiC,TiN andNaCN
(b) TiC andTiN
(c) TiN andNaCN
(d) TiC andNaCN
57
IES 2010
IES2010
The cutting tool material required to
sustain high temperature is
(a) High carbon steel alloys
(b) Composite of lead and steel
(c) Cermet
(d) Alloy of steel, zinc and tungsten
Page 133 of 205
62
60
IES2000
Cermetsare
(a) Metalsforhightemperatureusewithceramiclike
g
p
properties
(b) Ceramicswithmetallicstrengthandluster
(c) Coatedtoolmaterials
(d) Metalceramiccomposites
M t l
i
it
Rev.1
63
Diamonds
S 2003
IES
The correct sequence of cutting tools in the
ascending order of their wear resistance is
(a) HSSCast
HSS Cast nonferrous
non ferrous alloy (Stellite)Carbide
(Stellite) Carbide
Nitride
(b) Cast
C t nonferrous
f
alloy
ll
(St llit ) HSS C bid
(Stellite)HSSCarbide
Nitride
(c) HSSCast nonferrous alloy (Stellite)Nitride
Carbide
(d) Cast nonferrous alloy (Stellite)CarbideNitride
HSS
64
( )
GATE 2009(PI)
y Diamond is the hardest of all the cutting tool materials.

y Diamond
Di
d has
h the
h following
f ll i properties:
i
y extreme hardness,
Diamond cutting tools are not recommended for
y low
l thermal
h
l expansion,
machining of ferrous metals due to
y high heat conductivity, and

y a very low coefficient of friction.
y This is used when good surface finish and dimensional accuracy
are desired.
d i d
( ) high thermal conductivity of work material

(b)
y The workmaterials on which diamonds are successfully employed
are the nonferrous

non ferrous one,
one such as copper,
copper brass,
brass zinc,
zinc aluminium
and magnesium alloys.
y On ferrous materials,
materials diamonds are not suitable because of the
diffusion of carbon atoms from diamond to the workpiece
65
Contd
material.
y Diamondtoolsofferdramaticperformance
g tools,, milling
g cutters,, reamers,, g
g wheels,, honing
g
boring
grinding
tools, lapping powder and for grinding wheel dressing.
y Due to their brittle nature, the diamond tools have poor
resistance to shock and so, should be loaded lightly.
y Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools consist of a thin layer (0.5
to 1.5 mm) of'fine grain size diamond particles sintered
together and metallurgically bonded to a cemented carbide
substrate.
substrate
y The main advantages of sintered polycrystalline tools over
natural single
singlecrystal
crystal tools are better quality,
quality greater toughness,
toughness
and improved wear resistance, resulting from the random
orientation of the diamond g
grains and the lack of large
g cleavage
g
planes.
improvementsovercarbides.Toollifeisoftengreatly
improvementsovercarbides Toollifeisoftengreatly
improved,asiscontroloverpartsize,finish,and
surfaceintegrity.
surfaceintegrity
y Positiveraketoolingisrecommendedforthevast
majorityofdiamondtoolingapplications.
majorityofdiamondtoolingapplications
y IfBUEisaproblem,increasingcuttingspeedandthe
useofmorepositiverakeanglesmayeliminateit.
f
ii k
l
li i
i
y Oxidationofdiamondstartsatabout450oCand
thereafteritcanevencrack.Forthisreasonthe
diamondtooliskeptfloodedbythecoolantduring
cutting,andlightfeedsareused.
67
Contd
70
(d) chemical affinity of tool material with iron

66
Assertion(A):Nonferrousmaterialsarebest
A
i (A) N
f
i l b
machinedwithdiamondtools.
Reason(R):Diamondtoolsaresuitableforhighspeed
machining.
68
S 1999
999
IES
Assertion(A):Diamondtoolscanbeusedathigh
A
i (A) Di
d
l
b
d hi h
speeds.
Reason(R):Diamondtoolshaveverylowcoefficient
offriction.
(c) poor tool toughness
IES1995
y Diamond tools have the applications in single point turning and
IES2001
(a) high tool hardness
Forprecisionmachiningofnonferrousalloys,diamond
ispreferredbecauseithas
1. Lowcoefficientofthermalexpansion
2. Highwearresistance
33. Highcompressionstrength
g
p
g
4. Lowfracturetoughness
(a) 1and2
(b) 1and4
(c) 2and3
(d) 3and4
Page 134 of 205
71
69
IES1992
Whichofthefollowinggiventhecorrectorderof
increasinghothardnessofcuttingtoolmaterial?
(a) Diamond,Carbide,HSS
(b) Carbide,Diamond,HSS
(c) HSS,carbide,Diamond
(d) HSS,Diamond,Carbide
HSS Di
d C bid
Rev.1
72
S 1999
999
IAS
Assertion(A):Duringcutting,thediamondtoolis
keptfloodedwithcoolant.
Reason(R):Theoxidationofdiamondstartsat
about4500C
(a)
Cubicboronnitride/Borazon
y Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the hardest
material presently available.

y It is made by bonding a 0.5 1 mm layer of
polycrystalline
p
y y
cubic boron nitride to cobalt based
carbide substrate at very high temperature and
pressure.
y It remains inert and retains high hardness and fracture
oug ess aat eelevated
e a ed machining
ac
g speeds.
toughness
y It shows excellent performance in grinding any
material of high hardness and strength.
strength
steels,hardchillcastiron,andnickel andcobalt
basedsuperalloys.
y CBNcanbeusedefficientlyandeconomicallyto
y
y
machinethesedifficulttomachinematerialsathigher
g
speeds(fivefold)andwithahigherremovalrate
(fivefold)thancementedcarbide,andwithsuperior
accuracy,finish,andsurfaceintegrity.
IES2002
Considerthefollowingtoolmaterials:
1. Carbide
2.
Cermet
3. Ceramic
4.
Borazon.
Correctsequenceofthesetoolmaterialsinincreasing
orderoftheirabilitytoretaintheirhothardnessis
( ) 1,2,3,4
(a)
(b) 1,2,4,3
(c) 2,1,3,4
(d) 2,1,4,3
Whichoneofthefollowingisthehardestcutting
toolmaterialnextonlytodiamond?
(a) Cementedcarbides
(b) Ceramics
(c) Silicon
(d) Cubicboronnitride
C bi b
it id
77
IES1994
Cubicboronnitride
(a) Hasaveryhighhardnesswhichiscomparableto
y g
p
thatofdiamond.
(b) Hasahardnesswhichisslightlymorethanthatof
HSS
(c) Isusedformakingcylinderblocksofaircraft
engines
(d) Isusedformakingopticalglasses.
I df ki ti l l
79
75
Contd
IES1994
76
IES1996
grey cast iron is 300 ~400

400 m/min
y Speed ranges for other materials are as follows:
y Hard
H d castt iron
i
( 400 BHN) : 80
(>
8 300 m/min
/ i
y Superalloys (> 35 RC) : 80 140 m/min
y Hardened steels (> 45 RC) : 100 300 m/min
y Itt iss best to use ccBN too
toolss with
t a honed
o ed o
or cchamfered
a e ed
edge preparation, especially for interrupted cuts. Like
ceramics,, cBN tools are also available onlyy in the form
of indexable inserts.
y The only limitation of it is its high cost.
cost
74
Contd
73
y CBNislessreactivewithsuchmaterialsashardened
y The operative speed range for cBN when machining
IAS1998
Cubicboronnitrideisused
(a) Asliningmaterialininductionfurnace
g
(b) Formakingopticalqualityglass.
(c) Forheattreatment
(d) Fornoneoftheabove.
Page 135 of 205
78
Whichofthefollowingtoolmaterialshavecobalt
asaconstituentelement?
1. Cementedcarbide
2.
CBN
3. Stellite
4.
UCON
C d
Codes:
(a) 1and2
(b) 1and3
(c) 1and4
(d) 2and3
80
Rev.1
81
Coronite
y Coronite is made basically by combining HSS for strength and
toughness
and
and
h
d tungsten carbides
bid for
f heat
h
d wear resistance.
i
y Microfine TiCN particles are uniformly dispersed into the matrix.
y Unlikeasolidcarbide,thecoronite
lk
ld
bd h
b d
basedtoolismadeofthree
l
d f h
layers;
y thecentralHSSorspringsteelcore
th t lHSS i t l
y alayerofcoronite ofthicknessaround15%ofthetool
diameter
y athin(2to5m)PVDcoatingofTiCN
y The coronite tools made by
b hot extrusion
e trusion followed
follo ed by
b PVD
PVD
coating of TiN or TiCN outperformed HSS tools in respect of
cutting forces,
forces tool life and surface finish.
IES1993
83
84
Considerthefollowingtoolmaterials:
1. HSS
2.
Cementedcarbide
3. Ceramics
4.
Diamond
Thecorrectsequenceofthesematerialsindecreasing
orderoftheircuttingspeedis
( ) 4,3,1,2
(a)

(b) 4,3,2,1

(c) 3,4,2,1
(d) 3,4,1,2
M t hLi t I ithLi t II d l tth
t
ListI
ListII
(Materials)
(Applications)
A. Tungstencarbide
1.
Abrasivewheels
B
B.
Sili
Siliconnitride
i id
2.
H i l
Heatingelements
C. Aluminium oxide
3.
Pipesforconveying
liquidmetals
q
D. Siliconcarbide
4.
Drawingdies
Code: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
4
1
2
(b) 4
3
2
1
(c) 3
4
2
1
(d) 4
3
1
2
Match.ListI(Cuttingtoolmaterials)withListII
M t h Li tI(C tti t l t i l ) ithLi tII
(Manufacturingmethods)andselectthecorrectanswer
ListI
ListII
A. HSS
1.
Casting
B
B.
Stellite
2
2.
Forging
C. Cementedcarbide
3.
Rolling
D. UCO
UCON
4.
4
Extrusion
5.
Powdermetallurgy
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
1
5
2
(b) 2
5
4
3
(c) 3
5
4
2
(d) 2
1
5
3
85
86
87
IES1999
Attritionwear
IES1996
y The
bonding
the
Th strong
t
b di between
b t
th chip
hi and
d tool
t l material
t i l att
Thelimittothemaximumhardnessofawork
Th li itt th
i
h d
f
k
materialwhichcanbemachinedwithHSStools
evenatlowspeedsissetbywhichoneofthe
tl
d i tb hi h
fth
followingtoolfailuremechanisms?
( ) Attrition
(a)
(b) Abrasion
(c) Diffusion
(d) Plasticdeformationundercompression.
Plasticdeformationundercompression
y
y
Whichoneofthefollowingisnotasynthetic
abrasivematerial?
(a) SiliconCarbide
(b) Aluminium Oxide
(c) TitaniumNitride
(d) CubicBoronNitride
82
IES2000
IES2003
MatchListIwithListITandselectthecorrectanswerusingthe
M t hLi tI ithLi tIT d l tth
t
i th
codesgivenbelowthelists:
List I(CuttingtoolMaterial) List II(Major
characteristicconstituent)
h
t i ti
tit
t)
A. Highspeedsteel
1.
Carbon
B. Stellite
2.
Molybdenum
y
C. Diamond
3.
Nitride
D. Coatedcarbidetool
4.
Columbium
5
5.
Cobalt
Codes: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
1
3
5
(b)
2
5
1
3
(c) 5
2
4
3
(d)
5
4
2
3
high temperature is conducive for adhesive wear.

The adhesive wear in the rough region is called attrition
wear .
In the rough region, some parts of the worn surface are still
covered
d by
b molten
l
chip
hi and
d the
h irregular
i
l attrition
ii
wear
occurs in this region .
The irregular attrition wear is due to the intermittent
adhesion during interrupted cutting which makes a
periodic attachment and detachment of the work material
on the tool surface.
surface
Therefore, when the seizure between workpiece to tool is
broken, the small fragments of tool material are plucked
and brought away by the chip.
88
Page 136 of 205
IAS2001
IES2005
Considerthefollowingstatements:Anincreasein
thecobaltcontentinthestraightcarbidegrades
ofcarbidetools
1. Increasesthehardness.
2 Decreasesthehardness.
2.
Decreasesthehardness
3. Increasesthetransverserupturestrength
4. Lowersthetransverserupturestrength.
L
h
h
(a) 1and3
(b) 2and4
(d) 2and3
(c) 1and4
89
Rev.1
90
Ch-1 Basics of Metal Cutting: Answers with Explanations

GATE-2014
Page No.2
Slide No.3
Ans. (a)
IES-2013
Page No.2
SlideNo.4
Ans.(c)
Speed V
IES-2001
DN
1000
Page No.2
degree.
m / min
30 1000
Slide No.5
1000
m / min 94.2 m / min
Ans. (c) For cutting brass recommended rake angle is -5 to +5
IES-1995
Page No.2
Slide No.6
Ans. (a) It is true form-cutting procedure, no rake should be
ground on the tool, and the top of the tool must be horizontal and be set exactly in line with the axis of
rotation of the work; otherwise, the resulting thread profile will not be correct. An obvious disadvantage
of this method is that the absence of side and back rake results in poor cutting (except on cast iron or
brass). The surface finish on steel usually will be poor.
GATE-1995;2008
Page No.2
Slide No.7
Ans. (a) Increasing rake angle reduces the cutting force
on the tool and thus power consumption is reduced.
IES-1993
Page No.2
Slide No.8
specific pressure. Specific pressure =
Ans. (d) Negative rake angle increases the cutting force i.e.
Cutting force
feeddepth of cut
IES-2005
Page No.2
Slide No.9
Ans.(b)Carbide tips are generally given negative rake angle it is
very hard and very brittle material. Negative rake is used as carbides are brittle not due to hardness.
Hardness and brittleness is different property.
IES-2002
Page No. 3
Slide No.10
Ans.(c)Carbide tools are stronger in compression.
IES-2011 Page No. 3

Slide No.11 Ans. (b)The rake angle does not have any effect on flank but
clearance anglehas to reduce the friction between the tool flank and the machined surface.
GATE-2008(PI)
Page No.3
Slide No.12 Ans. (c) Brittle workpiece materials are hard and needs
stronger tool. Tools having zero or negative rake angle provides adequate strength to cutting tool due to
large lip angle.
IES-2007 Page No.3
Slide No.13 Cast Iron contents more than 2% carbon and due to high carbon
content very large amount of Iron Carbide is produced and hence cast iron is very hard. It needs stronger
tool. Tools having zero rake angle provides adequate strength to cutting tool due to large lip angle.
IAS-1994
Page No.3
Slide No.14
Ans. (d)
IES-2014
Page No.3
Slide No.15
Ans. (c)
IES-2012 Page No.3

Slide No.16 Ans.(d) When cutting velocity is increased, it will lead to increase
in power and temperature, and cutting force will be slightly reduce so we take as cutting forces will not
be affected by the cutting velocity.
IES-2006
Page No.3
Slide No.17
Ans. (d)All other tools are multi-point.
IES-2012 Page No.3

Slide No.18 Ans. (b)Both are correct. We have used negative rake angles for
different purpose but not for the direction of chip.
IES-2003
Page No.4
Slide No.19
Ans. (b)
Page 137 of 205
Rev.1
GATE(PI)-1990
Page No.4
Slide No.20 Ans. (c)
No of chattering per cycle 360/30 = 12
No of cycle per second = 500 /60
Therefore chattering frequency is 12 x 500/60 = 100 Hz
IAS-1996
Page No.4
Slide No.21
Ans. (a)
IAS-1995
Page No.4
Slide No.22
Ans. (a) Fy Ft cos Ft sin CS
IES-2010
Page No.4
Slide No.23
Ans. (c)
Fy Ft cos Ft sin CS
(radial
force)
Fx Ft sin Ft cos CS (axial force)and SCEA has no influence on cutting force i.e. tangential force. But
this question is not for Orthogonal Cutting it should be turning.
IES-1995 Page No.4
Slide No.24
Ans. (c)
IES-2006 Page No.4
Slide No.25
Ans.(c) Smaller point angle results in higher rake angle.
IES-2002 Page No.4

Slide No.26 Ans. (d)Strength of a single point cutting tool depends on lip
angle but lip angle also depends on rake and clearance angle.
IES-2012 Page No.4
Slide No.27
Ans. (b)
IES-2009 Page No.5

Slide No.28 Ans. (c)Large nose radius improves tool life. A sharp point on the
end of a tool is highly stressed, short lived and leaves a groove in the path of cut. There is an
improvement in surface finish and permissible cutting speed as nose radius is increases from zero value.
But too large a nose radius will induce chatter.
IES-1995
Page No.5
Slide No.29
Ans. (c) It will increase tool cutting force.
IES-1994
Page No.5
Slide No.30
Ans. (b)
IES-2009
Page No.5
Slide No.31
Ans. (b)
Slide No.32
Ans. (b)The second item is the side rake angle. Thus 6 is
IES-1993 Page No.5

theside rake angle.
ISRO-2011 Page No. 5
Slide No.33
Ans. (b)
GATE-2008 Page No. 5
Slide No.34
Ans.(d) We may use principal cutting edge angle or approach
angle = 90 -
CS . When, principal cutting edge angle =90;then S . Dont confuse with side cutting
edge angle. Side cutting edge angle is not principal cutting edge angle.
GATE-2010 (PI) Page No.5
Slide No.35
This question is out of our syllabus.
GATE-2001Page No.6
Slide No.37
Ans.(c)
tan 1
r cos
0.4cos10
tan 1
22.944
1 r sin
1 0.4sin10
GATE-2011Page No. 6
tan 1
IES-1994 Page No.6
Slide No.38
Ans. (b) r
t 0.81
0.45
tc 1.8
r cos
0.45cos12o
tan 1
25.90o
1 r sin
1 0.45sin12o
Slide No.39
Ans. (b)
Page 138 of 205
Rev.1
GATE-2014 Page No.6
Slide No.40
Ans. 2.8 to 3.0
t
f sin
0.2 sin 90o
(for turning) =
0.4
tc
tc
0.5
r cos
r cos 0
tan 1
tan 1 r tan 1 0.4
1 r sin
1 r sin 0
21.80o
tan 1
Shear strain( )= cot tan cot 21.80o tan(21.80 0)o 2.9

IES-2004 Page No.
Slide No.41
Ans.(d)
r = 0.3, 10
tan 1
r cos
0.3cos10
tan 1
17.31o
1 r sin
1 0.3sin10
shear strain ( ) = cot tan cot17.31o tan 17.31 10 3.34

o
IES-2009 Page No. 6
Slide No.42
GATE-1990(PI)Page No.6
Ans. (d)as rake angle is zero. shear strain ( ) = cot tan
Slide No.43
Ans. (a)
cot tan 12
d
cos ec 2 sec2 12 0 gives 51o
d
GATE-2012 Page No. 6
Slide No.44
Ans. (c)
r 0.4; 10
r cos
0.4 cos10
tan 1
22.94
1 r sin
1 0.4sin10
from the velocity triangle;
tan 1
VS
V
sin 90 sin 90
VS
2.5
sin 90 22.94 10 sin 90 10

VS 2.526m / s
Shear strain rate( )
VS 2.526 m / s
1.0104 105 / s
tS 25 106 m
IES-2004 Page No.6
Slide No.45
Ans. (b) actually 2,3 and 4 are correct.But best choice is (b)
IES-2006 Page No.7
Slide No.46
Ans. (c)Cutting torque decreases with increase in rake angle.
IES-2004 Page No.7
Slide No.47
Ans. (c)
IES-2004,ISRO-2009 Page No.7
Slide No.48
Ans. (a)
VC
V
sin sin 90
VC
35 sin 45
28.577m / min
sin 90 15 45
IES-2008 Page No.7
Slide No.49
Ans. (b)
Page 139 of 205
Rev.1
Cutting ratio means chip thickness ratio, r 0.75; V 60 m / min

r
t
2.4
tC
3.2 mm
tC
0.75
VC
sin
r 0.75
V sin(90 )
VC 0.75 60 45 m / min
IES-2014 Page No.7
Slide No.50Ans. (c)f = f sin = 0.2 sin 90 = 0.2 mm ; tc= 0.32 mm; cutting
ratio = chip thickness ratio = t / tc = 0.2/0.32 = 0.625 But examiner has given reciprocal value = 1.6
IES-2001 Page No.7
Slide No.51 Ans. (a) Most of the students get confused in this question.
Velocity of chip sliding along the shear plane is shear velocity (Vs) and velocity of chip along rake
face is chip velocity (Vc ).
IES-2003 Page No.7
Slide No.52
t 0.5 mm , tc 0.6 mm,

or VC
Ans. (d)
VC
t 0.5
r
V
tc 0.6
2 0.5
1.66 m / s
0.6
IAS-2003 Page No.7
Slide No.53
Ans. (a)
IAS-2002 Page No.7
Slide No.54
Ans. (a)
IAS-2000 Page No.8
Slide No.55
Ans. (d)
IAS-1998Page No.8
Slide No.56
Ans. (b)
DN
1000 60
m/ s
100 480
1000 60
m / s 2.51m / s
IAS-1995 Page No.8

Slide No.57 Ans. (b) It is orthogonal cutting means depth of cut equal
to uncut chip thickness. As depth of cut halved, uncut chip thickness is also halved and hence chip
thickness will be halved.
GATE-2009(common data S-1) Page No.8
t 0.2 mm; tc 0.4 mm; 15
Slide No.58
Ans.(c)
t
r cos
0.5cos15
0.5; tan 1
tan 1
29.02
tc
1 r sin
1 0.5sin15
Nearest option is c
GATE-2009 (common data S-2) Page No.8
V 20 m / min;
Slide No.59
Ans. (b)
VC
r 0.5 orVC 10 m / min
V
GATE-1995 Page No.8

Slide No.60 Ans. (b)It is multi-point cutter and mild steel is ductile material.
Ductile material with multipoint cutter will produce regular shaped discontinuous chip.
IES-2007Page No.8
Slide No.61
Ans. (b)
IAS-1997Page No.8
Slide No.62
Ans. (a)
GATE-2002 Page No.8

Slide No.63 Ans. (b)Low cutting speed means long chip tool contact
time. And long contact time will sufficient to form bond between chip and tool.
Page 140 of 205
Rev.1
GATE-2009 Page No.9

Slide No.64 Ans. (d)Low cutting speed means long chip tool contact time. And
long contact time will sufficient to form bond between chip and tool. This micro-weld have to break due to
relative motion between chip and tool. It will increase co-efficient of friction.
IES-1997Page No.9
Slide No.65 Ans. (d)Cast iron means brittle material and will form
discontinuous chip. So chip breaker is not needed.
Ch-2: Analysis of Metal Cutting: Answers with Explanations

ESE-2000(conventional) Page No.9
10, r 0.35, t 0.51 mm, b=3mm,
Slide No.68Ans.
y 285 N / mm 2 , 0.65
r cos
0.35 cos10
0.3669
1 r sin 1 0.35sin10
tan 1 0.3669 20.152
tan
bt
3 mm 0.51 mm
285 N / mm 2
1265.7 N
sin
sin 20.152
tan , tan 1 tan 1 0.65 33.023
FS y
From Merchant Circle:

Fs R cos R
FS
1735.6 N
cos
(i) Cutting force (Fc ): Fc R cos 1597.3 N

(ii) Radial force (Fy ) =0 [This force is present in
turning but it is orthogonal cutting]
(iii) Normal force on tool (N): N R cos 1455.2 N
(iv)Shear force (Fs ):1265.7 N
Note : Shear force on tool face is friction force ( F ) R sin 945.86 N
GATE-2010 (PI) linked S-1 Page No.9
Slide No.69
Ans.
Friction force is perpendicular to the
cutting velocity vector that means = 0
F
1( given) N 402.5 N
N
t 0.2
t 0.2 mm; tc 0.4mm, r
0.5
tc 0.4
F 402.5 N ; and
r cos
r cos 0
r 0.5.......( = 0)
1 r sin 1 r sin 0
or tan 1 r tan 1 0.5 26.565
tan
tan 1; 45
From merchant circle:
F R sin or R 402.5 N
sin 45
569.22 N
In FS and FC triangle:
Fs =Rcos 569.22 cos 45 0 26.565 N 180.0 N
Page 141 of 205
Rev.1
GATE-2011 (PI) linked S-2 Page No.9

V 2m ;
s
From the velocity triangle , applying sine rule;
Slide No.70
Ans.
VS
V
sin 90 sin 90
V
2
S
sin 90 26.565 sin 90
VS 2.2361 m
s
Heat generation at the primary shear zone
will be because of shear velocity and shear force
Heat =FS VS 180.0 N 2.2361 m / s 402.5W
GATE-2013 linked queS-1 Page No.9
Slide No.71
Ans. (a)
From Merchant Circle if cutting force ( FC ) is perpendicular to the friction force ( F ) then the rake
angle will be zero
GATE-2013 linked queS-2

From merchant circle;
Page No.9
Slide No.72
Ans. (b)
= 0, then F, N, FC , Ft will form a rectangle.

Fc N 1500 N
Ft F
GATE-2014
IAS-1999
=45 +
Page No.10
Page No.10
45
Slide No.73 Ans. (d)

Slide No.74 Ans. (b)
20 25.5
42.25
2
2
GATE-1997
Page No.10
Using Merchant Analysis:
= 45 +
Slide No.75 Ans. (c)
2
10
20 45
2
2
ESE-2005(conventional)
60
Page No.10
Slide No.76
Page 142 of 205
Ans.
Rev.1
0.5; tan 1 tan 1 0.5 26.565

using Merchant Analysis:
= 45 +
26.565
36.717
2
bt
2 mm 0.2 mm
FS y
400 N / mm 2
267.61 N
sin
sin 36.717
From merchant circle:
or 45 5
Fs R cos -
or 267.61 N R cos(36.717 26.565 10 )
or R 447.6 N
and Fc R cos -
FC 447.6 cos(26.565 10 ) 429.02 N
Ft 447.6sin(26.565 10 ) 127.61N
GATE-2008 (PI) Linked S-1 Page No.10
For minimum cutting force we have to use merchant Theory
10 , 0.7 tan or tan 1 34.99

Using Merchant Analysis
45
2 2
10 34.99
45
32.5
2
2
b 3.6 mm
Calculating shear force Fs :

bt
3.6 mm 0.25 mm
460 N / mm 2
770.52 N
sin
sin 32.5
Using Merchant Circle:
Fs y
In triangle formed by Fs , Fn and R;

Fs R cos
or 770.52 N R N cos(32.5 34.99 10 ) R 1433.7 N

In triangle formed by Ft , Fc and R;
Fc =Rcos 1433.7 cos(34.99 10 ) 1299.5 N

150
m / s 3248.8W 3.25 KW
60
IES-2010 Page No.10
Slide No.79
Ans. (b) Merchant Analysis
IES-2005 Page No.10
Slide No.80
Ans. (a)
IES-2003 Page No.10
Slide No.81
Ans.(c)
Fs Fc cos Ft sin 900cos30 600sin 30 479.4 N
Power=FC V 1299.5 N
IES-2014
Page No.11 Slide No.82
Ans. (b)
Page 143 of 205
Rev.1
Fs Fc cos Ft sin 900 cos11.31 810sin11.31 723 N

But we have to calculate without using calculator
sin11.31 = 0.2 given cos 11.31 1 sin 2 11.31 1 0.22 0.98
900 cos11.31 810sin11.31 900 0.98 810 0.2 720 N
IES-2000 Page No.11
F Fc sin Ft cos
Slide No.83 Ans. (a)
N Fc cos Ft sin
0;
. so F=F 500 N
t
N Fc 1000 N
F
500
1
N 1000 2
FC 1200 N ; Ft 500 N ; 0
Using the relations:

F FC sin Ft cos 1200sin 0 500 cos 0 500 N
N FC cos Ft sin 1200 cos 0 500sin 0 1200 N
F 500
N 1200
500
tan 1
22.6
1200
Orthogonal machining, t = depth of cut = 0.8 mm,
t c =1.5 mm, V =1m/s
tan
t 0.8 Vc Vc

tc 1.5 V
1
Vc 0.53 m / s
GATE-2011 (PI) linked S-1
Page No.11
t 0.25 mm; tc 0.75 mm; 0; b 2.5 mm; N 950 N ; Ft 475 N
t 0.25
0.33333
tc 0.75
r cos
r cos 0
r 0.33333
1 r sin 1 r sin 0
18.435
tan
To calculate shear force;

as = 0, N = Fc 950 N
Fs Fc cos Ft sin 950 cos18.435 475sin18.435 751.04 N
GATE-2011 (PI) linked S-2
Page No.11
bt
We know, FS y
;
sin
2.5 mm 0.25 mm
751.04 N y N / mm 2
sin18.435
y 379.90 N
mm 2
IFS-2012
Page No.11
Slide No.88
Ans.
Page 144 of 205
Rev.1
d t 0.1 mm, tc 0.2mm, b 5 mm, Fc 500 N , Ft 200 N , 10

To calculate co-efficient of friction:
Using relations:
F Fc sin Ft cos 500sin10 200 cos10 283.79 N
N Fc cos Ft sin 500 cos10 200sin10 457.67 N
F 283.79
0.62
N 457.67
To calculate shear strength;
r=
t 0.1 mm
0.5
tc 0.2 mm
r cos
0.5cos10
tan 1
28.334
1 r sin
1 0.5sin10
Using relation;
tan 1
Fs Fc cos Ft sin 500 cos 28.334 200sin 28.334 345.18 N

bt
Shear force(FS ) shear strength( y ) shear area
sin
bt
5 0.1
Fs y
345.18 y
sin
sin 28.334
y 327.65 N / mm 2
GATE-2006 common data Q-1

Page No.11
15; t 0.5mm; tc 0.7mm; Fc 1200 N ; Ft 200 N
Slide No.89
Ans. (b)
t 0.5
0.7142
tc 0.7
r cos
0.7142 cos15
tan 1
40.24
1 r sin
1 0.7142sin15
F Fc sin Ft cos 1200sin15 200 cos15 503.77 N
tan 1
N Fc cos Ft sin 1200 cos15 200sin15 1107.3 N

F 503.77
0.455 0.46
N 1107.3
Alternatively
Using Merchant Theory:
45
2 2
15
45
40.24 24.5
2
tan tan 24.5 0.456 0.46
Page No.11
Page 145 of 205
Slide No.90
Ans.(a)
Rev.1
V 20m / min; Fc 1200 N ; Ft 200 N ( given)

Vc
t
r
V
tc
or
Vc
0.5
20 m / min 0.7
orVC 14.286 m / min

20
m / s 400W
60
14.286
Frictional power=F VC 503.77 N
m / s 119.95W
60
Percentage of total energy dissipated as frictional power is
Total power Fc V 1200 N
F VC
119.95
100%
100% 29.988% 30%
Fc V
400
Page No.12
Slide No.91
cot tan( ) cot 40.24 tan(40.24 15 ) 1.653
Ans. (d)
IES-1995 Page No.12

Slide No.92
99% of the power consumption.
Ans. (b) Tangential force accounts for
IES-2001
Page No.12
Slide No.93
Ans. (a)
IES-1997 Page No.12

IES-1999 Page No.12
GATE-2014 Page No.12
t f sin
Slide No.94
Slide No.95
Slide No.96
Ans. (c)
Ans. (a)
Ans. 0.08 to 0.12
90 CS 90 60 30
t 0.2sin 30 0.1 mm
ESE-2003(conventional) Page No.12
Slide No.97 Ans.
Page 146 of 205
Rev.1
0;f 0.2mm / rev, d 4mm, tc 0.8mm, dia( D) 160mm, speed 400rpm

it is a turning operation,
Fc 1200 N
Fx
800
828.22 N
sin sin 75
(i) Using the force relations
Ft
F=FC sin Ft cos 1200sin 0 828.22 cos 0 828.22 N

N Fc cos Ft sin 1200 cos 0 828.22sin 0 1200 N
(ii ) it is a turning operation,
t f sin 0.32sin 75 0.3091 mm
d
4
4.1411 mm,
sin sin 75
t 0.3091 mm
Now , r
0.38638
tc
0.8 mm
r cos
r cos 0
tan 1
tan 1 r tan 1 0.38638 21.13
1 r sin
1 r sin 0
Fs Fc cos Ft sin 1200 cos 21.13 828.22sin 21.13 820.76 N
tan 1
bt
sin
F
820.76
or y s
230.93 N / mm 2
bt
4.1411 0.3091
sin
sin 21.13
DN 0.160 400
(iii ) V
3.351 m / s
60
60
Power consumption(P)=Fc V 1200 3.351W 4.021kW
Fs y
GATE-1995(conventional)
Given : =10
750
Page No.12
Slide No.98
Ans.
t f sin 0.15455mm
r
t
0.32197
tc
r cos
0.33586
1 r sin
f = 0.16 mm/rev or =18.5650
t c 0.48mm
tan =
Fc 500N
Fx
200
207N
sin sin75
F = Fc sin Ft cos 500sin10 207 cos10 290.68N
Ft
N Fc cos Ft sin 500 cos10 207sin10 456.56N

F 290.68
0.63667
N 456.56
tan 1 32.484 o
Fn Fc sin Ft cos 500sin18.565 207cos18.565 355.42N

Fs Fc cos Ft sin 500cos18.565 207sin18.565 408.08N
IAS-2003(main exam)
Page No.12
Slide No.99
Page 147 of 205
Ans.
Rev.1
Given :
b 7; CS 30; 90 30 60
t 2mm; b 2.5mm; Fc 1177 N ; Ft 560 N
Using relations:
tan tan s sin tan b cos
or tan tan s sin 60 tan 7 cos 60...........(i)
tan b tan cos sin tan i
or tan 7 tan cos 60 sin 60 tan 0
or 13.79
From (i ) s 12
Using force relations
F = FC sin Ft cos
1177 sin13.79 560 cos13.79 824.44 N
N FC cos Ft sin
1177 cos13.79 560sin13.79 1009.6 N
F 824.44

0.816
N 1009.6
tan 1 tan 1 0.816 39.214
Using Merchant Theory
= 45+
45
2 2
Using force relation:
13.79 39.214
32.288
2
2
Fs Fc cos Ft sin
1177 cos 32.288 560sin 32.288 695.87 N
Shear strength ( y )
Fs
bt
sin
695.87
74.34 N / mm 2
2 2.5
sin 32.288
GATE-2007
Page No.13
90 ; 0
t f sin f sin 90 0.24 mm
tc 0.48 mm
r
Slide No.100
Ans. (b)
t 0.24 mm
0.5
tc 0.48 mm
tan 1
GATE-2007
r cos
r cos 0
tan 1
tan 1 r tan 1 0.5 26.56
1 r sin
1 r sin 0
Page No.13
Slide No.101
Page 148 of 205
Ans.(c)
Rev.1
90 ; 0 ; 25 ; Fc 1000 N
Fx
800
800 N
sin sin 90
Using relations:
We know; Ft
F Fc sin Ft cos 1000sin 0 800 cos 0 800 N

N Fc cos Ft sin 1000 cos 0 800sin 0 1000 N
F 800
0.8
N 1000
GATE-2003(common data)S-1
Page No.13
f 0.25 mm / rev, d 0.4 mm, 10, 27.75
t f sin 0.25sin 90 0.25 mm
r cos
r cos10
tan
1 r sin 1 r sin10
r cos10
tan 27.75
1 r sin10
t 0.25
r 0.4888
tc
tc
Slide No.102
Ans. (a)
tc 0.51138 mm
GATE-2003(common data)S-2Page No.13

using Merchant Analysis;
=45+
Slide No.103
Ans. (d)
10
44.5
2
2
tan tan 44.5 0.9826
27.75 45
y 250MPa;V 180 m / min;
Page No.13
Slide No.104
Ans. (d)
Slide No.105
Ans. (b)
f 0.20 mm / rev; d 3 mm; r 0.5; 7

r cos
0.5cos 7
tan 1
27.85 28
1 r sin
1 0.5sin 7
We know;
tan 1
d b sin
.........( 90); d b & t f
t f sin
bt
0.20 3
Fs y
250
321.09 N 320 N
sin
sin 27.85
Page No.
Page 149 of 205
Rev.1
Using Merchant Theory:

7
7
28 45 41
2 2
2 2
Using Merchant Circle:
45
Fs R cos
320 R cos(28 41 7) R 681.62 N
Fc R cos 681.62 cos(41 7) 565.09 N
Ft R sin 681.62sin(41 7) 381.16 N
IES-2004
Page No.13
MRR Vfd
Slide No.106
Ans.(b)
50 103 0.8 1.5mm3 / min

60000mm3 / min
GATE-2013
Page No.13
Slide No.107
Ans.(d)
DN
200 160
MRR fdV fd
mm / s 0.25mm 4 mm
mm / s 1675.5mm3 / s
60
60
GATE(PI)-1991
Page No.13
Slide No.108
Ans. (d)
GATE-2007
Page No.14
Slide No.109
Ans. (d)
The energy consumption per unit volume of material removal, commonly known as specific energy.
e
or 2.0
Fc
Power (W )
3
MRR mm / s 1000 fd
Fc
Fc 800 N
1000 0.2 2
GATE-2013(PI) common data question Page No.14

Slide No.110
FC
200
Specific cutting energy
J / mm3
2 J / mm3
1000 fd
1000 0.11
GATE-2014
Page No.14
Slide No.112
F
F
400
Specific pressure C C
2000 N / mm2
bt
fd 2 0.1
GATE-1992
Page No.14
Slide No.113
GATE-1993
Page No.14
Slide No.114
IES-2000
Page No.14
Slide No.115
IES-2004
Page No.14
Slide No.116
IES-2002
Page No.14
Slide No.117
chip : work piece : tool = 80 : 10 : 10
IES-1998
Page No.15
Slide No.118
IAS-2003
Page No.15
Slide No.119
IAS-2003
Page No.15
Slide No.120
IES-2011
Page No.15
Slide No.121
IES-1993
Page No.15
Slide No.122
IES- 1996
Page No.15
Slide No.123
Ans. (b)
IES- 1998
Page No.15
Slide No.124
Ans. (b)
IAS- 2001
Page No.15
Slide No.125
Ans. (c)
Page 150 of 205
Ans. (b)
Ans. (b)
Ans. (b)
Ans. (a)
Ans. (b)
Ans. (d)
Ans. (a)
Ans. (b)
Ans. (c)
Ans. (c)
Ans. (b)
Ans. (b)
R
G
R
Rev.1
FOR PSU & IES Page No.15
Slide No.126
Ans. (a)For higher sensitivity, two
gauges are used for tensile strain, while two others are for compressive strain, total of which adds up to four
gauges.
All the four gauges in each bridge are active gauges, and the bridge fully compensates for temperature changes.
For 3-D lathe dynamometer total 12 strain gauge is needed, 4 for main cutting force, 4 for Radial force and 4 for
feed force.
Ch-3 Tool Life: Answers with Explanation

IES-2010
Page No.16
Slide No.129 Ans.(a)
IES-2007
Page No.16
Slide No.130 Ans.(c)
IES-2014
Page No.16
stress on tool material.
Slide No.132 Ans. (b) Think only the parameters which can produce cyclic
IES-1994
Page No.16 Slide No.135 Ans.(c) Flank wear directly affect the component dimensions.
GATE-2014 Page No.17 Slide No.137 Ans.(c)
IES-2004
Page No.17 Slide No.142 Ans.(b)
GATE-2008(PI)
Solving using straight line equation:
y y1
y2 y1
x x1
x2 x1
1.8 0.8
2 0.8
x 10
60 10
x 51.666
IES-2002
Page No.18 Slide No.148 Ans.(c)For crater wear temperature is main culprit and tool
defuse into the chip material & tool temperature is maximum at some distance from the tool tip that so why
crater wear start at some distance from tip.
IAS-2007
Page No.18 Slide No.149 Ans.(c)
IES-2000
Page No.18 Slide No.150 Ans.(d)
IES-1995
Page No.18 Slide No.151 Ans.(a)Crater wear occurs due to temperature mainly. And high
carbon tool steel withstands least temperature 200oC.
IAS-2002
IES-1995
Page No.19 Slide No.155 Ans.(a)
IAS-1999
Page No.19 Slide No.156 Ans.(c)Chemical reaction between abrasive and workpiece
material at elevated temperature and in the presence of grinding fluid.
IAS-2003
IES-1996
IES-1992
IES-2012
IES-2008
Page No.20 Slide No.170 Ans. (c)
In Taylors tool life equation is
n = 0.08 0.20 for H.S.S.
n = 0.20 0.60 for Carbides.
n = 0.60 0.80 for Ceramics.
IES-2006
IES-1999
IAS-1998
GATE-2009(PI)
Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation VT n C
V1T1n V2T2 n
or 100 10n 75 30n
or n 0.2616 can be solved using solve function on calculator
Page 151 of 205
Rev.1
ISRO-2011
Page No.21
D 50mm;
N1 284rpm; T1 10 min;V1
D 284
m / min
1000
D 232
N 2 232rpm; T2 60 min;V2
m / min
1000
Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation, VT n C
V1T1n V2T2 n
or
D 284
10n
D 232
1000
or n 0.1128
GATE-2004
1000
Page No.21
60n

V1T1n V2T2 n
n
1
T
or V T 2V or 8n 2 or n
3
8
n
IES-2000
Page No.21
IES-1999,ISRO-2013
Slide No.177 Ans.(b)same as previous question

Page No.21
Slide No.178 Ans.(d)

V1T1n V2T2 n
V
or V1T10.25 1 T2 0.25
2
or T2 2
IAS-2002
1
0.25
T1 16T1
Page No.21

V1T1n V2T2 n
V1
Where, n 0.5;V2 2
V
or V1T10.5 1 T20.5
2
or T2 20.5 T1 4T1
%change
IAS-1995
T2 T1
4T T
100% 1 1 100% 300%
T1
T1
Page No.21

V1T1n V2T2 n
or V1 T10.25
IES-2013
or n 0.25;V2
V1
2
V1
T 0.25 or T2 16T1
2 2
Page No.22
Slide No.181 Ans.(b)

n 0.25;V 60m / min; T 1 hr 21min 81min
60 810.25 C 180
IAS-1997
Page No.22
Page 152 of 205
Rev.1

V1T1n V2T2 n
n 0.5; V1 18 m / min; T1 180 min; T2 45 min;V2 ?
Putting in equation:
or 18 1800.5 V2 450.5
or V2 36m / min
IES-2006 (conventional)
Page No.22
Slide No.183 Ans.
Given: V1 = 30 m/min; T1 = 1 hr = 60 min, V2 = 2V1, T2 = 2 min, T3 = 30 min,

Taylor tool life equation gives
VTn C
or
V1 T1n V2 T2n
n
T1
V2

T2
V1
taking log on both side we get
or
T
V
n ln 1 ln 2
T2
V1
V
2V
ln 2 ln 1
V1 V1 0.204
or n =
T
60
ln
In 1
2
T2
Now for = T3 30min, V3 ?
Here
V1 T1n V3 T3n
n
T
V1 T1n
60
V1 x 1 30
T
T3n
30
3
V3 = dN
or V3
or N =
0.204
34.55 m/min
V3 34.55
=
=36.66 rpm
d 0.3
GATE-2009 Linked Q-1

VTn C
Page No.22
V1 T1n V2 T2n
60 81n 90 36n
n
90
81
or
1.5
60
36
In1.5
n=
n = 0.5
81
In
36
C =60 810.5 90 360.5 540 K
GATE-2009 Linked Q-2
Page No.22
Page 153 of 205
Rev.1
Now, according to the given question V =
V1 60
30m / min;
2
2
1/n
C
T1
V1
1/n
C
T2
V2
T2 T1 V1

T1
V2
1/n
IFS-2013
1 2
1/0.5
Page No.22
1 300%
Slide No.186 Ans.
Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:

V1T1n V2T2 n
or 100 120n 130 50n
or n 0.2997 0.3
NowC 100 1200.3 420.49
Tool life when cutting speed is 2.5 m/s = 2.5 60 m/min
2.5 60 T 0.3 420.49

or T 31.06 min
Velocity when tool life is 80 min
V 800.3 420.49
or V 112.94 m / min
GATE-2010 Page No.22 Slide No.187 Ans.(a)
forCarbide n1 1.6, K1 90
for HSS n2 0.6, K 2 60
Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:VT n =C

let cutting speed is x m/min
xTA
0.45
and xTB
90
=90 TA =
x
0.3
0.45
60
= 60 TB =
x
0.30
for TA >TB
1
90 0.45 60 0.30

x

x
Solve for x using calculator, x = 26.7 m/min
GATE-2013
Page No.22
Page 154 of 205
Rev.1
for A
n1 0.45, K1 3000
for B n2 0.3, K 2 200

Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:VT n =C
let cutting speed is x m/min
1.6
c
xT
3000
=3000 Tc =
and xTH
0.6
1
1.6
200
= 200 TH =
0.6
for Tc >TH
1
3000 1.6 200 0.60

x x
Solve for x using calculator, x = 39.389 m/min

EXAMPLE
Page No.22 Slide No. 189 Ans.
This can be solved using regression analysis:
Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:VT n C

taking log on both sides: log V n log T log C
or log V log C n log T

On comparing with straight line equation,in Casio Calculator:
y A Bx
y log V ; x log T ; A log C ; B n
T
V
X=logT
Y=logV
2.94
49.74 X1= log2.94
Y1= log49.47
3.90
49.23 X2= log3.90
Y2= log49.23
4.77
48.67 X3= log4.77
Y3= log48.67
9.87
45.76 X4= log9.87
Y4= log45.76
28.27 42.58 X5= log28.27
Y5= log42.58
Now on calculator,
Press mode 2 times-then press 2(Reg-2)
Then select the type (lin-1)
Then start entering the values as below;
x1 ,y1 i.e. log2.94, log49.47 then press DT(M+) it will display n =1 then press AC
After entering all values then press shift then S-VAR(on number 2),then press the right arrow 2 times
then A (1) press 1 then = it will give A = 1.732
Again press the right arrow 2 times then B(2) press 2 and = it will give B = -0.07
From y A Bx; A log C C 10 A 54

B n 0.07 n 0.07
equation becomes:VT n C VT 0.07 54
10 cutting tools produce 500 components
Therefore, 1 cutting tool will produce 50 components
Page 155 of 205
Rev.1
we know : V DNm / min

For the 1st case:
N 50rpm, f 0.25mm / rev
Let t1 be the time to produce 1 component in 1st case,t1
Tool life(T1 ) 50components t1 50
L
min
fN
L
min
f 50
10 cutting tools produce 122 components

Therefore, 1 cutting tool will produce 12.2 components
For the 2nd case:

N 80rpm, f 0.25mm / rev
Let t2 be the time to produce 1 component in 2nd case,t 2
L
min
fN
L
min
f 80
Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:VT n C V1T1n V2T2 n
Tool life(T2 ) 12.2components t2 12.2
L
L
or D 50 50
D 80 12.2
0.25 50
0.25 80
or n 0.2499 0.25
For 3rd case : N 60rpm, f 0.25mm / rev

Let t3 be the time to produce 1 component in 3rd case,t 3
Tool life(T3 ) ( x)components t2 x
L
min
fN
L
min
f 60
now, V1T10.25 V3T30.25

L
or D 50 50
0.25
50
0.25
D 60 x
0.25
60
0.25
0.25
x
or 50 60
60
or x 28.926 29components
GATE-1999
Page No.23
flank wear cot

tool life tan
% change in life
tan 2 tan 1
tan 7 tan10
100%
100% 30%
tan 1
tan10
% change in life = 30% decrease

IES-2010
ISRO-2012
IES-1997
IES-1994,2007 Page No.23 Slide No.196 Ans.(c)
We know that cutting speed has the greatest effect on tool life followed by feed and depth of cut
respectively. For maximizing tool life we will adjust 3- 2- 1 respectively.
IES-2008
IAS-1995 Page No.23Slide No.198Ans. (a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
ESE-1991,IAS-2010( conventional)
Page No.24 Slide No.199 Ans.
Page 156 of 205
Rev.1
given;VT 0.3 f 0.6 d 0.3 C

V 40m / min; T 60 min; f 0.25mm / rev; d 2mm
Putting in equation : 40 600.3 0.250.6 20.3 C
C 36.49
When speed, feed & depth of cut are together increased by 25%; tool life will be
Now when V, f and d are increased by 25%

New V,f and d are:V 40 0.25 40 50 m / min
f 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.3125mm / rev
d 2 0.25 2 2.5mm
putting in given equation:VT 0.13 f 0.6 d 0.3 36.49
50 T 0.13 0.31250.6 2.50.3 34.99
T 2.29 min
When only speed is increased by 25%, rest parameters remain same; then
Now when V is increased by 25%

New V,f and d are:V 40 0.25 40 50m / min, f 0.25mm / rev, d 2 mm
putting in given equation: VT 0.13 f 0.6 d 0.3 34.99
or 50 T 0.13 0.250.6 20.3 34.99
or T 10.779 min
When only feed is increased by 25% , rest parameters remain same; then tool life
Now when f is increased by 25%

New V,f and d are:V 40m / min, f 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.3125mm / rev, d 2mm
or 40 T 0.13 0.31250.6 20.3 36.49
or T 21.41min
When only depth of cut is increased by 25%, rest parameters remain same; then
Now when d is increased by 25%

New V,f and d are:V 40m / min, f 0.25mm / rev, d 2 0.25 2 2.5mm
or 40 T 0.13 0.250.6 2.50.3 36.49
or T 35.844 min
IES-2010
IAS-2003
IES-2014
IES-1996
Page No.24
Page No.24
Page No.25
Page No.25
IES-2009(conventional)
Slide No.203
Slide No.204
Slide No.211
Slide No.214
Ans.(a)
Ans.(a)
Ans.
Ans.(b)
Page No.26
Slide No.219 Ans.
Page 157 of 205
Rev.1
Tc 3min, Tool regrind time(Tr ) 3min, Cm Rs.0.50 / min

Depriciation cost Rs.5.0, n 0.2; C 60
Using the equation for optimum tool life for minimum cost
C 1 n
To Tc t
Cm n
Ct Cm Tr Depriciation cost
Ct Rs.0.50 / min 3min Rs.5.0 Rs.6.5 / regrind
Putting in equation:
6.5 1 0.2
To 3
64 min
0.50
0.2
Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:VoTon C
Vo 64
GATE-2014
0.2
60 orVo 26.11 m / min
Page No.26
Tc 1.5 min; n 0.2
Slide No.220 Ans. 5.9 to 6.1min
Using optimum tool life equation for maximum productivity:

1 n
1 0.2
To Tc
or To 1.5
6 min
n
0.2
ESE-2001(conventional)
Page No.26
Slide No.221
V1 50m / min; T1 45 min;V2 100m / min; T2 10 min; Tc 2 min

Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:VT n C V1T1n V2T2 n
50 45n 100 10n
or n 0.46, C 50 450.46 288
Using equation of optimum tool life:

1 n
1 0.46
To Tc
2 0.46 2.34
n
Again Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:VoTon C

Vo 2.340.46 288 orVo 195m / min
IAS-2011(main)
Page No.26
Slide No.222 Ans.
Tc 9 min; n 0.5; C 100

Using optimum tool life equation for max productivity:
1 n
1 0.5
To Tc
or To 9
9 min
n
0.5
Using Taylor's Tool Life Equation:VoTon C , Vo 90.5 100 orVo 33.33 m / min
IAS-2007
Page No.26 Slide No.224,225
Ans.(b)
IES-2011
IES-1999
IES-1998
IAS-2002
The minimum cost criterion will give a lower cutting speed i.e. lower prodeuction rate, while the
maximum production rate criteria will result higher cutting speed i.e. higher cost per piece as it reduces
tool life.
IAS-1997
Page No.27 Slide No.231 Ans.(b) it is less than one but very close to each other so 0.1 is not
possible.
IES-2000
IES-2004
Page No.27 Slide No.233 Ans.(a) To improve MRR = fdv i.e. productivity we can increase
velocity or feed. but increase in velocity will reduce the tool drastically so will increase cost more than
feed.
IES-2002
Page 158 of 205
Rev.1
IAS-2007
Page No.28 Slide No.235 Ans.(a)At optimum cutting speed for the minimum cost of
machining gives low production rate.
IES-2010
Page No.28 Slide No.236 Ans.(d) After some time cutting speed will be so that tool
changing time will be significant.
IES-2012
IAS-1996
Page No.28 Slide No.241 Ans.(d)Machinability is a comparative measure not absolute.
Effect of elements on machinability of steels:
S.NO ELEMENTS
Cause
MACHINABILITY
1.
Aluminium& silicon
Hard oxide former
Decrease
2.
Sulphur& selenium
Internal lubrication, chip Increases
breaker
3.
Lead & Tin
Internal Lubrication, chip Increases
breaker
4.
Carbon
Carbide former
Decreases
5.
Molybedenum, vanadium
Strong carbide former
Decreases
IES-1992
Page No.29 Slide No.247 Ans.(a) large grain means soft workpiece material.
IAS-2000
Page No.29 Slide No.249 Ans.(a)Built up edge protects the cutting edge of the tool from
wear, So tool life increased but it changes the geometry of the cutting.
IES-1992
IES-2007,2009 Page No.30 Slide No.254 Ans.(a)Machinability: Machinability can be tentatively defined as
ability of being machined and more reasonably as ease of machining.
Such ease of machining or machining characters of any tool-work pair is to be judged by:
Magnitude of the cutting forces
Tool wear or tool life
Surface finish
Magnitude of cutting temperature
Chip forms
ISRO-2007
Page No.30 Slide No.255 Ans.(a)But All of the above are machinability criteria. We have to
select best option that so why chosen (a)
IES-2003
Page No.30 Slide No.256 Ans.(c)Free-machining steels are basically carbon steels that
have been modified by an alloy addition to enhance machinability. Sulfur, lead, bismuth, selenium,
tellurium, and phosphorus have all been added to enhance machinability. Sulfur (0.08 to 0.33%)
combines with manganese (0.7 to 1.6%) to form soft manganese sulfide inclusions. These act as
discontinuities in the structure which serve as sites to form broken chips. The inclusions also provide a
built-in lubricant that prevents formation of a built-up edge on the cutting tool and imparts an altered
cutting geometry.
IES-2009
Page No.30 Slide No.257 Ans.(a) Sulphur, Lead and Phosphorous are added to steel which
when added to Manganese forms Manganese sulphide etc. which has low shear strength.
IES-1998
Page No.30 Slide No.258 Ans.(c) It is CNC machine, dimensional accuracy and surface
finish is prime factor.
IES-1996
Page No.30 Slide No.259 Ans.(d) smaller shear angle means higher force.
IES-1996
IES-1995
IES-1992
Page No.31 Slide No.263 Ans. (b) Titanium is very reactive and the chips tend to weld to
the tool tip leading to premature tool failure due to edge chipping. Almost all tool materials tend to react
chemically with titanium.
Titaniums work-hardening characteristics are such that titanium alloys demonstrate a complete absence
of built-up edge. Because of the lack of a stationary mass of metal (BUE) ahead of the cutting tool, a
high shearing angle is formed. This causes a thin chip to contact a relatively small area on the cutting
tool face and results in high loads per unit area. These high forces, coupled with the friction developed by
the chip as it passes over the cutting area, result in a great increase in heat on a very localized portion of
the cutting tool. All this heat (which the titanium is slow to conduct away), and pressure, means that tool
life can be short, especially as titanium has a tendency to gall and weld to the tool surface.
IES-1995
Page No.31 Slide No.265 Ans. (a) Titanium high cost and need 10 times much energy than
steel to produce.Light weight, strong, corrosion resistant, properties between steel and aluminium.
IES-2002
Page No.31 Slide No.267 Ans. (b)
IAS-1996
Page No.31 Slide No.268 Ans. (d)
IES-1999
Page 159 of 205
Rev.1
we know : hc
f2
8R
When f1 2 f , and hc remains the same;

GATE-1997
Page No.31
f2
f2
f 2 4f
1 or
R1 4 R
8R 8R1
8R 8R1
h 5 m 5 106 m; R 1.8mm 1.8 103 m

we know : h
GATE-2007(PI)
f2
f2
or 5 106
or f 2.68 104 m / rev 0.268mm / rev
8R
8 1.8 103
Page No.32
f 1mm / rev; SCEA 30; ECEA 10
Using formula: h
GATE-2005
Page No.32
f
1
0.16mm
tan SCEA cot ECEA tan 30 cot10
f
tan SCEA cot ECEA
f
f
hP
and hQ
tan 30 cot 8
tan15 cot 8
tan15 cot 8
h
P
hQ tan 30 cot 8
Using formula:h
IES-1993,ISRO-2008 Page No.32 Slide No.273 Ans. (c) Surface roughness is directly dependent on
square of feed. Slow cutting results in formation of built-up edge, but after certain speed the finish
remains same.Rake angle has noticeable effect at slow speeds, but its effect is small at speeds, used for
finish machining. So f has maximum effect.
IES-2006
Page No.
Slide No.274 Ans. (a) refer previous question
GATE-2014(PI)
GATE-2010(PI)
For increasing surface finish means reduce roughness we have to increase nose radius and reduce feed.
Here MRR remains same therefore feed remains same only nose radius can be changed.
IES-2001
IES-2012
Ch-4: Limit, Tolerance & Fit: Answers with Explanations

For PSU
PageNo.34
ISRO-2010
Page No.34
GATE-2010,ISRO-2012
Slide No.7
Slide No.8
Page No.35
Ans.(b)
Ans.(b)
Slide No.11 Ans.(d)
upper limit = 35-0.009 = 34.991mm

lower limit = 35-0.025 = 34.975 mm
Fundamental Deviation = basic size-nearer limit = 35-34.991= 0.009 mm
Tolerance = upper limit-lower limit = 34.991 - 34.975 = 0.016 mm
GATE-1992
Page No.35
Slide No.12
Ans.(a)
Tolerance of shaft A=100.1-99.9=0.2

Tolerance of shaft B=0.1001-0.0999=0.0002
So, tolerance of shaft A > tolerance of shaft B
Maximum clearance = Higher limit of hole lower limit of shaft
= 25.020-24.990 = 0.03 mm = 30 microns
IES-2005
Since basic size is 20mm so, minimum rejection will be of the batch having mean diameter 20mm
GATE-2000 Page No.35 Slide No.15 Ans.(c) Reference will be taken from side therefore only tolerance
on toll position will affect our product.
Page 160 of 205
Rev.1
max clearance = upper limit of hole - lower limit of shaft = 40.50-39.95= 0.1 mm
IES-2011
IES-2013
GATE-2005
Page No.36
Page No.36
Page No.36
Slide No.21
Slide No.22
Slide No.23
Ans.(a)
Ans.(a)
Ans.(a)
IES-2014
GATE-2011
Page No.36
Page No.36
Slide No.24
Slide No.25
Ans. (c)
Ans.(c)
GATE -2012 Same Q in GATE-2012 (PI)

Maximum Interference = Maximum size of shaft Minimum size of hole
= (25 + 0.04) (25 + 0.02) mm = 20 m
IAS-2011(main)
Page 161 of 205
Rev.1
Using unilateral hole base system;

Min clearance = 0.03mm; Max clearance = 0.09 mm; Basic size = 20 mm
Refering the figure:2 x 0.03 x 0.09 or x 0.02 mm
size of hole: lower limit = 20 mm
upper limit =20+2x 20+2 0.02=20.04 mm
size of shaft:Lower limit = 20.04+0.03= 20.07 mm
upper limit = 20.07+ x =20.07+0.02=20.09 mm
IES-2007
For clearance fit Maximum metal condition of shaft will be smaller than minimum metal condition of the
hole. (a) Smax=50.000, Hmin=50.005 so Smax<Hmin
ISRO-2011
IES-2006
IES-2009
IES-2008
An interference fit creates stress state in the shaft therefore 2 is wrong.
IES-2004
GATE-2001 Page No.37 Slide No.35 Ans.(b)
IES-2012
ISRO-2010
It is transition fit, Using formula of minimum clearance

Min clearance = upper limit of shaft - lower limit of hole = -0.02 mm
Here Minimum clearance is negative i.e. maximum inteference occur.
ISRO-2008
IES-2005
GATE-2014 Page No.40 Slide No.57 Ans.(d)
IES-2008
Page No.40 Slide No.58 Ans.(a) All statements are wrong. 50 mm is not hole diameter it
is basic size. And examiner ask INCORRECT not correct options. Therefore all options are incorrect.
Page 162 of 205
Rev.1
Basic size =100 mm; D D1 D2

80 120 97.97mm
Fundamental deviation of shaft
= 5.5D 0.41 36 m
Fundamental deviation of hole 36 m
1
i 0.45D 3 0.001D 2.1711 m

IT 8 25i 25 2.17 m 54 m
IT 10 64i 64 2.17 m 139 m
Allowance = min clearance = 36 m
IES-2002
60 mm diameter lies in the diameter step of 50-80mm. Therefore
Geometric mean diameter,D Dmin Dmax 50 80 63.246mm
Fundamental tolerance unit i (0.45D1/3 +0.001D) m
[0.45(63.246)1/3 0.001(63.246)] 1.859 m = 0.00186mm
For IT8 25i 25 0.00186 0.04646mm
Fundamental deviation for 'f'shaft, 5.5D0.41 5.5[63.246]0.41 0.030115mm
GATE-2008(PI)
Page No.40 Slide No.62 Ans.(c)Without calculating we can choose option (c) as
fundamental deviation is zero therefore LL = Basic size = 25.000 mm
But proper calculation is
D D1 D2 18 30 23.23 mm
1
i 0.45D 3 0.001D 1.3076 m 1.3076 103 mm

For IT 8 25i 0.0326mm
upper limit of hole = basic size + tolerance = 25+0.0326=25.032mm
hole base system so, lower limit = basic size=25mm
GATE-2000 Page No.40 Slide No.63 Ans.(d)
Hole: Lower limit = Basic size = 25 mm
Higher limit = lower limit + tolerance = 25 + 0.033 = 25.033 mm
Shaft: Higher limit = basic size fundamental deviation = 25 0.04 = 24.96 mm
Lower limit = Higher limit tolerance = 24.96 0.033 = 24.927 mm
Therefore Maximum clearance = Higher limit of hole lower limit of shaft
= 25.033 24.927 = 0.106 mm = 106 microns
GATE-2003
Page No.41
Slide No.64
Ans.(b)
diametric steps are not given we take given dia as the basic diameter only.
i 0.45 3 D 0.001D 1.34 m 1.34 103 mm
For IT 7 16i 16 1.34 103 0.021 mm
it is a shaft base system:
Upper limit = basic size=25.00 mm
Lower limit = Upper limit tolerance = 25.00 -0.021=24.978 mm
GATE-2010(PI)
Fundamental deviation of all the bore is zero.
For IT7, Tolerance = 16i = 0.021 mm
For IT8, Tolerance = 25i = 0.033 mm
For IT6, Tolerance = 10i = 16i 6i = 0.021 mm (0.033-0.021)x(6/9) mm =0.013 mm
Therefore Upper Limit = 25.013 mm for IT6
GATE-1996,IES-2012 Page No.41
Slide No.67
Ans.(d)
Page 163 of 205
Rev.1
Remember
H7 with p6, s6: Interference fit
H7 with k6, n6: Transition fit
All other fits are clearance fit.
IES-2000
ISRO-2008
IAS-2010(main)Page No.41 Slide No.72
GATE-2003 Page No.42 Slide No. 74
P 35+0.08mm
Ans.(b)
Ans.(a)
Ans. Refer Slide
Ans.(b)
Q 12.00+0.02mm
R 13.00.04
0.02 13.01 0.03
Now all have same bilateral tolerance, so
P QWR
Considering dimension
35 12 W 13.01
w 9.99mm
Tolerance are probabilities and not the absolute value on any part, at
least one section must be there that treated as sink, and tolerance of
sink will be cumulative sum of all tolerances.
GATE-1997
Tolerance 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.13
Page No.42
S P Q R T
GATE-2007(PI)
GATE-2007(PI)
Slide No. 75
Ans.(d)
or T S P Q R or Tmin Smin Pmax Qmax Rmax
Page No.42
Page No.42
Slide No.76
Slide No.77
Ans.(a) It requires centre.

Ans.(d)
Before plating the hole size will be bigger ,

Maximum limit will correspond to min thickness;so,
min thickness 2 10 103 mm 0.02mm
Max limit = max size of hole + min thickness = 30.050+0.02=30.07 mm
Minimum limit will correspond to max thickness;so,
max thickness 2 15 103 mm 0.03mm
Min limit = min size of hole + max thickness = 30.010+0.03=30.04 mm
GATE-2013
Page No.42
Slide No.78
Ans(c)
Upper limit of pin = 25.020 mm

Lower limit of pin = 25.010 mm
Max thickness of plating =2 0.032=0.064 mm
Min thickness of plating =2 0.028=0.056 mm
Minimum size will correspond to max thickness
Size of GO-Guage = Lower limit of pin Max thickness of plating
Size of GO-Guage 25.020+ 2x0.032 = 25.084 mm
ISRO-2008
GATE-2014
Page No.42
Page No.43
Slide No.80
Slide No.86
Ans.(c)
Ans.(d)
Lower limit of hole = 25-0.015=24.958 mm

lower limit of GO-Guage = 24.985 mm
Work tolerance = 10% of guage tolerance = 10% of (2 0.015) = 0.003mm
Upper limit of GO- Guage = 24.9850+0.003 mm
Higher limit of hole = 20.05 mm
Lower limit of hole = 20.01 mm
Work tolerance = 20.05 20.01 = 0.04 mm
Gauge tolerance = 10% of work tolerance = 0.004 mm
Page 164 of 205
Rev.1
Therefore, Dimension of GO gauge = 20.01 + 0.004 = 20.014 mm

Dimension of NOT GO gauge = 20.05 0.004 = 20.046 mm
GATE 2006, VS-2012
Ch-5 Measurement of Lines & Surface: Answers with Explanations

ISRO-2010
Page No.44 Slide No.97 Ans.(a)The vernier reading should not be taken at its face value
before an actual check has been taken for zero. Engineering metrology
ISRO-2008
Page No.44 Slide No.98 Ans.(c)Least count = 0.5/25 = 0.02 mm
ISRO-2009, 2011
Total dimension= pitch No.of div +
Pitch
reading
No.of div in thimble
0.5x5 + (0.5/50) x 12 = 2.62 mm

GATE-2008
Page No.45 Slide No.105,106
Ans.(c)
If there is axial intersection Rp must not equal to RQ
GATE-2014(PI)
Page No.45
ISRO-2010
A measuring device of a standard size that is used to calibrate other measuring instruments.
ISRO-2008
Primary standards are used for calibration only. In workshop it has no use.
GATE-2007(PI)
During the measurement, a comparator is able to give the deviation of the dimension from the set
dimension. Cannot measure absolute dimension but can only compare two dimensions. (Rest all the
options will give reading of the dimension measured it will not compare)
PSU
Page No.47 Slide No.121 Ans.(c)A feeler gauge is used to check theThickness of clearance
IAS-2011(main)
Page No.
Slide No.
Ans. Refer slides for theory
ISRO-2011
A sine bar is specified by the distance between the centre of the two rollers
GATE-2012(PI)
L 250 mm; H r 100 mm ;( Diameter d 20 mm or r 10 mm) or H 90 mm

H
L
sin 1
90
1
o
sin 250 21.1
GATE-2011(PI)
Page No.49
Best Wire Size : d

GATE-2013
Page No.50
p
2.5 60
sec
sec 1.443 mm
2
2
2
2
p
2 60
Best Wire Size: d sec sec 1.1547 mm
2
2 2
2
GATE-2011(PI)
Difference between the readings of micrometers= 16.532-15.398=1.134mm
Diameter of cylindrical standard = 30.5mm
Effective diameter= 30.5-1.134=29.366mm
IES-2012
Page No.51 Slide No.156 Ans.Refer slides for theory
Page 165 of 205
Rev.1
IES-1992
IFS-2011
Page No.51 Slide No.161 Ans.Refer slides for theory
ISRO-2011
IES-2006
IES-2007
Page No.52 Slide No.169 Ans.(c)Lay direction: is the direction of the predominant surface
pattern produced on the workpiece by the tool marks.
IES-2008
Page No.52 Slide No.170 Ans.(b)Lay directional of predominant surface texture produced
by machining operation is called Lay.
IES-2010
IES-2008
ISRO-2010
IAS-2013(main)
Page No.53 Slide No.174 Ans.Refersildes for theory
GATE-1997
IAS-2012(main)
Page No.55 SlideNo.191 Ans.Refer sildes for theory
Page No.55 SlideNo.192 Ans.Refer sildes for theory
GATE_2003
nl
2
(1.002 1.000) 101 cm
n 0.0058928 101 cm 101 cm

2
n 0.678 / cm
So for both fringes=2 n 1.357 2 fringes
Ch-6 Miscellaneous of Metrology: Answers with Explanations

Slide No.203 Ans. (c)Autocollimator isan optical instrument for noncontact measurement of small angles or small angular tilts of a reflecting surface
GATE-2009(PI)
Page No.56 Slide No.204Ans. (a)
GATE-2014 Page No.56 Slide No. 205 Ans. (b)Autocollimator is also measure flatness.
ISRO-2010
Page No.57 Slide No. 208 Ans. (b)In optical square two mirrors are placed at an angle of
45o to each other and at right angles to the plane of the instrument. Angle between the first incident ray
and
the last reflected ray is 90o.Two mirrors may be replaced by two prisms.
IES-1998
GATE-2014 Page No.57 Slide No. 212 Ans. (c)Laser interferometeris widely used to check and calibrate
geometric features of machine tools during their assembly
GATE-1992 Page No.58 Slide No. 218 Ans. (b)
GATE-2010 Page No.59 Slide No.227 Ans. (a)
Page 166 of 205
Rev.1
10
30
18.434
tan
Also,
tan
x
10
tan18.434
x
10
x 3.334
diameter at z 0 is (20 2 x)
diameter (20 2 3.334) 13.336
GATE-2008(PI)
Page No.
Slide No. 228 Ans. (d)
C2 A
3
tan
2 5 15.54 8 28.54
6.006
12.001
GATE-2014
Page No.59
Slide No.229Ans.
H1 20.55; H 2 35.55
H=35.55+60=95.55mm
H1 20(radius) 40.55
H 40.55 95.55 40.55 55
55 30(radius) 25 CB
CB
25
tan
(30 20) 50
30
R
cos 30
50
R 43.30
D bigger radius+43.30+smaller radius
D 30 43.30 20 93.30mm
ISRO-2007 Page No.59

Slide No. 230 Ans. (d)Environment errors are those errors which occur due to
change in temperature,humidity,pressureetc of the atmosphere.
Ch-7 Metal Forming: Answers with Explanations

GATE-1995
Page No. 60 Slide No.9
Ans. (b)If the specimen is stressed slightly beyond the yield point
and unloaded then the phenomena of strain hardening takes place as a result of which strength
increases.
IES-2013
Page No.61 Slide No. 10 Ans. (b)
IES-20011
Page No.62 Slide No. 26 Ans. (b) If cold worked it will improve mechanical properties.
GATE-2003
Page No. 62 Slide No. 27 Ans. (c)If working below Rx temp then it is cold-working process
GATE-2002,ISRO-2012
Page No. 63 Slide No. 28 Ans. (d)
ISRO-2010
Page No. 63 Slide No. 29 Ans.
(d)Annealing
is
used
to
induce
ductility,
soften material, relieve internal stresses, refine the structure by making it homogeneous, and
Page 167 of 205
Rev.1
improve cold working properties.Normalization is an annealing process in which a metal is cooled in

air after heating.
IES-2006
Page No.63 Slide No.30 Ans. (c)When a metal is heated & deformed under mechanical
force, an energy level will reached when the old grain structure (which is coarse due to previous cold
working) starts disintegrating. Simultaneously, an entirely new grain structure (equi-axed, stress free)
with reduced grain size Starts forming. This phenomenon is known as recrystallisation
IES-2004
Page No. 63 Slide No. 31 Ans. (b) For cold working metal should have high ductility.
IES-2009
Page No. 63 Slide No.32 Ans. (d) Strength increases due to grain refinement.
IES-2008
Page No. 63 Slide No. 33 Ans. (b)
IES-2008
Page No. 63 Slide No. 34 Ans. (a)
Advantages of Cold Forming vs. Hot Working:
Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional properties in product
No heating of work required (less total energy)
Dis-advantages of Cold Forming
Equipment of higher forces and power required
Surfaces of starting work piece must be free of scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can be done
In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation
In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked
IES-2004
Page No. 63 Slide No.35 Ans. (c) During deformation, a portion of the deformation energy
becomes stored within the material in the form of additional dislocations and increased grain boundary
surface area.
IES-2003
IES-2000
Page No. 64 Slide No. 37 Ans. (d) Annealing required.
ISRO-2009
IES-1997
Page No. 64 Slide No. 39 Ans. (c)
Phenomenon where ductile metals become stronger and harder when they are deformed plastically is
called strain hardening or work hardening.
During plastic deformation, dislocation density increases. And thus their interaction with each other
resulting in increase in yield stress.
IES-1996
Page No. 64 Slide No. 40 Ans. (c)Cold working increases the strength and hardness of the
material due to strain hardening. Strength, fatigue, and wear properties are improved through strain
hardening.
IES-2006
Page No. 64 Slide No. 41 Ans. (d) Should be above the recrystallisation temperature.
IES-1992
Page No. 64 Slide No. 42 Ans. (c)
Annealing relieves the stresses from cold working three stages: recovery, recrystallization and grain
growth.
During recovery, physical properties of the cold-worked material are restored without any observable
change in microstructure.
Grain growth follows complete crystallization if the material is left at elevated temperatures.
Grain growth does not need to be preceded by recovery and recrystallization; it may occur in all
polycrystalline materials.
IAS-1996
Page No. 64 Slide No. 43 Ans. (c)For Mild Steel, recrystallisation temp is of the order of
10000C
IAS-2004
IAS-2002
Page No. 64 Slide No. 45 Ans. (b)Ulta hai. Assertion reason me hona chahiye.
IES-2008
Page No. 65 Slide No. 46 Ans. (d)Malleability- It is a special case of ductility which permits
materials to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not
essential to be so strong. Lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium are some materials in
order of diminishing malleability.
Ch-8 Rolling: Answers with Explanations

GATE -2013 Page No.65 Slide No.49 Ans.(c)Bi axial compression and frictional force between roller
and workpiece produces shear stress
IAS-2001
Page No.65 Slide No.54 Ans.(c)Rolling means hot working it will not show work
hardening
ISRO-2006
Page No.66 Slide No.56 Ans.(c) You may confused with Forging, but Cold rolling (cold
working) is mentioned therefore answer will be (c) because forging means hot working.
ISRO-2009
Page 168 of 205
Rev.1
IES-2006
Page No.67 Slide No.64 Ans.(c) A continuous form of three-point bending is roll bending,
where plates, sheets, and rolled shapes can be bent to a desired curvature on forming rolls.
IES 1992, GATE-1992(PI) Page No.67 Slide No.71 Ans.(b)Since brittle materials cannot handle
plastic deformation.
IES 1993, GATE-1989(PI) Page No.67 Slide No.72 Ans.(d)
Thread rolling is used to produce threads in substantial quantities. This is a cold-forming process
operation in which the threads are formed by rolling a thread blank between hardened dies that cause
the metal to flow radially into the desired shape. Because no metal is removed in the form of chips, less
material is required, resulting in substantial savings. In addition, because of cold working, the threads
have greater strength than cut threads, and a smoother, harder, and more wear-resistant surface is
obtained.
One obvious characteristic of a rolled thread is that its major diameter always is greater than the
diameter of the blank. When an accurate class of fit is desired, the diameter of the blank is made about
0.002 inch larger than the thread-pitch diameter. If it is desired to have the body of a bolt larger than the
outside diameter of the rolled thread, the blank for the thread is made smaller than the body.
Page No.68 Slide No.73 Ans. Refer slides
IAS-2007
IAS -2003
IAS-2000
Page No.68 Slide No.81 Ans.(b)Rolling with smaller diagram rolls requires lower force.
IES-1993
Page No.69 Slide No.85 Ans.(a)In order to get uniform thickness of the plate by rolling
process, one provides camber on the rolls to take care of unavoidable tool bending. Cylindrical rollers
would result in production of plate with convex surface. Because of the limitations in the equipment and
workability of the metal, rolling is accomplished progressively in many steps. Plate, sheet and strip are
rolled between rolls having a smooth, cylindrical, slightly cambered (convex) or concave working surface.
IAS-2004
Page No.69 Slide No.87 Ans.(c) Rolling means hot rolling where no lubricant is used.
GATE -2009(PI)
Page No.69 Slide No.89 Ans.(d) Due to directional granule deformation.
GATE -2007 Page No.70 Slide No.94 Ans.(d)
ho 16 mm ; h f 10 mm ;D 400 mm;R=200 mmh 6 mm;

h D(1 cos )
6 400(1 cos ) 9.936

GATE 2012 Same Q in GATE 2012 (PI) Page No.70
Slide No.95
ho 8 mm ; h f 8 x 1 0.1 7.2 mm; D 410 mm;
Ans.(c)
h 10% of 8 mm 0.8 mm alternative : ho h f 8 7.2 0.8 mm

We know that, h D(1 cos ) or 0.8 410 (1 cos )
or 3.58o 3.58
180
rad 0.062 rad
GATE -1998 Page No.70 Slide No.96 Ans.(d) For strip rolling sheet rolling width remains same.
Initial thickness (h1) = 4.5 mm.
As width constant therefore 20% reduction in area means 20% reduction in thickness also.
Final thickness (h2 = 0.8 x 4.5 = 3.6 mm
h D 1 cos or 4.5 3.6 450 1 cos or 3.62 0.063radian
GATE -2004 Page No.70 Slide No.98 Ans.(b)
Roll strip contact length, L = R
h D(1 cos ) or 25 20 600 1 cos or 7.402 0.129 rad
Therefore L R 300 x 0.129 38.76 mm 39 mm

GATE -2011
Page No.71
Slide No.101 Ans.(a)Maximum possible draft. hmax
GATE -2014
Page No.71
2R
Maximum possible draft. hmax
2R
IES-1999
Page No.71 Slide No.103 Ans.(b) Actually metal will get hardened in every pass due to
strain hardening. Therefore in actual practice the reduction in second pass is less than in the first pass.
GATE-2006 Page No.71 Slide No.105 Ans.(c) h max ho h f ,min 2 R 0.12 150 mm 1.5 mm
or 4 h f ,min 1.5 or h f ,min 2.5 mm

GATE 2011 (PI)
Page No.71
Page 169 of 205
Rev.1
h max 2 R 0.1
300 mm 3 mm
Therefore we cannot reduce more than 3 mm in a single pass but we have

to reduce total, 30 mm -10 mm = 20 mm
Number of pass needed =
IES-2001
Page No.71
20
7
3
R 150 mm; ho 30 mm; h f 15 mm

h
15
1
1
0.3something
R
150
10 3.something
In IESobjective exam calculators are not allowed, we have to use above apporx.calculation
h 2 R or
GATE-2014(PI)
GATE-1990(PI)
IES-2014
GATE-2008(PI)
Page No.72
Page No.72
Page No.72
Page No.72
Slide No.109
Slide No.111
Slide No.112
Slide No.113
Ans.(b) same as above

Ans.(b)
Ans. (b)
Ans.(a)
The velocity at neutral point is equal to the velocity of roller, as there is no slip occur
V=
DN
60
0.300m 100rpm
60
IES-2002
Page No.72
Selected Questions Page No.72
GATE-2014
Page No.72
1.57 m / s

Slide No.115 Ans.(c & d)
Slide No.117 Ans.14.6 to 14.8 m/min
The inlet and outlet volume rates of material flow must be the same, that is,
h o bo vo h f b f v f
2
h ; b 1.02bo ; v o 10m / min
3 o f
2
h o bo 10 h o 1.02bo v f v f 14.706 m / min
3
hf
GATE-1992(PI)
Page No.73
Elongation factor = E =
En
Ao
1.22...........( given)
A1
Ao
750 750
or 1.22n
or 11.04 close to (c)
An
250 250
GATE-2008
h 20mm 18mm 2mm 0.002m
R 250mm 0.250m
Pr ojected Length (L p ) Rh 0.250 0.002 0.02236m
Arm length (a) Rh 0.5 0.250 0.002 0.01118m
Force(F) Pr essure Pr ojected area o (L p b) 300 10 6 0.02236 0.1 670.8 kN

Torque(T) F a
[Force F on both roller]
670.8 103 0.01118 7.5kNm

2 N
2 10
2 7.5 10 3
15.7 KW
60
60
IES 2000, GATE-2010(PI) Page No.73 Slide No.123 Ans.(a)The roll-separating force which separates
the two rolls apart can be obtained by multiplying the average roll pressure with the total contact area.
The average roll pressure can be decreased by reducing the maximum pressure, which is a function of
the contact length. Smaller contact lengths means lesser friction forces acting. Thus, by reducing the
contact length, it is possible to decrease the roll-separating force. This in turn, can be achieved by
reducing the roll diameter, since; smaller rolls would have less contact length than larger rolls for the
same reduction.
IAS-2007
Page No.73 Slide No.124 Ans.(c)Use small dia rolls to reduce Roll force.
IES-2001
Page No.74 Slide No.127 Ans.(a)Coefficient of friction is constant over the arc of contact
and But does not acts in one direction throughout the arc of contact.
Total Power for both roller (P) 2 T 2 T
Page 170 of 205
Rev.1
IFS-2010
IAS-1998
Page No.75
Page No.75
Slide No.137 Ans. Use analysis of rolling (Home work portion)

Ch-9 Forging: Answers with Explanations

IES-2013
Page No.75 Slide No. 143 Ans.(a)
IES-1996
Page No.76 Slide No. 147 Ans.(d)
IES-2013
Page No.76 Slide No. 148 Ans.(c) Forging components poses high reliability i.e. point3. is
wrong, means (a), (b) and (d) wrong.
IES-2005
Page No.76 Slide No. 149 Ans.(b)
IES-2012
Page No.76 Slide No. 150 Ans.(b) If undercut is present it is not moldable means cant be
withdrawn from die.
ISRO-2013
IES-2012
Page No.76 Slide No. 153 Ans.(c)
IES-2006
Page No.77 Slide No. 155 Ans.(c) The draft provided on the sides for withdrawal of the
forging.
IES-2014
IAS-2002
Page No.77 Slide No. 159 Ans.(b)Amount of flash depends on the forging size not on forging
force.
IES 1993, GATE-1994(PI) Page No.77 Slide No.162 Ans.(a)Closed die forging requires the provision of
gutters to provide space for excess material and ensure complete closure of die and defect free forged
part.
IES-1997
Page No.78 Slide No.163 Ans.(c) The provision of gutters to provide space for excess
material and ensure complete closure of die and defect free forged part.
GATE-1989(PI)
Page No.78 Slide No. 164 Ans. Gutter
IES-1998
IES-2001
IES-2003
IES-2011
IES-2005
IES-2002
IES-2003
IAS-2001
IES-2012 Conventional
EDGING: Preform shape. Gathers the material as required in the final forging.
FULLERING: Reducing cross section and making it longer.
FLASH: The excess metal added to the stock to ensure complete filling of the die cavity in the finishing
impression is called Flash.
IES 1994, ISRO-2010
Page No.79 Slide No. 178 Ans.(c)The drop forging die consists of two halves.
The lower half of the die is fixed to the anvil of the machine, while the upper half is fixed to the ram. The
heated stock is kept in the lower die while the ram delivers four to five blows on the metal, in quick
succession so that the metal spreads and completely fills the die cavity. When the two die halves close,
the complete cavity is formed.
IAS-2000
Page No.79 Slide No. 179 Ans.(a) Due to low toughness.
IES-2011
IFS-2011
Page No.80 Slide No. 183 Ans. Refer slides
IES-2005
IES-2008
IES-2013
Page No.81 Slide No. 193 Ans.(a) As K.E V2, high energy is delivered to the metal with
relatively small weights (ram and die).
IFS-2011
Advantages of High Velocity Forming:
1. K.E V2, high energy is delivered to the metal with relatively small weights (ram and die).
2. Cost and size of machine low.
3. Productivity high, overall production cost low
4. A shapes having straight or tapered reduced sections may be forged with the aid of rolls.
5. Ram strokes short (due to high acceleration)
IAS-2011(main)
Smith Forging
Blacksmith uses this forging method
Quality of the product depends on the skill of the operator.
Not used in industry.
Upset Forging
Upset forging involves increasing the diameter of a material by compressing its length.
Page 171 of 205
Rev.1
Parts can be upset forged both hot and cold on special high-speed machines where the workpiece
is rapidly moved from station to station.
Upset forging generally employs split dies that contain multiple positions or cavities.
Drop Forging
The drop forging die consists of two halves. The lower half of the die is fixed to the anvil of the
machine, while the upper half is fixed to the ram. The heated stock is kept in the lower die while
the ram delivers four to five blows on the metal, in quick succession so that the metal spreads
and completely fills the die cavity. When the two die halves close, the complete cavity is formed.
Drop forging is used to produce small components.
Press Forging
Metal is squeezed gradually by a hydraulic or mechanical press and component is produced in a
single closing of die, hence the dimensional accuracy is much better than drop forging.
Similar to drop forging, press forging is also done in closed impression dies with the exception
that the force is a continuous squeezing type applied by the hydraulic presses.
Most commonly used for the forging of bolt heads of hexagonal shape is close die press forging.
IES-2008
Page No.81 Slide No. 197 Ans.(None) Correct sequence is 2 1 3 - 4
IAS-1998
IES-2011
Page No.82 Slide No. 203 Ans.(c) Bonding between the inclusions and the parent material is
through physical bonding no chemical bonding possible.
GATE-2008(PI)
IES-2007
The mating surfaces of the two halves of the die define a parting line around the edges of the forging as
they come together.It can be located such that the line will surround the largest projected area of the
piece. The angle of the surface at the parting line from the primary parting plane should not exceed 75o,
in general, much shallower angles are preferred.Select the parting line so that no undercut are in either
die impression at the time of ejection of workpiece.
IES-2013
GATE-2010(PI)
Page No.83 Slide No. 209 Ans.(c)Low thermal conductivity because low heat loss
from workpiece.
IES-2013
GATE-2014 Page No.83 Slide No. 214 Ans.(c)
Engineering strain or Conventional Strain( E )
elongation
original length
elongation
instantaneous length
If suppose x is the length; dx is the elongation which is infinitely small
True Strain( T )
Lo
as
dx
L
ln
x
Lo
L Lo L
L
1
1 E
Lo
Lo
Lo
T ln 1 E
volume change will not be there so,Ao Lo AL

L Ao / 4 d o 2
Lo
A / 4 d 2
ln
A
d
L
ln o 2 ln o
Lo
A
d
GATE-1992, ISRO-2012, VS-2013
Page No.83
Slide No. 215 Ans.(c)
L
2 L0
ln
ln 2 0.693
Lo
Lo
T ln
GATE-2007
Page No.83
L
True strain T
Lo

L
A
D
200
dx
ln ln o 2ln o 2ln
1.386
D
Lo
400
x
A
negative sign indicates compressive strain.

GATE-2006 Page No.84 Slide No. 220 Ans.(b)
Page 172 of 205
Rev.1
GATE-2012 Same Q GATE -2012 (PI)
Page No.84
Slide No. 221 Ans.(d)
Volume of material will remain same due to incompressibility
d12
4
h1
d 2 d1
d 22
4
h2
h1
50
100
141.42 mm
h2
25
Percentage changein diameter
d 2 d1
100% 41.42%
d1
IES-2012
Page No.84 Slide No.224 Ans.(c)Forging force attains maximum value at the end of the
operation.
Solution: h = 6 mm, 2L = 96 mm, 0.25
xs L
h
6
1
1
ln 48
ln
39.68 mm
2
2 0.25 2 0.25
2
xS
2
(L x )
2K
( x s x ) B. dx 2 2K e h
B . dx
h
xS
Ftotal = 2 Ps
0
Applying Von-Mises theory
or
4.04 N / mm2
3
K
Ps
16.16 N / mm2
39.68
or
48
2 0.25
39.68 x 150 . dx 2 (2 4.04) e

16.16
6
0
39.68
510 kN 29.10 kN 539kN(Von Mises)
F 2
Applying Trescas Theory, K
150 . dx
o
K
3.5
3.5 N / mm2 ; Ps
14 N / mm2
2
0.25
39.68
48
2 3.5
(39.68 x ) 150 dx 2 (2 3.5) e

14
6
0
39.68
442 kN 25 kN 467kN (Tresca ' s)
Solution: Given, h1 = 60 mm, d1 = 100 mm, h = 30 mm
0 120 N/ mm2 and 0.05
F 2
20.25
(48 x )
6
or
d12
h1 R2 h
4
or
or
1002
60 R2 30
4
R = 70.7 mm
20.25
(48 x )
6
150 dx
2
.R
R
1
eh
2.04 MN
F 2 0
2
2
2
2
2
h
h h
Solution: R1 = 150 mm, h1 50 mm, R = ?, h = 25 mm, = 0.25

Page 173 of 205
Rev.1
R12h1 R2 h
R = 212.1 mm
y 4 N/ mm2 (Shear yield stress) = K
By Tresca Theory;
Rs 212.1
25
1
ln
= 177.4 mm
2 0.25
2 0.25
0 mm to 177.4 mm sticking
177.4 mm to 212.1mm sliding
Ps
K
4
16 N / mm2
0.25
0 2K 2 4 8 N / mm2
20.25
(212.1 r )
25
177.4
212.1
24
16
(177.4
r
)
.
2
r
dr
(8) e
0 25
177.4
(Trescas Theory)
3.93 MN
Ftotal
. 2 r dr
Von Miscs Theory;

Rs 212.1
25
1
ln
= 170.25 mm
2 0.25 3 0.25
0 mm to 170.25mm sticking
170.25mm to 212.1mm sliding
Ps
K
4
16 N / mm2
0.25
0 K 3 4 3 N / mm2
Ftotal
RS
2
(R r )
2K
(Rs r ) 2 r dr 0 e h
2 r dr
h
RS
170.25
212.1
24
0 16 25 (170.25 r) 2 r dr 170.25
4 3. e
= 3.6 MN (Von Misces)
GATE-1987 Page No.85 Slide No. 229 Ans. Center
GATE-2014(PI) Page No.85 Slide No. 230 Ans. (a)
Practice Problem -1
Ftotal
20.25
(212.1 r )
25
2 r dr
Given: 2L = 96 mm; L = 48 mm; h = 6 mm; B = 150 mm; 0.05

h
1
ln
2 2
xs 90.155 mm
xs L
Since
K = 4.04 N/mm2
xs came negative so there will be no sticking only sliding will take place.
L
F 4 KB e h
(L x )
dx
48
4 4.04 150
20.05
(48 x )
6
dx 177.98 kN
Practice Problem -2
Page No.85
Slide No. 232 Ans.
Page 174 of 205
Rev.1
d1 200 mm; h1 100 mm; h 50 mm; 0.1; Y 230 MPa O

Volume before forging = Volume after forging
d 2 h R 2 h or 2002 100 R 2 50 R 141.421 mm

4 1 1
4
According to Von-Mises
h 1
50
1
ln
141.21
ln
297.1 mm
2 3
2 0.1 3 0.1
According to Tresca
Rs R
h 1
50
1
ln
141.21
ln
261.1 mm
2 2
2 0.1 3 0.1
Rs came out to be negative so only sliding friction takes place.
Rs R
The formula for pressure we get after the slab method of analysis of forging;
2
P oe h
R r
at r 0; P Pmax
Pmax 230 e
20.1
(141.21)
50
Practice Problem -3
404.94 MPa
Page No.85
Slide No. 233 Ans.
d1 150 mm; h1 100 mm; h 50 mm; 0.2;
d12 h1 R 2 h or
1502 100 R 2 50 R 106.66 mm

4
h
50
True strain ln ln
0.693
h1
100
4
Flow stress o f 1030 0.17 1030 0.6930.17 967.74 MPa
By Tresca Theory;
Rs 106.66
50
1
ln
=-7.87mm
2 0.2
2 0.2
Von Miscs Theory;

Practice Problem -4
Page No.85
Slide No. 234 Ans.
d1 200 mm; h1 70 mm; h 40 mm; 0.05; f 200(0.01 )0.41
2002 70 R 2 40 R 132.28 mm
4
h
40
True strain ln ln
0.5596
h1
70
4
d12 h1 R 2 h or
f 200(0.01 )0.41
f 200(0.01 0.5596)0.41 158.78 o
Now use Trescas theory
Page 175 of 205
Rev.1
Von-Mses Theory
Practice Problem -5 {GATE-2010 (PI)}
Page No.86
Slide No. 235,236
Ans.
R H IN R H FN
2
IN
or
2
FN
2
2002 50 RFN
30 RFN 258.2 mm
200
and 0.35 1 e 258.2 0.51
Now at Rss
Shear stress in sticking K = shear stress in sliding Pss
or K = 3Ke
2
RFN Rss
H FN
1 2
or ln
RFN Rss
3 H FN
or
H FN 1
ln
RFN Rss
2 3
or Rss RFN
IFS-2012
H FN 1
30
1
ln
ln
254.55 mm
258.2
2 3
2 0.51 3 0.51
Page No.86
Slide No.237 Ans. Refer forging analysis
Ch-10 Extrusion and Drawing: Answers with Explanations

IES-2007
Page No.86 Slide No. 243 Ans. (d)
The equipment consists of a cylinder or container into which the heated metal billet is loaded.
On one end of the container, the die plate with the necessary opening is fixed. From the other end, a plunger or
ram compresses the metal billet against the container walls and the die plate, thus forcing it to flow through the
die opening, and acquiring the shape of the opening. The extruded metal is then carried by the metal-handling
system as it comes out of the die.
IES-2012
Advantages: 1. Material saving 2. Process time saving 3. Saving in tooling cost
All are correct but only a die change can change the product therefore (c) is most appropriate.
IES-2009
IES-1994
Page No.87 Slide No. 250 Ans.(c)Metal extrusion process is generally used for producing
constant solid and hollow sections over any length.
GATE-1994
Page No.87 Slide No. 251 Ans. (a)
IES-1999
IAS-2012(main)
Page No.88 Slide No. 254
Ans. Refer slides
IES-2009
IES-1993
Page No.88 Slide No. 258 Ans. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of
A.
Zinc phosphate coating is used to prevent metal contact.In direct extrusion, friction with the chamber opposes
forward motion of the billet. For indirect extrusion, there is no friction, since there is no relative motion.
IES-2000
Page No.88 Slide No.259 Ans.(c)As diameter decreases therefore for same mass flow rate
the speed of travel of the extruded product must be greater than that of the ram.
IES-2012
Page No.89 Slide No. 262 Ans.(c) The force required on the punch is less in comparison to
direct extrusion.
IES-2007
Page No.89 Slide No. 263 Ans. (b)In direct extrusion, friction with the chamber opposes
forward motion of the billet.
IAS-2004
Page No.89 Slide No. 264 Ans. (d) Only ram movement is there.
IES 2008, GATE-1989(PI) Page No.268 Slide No.
Ans. (a)Impact Extrusion is used for manufacture
of collapsible toothpaste tubes
Page 176 of 205
Rev.1
IES-2003
IES-2014
IAS-2010(main)
Page No. 90 Slide No. 271 Ans. Refer slides
IAS-2000
Page No.90 Slide No. 278 Ans. (d)Hydrostatic extrusion suppresses crack formation by
pressure induced ductility. Relative brittle materials can be plastically deformed without fracture. And materials
with limited ductility become highly plastic.
IES-2006
Page No.90 Slide No.279 Ans. (a) It is pressure induced ductility.
GATE-1990(PI)
IES-2001
Page No. 91 Slide No. 283 Ans.
For sketches refer slides.
(i)Direct Extrusion-curtain rods
(ii) Indirect Extrusion(iii) Hydrostatic Extrusion-Cladding of metals, Extrusion of nuclear fuel reactor fuel rod
(iv) Impact Extrusion-Collapsible tubes for toothpastes, creams etc.
IES-2014
Page No.91 Slide No.285 Ans. (d) For high extrusion pressure, the initial temperature of
billet should be low.
JWM-2010
IAS-2012(main)
Page No.91 Slide No.288 Ans. Refer slide
Slide No. 289 Ans. (b)
IES-2007
IES-2009
Page No.92 Slide No. 294 Ans. (b)The wire is subjected to tension only. But when it is in
contact with dies then a combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses will be there in that portion only.
IES-2005
GATE-1987
IES-2010
Cleaning is done to remove scale and rust by acid pickling.
Lubrication boxes precede the individual dies to help reduce friction drag and prevent wear of the dies.
It is done by sulling, phosphating, electroplating.
IES-2000
IAS-1995
Page No.93 Slide No. 300 Ans. (d)The correct sequence for preparing a billet for extrusion
process is pickling, alkaline cleaning, phosphate coating, and lubricating with reactive soap.
IES-1996
IES-2014
Page No. 93 Slide No.303 Ans. (b)
IES-1993; GATE-1994(PI)
Page No. 94 Slide No. 308 Ans. (b)
IES-1993
Page No.94 Slide No. 311 Ans. (a)Tandem drawing of wires and tubes is necessary because
it is not possible to reduce at one stage.
IES-2000
IES-1999
IES-1996
IES-1994
IES-1993, ISRO-2010
Page No. 95 Slide No. 316 Ans. (b)since malleability is related to cold
rolling, hardness to indentation, resilience to impact loads, and isotropy to direction.
IES-2002
IAS-2001
IAS-2002
IES-2011
GATE-1991(PI)
Page No.95 Slide No. 322 Ans. Extrusion
IAS-1994
Page No.95 Slide No.323 Ans. (b) Extrusion and skew rolling produce seamless metallic
tubes.
Page No. 95 Slide No. 324 Ans. Refer slide
GATE-2003
Extrusion constant k = 250MPa
do 2
and Final area A f

4
Force required for extrusion:
Initial area A o
A
P kA0 ln o
A
f
GATE-2009(PI)
df 2
4
/ 4 0.12
2
2.72219MN
250 0.1 ln
2
4
/
4
0.05
Page No.96

Page 177 of 205
Rev.1
A
Pressure ( ) o ln o
A
f
o ln r 300ln 4 416 MPa
GATE-2006
Given : Do 10mm;Df 8mm; 0 400 MPa;Ignore friction and redundant work means
r
Ideal Force 2 0 A f ln o
rf
GATE -2008 (PI) Linked S-1
82 5
ln 8.97 kN
2 400
4
4
Page No. 96 Slide No.331 Ans. (b)
do 10 mm, d f (1 0.2) do (1 0.2) 10 8 mm

A
Stress d o ln o
A
f
d
2 o ln o
df
GATE -2008 (PI) Linked S-2
Power Drawing force Velocity
10
2 800 ln 357 MPa
8
Page No.96
Slide No. 332 Ans. (a)
Stress d area Af Velocity

357
82
4
0.5W 8.97 KW
GATE-2001, GATE -2007 (PI)

A
d o ln o For Maximum reduction, d o
Af
A A
A Af
1
o o ln o or o e 2.71828 o
100 1 100 63%
Af
Ao
e
Af
IES-2014
GATE-1996
Case(a) : 3 stage reduction final dia =15 1 0.8 1 0.8 1 0.8 0.12 mm error 0.02mm
(b) 4 stage reduction final dia =15 1 0.8 1 0.8 1 0.8 1 0.2 0.096mm error 0.004mm
(c)5 stage reduction final dia
=15 1 0.8 1 0.8 1 0.4 1 0.4 1 0.2 0.1728mm error 0.0728mm
Page No. 97 Slide No.338 Ans.
d o 12.5mm; d f 10mm;V 100m / min; 5; 0.15; o 400 MPa

B cot 0.15cot 5 1.7145
o 1 B
B
2B
rf
1
ro
21.7145
400(1 1.7145) 5
d
1
338.653MPa
1.7145
6.25

Force P 338.653 102 N

4
100
Power P V 338.653 102
m / s 44.329 kW
4
60
Maximum possible reduction; o d
o 1 B
2B
21.7145
rf min
400(1 1.7145) rf min
1
or 400
1
or rf min 4.67 mm
o
B
1.7145
ro
ro
do d f min
ro rf min
Max possible reduction in dia =
100%
100% 25.3%
do
ro
If the rod is subjected to a back pressure of 50 N/mm2
Page 178 of 205
Rev.1
o 1 B
2B
2B
rf rf
1 . b
ro ro
400(1 1.7145) 5
d
1
1.7145
6.25
6.25
For maximum possible reduction; o d
21.7145
21.7145
50 361.26 MPa
o 1 B
2B
2B
rf min rf min
1

. b
ro ro
400(1 1.7145) rf min

400
1
1.7145
6.25
21.7145
Max possible % reduction in diameter =

Max possible % reduction in area =
GATE 2011 (PI) Common Data-S1
Initial area A o
2
o
10
21.7145
rf min
6.25
50 rf min 4.78 mm
d o d f min
do
Ao Af min
Ao
100% 23.5%
100% 41.5%
Page No. 97 Slide No. 339 Ans.(c)

2
mm 2 78.54 mm 2
4
4
After first pass area A1 1 0.35 Ao 1 0.35 78.54 mm 2 51 mm 2
After second pass area A 2 1 0.35 Ao and then ........
2
After 7th pass area A 7 1 0.35 Ao 1 0.35 78.54 mm 2 3.85 mm2

7
L
A
78.54
True strain ln ln o ln
3.02
3.85
A
Lo
and Ao Lo A7 L7 or 78.54 100 3.85 L7 L7 2040 mm
GATE 2011 (PI) Common Data-S-2
A
P o Af ln o
A
f
GATE-2014
A
78.54
o A1 ln o 200 51 ln
N 4.40 KN
51
A1
Page No.97
Slide No. 341 Ans. = 0.9 to 1.1
Truestrain at any instant t T
Page No. 97 Slide No. 340 Ans. (d)
dL
dL
2tdt
ln 1 t 2
2
2
L
L0 1 t
0 1 t
as, L L0 1 t 2 , dL L0 2tdt
T
IAS-1997
IES-2012
IFS-2013
dT
2t
2 1
1.0
2
dt
1 12
1 t
Page No.97
Page No.98
Page No.98

Slide No. 343 Ans. Refer slides
Slide No. 348 Ans. Hint given on slide
Ch-11 Sheet Metal Operation: Answers with Explanations

Example
The clearance to be provided is given by, C = 0.0032 t
Shear strength of annealed C20 steel = 294 MPa
Hence, C = 0.0032 1.5 294 = 0.0823 mm
Since it is a blanking operation,
Die size = blank size = 20 mm
Punch size = blank size 2 C = 20 2 0.0823 = 19.83 mm
Page 179 of 205
Rev.1
Now when it is punching operation,

Punch size= size of hole = 20 mm
Die size = Punch size +2 C = 20 +2 0.0823 = 20.1646 mm
It is blanking operation
Therefore Diameter of die = metal disc diameter = 20 mm
3% clearance (c) = 0.06 mm on both side of the die (of sheet thickness)
Therefore Diameter of punch = 20 2c = 20 2 x 0.06 = 19.88 mm
Example
GATE-2014
Punching Force(F) Lt
F 2(a b)t 2(100 50) 5 300 450 kN

IAS-2011(main)
For punching operation 10 mm circular hole

d 10 mm; t 1 mm; 240MPa
(i) Punch size size of hole 10 mm
ii Die size
Punch size 2 C 10 2(0.0032t )=10 2(0.0032 1 240)= 10.09914 mm
(iii) Punching Force(F) Lt dt 10 1 240 N 7.54 KN

For blanking 50200 mm rectangular blank
(i) Punch size size -2C
Length will be = 200-2C =200 - 2(0.0032 1 240) =199.90 mm
Width will be = 50 -2C =50 - 2(0.0032 1 240) = 49.90 mm
ii Die size
correct size
Length will be = 200 mm

Width will be = 50 mm
(iii ) F 2(a b)t 2(200 50) 1 240 120 kN
IES-1999
Page No.101 Slide No.371 Ans.(b) min dia =4t
IES-2014
ISRO-2008, 2011 Page No.101 Slide No. 373

IES-2013
EXAMPLE
fs
3
4 20 30 mm
fc
6
Ans.(c) dt c
d2
4
or d
4t
4t
t
4
Page No.101 Slide No. 374 Ans.(c)same as previous question

Maximum force without shear = 550 x 100 x x 5.6 N = 968 kN
Work requires to shear hole = 968 x 5.6 x 0.4 = 2168 J
Force with shear = 30 T = 30 x 9.81 kN =294 kN
Page 180 of 205
Rev.1
Fmax pt
968 0.40 5.6
or 294
s 7.36 mm
s
s
Angle of shear, tan = 7.36/100 or = 4.2o

EXAMPLE
d1 25.4 mm; d 2 12.7 mm; t 1.5 mm; 280 N / mm 2
Total cutting force when both punches act at the same time and no shear is
applied to either the die or punch;
F d1t d 2t 25.4 1.5 280 12.7 1.5 280 50.271 kN
The cutting force if the punches are staggered, so that only one punch acts at a time:
Fmax d outsidet 25.4 1.5 280 33.515kN
Taking 60% penetration and shear on punch of 1 mm,
The cutting force if both punches act together;
F
d1t d 2t pt 25.4 1.5 280 12.7 1.5 280 0.6 1.5 45.225kN
S
GATE-2010 Statement Linked 1
t 5 mm; L 200 mm; 100MPa;
p
0.2
t
Fmax Lt 200 5 100 100 kN

Work Done Fmax ( pt ) 100 (0.2 5) 100 J
GATE-2010 Statement Linked 2

For 400mm length shear is 20mm; therefore for
200mm length it becomes10mm. Only 200 mm length
is effective.
Fmax ( pt )
S
100
F
10kN
10
F
IAS-2003
ISRO-2013
back.
GATE-2011

Page No.103 Slide No. 393 Ans.(a) Higher the modulus of elasticity higher will be the spring
Blanking Force(F) Lt dt 100 1.5 300 141.371kN
GATE-2009(PI)
GATE-2013(PI)
Blanking Force(F) Lt dt 200 3.2 150 301.592kN

Blanking Force(F) Lt dt 10 2 80 5.026kN
ISRO-2009
GATE-2007
Blanking Force(F) Lt dt 25 10 500 392.69kN
Blanking Force(F) Lt dt
F1 5 dt
and F2 1.5d 0.4t
F1
dt
5
1
or
or F2 3
F2 1.5d 0.4t
F2 1.5 0.4
GATE-2004
The blanking force (Fmax ) = dt 10 3 400 37.7 kN

F
GATE_2012
Fmax pt 37.7 0.40 3
22.6 kN
S
2
Page 181 of 205
Rev.1
Punch size without allowance = Die size 2 x radial clearance = 25 2 x 0.06 = 24.88 mm
We need another gap (die allowance ) i.e. final punch size will be = 24.88 0.05 = 24.83 mm
GATE-2008(PI)
C = 6% of t = 0.062.5mm = 0.15mm
Punch size = diesize - 2C = 50 - 20.15mm = 49.70 mm
Diesize = 50.00 mm
GATE-1996 Page No.105 Slide No. 414 Ans.(d) Clearance only on punch for Blanking operation. Due to
insufficient data we cant calculate.
IES-1994
IES-2002
IAS-1995
IES-2006
IES-2004
IES-1997
IAS-2000
It is blanking operation so clearance must be provided on punch.
Therefore, Die size = blank size = 30 mm
Punch size = blank size 2C = 30 -2 x 0.06 x t = 30 2 x 0.06 x 10 = 28.8 mm
GATE-2007(PI)
C 40 microns 0.040 mm; 2C 0.08 mm
It is blanking operation : Punch size 35 0.080 mm and Die size 35 mm

IAS-1994
Work done = Fmax pt 200 kN 0.25 4 200 J [2 105 N 200kN ]

IAS-2002
Page No.107 Slide No. 424 Ans.(a) In punching usable part is sheet so punch size is
Correct and clearance on die. In blanking usable part is punched out circular part so die size is correct and
clearance on punch
IAS-2007
Page No.107 Slide No. 425 Ans.(b)In punching useable part is punched sheet so size of hole
must be accurate i.e. size of punch must be accurate. Clearance have be given on Die only.
IAS-1995 Page No.107
Slide No. 426Ans.(a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
IES-2002
IAS-2003
IES-2000
IES-1999
Page No.107 Slide No. 430 Ans.(d) In blanking operation clearance is always given on the
punch . Die size is always the exact dimension
IES-1994
d 25mm; h 15mm;We know D d 2 4dh 252 4 25 15 46 mm

GATE-2003

d 100
Here
250 For d 20r ;D
r 0.4
ISRO-2011
IAS-2013(mains)
Page No.108
Ans.(c)
d 2 4dh 1002 4 100 100 224mm
Ans.(a)
Slide No. 441 Ans.
d 50 mm; h 100 mm; BlankDia D d 2 4dh 502 4 50 100 150 mm
d
d
; 1st Reduction; 0.4 1
d 90 mm
D
150
So, it can't be draw in a single draw.
Reduction 1
IFS-2013
d 40 mm; h 60 mm; r 2 mm
D d 2 4dh 402 4 40 60 105.83mm

First draw 50% reduction, d1 0.5D=52.415mm
Second draw 30% reduction, d 2 0.6d1 31.44mm (possible)
It is not possible to draw the cup in singlestep.we have to use doublestep.
IES-2008
Page No.109 Slide No. 444 Ans.(c) A cylindrical vessel with flat bottom can be deep drawn
by double action deep drawing
Page 182 of 205
Rev.1
IES-1997
D = d 4dh = 15 cm
First draw 50% reduction, d1 = 7.5 cm
Second draw 30% reduction, d2 = 5.25 cm
Third draw 25% reduction, d3 = 3.94 cm possible
IES-1998
2
d
d
0.5;
Reduction 1 100% 50%
D
D
Thumb rule:
First draw:Reduction 50 %
Second draw:Reduction 30 %
Third draw:Reduction 25%
Fourth draw:Reduction 16 %
Fifth draw:Reduction 13%
IFS-2009
Page No.109 Slide No. 450 Ans.. Refer slides for theory
IFS-2013
Page No.110 Slide No. 455 Ans..Refer slides for theory
IAS-2007
Page No.110 Slide No. 457 Ans.(d) In drawing operation, proper lubrication is essential for
1. To improve die life.
2. To reduce drawing forces.
3. To reduce temperature.
4. To improve surface finish.
GATE-2008 Page No.111 Slide No. 465 Ans.(a)An insufficient blank holder pressure causes wrinkles to
develop on the flange, which may also extend to the wall of the cup.
IAS-1997
GATE-1999 Page No.111 Slide No. 467 Ans.(b)It is without a blank holder, so no stress.
GATE-2006 Page No.111 Slide No. 468 Ans.(d)
IES-1999
IAS-1994
GATE-1992 Page No.112 Slide No. 476 Ans.(a)
tc 1.5mm; 30
now tc tb sin ;
or 1.5 tb sin 30 tb 3 mm
IES-1994
Page No.112 Slide No. 477 Ans.(d)Mode of deformation of metal during spinning is bending
and stretching.
IFS-2011
Page No.113 Slide No. 478 Ans. Refer slides
IES-2011
Option (b) Magnetic pulse forming and (d) Eletro-hydraulic formingboth are High Energy Rate Forming (HERF).
But Question is "usedfor forming components form thin metal sheets or deform thin tubes"it is done by Magnetic
pulse forming only.
JWM-2010
IES-2010
IES-2007
High-Energy-Rate-Forming is metal forming through the application of large amount of energy in a very sort
time interval.
High energy-release rate can be obtained by five distinct methods:
(i) Underwater explosions.
(ii) Underwater spark discharge (electro-hydraulic).
(iii)Pneumatic-mechanical means.
(iv)Internal combustion of gaseous mixtures.
(v) Electro-magnetic (the use of rapidly formed magnetic fields)
IES-2009
IES-2005
Page No.114 Slide No. 495 Ans. Refer slides for theory
Page 183 of 205
Rev.1
For bi-axial strectching of sheets: 1 ln

Final thickness =
li1
l
and 2 ln i 2
lo1
lo 2
initial thickness(t )
e1 e 2
t 1.5mm; 1 0.05; 2 0.09 Final thickness

IES-1998
GATE-2005

1.5
1.304 mm
e e0.09
0.05
1 radian; R 100mm; k 0.5; t 2mm

Lb (R kt) 1(100 0.5 2) 101 mm

GATE -2012 Same Q in GATE-2012 (PI)
IAS-1999
IAS-1997
IES-2010
Ans.(d)
Ans.(b)
Ans.(d)
Ans.(c)
Ans.(d)
Ch-12 Powder Metallurgy: Answers with Explanations

IAS-2003
Page No.118 Slide No.524 Ans. (c)It is for low melting point temperature metals.
IAS-2007
Page No.118 Slide No.525 Ans. (c)In atomization process inert gas or water may be used as
a substitute for compressed air.
IES-1999
Page No.118 Slide No.526 Ans. (c)An oxide film is formed in the case of air atomization and
that film can be avoided by using an inert gas.
GATE-2011(PI)
Page No.118 Slide No.528 Ans. (b)In reduction Metal oxides are turned to pure
metal powder when exposed to below melting point gases results in a product of cake of sponge metal.
IES-2012
GATE -2014 (PI) Page No.119
Slide No.535 Ans. (b) Compaction is used for making product.
IAS-2000
Page No.119 Slide No.536 Ans. (b)Sintering used for making bond
IES-2010
IES-1999
Page No.120 Slide No.541 Ans. (a)
Page No.120 Slide No.544 Ans. Lubricants such as graphite or stearic acid
improve the flow characteristics and compressibility at the expense of reduced strength.
GATE-2010(PI)
Page No.120 Slide No.548 Ans. (b)Due to formation of bonding brittleness reduces.
IES-2002
IAS-1997
Page No.121 Slide No.555 Ans. (d)A is false. Closed dimensional tolerances are possible
with iso-static pressing of metal power in powder metallurgy technique.
Page No.121 Slide No.556 Ans. Refer Slide
ISRO-2013
Page No.122 Slide No.563 Ans. (b& c)Best choice will be ( c)
GATE-2009(PI)
IES-2007
Page No.123 Slide No.569 Ans. (b)Disadvantage of PM is relatively high die cost.
IES-2012
IES-2006
Page No.123 Slide No.572 Ans. (c)No wastage of material.It may be automated though it is
difficult for automation. this is not true
IES-2004
IES-2010
IAS-1998
IES-2009
GATE-2011(PI) Page No124. Slide No.578 Ans. (d)
IAS-2003
IES-1997
IES-2001
IAS-2003
GATE-2011 Page No.125 Slide No.588 Ans. (c)
IAS-1996
IES-1998
IES-2014
IAS-2007
IAS-2004
IES-2001
Page 184 of 205
Rev.1
GATE-2008(PI)
Conventional Question,IES-2010 Page No.126 Slide No.596 Ans. Refer slide
Conventional Question,IES-2005 Page No.126 Slide No.597 Ans. Refer slide
Ch-xx Tool Materials: Answers with Explanations

IAS-1997
Ans.(a)Carbon steel tools have Limited tool life. Maximum
cutting speeds about 8 m/min. dry and used upto 250oC
IES-2013
Page No.128 Slide No.11 Ans.(b) Addition of large amount of cobalt and Vanadium to
increase hot hardness and wear resistance respectively
IAS-1997
Page No.128 Slide No.12 Ans.(a)Coating if TiC and TiN on HSS is done by by Chemical
Vapour Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)
IES-2003
per cent chromium and 1 per cent vanadium
Ans.(a)18-4-1 High speed steel- contains 18 per cent tungsten, 4
IES-2007
Ans.(a)
IES-1993
Ans.(b)The blade of a power saw is made of high speed steel.
IES-1995
Ans.(d)
18-4-1 High speed steel- contains 18 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium and 1 per cent vanadium
Molybdenum high speed steel contains 6 per cent tungsten, 6 per cent molybdenum, 4 per cent
chromium and 2 per cent vanadium.
IES-2000
Ans.(b)
IES-1992
Ans.(a)
IAS-2001
Ans.(a)
IAS-1994
Ans.(b)
IES-2011
Ans.(a)
IES-1995
Ans.(c)
IES-1994
Ans.(a)
IES-1999
Ans.(c)
IES-2013
Ans.(a)
IES-2010
Page No.131 Slide No.47 Ans.(b)Constituents of ceramics are oxides of different materials,
which areGround, sintered and palleted to make ready ceramics
IES-1996
Ans.(c)
IAS-1997
Page No.132 Slide No.49 Ans.(b)Ceramic tools are used only for light, smooth and
continuous cuts at high speeds.This is because of low strength of ceramics
IES-1996
D(mm) N
1000
m / min
100 1000
1000
Ans.(b)
314.15m / min
Cutting speed in this case is 314 m / min, at which ceramic is suited.

Page 185 of 205
Rev.1
IES-2007
Ans.(d)
IAS-2000
Ans.(c)
H.S.S < Cast alloy < Carbide < Cemented carbide < Cermets < ceramics
IAS-2003
Ans.(c)
IAS-1999
Ans.(b)
IES-2010
Ans.(c)
IES-2000
Ans.(d)Cermets are Metal-ceramic composites
IES-2003
Ans.(a)
GATE-2009(PI)
Page No.134 Slide No.66 Ans.(d)On ferrous materials, diamonds are not suitable
because of the diffusion of carbon atoms from diamond to the work-piece material.
IES-1995
Page No.134 Slide No.69 Ans.(b)Nonferrous materials are best to work with diamond
because ferrous materials have affinity towards diamond and diffusion of carbon atoms takes place.
IES-2001
Ans.(b)
IES-1999
Ans.(a)
IES-1992
Ans.(d)
IAS-1999
Page No.134 Slide No.73 Ans.(a)Oxidation of diamond starts at about 450oC and
thereafter it can even crack. For this reason the diamond tool is kept flooded by the coolant during cutting, and
light feeds are used. - Book B L Juneja and Nitin seth page 88
IES-1994
Ans.(a)
IES-2002
Ans.(d)
IES-1996
Ans.(a)Hardness of CBN is comparable to diamond
IES-1994
Ans.(d)None of the uses is true for CBN.
IAS-1998
Ans.(b)
IES-1993
Ans.(b)
High speed steel, in addition to W, Cr & V, has Mo as the most influencing constituent. Thus A matches with 2.
Non ferrous alloys (stellites) are high in cobalt. Thus B matches with 5.
The major constituent of diamond is carbon. Thus C matches with 1.
Coated carbide tools are treated by nitriding. Thus D matches with 3
IES-2003
Page No.136 Slide No.84 Ans.(b)This is one of the natural abrasives found, and is also
called corundum and emery. However, the natural abrasives generally have impurities and, as a result, their
performance is inconsistent. Hence the abrasive used in grinding wheels is generally manufactured from the
aluminium ore, bauxite,
Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon carbide is made from silica sand and coke with small amounts of common salt.
IES-2000
Page No.136 Slide No.85 Ans.(b)Cutting speed of diamond is very high but small feed rate
with low depth of cut. Degarmo and Kalpakjian both book written this.
Page 186 of 205
Rev.1
IES-1999
Page No.136 Slide No.86 Ans.(d)WC is used for drawing dies, silicone nitride for pipes to
carry liquid metal, Al2O3 for abrasive wheels, and silicon carbide for heating elements.
IAS-2001
Ans.(d)
IES-1996
Ans.(a)
IES-2005
Ans.(d)
Page 187 of 205
Rev.1
Anal
A lysis
s off Forrgin
ng
ue stre
ess an
nd Tru
ue Strrain
Tru
The tru
ue stress is defineed as the
e ratio of the load
d to the cross
c
secttion area at any
instantt. (T ) =
Where
loa
ad
= (1 + )
Instantane
eous area
a
and is the eengineerin

ng stress and engiineering strain
s
resspectively
y.
True sttrain
L
L
A
d
Elong
gation
dx
x
=
= ln = ln (1 + ) = ln o = 2ln o
(T ) =
A
Lo
d
Instantane
eouslenght L x
o
or engineering strain
s
( ) = e T -1
The volume
v
off the specimen is a
assumed to
t be consstant durring plastic deform
mation.
[ Ao Lo = AL ] It is valid till the neck form
mation.
Flow Strress
Whenamaterialdeformsplasticallystrainhardeningocccurs.
Forgin
ngoccursiinplasticzonei.einb
between y and ultt
y Y
YieldStresss
o For
F forgingg, we need
d flow stress and flow stress is not constant and
d dependss on stress of the
workp
piece.
ult Ultimatetensilestre
esshereneeckformationstarts.
wCurve
EquationofFlow
hardening
(a)Withstrainh
o = K(T )n
Page 188 of 205
Rev.1
e.g. o = 1000 (T )0.3
Here o is flow stress but it is truesttress and T is truesttrain.

(b)Wiithoutstrainhardening:
o = y
Wewillanalyzeonlyopen
ndieforgin
ngusingsllabmethodofanalyysisfor
(1)RectangularBarforgingg,and
(2)Axisymmetrricforging
1. Rectan
R
ngula
ar Bar Forgiing
oreforging
Befo
Afterrforging (length height

h
)
B
h
h1
2
2L
2L1
Herre we are using pla

ane strain
n conditio
on i.e. wid
dth wontt increasee.
At tthe end of
o the forrging, forrce will be
b maxim
mum because of th
he area in
nvolved
betw
ween the die and tthe workp
piece is maximum
m
m.
Geoometry sh
hould be ttaken at end
e of forrging
P
dx
x
(x+d
d x)
x =0
2L
L
point at which
w
the material does not move in any direcction.
x = 0 , is the p
Take an elemeent dx at a distancce of x (en
nlarged viiew):
Page 189 of 205
Rev.1
Fig. FBD of Ellements

Now element w
will look like a sla
ab and hen
nce its na
ame slab method of
o analysiis.
ft side (sstress x area) = Force ( x Bh ) a
and on other
o
sid
de force will be
On left
( x + d x ) Bh
Upper die will give

g
presssure on upper surfface and llower surrface will get pressure by
die. So on
n upper siide force=
= P area
a = (P B
B dx) & similarly
y on lowerr side =
lower d
(P B dxx )
As mettal is mo
oving outtwards so
o friction
n force wiill act in
n oppositee directio
on, this
friction
n force iss shear fforce and
d will cau
use shearr stress on the ssurface eq
qual to
( x B dxx ) in lower and upp
per surface.
At the end of fforging th

he system
m must be
e in equiliibrium; th
herefore net
n resulttant force
e in any
directtion is zerro.
Fx = 0;
0 Gives
( x + d x ) B h x . B h 2x . B dx = 0
or
or
d x B h 2x B dx = 0
d x . h 2x dx = 0
d x 2 x
=0
h
dxx
(1)
x , x and
d x so we
v
e reduce iit into tw
wo variab
bles by ap
pplying
Here there arre three variables
condiition.
material there
t
are two the
eories of plasticitty.
For a ductile m
1. Vo
on-Mises Theory:: ( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 = 2 20
2. Trescas Th
heory: 1 3 = 0
Page 190 of 205
Rev.1
( Plane strain co
ondition)
2 = 0
As
3
2
1
=0
E
E
E
2 = ( 1 + 3 )
or
2 = ( x P)
1
2
Note: In theorries of pla

asticity P
ge not occcur.
Poisson's ratio,
r
= as volume chang
2 =
There
efore,
From
m Von-Mises theo
ory:
1
( P )
2 x
2
2
x ( x P) + ( x P) + P + ( P x ) = 20
2
( x + P)2 ( x + P)2
+
+ ( x + P)2 = 220
4
4
3
2
( x + P) = 2 20
2
4
( x + P)2 = 20
3
2
( x + P) =
0
3
x + P = 2 K
ear stresss]
.(2)) [where K = 0 = flow she
3
or
or
or
or
or
m Tresca
as theor
ry :
From
1 3 = 0
or
or
x + P = 0
x + P = 2K
K .(2)) [where K =
0
= flow shear stress]]
2
g equatio
on (2)
Differrentiating
Page 191 of 205
Rev.1
d x d P
+
=0
dx
d
dx
dx d P
=
d
dx
dx
or
....(3)
Condition-1
1:
ng slidin
ng friction all over th
he surfa
ace ( x
Considerin
= P )
PB
Bdx
Bdxx
F = N
orr dF = d
dN
x B dx = . PB dx
x = P
m equation
n (1) and (3)
From
or
or
or
d x 2 x
=0
h
dx
d P 2 P
=0
dx
h
dP
2
P = h dx
2
ln P =
x +C
h
.
......(4)
ndary con
nditions, at x = L
L, x = 0 (because
(
no force is applied so noo stress on that
Boun
surface) and x + P = 2K
K gives P = 2 K
or
or
2
L+C
h
2
.L
C = ln ( 2K ) +
h
ln ( 2K ) =
ng the va
alues of C in equattion (4)
Puttin
2
2
x + ln ( 2 K ) +
.L
h
h
P 2
(L x )
ln
=
2K h
ln P =
or
or
P 2
(L x )
ln
=
2K h
Page 192 of 205
Rev.1
P = 2K
2 . e
or
2
(L x )
h
.... (5) (Pressu

ure distrib
bution equ
uation)
2
(L)
h
At
x = 0,
Pmax
= 2K e
m
At
x = L,
Pmin
= 2K e h
m
(0)
= 2K
Elemental forcce, dF = P.B.dx

P
2
dF = 2 K e h
L
(L x )
Integ
grating, F = 2 (2 K . e h
. B.dx
. (L x )
F = 4 KB
B . e h
(L x )
L
L
or 2L we use
u 2
. B . dx ) givess half porttion F so fo
0
0
. dx
Condition-2
2:
Considerin
ng stick
king fric
ction all over the
t surfface ( x
= y = K
Shearr failure w
will occurr at each and every point.
From
m equation
n (1) and (3)
or
or
or
d x
2 x =0
h
dx
dP 2K
=0
dx
h
2K
d P = h dx
2K
K
P=
x +C
h
......(6)
Page 193 of 205
Rev.1
Boun
ndary con
nditions, at x = L
L, x = 0 (because
(
no force is applied so noo stress on
o that
surface) and x + P = 2K
K gives P = 2 K
2K L
+C
h
2K
C = 2K +
.L
h
So,
2K =
or
ng in equ
uation (6)
Puttin
P=
2K
K
2K
. x + 2K
K+
.L
h
h
P = 2K
2 +
At
2K
(L x )
h
x = 0,
Pmax
= 2K +
m
x = L,
Pmin
= 2K
m
.....
(7) {P
Pressure distributi
d
ion equattion}
2K
.L
h
2k + 2k .L
h
2h
2kk
Elemental forcce,
dF
F = P . B . dx
or
dF
F = 2K +
x=0
x=L
2K
(L x ) B . dx
h
2K
F = 2 2 K +
(L
L x ) B . dx
d
h
Condition-3
3:
Considerin
ng stick
king and
d slidin
ng both model of fricttion
( Temperat
T
ture is same throu
ughout boody)
For Sliding
S
Reegion:
dx 2x
=0
d
dx
h
Page 194 of 205
Rev.1
or
or
or
d P 2 P
=0
dx
h
dP
2
P = h dx
2
ln P =
x +C
h
......(4)
Boundary conditions, at x = L, x = 0 (because no force is applied so no stress on that

surface) and x + P = 2 K gives P = 2 K
or
or
2
L+C
h
2
C = ln ( 2 K ) +
.L
h
ln ( 2 K ) =
Putting the values of C in equation (4)

2
2
.L
x + ln ( 2 K ) +
h
h
P 2
ln
(L x )
=
2K h
ln P =
or
or
or
P 2
ln
(L x )
=
2K h
P = 2K . e
For Sticking Region:

or
or
or
At
or
or
2
(L x )
h
d x
2 x =0
dx
h
dP 2K
=0
dx
h
2 K
d P = h dx
2K
P=
x +C
h
.... (5)
......(6)
x = x s ; P = Ps
2K
xs + C
h
2K
C = Ps +
. xs
h
Ps =
2K
2K
x + Ps +
xs
h
h
2K
P = Ps +
( xs x )
...............(8)
h
P=
Page 195 of 205
Rev.1
FTotal = FStticking + FSlidding

=2
Xs
PSticking . B . dx + 2
0
Sliding
. B dx
Xs
2
s
(L
L x)
2K
K
= 2 Ps +
( x s x ) B . dx + 2 2K e h
x
B . dx
h
0
xs
nd x s
To find Ps an
ame for bo
oth stickin
ng and slliding
At x = x s , Sheear stressses are sa
x = K
x = Ps
x = K = Ps
Ps =
At
(iff considerring stick

king)
(iff considerring slidin
ng)
....(9)
x = xs ;
P = Ps
2
Ps = 2K e h
( xs )
(L
2
((L x s )
K
= 2K e h
or
2
(L x s )
1
=eh
2
or
1 2
ln
n =
(L x s )
2 h
or
h
1
. ln = L x s
2
2
xs = L
h
1
ln
2
2
....(10) (in any q

question first
f
we fiind this x s )
Using
g this equ
uation we
e can deciide the condition of friction..
mple 1: L = 50 mm
m, h = 10 mm & = 0.25
Exam
xs = L
1
10
h
1
ln
ln = 50
mm
= 36.13m
2
0.25
0.25
2
2
0 to 36.13
3
mm
m sticking and 36.1
13 mm to 50 mm slliding willl take pla
ace.
Exam
mple 2: L = 50 mm
m, h = 10 mm & = 0.08
Page 196 of 205
Rev.1
xs = L
h
10
1
1
ln = 50
ln
= 64.53 mm ( absurd value )
2
2
2
0.08
2
0.08
( x cannot be ve) i.e only sliding no sticking occur.
Example 3: L = 50 mm, h = 10 mm & = 0.65

xs = L
h
10
1
1
ln = 50
ln
= 52.01 mm
2
2 0.65
2 0.65
2
Only sticking no sliding

NOTE: If > 0.5 then only sticking, In hot forging ( ) is larger if > 0.5 only sticking
condition will occur.

A strip of lead with initial dimensions 24 mm x 24 mm x 150 mm is forged between two flat
dies to a final size of 6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm. If the coefficient of friction is 0.25,
determine the maximum forging force. The average yield stress of lead in tension is 7
N/mm2
Solution: h = 6 mm, 2L = 96 mm, = 0.25
xs = L
h
6
1
1
ln = 48
ln
= 39.68 mm
2
2
0.25
2
0.25

xS
Ftotal = 2 Ps +
0
2
(L x )
2K
( x s x ) B. dx + 2 2 K e h
B . dx
h
xS
Applying Von-Mises theory K =
= 4.04 N / mm2
3
K
Ps =
= 16.16 N / mm2
or
39.68
or
48
2 0.25
(39.68 x ) 150 . dx + 2 (2 4.04) e

16.16 +
6
0
39.68
= 510 kN + 29.10 kN = 539 kN (Von Mises)
F = 2
Applying Trescas Theory, K =
150 . dx
o
K
3.5
= 3.5 N / mm2 ; Ps =
=
= 14 N / mm2
2
0.25
39.68
48
2 3.5
(39.68 x ) 150 dx +2 (2 3.5) e

14 +
6
0
39.68
442 kN + 25 kN = 467kN (Tresca ' s)
F = 2
20.25
(48 x )
6
20.25
(48 x )
6
150 dx
Practice Problem-1
A strip of metal with initial dimensions 24 mm x 24 mm x 150 mm is forged between two
flat dies to a final size of 6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm. If the coefficient of friction is 0.05,
determine the maximum forging force. Take the average yield strength in tension is 7
N/mm2
Given: 2L = 96 mm; L = 48 mm; h = 6 mm; B = 150 mm; = 0.05
h
1
ln
2 2
x s = 90.155 mm
xs = L
K = 4.04 N/mm2
Since xs came negative so there will be no sticking only sliding will take place.
L
F = 4 KB e h
(L x )
dx
Page 197 of 205
Rev.1
48
= 4 4.04 150
20.05
(48 x )
dx = 177.98 kN
Axi Symmetrical Forging (Open Die):

Using cylindrical co-ordinate system (r, , z )
and Using Slab Method of analysis
d1
h1
At the start
of forging
At end of forging

2
d1 h1 = R 2 h
4
At an angle , we take an d element at a radius r we take dr element.
+ dr
dr
+ d
r
r
For axi-symmetrical forging d will be zero.
Page 198 of 205
Rev.1
Net resultant
r
force in radially
r
outward direction
d
i 0.
is
( r + d r ) (r + dr
d ) d . h ( r . r d . h ) 2 r . r d . dr 2 dr h . sin
d
=0
2
dr.h cos d
2
d
2
dr
dr.h
h cos d
2
drh
dr.h sin d
2
d
2
dr.h
h sin d
2
d
d
gets can
ncelled they
t
are op
pposite
cos
For Axi-Symm
A
metry fo
orging
r =
r =
i.e.
m above eq
quation,
From
( r + d r ) (r + drr ) d . h ( r . r d . h ) 2 r . r d . dr 2 r dr h .
or
d
=0
2
d d
U sin g : = r ; sin
2
2
( r + d r ) (r + drr ) . h ( r . rh) 2r . r dr r . dr . h = 0
Page 199 of 205
Rev.1
or
( r . r . h + dr . rh
h + dr . drh
d + r drr . h) r . rh 2r . r dr r dr
d .h =0
or
d r . r h = 2r . r dr
or
d r 2 r
=0
h
dr
...(1)
For ductile
d
ma
aterial there are tw
wo theoriies of plassticity
1. Trescas Th
heory:
1 3 = 0
...(2)
+P=
r
0
or
2. Vo
on Miscs Theory::
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 = 2 20
or
( r r )2 + ( r + P)2 + ( P r )2 = 2 20
or
2 ( r + P)
P 2 = 2 02
...(2)
+P=
r
0
or
ating;
On diifferentia
d r d P
+
=0
dr
drr
d r
dP
=
dr
d
dr
...(3)
Con
ndition
n 1:
Con
nsidering slid
ding friiction all ove
er the ssurface
e
r = P
or
d P 2r
=0
dr
h
dP
P
2.
=0
dr
h
or
d P 2 P
=
d
dr
h
From
m (1) and ((3);
dP
2
=
. dr
P
h
2
ln
nP=
.r +C
h
or
At
or
r = R; r = 0
....(4)
(because
(
on this su
urface the
ere will b
be no force
e) and r + P = 0 ; P = 0
ln
n 0 =
2 . R
+C
h
Page 200 of 205
Rev.1
C = ln 0 +
or
2r
2 R
+ ln 0 +
h
h
P 2
ln
n
=
(R
( r)
h
0
m equation
n (4)
From
ln
nP=
or
P = 0 . e h
or
At
At
Here
2 R
h
(R
R r)
.. (5
5) Pressurre distribution
.R
r = 0; Pmax = 0 e h
r = R; Pmin = 0
r=0m
means a po
oint
For finding
f
fforce
Elemental forcce (dF)
dr
dA = 2
r dr
dF
F = d F = P . 2r . drr
2
d F = 0 . e h
R
or
F = 20 r.e h
(R r )
. (R r )
. 2r . dr
dr
or
(R r )
r . e h
F = 20
1 .
2

dr
2

h 0
2
(R r )
h
or
or
2
2
(R r )
(R r )
r.eh
eh
F = 20
2
2
2

h
h 0
2
R
h
R
1
e
F = 2 0
0+
2
2
2

h h
h
Page 201 of 205
Rev.1
IES2007Conventional
A cylinder of height 60 mm and diameter 100 mm is forged at room temperature between
two flat dies. Find the die load at the end of compression to a height 30 mm, using slab
method of analysis. The yield strength of the work material is given as 120 N/mm2 and the
coefficient of friction is 0.05. Assume that volume is constant after deformation. There is no
sticking. Also find mean die pressure.
[20-Marks]
Solution: Given, h1 = 60 mm, d1 = 100 mm, h = 30 mm
0 = 120 N/ mm 2 and = 0.05
d12
h1 = R 2 h
4
or
1002
60 = R 2 30
4
or
or
R = 70.7 mm
R
1
F = 2 0
0+
2
2
2
h h
= 2.04 MN
2
2
h
2
eh
.R
GATE2014(PI)
In an open die forging, a circular disc is gradually compressed between two
flat platens. The exponential decay of normal stress on the flat face of the
disc, from the center of the disc towards its periphery, indicates that
(a) there is no sticking friction anywhere on the flat face of the disc
(b) sticking friction and sliding friction co-exist on the flat face of the disc
(c) the flat face of the disc is frictionless
(d) there is only sticking friction on the flat face of the disc
Answer: (a)
Condition -2: Considering sticking friction all over the surface
r = K
From (1) equation (3)
or
d r 2 r
=0
dr
h
d P 2K
=0
dr
h
or
dP =
or
P=
At
r = R; r = 0
2K
. dr
h
2K
.r +C
h
...(6)
(because on this surface there will be no force) and r + P = 0 ; P = 0
2K
.R+C
h
2K
C = 0 +
R
h
0 =
or
From (6)
P=
2K
2K
. r + 0 +
R
h
h
Page 202 of 205
Rev.1
P = 0 +
or
At
r = 0; Pmax = 0 +
2K
K
. (R r )
h
....(7) Presssure Distrribution linear

l
2K
.R
h
r = R; Pmin = 0
f
fforce:
For finding
r
R
2rdr
d F = P . 2 r dr
or
F = P . 2 r dr
R
or
2K
F = 0 +
R r ) 2 r dr
. (R
h
Con
ndition
n 3:
Whe
en ther
re is stticking
g and slliding both fr
friction
ns occu
ur
St
ic
ki
ng
d
Sli
i ng
Ps
r = Rs
Page 203 of 205
Sliiding
Stickiing
Rev.1
For sliding region pressure distribution is same as we derived in previous condition same
boundary condition same differential equation.
2
P = 0 . e h
(R r )
For sticking region: Using equation (6).

P=
2K
.r +C
h
Boundary condition at r = R;
or
P = Ps
2K
. Rs + C
h
2K
C = Ps +
. Rs
h
Ps =
or
Putting in equation (6)
2K
2K
(r ) + Ps +
Rs
h
h
2K
P = Ps +
. (R s r )
h
P=
or
...(8)
FTotal = Fsticking + Fsliding

Ftotal =
Rs
sticking
Ftotal =
Rs
2 r dr +
sliding
2 r dr
Rs
2K
Ps + h (R s r ) 2 r dr +
2
0
.eh
(R r )
. 2 r dr
Rs
To find Ps and Rs
r = Ps = K
or
At
Ps =
r = Rs ;
......(9)
P = Ps
2
Ps = 0 e h
or
(R Rs )
2
(R R s )
K
= 0 e h
K
ln
0
2
(R R s )
=
h
h
K
Rs = R
ln
2
0
or
According to Trescas theory
K=
0
2
Rs = R
K 1
=
0 2
or
h
1
ln
2
2
...(10)
According to Von-Miscs Theory

K=
0
3
Rs = R
or
K
1
=
0
3
h
1
ln
2
3
...(11)
IES2006Conventional
Page 204 of 205
Rev.1
A certain disc of lead of radius 150 mm and thickness 50 mm is reduced to a thickness of 25

mm by open die forging. If the co-efficient of friction between the job and die is 0.25,
determine the maximum forging force. The average shear yield stress of lead can be taken
as 4 N/mm2
[10 Marks]
Solution: R1 = 150 mm, h1 = 50 mm, R = ?, h = 25 mm, = 0.25
R12h1 = R 2 h
R = 212.1 mm
y = 4 N/ mm2 (Shear yield stress) = K
By Tresca Theory;
R s = 212.1
25
1
ln
= 177.4 mm
2 0.25
2 0.25
Ps =
K
4
=
= 16 N / mm2
0.25
0 = 2 K = 2 4 = 8 N / mm2
20.25
(212.1 r )
25
177.4
212.1
24
Ftotal = 16 +
(177.4 r ) . 2 r dr + (8) e
25
0
177.4
= 3.93 MN
(Trescas Theory)
. 2 r dr
Von Miscs Theory;

R s = 212.1
25
1
ln
= 170.25 mm
2 0.25
3 0.25
Ps =
K
4
=
= 16 N / mm2
0.25
0 = K 3 = 4 3 N / mm2
Ftotal =
RS
2K
(R s r ) 2 r dr +
Ps +
h
0 e h
(R r )
2 r dr
RS
170.25
212.1
20.25
(212.1 r )
24
25
16
+
(170.25
+
4
3.
2 r dr
r
r
dr
e
25
170.25
= 3.6 MN (Von Misces)
Ftotal =
Page 205 of 205
Rev.1
S d
i
Sandcasting
y Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the primary
M t lC ti
MetalCasting
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
mould material.
y The sand grains are mixed with small amounts of
other materials, such as clay and water, to improve
mouldability and cohesive strength,
strength and are then
packed around a pattern that has the shape of the
desired casting.
casting
y The pattern must be removed before pouring, the
mold
ld is
i usually
ll made
d in
i two
t or more pieces.
i
y An opening called a sprue hole is cut from the top of
the mold through the sand and connected to a
system of channels called runners.
Contd.
Sequentialstepsinmakingasandcasting
i l
i
ki
d
i
y Apatternboardisplacedbetweenthebottom(drag)
andtop(cope)halvesofaflask,withthebottomsideup.
y Sandisthenpackedintothedraghalfofthemold.
y Abottomboardispositionedontopofthepackedsand,
andthemoldisturnedover,showingthetop(cope)half
ofpatternwithsprue andriserpinsinplace.
y Thecopehalfofthemoldisthenpackedwithsand.
Th
h lf fth ldi th k d ith d
y The molten metal is poured into the sprue hole, flows
y
y
y
y
through the runners,

runners and enters the mold cavity
through an opening called a gate.
G i
Gravity
fl
flow
i the
is
h most common means off
introducing the metal into the mold.
After solidification, the mold is broken and the
finished casting is removed.
The casting is then fettled by cutting off the ingate
and the feeder head.
Because the mold is destroyed, a new mold must be
made for each casting.
casting
Contd
y The mold is opened, the pattern board is drawn
(removed),
(removed) and the runner and gate are cut into the
surface of the sand.
y The mold is reassembled with the pattern board
removed,
d and
d molten
l
metall is poured
d through
h
h the
h
sprue.
y The contents are shaken from the flask and the metal
segment is separated from the sand, ready for further

p
processing.
g
Contd
CastingTerms
y Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand
mould
ld intact.
i t t It is
i made
d up off wood
d for
f temporary
t
applications
pp
or metal for longterm
g
use.
y Drag: Lower moulding flask.
y Cope: Upper moulding flask.
y Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three
Page 1 of 240
piece
i
moulding.
ldi
Rev.0
Contd
p
j
y Pattern: Pattern is a replica
of the final object
to be
made with some modifications.
y Moulding sand: The freshly prepared refractory
material used for making the mould cavity. It is a

mixture of silica,
silica clay and moisture in appropriate
y Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two
moulding
ld
fl k that
flasks
h makes
k up the
h sand
d mould.
ld
proportions.
y Backing sand: This is made up of used and burnt
y Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood,

wood
which is used at the start of the mould making.
sand.
y Core:
C
U d for
Used
f making
ki hollow
h ll cavities
i i in
i castings.
i
Threeflaskmould
Contd
g basin: A small funnelshaped

p cavityy at the top
p
y Pouring
of the mould into which the molten metal is poured.
y Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal
from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity.

cavity
Padding
y Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the
mould cavity.
y Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in
the
h mould
ld to increase
i
the
h cooling
li rate off castings.
i
y Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane through
y Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the
which molten metal flow is regulated before they reach
casting so that hot metal can flow back into the mould
the
h mould
ld cavity.
cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due
y Gate: The actual entry point through which molten
Contd
IES2001
(a) To ensure directional solidification

(b) To provide efficient venting
(c) For aligning the mold boxes
(d) To
T support the
h cores
is known as 'padding'.
y This will require extra material.
y If p
padding
g is not p
provided, centre line shrinkage
g or
porosity will result in the thinner section.
to solidification
metal enters the mould cavity in a controlled rate. Contd
The main purpose of chaplets is
y Tapering
section
T
i off thinner
thi
ti towards
t
d thicker
thi k section
ti
IES1996
Which of the following methods are used for
obtaining
bt i i directional
di ti
l solidification
lidifi ti for
f riser
i design
d i
1.
Suitable placement of chills
2.
Suitable placement of chaplets
3.
Employing padding
Select the correct answer.

( ) 1 and
(a)
d 2 (b) 1 and
d 3 (c)
( ) 2 and
d 3 (d) 1, 2 and
d3
Page 2 of 240
IES2007
statement?
t t
t?
Gate is provided in moulds to
(a) Feed the casting at a constant rate
((b)) Give p
passage
g to g
gases
(c) Compensate for shrinkage
(d) Avoid cavities
Rev.0
GATE2009
MatchtheitemsinColumnIandColumnII.
MatchtheitemsinColumnIandColumnII
ColumnIColumnII
P MetallicChills1 Supportforthecore
P.MetallicChills1.Supportforthecore
Q.MetallicChaplets2.Reservoirofthemoltenmetal
R Riser3 Controlcoolingofcritical
R.Riser3.Controlcoolingofcritical
sections
S ExothermicPadding4 Progressivesolidification
S.ExothermicPadding4.Progressivesolidification
(a) P1,Q3,R2,S4
(b)
P1,Q4,R2,S3
(c) P3,Q4,R2,S1
P 3 Q 4 R 2 S 1
(d)
P 4 Q 1 R 2 S 3
P4,Q1,R2,S3
Pattern
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the
gp
process,, with some modifications.
casting
The main modifications are
y The addition of pattern allowances,
allowances
y The provision of core prints, and
y Elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained
by casting and hence are to be obtained by further
processing
GATE1992
Inagreensandmouldingprocess,uniform
rammingleadsto
(a) Lesschanceofgasporosity
(b) Uniformflowofmoltenmetalintothemould
cavity
(c) Greaterdimensionalstabilityofthecasting
(d) Lesssandexpansiontypeofcastingdefect
PatternAllowances
1. Shrinkageorcontractionallowance
2. Draftortaperallowance
3. Machiningorfinishallowance
M hi i fi i h ll
4 Distortionorcamberallowance
4.
55. Rappingallowance
pp g
GATE2011
Green sand mould indicates that
(a) polymeric mould has been cured
(b) mould has been totally dried
((c)) mould is g
green in colour
(d) mould contains moisture
Sh i k
Shrinkageallowance
ll
y All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps
bismuth.
bismuth
y This is because of the interatomic vibrations which
are amplified by an increase in temperature.

y The shrinkage allowance is always to be added to the
linear dimensions. Even in case of internal dimensions.
Contd
Liquidshrinkageandsolidshrinkage
y Liquid
refers
to the
in
Li id shrinkage
h i k
f
h reduction
d i
i volume
l
when the metal changes temperature from pouring to

solidus temperature in liquid state.
state To account for this,
this
risers are provided in the moulds.
y Solidification shrinkage
g refers to the reduction in
volume when metal changes from liquid to solid state
at the solidus temperature. To account for this, risers
are provided
id d in
i the
h moulds.
ld
y Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused,
when a metal loses temperature in the solid state.
state The
shrinkage allowance is provided to take care of this
educt o .
reduction.
y Gray CI with a carbon equivalent of 4.3% has
negative shrinkage, that is, it actually expands

upto 2.5%
2 5% because of graphite precipitation.
precipitation So,
So
for this, no riser is needed.
Page 3 of 240
y Pattern Allowances
Cast Iron
Brass, Copper, Aluminium
Steell
Zinc, Lead
10 mm/m
15 mm/m
20 mm/m
25 mm/m
Rev.0
IES1995
IES1999
GATE1999
Which one of the following materials will require

the largest size of riser for the same size of casting?
((a)) Aluminium
(b) Cast iron
(c) Steel
In
off metal
casting,
I solidification
lidifi ti
t l during
d i
ti
Which of the following materials requires the
l
largest
t shrinkage
hi k
allowance,
ll
while
hil making
ki
a
pattern for casting?
( ) Aluminium
(a)
l
(b) Brass
(c) Cast Iron
(d) Plain Carbon Steel
(d) Copper.
compensation
p
for solid contraction is
(a) Provided by the oversize pattern
(b) Achieved by properly placed risers
(c) Obtained
by
promoting
directional
solidification
lidifi i
(d) Made by providing chills
GATE2001
ISRO2007
Shrinkage allowance is made by
( ) Adding
(a)
dd
to externall and
d internall dimensions
d
(b) Subtracting from external and internal
dimensions
((c)) Subtracting
g from external dimensions and
adding to internal dimensions
(d) Adding to external dimensions and subtracting
from internal dimensions
GATE2011
GATE2008
While cooling, a cubical casting of side 40 mm
undergoes 3%, 4% and 5% volume shrinkage
during the liquid state, phase transition and solid
state
state,
respectively
respectively.
The
volume
of
compensated from the riser is

(a) 2%
(b) 7%
(c) 8%
Shrinkage allowance on pattern is provided to

p
for shrinkage
g when
compensate
(a) The temperature of liquid metal drops from
pouring to freezing temperature
(b) The metal changes from liquid to solid state at
freezing temperature
(c) The temperature of solid phase drops from
f
freezing
i to room temperature
(d) The temperature of metal drops from pouring
to room temperature
(d) 9%
metal
A cubic casting of 50 mm side undergoes volumetric

solidification shrinkage and volumetric solid
contraction of 4% and 6% respectively.
respectively No riser is
used. Assume uniform cooling in all directions. The
side of the cube after solidification and contraction is
(a) 48.32 mm
(b) 49.90 mm
(c) 49
49.94
94 mm
(d) 49.96 mm
Page 4 of 240
GATE2004
Gray cast iron blocks 200 x 100 x 10 mm are to be
castt in
i sand
d moulds.
ld Shrinkage
Sh i k
allowance
ll
f
for
pattern making is 1%. The ratio of the volume of
pattern
tt
t that
to
th t off the
th casting
ti will
ill be
b
(a) 0.97
(b) 0.99
(c) 1.01
(d) 1.03
IAS1995
Assertion
(A):
A
i
(A) A pattern is
i made
d exactly
l similar
i il to
the part to be cast.
R
Reason
(R) Pattern
(R):
P
i used
is
d to make
k the
h mould
ld
cavity for pouring in molten for casting.
( ) Both
(a)
B h A and
i di id ll true and
d R is
i the
h
(b) Both
B h A and
i di id ll true but
b R is
i not the
h
( ) A is
(c)
i true but
b R is
i false
f l
Rev.0
D ft
Draft
IAS2003
Match
I (Material
II
M h List
Li
(M
i l to be
b cast)) with
i h List
Li
(Shrinkage Allowance in mm/m) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
ListI
ListII
(MaterialtoCast)(ShrinkageAllowanceinmm/m)
(A) Greycastiron
1.
7 10
(B) Brass
2
2.
15
(C) Steel
3.
20
(D) Zinc
4
4.
24
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b) 3
4
1
2
(c) 1
4
3
2
(d) 3
2
1
4
y To
the
off the
off the
T reduce
d
th chances
h
th damage
d
th mould
ld
cavityy at the time of p

pattern removal,, the vertical faces
of the pattern are always tapered from the parting line.
This provision is called draft allowance.
y Inner surfaces
f
off the
h pattern require higher
h h draft
d f than
h
outer surfaces.
surfaces
y Draft is always provided as an extra metal.
DRAFTALLOWANCE
Sh k ll
ShakeAllowance
y At the time of pattern removal, the pattern is rapped
y A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and
y Itt iss a negative

egat ve a
allowance
owa ce aand
d iss to be app
applied
ed o
onlyy to
those dimensions, which are parallel to the parting

plane.
y This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long
flat portions, V, U sections or in a complicated casting

which may have thin and long sections which are
connected to thick sections.
y The foundry practice should be to make extra
material provision for reducing the distortion.
Thepatternmaterialshouldbe
Which of the following materials can be used for
y Lightinweight
making patterns?
y Strong,hardanddurable
1. Aluminium
y Resistanttocorrosion,andtochemicalreactions
y Availableatlowcost.
y
y
GATE2000
Disposablepatternsaremadeof
2. Wax
33. Mercuryy 4
4. Lead

Codes:
y Dimensionallystableandunaffectedbyvariationsin
temperatureandhumidity.
very dimensionally stable. Commonly used teak, white

pine and mahogany wood.
wood
Metal patterns are more expensive but are more
dimensionally stable and more durable.
durable Commonly used
CI, Brass, aluminium and white metal.
Hard plastics,
plastics such as urethanes,
urethanes and are often preferred
with processes that use strong, organically bonded sands
that tend to stick to other pattern materials.
materials
In the fullmold process, expanded polystyrene (EPS) is
used.
used
Investment casting uses wax patterns.
IES1994
y Easilyworked,shapedandjoined
y Resistanttowearandabrasion
y Wood
are relatively
W d patterns
tt
l ti l easy to
t make.
k Wood
W d is
i nott
prone.
therefore is likelyy to be distortion p
all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould

cavity slightly to facilitates its removal.
removal
P
M
i l
PatternMaterials
ll
DistortionAllowance
(a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 2,3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Page 5 of 240
(a)
Wood
(b)
Rubber
(c)
Metal
(d)
P l
Polystyrene
Rev.0
T
f P tt
TypesofPattern
T
f P tt
TypesofPattern
Single
Pattern
Si l Piece
Pi
P tt
These are inexpensive and the simplest type of
patterns.
tt
A the
As
th name indicates,
i di t they
th are made
d off a
single piece.
Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern

This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate
castings When the contour of the casting makes its
castings.
withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth
of the casting is too high,
high then the pattern is split into two
parts so that one part is in the drag and the other in the
cope.
p
Gated Pattern
Gating and runner system are integral with the

pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of
the runners and gates and help in improving the
productivity of a moulding.
TypesofPattern
y Match Plate Pattern
The
h cope and
d drag
d
patterns along
l
with
h the
h
gating and the risering are mounted on a single
matching metal or wooden plate on either side.
IES2008
TypesofPattern
y Loose Piece Pattern
This type of pattern is also used when the

contour of the part is such that withdrawing the
pattern from the mould is not possible.
possible
T
f P tt
TypesofPattern
y Cope and Drag Pattern
These
ese aaree ssimilar
a to sp
splitt patte
patterns.
s. In add
addition
t o to
splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of
pattern along
g with the g
gating
g and riser systems
y
the p
are attached separately to the metal or wooden
plates along
p
g with the alignment
g
pins. Theyy are
p
called the cope and drag patterns.
T
f P tt
TypesofPattern
y Follow Board Pattern
This type of pattern is adopted for those
castings where there are some portions,
portions which
are structurally weak and if not supported
properly are likely to break under the force of
ramming.
T
fP
TypesofPattern
y Skeleton Pattern
y Sweep Pattern
The pattern adopted for those castings where there

are some portions
ti
which
hi h are structurally
t t ll weak
k and
d
are likely to break by the force of ramming are
called:
ll d
(a) Loose piece pattern
(b) Follow board pattern
((c)) Skelton p
pattern
(d) Single piece pattern
TypesofPattern
It is used to sweep the complete casting by means

of a plane sweep.
s eep These are used for generating
large shapes, which are axisymmetrical or
prismatic in nature such as bellshaped
bell shaped or
cylindrical.
Page 6 of 240
A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood

is used for building the final pattern by packing
sand around the skeleton. After packing the
sand the desired form is obtained with the help
sand,
of a strickle. This type of pattern is useful
generally for very large castings,
castings required in
small quantities where large expense on
complete wooden pattern is not justified.
justified
Rev.0
CoolingCurve
Fluidity
The ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold is known
as fluidity.
Pouring Temperature
y The most important controlling factor of fluidity is the
pouring
p
g temperature
p
or the amount of superheat.
p
y Higher the pouring temperature, the higher the fluidity.
y Excessive temperatures should be avoided, however. At
high pouring temperatures, metalmold reactions are
accelerated and the fluidity may be so great as to permit
penetration.
i
y Penetration is a defect where the metal not only fills the
mold cavity
ca it but also fills the small voids
oids between
bet een the sand
particles in a sand mold.
ISRO2011
Fluidity in casting (CI) operation is greatly
i fl
influenced
d by
b
a) Melting temperature of molten metal
b) Pouring temperature of molten metal
c)) Finish of the mould
Core
y Used for making cavities and hollow projections.
y All sides of core are surrounded by the molten metal
and are therefore subjected to much more severe

thermal and mechanical conditions and as a result the
core sand should be of higher strength than the
moulding sand.
d) Carbon content of molten metal
( )
GATE2012(PI)
In sand casting, fluidity of the molten metal
i
increases
with
ith
(A) increase in degree of superheat
(B) decrease in pouring rate
((C)) increase in thermal conductivityy of the mould
(D) increase in sand grain size
Desiredcharacteristicsofacore
y Green Strength: A core made of green sand should
b strong
be
t
enough
h to
t retain
t i the
th shape
h
till it goes for
f
baking.
y Dry Strength:
h It should
h ld have
h
adequate
d
d strength
dry
h
so that when the core is placed in the mould, it
should
h ld be
b able
bl to resist the
h metall pressure acting on
it.
y Refractoriness: Since in most cases, the core is
surrounded all around it is desirable that the core
material should have higher refractoriness.
Contd
y Permeability: Gases evolving from the molten metal
and generated from the mould may have to go

through the core to escape out of the mould. Hence
cores are required to have higher permeability.
permeability
y Permeability Number: The rate of flow of air passing
through
th
h a standard
t d d specimen
i
under
d a standard
t d d pressure is
i
termed as permeability number.
y The
Th standard
d d permeability
bili test is
i to measure time
i
taken by a 2000 cu cm of air at a pressure typically of

980
8 Pa
P (10
( g/cm
/ 2),
) to pass through
h
h a standard
d d sand
d
specimen confined in a specimen tube. The standard
specimen
i
size
i is
i 50.8
8 mm in
i diameter
di
and
d a length
l
h off
50.8 mm. For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs)
y Then,, the p
permeabilityy number,, R is obtained byy
VH
R=
pAT
WhereV=volumeofair=2000cm3
H=heightofthesandspecimen=5.08cm
p=airpressure,g/cm
p
p
, g/ 2
A=crosssectionalareaofsandspecimen=20.268cm2
T timeinminutesforthecompleteairtopassthrough
T=timeinminutesforthecompleteairtopassthrough
Insertingtheabovestandardvaluesintothe
expression,weget
501.28
R=
p.T240
Page 7 of
y Calculatethepermeabilitynumberofsandifittakes1min
25stopass2000cm3 ofairatapressureof5g/cm2 through

thestandardsample.
p = 5.0 g / cm 2
T = 1 min 25 s = 1.417
1 417 min
501.28
R=
= 70.75
5 1.417
1 417
Rev.0
IES2007
y Friability: The ability to crumble should be a very
Whatispermeability?Permeabilityismoreimportant
inthebasicprocessofsandcastingthanporosity.Give
y Collapsibility:
p
y At the time of cooling,
g, casting
g shrinks,, and
unless the core has good collapsibility (ability to decrease
oneimportantreasonforthisfeature.
i
t t
f thi f t
[2marks]
in size) it is likely to provide resistance against shrinkage
important consideration at the time of removal.

y Smoothness: Surface of the core should be smooth
f good
for
d finish
fi i h to
t the
th casting.
ti
y Low Gas Emission
and thus can cause hot tears.
C
S d
CoreSands
y Used
silica
d clay
l free
f
l sand.
d
y Binders used are linseed oil,
oil core oil,
oil resins,
resins dextrin,
dextrin
molasses, etc.
y Core oils are mixtures of linseed, soy, fish and
petroleum oils and coal tar.

y The general composition of a core sand mixture could
be core oil (1%) and water (2.5

(2 5 to 6%).
6%)
C b Di id M ldi
CarbonDioxideMoulding
y Sodium silicate (water glass, SiO2:Na2O) is used as a binder.
This is essentially a quick process of core or mould

p p
preparation.
y The mould is prepared with a mixture of sodium silicate and
sand and then treated with carbon dioxide for two to three
minutes such that a dry compressive strength of over 1.4
MPa is arrived.
y The carbon dioxide is expected to form a weak acid, which
hydrolyses the sodium silicate resulting in amorphous silica,
which forms the bond.
y The introduction of CO2 g
gas starts the reaction byy forming
g
hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 + H2O).
y The compressive strength of the bond increases with
standing time due to dehydration.

y Because of the high strength of the bond, the core need not
provided with anyy other reinforcements.

be p
y It does not involve any distortions due to baking and also
better dimensional accuracies are achieved.

y The
Th sand
d mixture
i
d
does
not have
h
good
d shelf
h lf life
lif and
d
therefore should be used immediatelyy after p

preparation.
p
Contd
IES2002
Assertion (A): In CO2 casting process,
process the mould or
core attains maximum strength.
Reason (R): The optimum gassing time of CO2
through the mould or core forms Silica Gel which
imparts sufficient strength to the mould or core.
core
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t
GATE 2008(PI)
GATE
2008 (PI)
g of a hollow p
y
In sand casting
part of lead,, a cylindrical
core
of diameter 120 mm and height 180 mm is placed inside
the mould cavity. The densities of core material and lead
GATE2014
An
alloy
is
A aluminium
l i i
ll (density
(d i 2600 ) casting
i
i to be
b
produced. A cylindrical
p
y
hole of 100 mm diameter and
100 mm length is made in the casting using sand core
are 1600 kg/m3 and 11,300

11 300 kg/m3 respectively.
respecti el The net
(density 1600 ). The net buoyancy force (in Newton)
force ((in N)) that tends to lift the core during

gp
pouring
g of
acting on the core is ..
molten metal will be

(a) 19.7
(b) 64.5
(c) 193.7
(d) 257.6
Page 8 of 240
Rev.0
M ldi S d C
MouldingSandComposition
iti
y Sand:
silica
or olivine
S d Ordinary
O di
ili Sand
S d (SiO2),
) zircon,
i
li i
sands.
Oth Additi
OtherAdditives
y Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength.
y Pitch
Pit h if used
d up to
t 3%
% would
ld improve
i
th hot
the
h t
y Clay: Acts as binding agents mixed to the moulding
sands
strength.
g
y Saw dust up to 2% may improve the collapsibility by
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O), and

B
Bentonite
i (Al2O3 4SiO
SiO2 H2O nH
H2O).
O)
y Water: Clay is activated by water.
water
slowly burning, and increase the permeability.

y Other materials: sea coal, asphalt, fuel oil, graphite,
molasses iron oxide,

molasses,
oxide etc.
etc
M ldi S d P
MouldingSandProperties
ti
y Porosity or Permeability: Permeability or porosity of
the moulding sand is the measure of its ability to

permit air to flow through it.
it
y Strength: It is defined as the property of holding
t th off sand
together
d grains.
i
A moulding
ldi sand
d should
h ld have
h
ample strength so that the mould does not collapse or
gett partially
ti ll destroyed
d t
d during
d i conveying,
i
t
turning
i over
or closing.
y Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding sand
mixture to withstand the heat of melt without showing
any signs of softening or fusion.
Contd
y Plasticity: Itisthemeasureofthemouldingsandtoflow
aroundandoverapatternduringrammingandtouniformly
filltheflask.
y Collapsibility:Thisistheabilityofthemouldingsandto
decreaseinvolumetosomeextentunderthecompressive
forcesdevelopedbytheshrinkageofmetalduringfreezing
p
y
g
g
g
andsubsequentcooling.
y Adhesiveness:Thisisthepropertyofsandmixtureto
p p y
adheretoanotherbody(here,themouldingflasks).The
mouldingsandshouldclingtothesidesofthemoulding
g
g
g
boxessothatitdoesnotfalloutwhentheflasksarelifted
andturnedover.Thispropertydependsonthetypeand
amountofbinderusedinthesandmix.
Oth S d
OtherSands
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
give a better surface finish to the castings.
g
cavityy to g
y Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the
refractory material found in the mould.
mould This is made
up of used and burnt sand.
y Green Sand: The molding sand that contains
moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
should have enough strength so that the constructed
mould retains its shape.
y Dry
D sand:
d When
Wh the
th moisture
i t
i the
in
th moulding
ldi sand
d is
i
completely expelled, it is called dry sand.
Grainsizenumber
y ASTM (American
Society for Testing and Materials))
(
grain size number, defined as

n-1
N 2
y Where N is the number of grains per square inch
visible in a prepared specimen at 100X and n is the
ASTM
S Mg
grainsize
a s e number.
u be .
y Low ASTM numbers mean a few massive grains; high
numbers refer to many small grains.
grains
IES2008
g sand: The small amount of carbonaceous

y Facing
Small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled

on the inner surface of mould cavity is called
(a) Backing sand
( ) Facing sand
(b)
(c) Green sand
(d) Dry sand
IES2002
In the grain size determination using standard
charts, the relation between the given size
number n and the average number of grains 'N'
per square inch at a magnification of 100 X is
( ) N = 2n
(a)
(b) N = 2nl
(c) N = 2n + 1
(d) N = 2n + 1
Page 9 of 240
S dSli
SandSlinger
Rev.0
Gating System
GatingSystem
CastingYield
Thecastingyieldistheproportionoftheactual
g
, ,
p
castingmass,w,tothemassofmetalpouredintothe
mould,W,expressedasapercentage.
Casting yield =
w
100
W
Contd
Gating System
GatingSystem
y Runner: A runner is commonly a horizontal channel
y Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the
top of the mould into which the molten metal is

poured.
y Sprue:
S
Th passage through
The
th
h which
hi h the
th molten
lt metal,
t l
from the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In

many cases it controls
t l the
th flow
fl
off metal
t l into
i t the
th
mould.
which connects the sprue with gates, thus allowing the

molten metal to enter the mould cavity.
cavity The runners
y Ingate: Achannelthroughwhichthemoltenmetal
entersthemouldcavity.
y Vent: Smallopeninginthemouldtofacilitateescape
p
g
p
ofairandgases.
are of larger crosssection and often streamlined to

slow down and smooth out the flow, and are designed
to provide approximately uniform flow rates to the
various parts of the mould cavity.
cavity Runners are
commonly made trapezoidal in crosssection.
Contd
fG
TypesofGateorIngate
Top
turbulence
in
T gate: Causes
C
b l
i the
h mould
ld cavity,
i it
i is
i prone
p
gradient towards the
g
to form dross,, favourable temperature
gate, only for ferrous alloys.
Bottom gate: No mould erosion, used for very deep moulds,
higher pouring time,
time Causes unfavourable temperature
gradients.
Parting Gate: most widely used gate, easiest and most
economical in preparation.
Step Gate: Used for heavy and large castings, size of ingates
are normally increased from top to bottom.
Contd
IES2011
In light metal casting,
casting runner should be so designed
that:
1. It avoids
id aspiration
i ti
2. It avoids turbulence
3. The path of runner is reduced in area so that
q
volume of flow through
g each g
gate
unequal
takes place
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Page 10 of 240
G
20 0 ( )
GATE
2010(PI)
During
the
process off a given
sand
D i
h filling
filli
i
d mould
ld cavity
i by
b
molten metal through a horizontal runner of circular cross
section the frictional head loss of the molten metal in the
runner will increase with the
(a) increase in runner diameter
(b) decrease in internal surface roughness of runner
(c) decrease in length of runner
(d) increase in average velocity of molten metal
Rev.0
IES 2011
IES2011
the code given below the lists :
ListI
ListII
A.Topgate
1.Heavyandlargecastings
B.Bottomgate
g
2.Mostwidelyusedandeconomical
y
C.Partinggate
3.Turbulence
D.Stepgate
4.Unfavourable temperaturegradient
Codes
C
d
A
( ) 3
(a)
(c) 3
B
4
2
C
2
4
D
1
1
(b)
(d)
A
1
1
B
4
2
C
2
4
D
3
3
Th
Thegoalsforthegatingsystem
l f th
ti
t
y To
to
T minimize
i i i turbulence
t b l
t avoid
id trapping
t
i gasses into
i t
the mold
y To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the
metal starts to solidify
y To avoid shrinkage
y Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the
solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must
be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
y Incorporates a system for trapping the nonmetallic
inclusions.
inclusions
T
TypesofGatingSystems
f G ti S t
Thegatingsystemsareoftwotypes:
y Pressurizedgatingsystem
y Unpressurizedgatingsystem
U
i d i
IES1998
A sand casting mould
assembly is shown in
the above figure. The
elements marked A
and B are respectively
(a) Sprue and riser
(b) Ingate
I
t and
d riser
i
(c) Drag and runner
(d) Riser and runner
GATE2002
The primary purpose of a sprue in a casting
mould
ou d iss to
(a)Feed the casting at a rate consistent with the rate
of solidification
(b)Act as a reservoir for molten metal
( ) d molten
(c)Feed
l
metall from
f
the
h pouring
i basin
b i to the
h
gate
(d)Help feed the casting until all solidification takes
place
IES 1998
IES1998
Whichofthefollowingaretherequirementsofanideal
gatingsystem?
1 Themoltenmetalshouldenterthemouldcavitywithas
1.
highavelocityaspossible.
2 Itshouldfacilitatecompletefillingofthemouldcavity.
2.
Itshouldfacilitatecompletefillingofthemouldcavity
3. Itshouldbeabletopreventtheabsorptionofairorgases
fromthesurroundingsonthemoltenmetalwhile
flowingthroughit.
(a)1,2and3
(b)1and2 (c)2and3 (d)1and3
IES2009
C
id th f ll i t t
t
1.Theactualentrypointthroughwhichthemolten
metalentersthemouldcavityiscalledingate.
2.Bottomgateincaseofamouldcreatesunfavourable
g
temperaturegradient.
3.Sprueincaseofamouldismadetaperedtoavoidair
inclusion.
Whichoftheabovestatementsis/arecorrect?
(a)1only (b)1and2 (c)2and3 (d)1and3
P
PressurizedGatingSystem
i d G ti S t
U P
i d G ti S t
UnPressurizedGatingSystem
y The total cross sectional area decreases towards the
y The total cross sectional area increases towards the
mold cavity
y Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the
metal flow
y Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
y Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the
sprue always runs full
y Because
B
off the
h restrictions
i i
the
h metall flows
fl
at high
hi h
velocity leading to more turbulence and chances of
mold
ld erosion.
i
Page 11 of 240
mold cavity
y Restriction only
y at the bottom of sprue
p
y Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates
y Aspiration in the gating system as the system never
runs full
y Less
L
turbulence.
b l
Rev.0
Sprue Design
Sincethevelocitiesareproportionaltothesquareof
p
,
thepotentialheads,ascanbederivedfrom
Bernoulli'sequation,
y Sprue: Sprue is the channel through which the molten
metal is brought into the parting plane where it enters the

runners and g
gates to ultimatelyy reach the mould cavity.
y
y The molten metal when moving from the top of the cope to
the p
parting
gp
plane g
gains in velocityy and some lowpressure
p
area would be created around the metal in the sprue.
y Since the sand mould is permeable, atmospheric air would
be breathed into this lowpressure area which would then
be carried to the mould cavity.
y
y To eliminate this problem of air aspiration, the sprue is
tapered
p
to g
graduallyy reduce the cross section as it moves
away from the top of the cope as shown in Figure below (b).
At = Ac
Theexacttaperingcanbeobtainedbytheequationof
continuity.DenotingthetopandchokesectionsofThesprue by
thesubscriptstand'c'respectively,weget
A t Vt = A c Vc
At = Ac
The height of the downsprue is 175 mm and its

crosssectional
ti
l area att the
th base
b
i 200 mm2. The
is
Th
crosssectional area of the horizontal runner is
also
l 200 mm2. Assuming
A
i
no losses,
l
i di t the
indicate
th
correct choice for the time (in seconds) required to
fill a mould cavity
ca it of volume
olume 10
06 mm3. (Use g = 10
0
2
m/s ).
( )
(a)2.67
(b)
(b)8.45
( )
(c)26.72
(d)
(d)84.50
WhereH=actual
h
l
sprue height
andht=h+H
Vc
Vt
Contd
Contd
GATE2001
hc
ht
GATE 2007
GATE2007
g down sprue
p
A 200 mm long
has an area of cross
section of 650 mm2 where the pouring basin meets the
p
((i.e. at the beginning
g
g of the down sprue).
p )
down sprue
A constant head of molten metal is maintained by the
pouring
p
g basin. The Molten metal flow rate is 6.55 105
3
mm /s. Considering the end of down sprue to be open
p
and an acceleration due to g
gravityy of
to atmosphere
104mm/s2, the area of the down sprue in mm2 at its end
((avoiding
g aspiration
p
effect)) should be
(a)650.0 (b)350.0 (c)290.7 (d)190.0
Contd
G ti
Gatingratio
ti
y Gatingratioisdefinedas:Sprue area:Runnerarea:
Ingate area.
area
y Forhighqualitysteelcastings,agatingratioof1:2:2or
1:2:1.5willproducecastingsnearlyfreefromerosion,
willminimizeoxidation,andwillproduceuniform
ill i i i id i d ill d if
flow.
y Agatingratioof1:4:4mightfavour theformationof
oxidationdefects.
IES2003
A gating
ratio
ti
ti off 1: 2: 4 is
i used
d to
t design
d i the
th gating
ti
system for magnesium alloy casting. This gating ratio
refers to the cross section areas of the various gating
elements as given below:
1
1.
Down sprue 2.
2
Runner bar 3.
3
Ingates
The correct sequence of the above elements in the
ratio 1: 2: 4 is
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1,3 and
d2
(c) 2, 3 and 1
(d) 3, 1 an 2
Page 12 of 240
IES2005
The gating ratio 2: 8: 1 for copper in gating system
d i refers
design
f to
t the
th ratio
ti off areas of:
f
(a) Sprue: Runner: Ingate
(b) Runner: Ingate: Sprue
((c)) Runner: Sprue:
p
Ingate
g
(d) Ingate: Runner: Sprue
Rev.0
GATE2010
Inagatingsystem,theratio1:2:4represents
(a) Sprue basearea:runnerarea:ingate area
(b) Pouringbasinarea:ingate area:runnerarea
(c) Sprue basearea:ingate area:castingarea
(d) Runnerarea:ingate
R
i
area:castingarea
IAS1999
Assertion
off metall through
A
i (A):
(A) The
Th rate off flow
fl
h
h sprue
is NOT a function of the crosssectional areas of
sprue runner and gate.
sprue,
gate
Reason (R): If respective crosssectional areas of
p
, runner and g
gate are in the ratio of 1: 2: 2,, the
sprue,
system is known as unpressurised gating system.
(a) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the correct
explanation of A
correct explanation
l
i off A
(d) A is false
f l but
b R is true
Ri
RisersandRiserDesign
d Ri D i
y Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid
metal to the solidifying casting as a means of

compensating for solidification shrinkage.
y To perform this function, the risers must solidify after
the casting.
casting
y According to Chvorinov's rule, a good shape for a riser
would
ld be
b one that
th t has
h a long
l
f
freezing
i time
ti
(i
(i.e.,
a small
ll
surface area per unit volume).
y Live risers (also known as hot risers) receive the last
hot metal that enters the mold and generally do so at a
time when the metal in the mold cavity has already
begun to cool and solidify.
TypesofRisers
Ch i
Chvorinovs
rule
l
IES 1994
IES1994
Assertion (A): In a mould, a riser is designed and placed
so that the riser will solidify after the casting has solidified.
Reason (R): A riser is a reservoir of molten metal which
will supply molten metal where a shrinkage cavity would
have occurred.
explanation
p
of A
correct explanation
p
of A
IES2011
The relationship between total freezing time t,
t
volume of the casting V and its surface area A,
g to Chvorinovs rule is :
according
V
(a ) t = k
A
A
(b ) t = k
V
A
(c ) t = k
V
(d ) t = k
y Totalsolidificationtime(ts)=B(V/A) n
wheren=1.5to2.0
[Wh
[Where,B=mouldconstantandisafunctionof(mould
B
ld
di f
i f(
ld
material,castingmaterial,andconditionofcasting]
n=2 andtriser =1.25tcasting
2
or
Forcylinder
ofdiameterD
fdi
D
andheightH
V
V
= 1.25
A
riser
A casting
V = D2H / 4
2
A = DH + 2 D
)
GATE 2013 SameQuestion(PI)
GATE2013
IES 1998
IES1998
A spherical drop of molten metal of radius 2 mm
A cube
solidifies
in
The
b shaped
h
d casting
ti
lidifi
i 5 min.
i
Th
was found to solidify in 10 seconds. A similar drop of
solidification time in min for a cube of the same
radius 4 mm would solidify in
material, which is 8 times heavier than the original
(a) 14.14 seconds
casting, will be
(b) 20 seconds
d
( ) 10
(a)
(b) 20
( ) 24
(c)
(d) 40
(c) 28.30
28 30 seconds
2
Where K is a constant
(d) 4
40 seconds
Page 13 of 240
Rev.0
GATE2014
GATE2014(PI)
GATE2003
A cylindrical riser of 6 cm diameter and 6 cm height has
For a given volume of a riser, if the solidification

time of the molten metal in riser needs to be
quadrupled, the surface area of the riser should be
made
to be designed for a sand casting mould for producing a
With a solidification factor of 0.97 x 106 s/m2, the
steel rectangular plate casting of 7 cm 10 cm 2 cm
solidification time (in seconds) for a spherical
dimensions having the total solidification time of 1.36

1 36
casting of 200 mm diameter is
minute. The total solidification time (in minute) of the
(a) onefourth
(b) half
(c) double
(d) four times
IES2006
According
to
Chvorinov's
( ) 539
(a)
riser is ..
GATE 2010(PI)
equation,
the
Volume of a cube of side 'l' and volume of a sphere of
(a) v2
(b) Directlyy p
proportional
p
to the specific
p
heat of the
radius r are equal. Both the cube and the sphere are solid
and
d off same material.
t i l They
Th are being
b i cast.
t The
Th ratio
ti off the
th
cast material
p
is:
solidification time of the cube to the same of the sphere
(c) Directly proportional to the thermal diffusivity of
(c) 1/v
the
h molten
l
metall
(d) 1/v2
Where, v = volume of casting
(d)Inversely
proportional
to
the
A solid
D and
l d cylinder
l d off diameter
d
d height
h h equall to D, and
d a solid
ld
cube of side L are being sand cast by using the same material.
4 r

6 l
( b )
4 r

6 l
( c )
Assuming there is no superheat in both the cases, the ratio of

solidification time of the cylinder to the solidification time of the
diameter of the cylinder are equal. The ratio of the
cube is
solidification time of the sphere to that of the cylinder is
(a) (L/D)2
(d) 0.76
GATE2009(PI)
equal volumes are separately cast from the same molten
(c) 1.31
4 r
6 l
pouring
In a sand casting process,

process a sphere and a cylinder of
((b)) 0.877
(a )
temperature.
GATE 2011 (PI)

GATE2011(PI)
metal under identical conditions. The height and
(d) 3233
Solidification
off a metallic
S lidifi ti time
ti
t lli alloy
ll casting
ti is
i
(a) Directly proportional to its surface area
(b) v
( ) 4311
(c)
GATE2007
solidification
lidifi ti time
ti
off a casting
ti is
i proportional
ti
l to:
t
((a)) 1.14
4
(b) 1078
8
(b) (2L/D)2
(c) (2D/L)2
(d) (D/L)2
Page 14 of 240
Rev.0
4 r

6 l
( d )

IES2011Conventional
IES 2012
IES
y A round casting is 20 mm in diameter and 50 mm in
Theratioofsurfaceareaofvolumeforaunitvolumeof
Th ti f f
f l
f it l
f
ConventionalQuestionESE2003
length. Another casting of the same metal is elliptical in
riserisminimumincaseof
cross section,
i
with
i h a major
j to minor
i
axis
i ratio
i off 2, and
d
Compare the solidification time of two optimum side
(a)Cylindricalriser
has the same length and cross

crosssectional
sectional area as the
risers of the same volume with one has cylindrical shape
(b)Sphericalriser
round casting. Both pieces are cast under the same
and other is parallopiped.
(c)Hemisphericalriser
conditions. What is the difference in the solidification
(d)Cuboidsriser
times
i
off the
h two castings
i
?
Area of ellipse = ab
[ Marks]
[10
M k ]
Ci
Circumference
f
= 3 ( a + b )
= 2
A cylindrical
with
li d i l blind
bli d riser
i
ith diameter
di
t d and
d height
h i ht h,
h is
i
placed on the top of the mold cavity of a closed type
sand
d mold
ld as shown
h
i the
in
th figure.
fi
If the
th riser
i
i off
is
constant volume, then the rate of solidification in the
riser
i is
i the
th least
l t when
h the
th ratio
ti h : d is
i
(a) 1 : 2
(c) 1 : 4
(b) 2 : 1
(d) 4 : 1
(a
( 3a + b )( a + 3b )
+ b2 ) / 2
(approx.)
M d l M th d
ModulusMethod
GATE2014
Sprue basin
[30 Marks]
Mold cavity
of the riser exceeds the modulus of the casting

g byy a
factor of 1.2, the feeding during solidification would be
D2
4
satisfactory.
f
+ D2
MR = 1.2
1 2 Mc
d
Riser
y It has
empirically
h been
b
i i ll established
t bli h d that
th t if the
th modulus
d l
y Modulus = volume/Surface area

y In steel castings, it is generally preferable to choose a
riser with a heighttodiameter ratio of 1.

Contd
Q
ConventionalQuestionIES2008
y Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and diameter
C i Method
Caines
M th d
Freezingratio=ratio ofcoolingcharacteristicsofcastingto
theriser.
A
X=
equal) necessary to feed a steel slab casting of dimensions

30 x 30 x 6 cm with a side riser,
riser casting poured horizontally
( V)
( AV )
Casting
into the mould.
AccordingtoCaine
[Use Modulus Method]

[ 0 Marks]
[10
Riser
Th i h ld lidif l
Therisershouldsolidifylastsox>1
X=
a
+c
Yb
V
Vcasting
riser
Y=anda,b,careconstant.
Page 15 of 240
Rev.0
Table:ConstantsinCaines Method
Q
Conventional QuestionIES2007
y Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and
diameter equal)) necessary to feed a steel slab

casting of dimensions 25 x 25 x 5 cm with a side
riser, casting poured horizontally into the mould.
[Use Caines Method]
[ For steel a = 0.10, b = 0.03 and c = 1.00 ]
IES1995
GATE1998,2007,2014(PI)
Directional solidification in castings can be
Chills are used in moulds to
improved by using
(a) Achieve directional solidification
(a) Chills and chaplets
(b) Reduce the possibility of blowholes
( ) Chills and padding

(b)
(c) Reduce freezing time
(c) Chaplets and padding
(d) Smoothen
S
h metall flow
fl for
f reducing
d i splatter.
l
Chills
Chill
g
p
y, highthermal
g
y External chills are masses of highheatcapacity,
conductivity material that are placed in the mould (adjacent to
the casting) to accelerate the cooling of various regions.
Chills can effectively promote directional solidification or
increase the effective feeding distance of a riser. They can often
b used
be
d to reduce
d
the
h number
b off risers
i
required
i d for
f a casting.
i
y Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed within the
mould cavity to absorb heat and promote more rapid
solidification. Since some of this metal will melt during the
operation,
ope
at o , itt w
will abso
absorb
b not
ot o
onlyy tthee heatcapacity
eat capac ty eenergy,
e gy, but
also some heat of fusion. Since they ultimately become part of
the final casting, internal chills must be made from the same
alloy as that being cast.
IAS1994
Chillsareusedincastingmouldsto
(a) Achievedirectionalsolidification
(b) Reducepossibilityofblowholes
(c) Reducethefreezingtime
(d) Increasethesmoothnessofcastsurface
(d) Chills, chaplets and padding.
Cupola
y Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for
IES1997
melting cast iron.

iron
y In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to preheat the
air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in the
furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola.
cupola Coke is fuel and Lime stone
(CaCO3) is mostly used flux.
y Cost
C off melting
l i low.
l
y Main disadvantages of cupola is that it is not possible to
produce iron below 2.8% carbon.
y Steel can be also p
prepared
p
in cupola
p
byy employing
p y g
duplexing and
triplexing
operations.
Assertion (A):
( ) Steell can be
b melted
l d in hot
h blast
bl cupola.
l
Reason (R): In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to
preheat the air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in
the furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional
i
l cupola.
l
explanation
l
i off A
correct explanation
l
i off A
Page 16 of 240
IES 2012
IES
) Cupola
C p
p y
Statement ((I):
furnace is not employed
for
melting steel in foundry
) The temperatures
p
generated within a
g
Statement ((II):
cupola are not adequate for melting Steel
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement
(II) is true
Rev.0
Electric Arc Furnace

ElectricArcFurnace
y For heavy steel castings,
castings the
openhearth type of furnaces
Crucible Furnace or Pot Furnace

y Smaller foundries generally prefer the crucible furnace.
y The crucible is g
generallyy heated byy electric resistance
or gas flame.
with electric arc or oil fired
Induction Furnace
y The induction furnaces are used for all types of
materials, the chief advantage being that the heat
source is isolated from the charge and the slag and flux
get the necessary heat directly from the charge instead
of the heat source.
would be generally suitable in

view of the large heat required
for melting.
y Electric arc furnaces are more
suitable for ferrous materials and

are larger in capacity.
CastingCleaning(fettling)
g
g(
g)
Ladles
y Twotypesofladlesusedinthepouringofcastings.
Pouring time
Pouringtime
GATE2005
Timetakentofillthemouldwithtopgate
Where A=Areaofmould
A.H
tA =
H H i ht f
H=Heightofmould
ld
A g 2gh m
Ag =AreaofGate
Hm =Gateheight
Timetakentofillthemouldwithbottomgate
tB =
(
2g
2A
Ag
hm hm H
Impuritiesinthemoltenmetalarepreventedfromreaching
y yp
g
themouldcavitybyprovidinga
(i) Strainer
(ii) Bottomwell
(iii) Skimbob
A mould has a downsprue whose length is 20 cm

and
d the
th cross sectional
ti
l area att the
th base
b
off the
th
downsprue is 1cm2. The downsprue feeds a
h i
horizontal
t l runner leading
l di into
i t the
th mould
ld cavity
it off
volume 1000 cm3. The time required to fill the
mould cavity
ca it will
ill be
(a)4.05 s (b)5.05 s (c)6.05 s
(d)7.25 s
Page 17 of 240
GATE1996
Light impurities in the molten metal are prevented
f
from
reaching
hi the
th mould
ld cavity
it by
b providing
idi a
(a) Strainer
(b) Button well
((c)) Skim bob
GATE 2006
GATE2006
In a sand casting operation, the total liquid head is

maintained
i i d constant such
h that
h it
i is
i equall to the
h mould
ld
height. The time taken to fill the mould with a top gate
i tA. If the
is
h same mould
ld is
i filled
fill d with
i h a bottom
b
gate,
then the time taken is tB. Ignore the time required to
fill the
h
runner and
d frictional
fi i
l effects.
ff
A
Assume
atmospheric pressure at the top molten metal surfaces.
Th relation
The
l i between
b
tA and
d tB is
i
(A)
tB = 2 t A
(B)
tB = 2 t A
((C))
tB =
(D)
tB = 2 2 t A
tA
2
Rev.0
2007 (PI) Li k d S 1
GATE
2007 (PI) Li k d S 2
GATE
In a sand casting process, a sprue of 10 mm base

diameter and 250 mm height leads to a runner
which fills a cubical mould cavity of 100 mm size
The volume flow rate (in mm3/s) is
(a) 0.8 x 105
(b) 1.1 x 105
(c) 1.7
1 7 x 105
(d) 2.3
2 3 x 105
In a sand casting process, a sprue of 10 mm base

diameter and 250 mm height leads to a runner
which fills a cubical mould cavity of 100 mm size
The mould filling time (in seconds) is
(a) 2.8
(b) 5.78
(c) 7.54
7 54
(d) 8.41
8 41
Expressionforchokearea
CA =
m
mm2
ct 2gH
Wherem=massofthecasting,kg
=Densityofmetal,kg/m3
t=pouringtime
p
g
c=Efficiencyfactorandisthefunctionofgate
systemused
y
H=Effectiveheadofliquidmetal
=hfortopgate
Contd
H=h
H h
hm
2
h2
=h c
2hm
IES2009
forbottomgate
f b tt t
IAS2011Main
y 2marks
Sketch a mould for two hollow components to be
forpartinglinegate
cast. On the diagram, indicate runner, gate, riser,

core, cope, sprue, pouring basin, sprue well, drag,
parting line.
line
hC
hm
hm
[
[10Marks]
]
hm
li
t t ti li t b tt t
topgatepartinglinegatebottomgate
IES2013
When an alloy solidifies over a range of
C ti D f t
CastingDefects
G D f t
GasDefects
Thefollowingarethemajordefects,whicharelikelyto
Th f ll i th j d f t hi h lik l t
y A condition existing in a casting caused by the
occurinsandcastings:
g
trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases

evolved during the pouring of the casting.
y The defects in this category
g y can be classified into
blowholes and pinhole porosity.
y Blowholes
ow o es aaree sp
spherical
e ca o
or eelongated
o gated cav
cavities
t es p
present
ese t
in the casting on the surface or inside the casting.
y Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of
molten metal.
metal
temperature, the resulting casting structure is:
y Gasdefects
(a) Wholly equiaxed
y Shrinkagecavities
( ) Wholly columnar
(b)
y Moldingmaterialdefects
(c) Partially columnar partially equiaxed

equi axed
y Pouringmetaldefects
(d) Dendritic
y Moldshift.
M ld hift
Page 18 of 240
Rev.0
Shrinkage Cavities
ShrinkageCavities
y These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the
solidification of the casting.

y To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is
required. For this reason risers are placed at the
appropriate places in the mold.
y Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the
proper location, causing shrinkage cavities.
y It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage
cavities.
Scab
y This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould
lifts or breaks down and the recess thus made is filled by

metal.
y When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be
disengaged with such violence as to break up the sand,
which
hi h is
i then
h washed
h d away and
d the
h resulting
l i cavity
i filled
fill d
with metal.
y The
Th reasons can be:
b too fine
fi sand,
d low
l
permeability
bili off
sand, high moisture content of sand and uneven mould
ramming.
i
MoldingMaterialDefects
y These
appear as rough
Th
h spots
t and
d areas off excess metal,
t l and
d
are caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing

metal.
metal
y This is caused by the molding sand not having enough
strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity.
velocity
y The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of
molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the
proper design of the gating system.
y Cutsandwashes,
y Scab
y Metalpenetration,
y Fusion,and
y Swell
S ll
M t l
Metalpenetration
t ti
y When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand
grains, the result is a rough casting surface.

y This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was
applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand
grains more the metal p
g
penetration.
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold

wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension
off the
th casting.
ti
A proper ramming
i
off the
th mold
ld will
ill
correct this defect.
Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or
deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during
pouring solidification.
ldf
The
h provision off choke
h k in the
h
gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the
mold
ld can preventt this
thi defect
d f t
Fusion
y This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with
th molten
the
lt metal,
t l giving
i i a brittle,
b ittl glassy
l
appearance
on the casting
g surface.
y The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand
particles are of lower refractoriness or that the

pouring temperature is too high.
P i M t lD f t
PouringMetalDefects
Swell
Cutandwashes
d
h
y The misrun and cold shut defects are caused either by
The likely defects in this category are

y Misruns and
y Cold shuts
y A misrun is caused when the metal is unable to fill

metal.
metal
the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled

cavities.
y A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting
in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus
forming a discontinuity in the casting.
casting
Page 19 of 240
Contd
Rev.0
GATE 2014
GATE2014
Match the casting defects (Group A) with the probable
causes (Group B):
GroupA
P: Hot tears
GroupB
1: Improper fusion of two streams of liquid
metal
Q: Shrinkage 2: Low permeability of the sand mould
q
and
R: Blow holes 33: Volumetric contraction both in liquid
solid stage
S: Cold Shut 4: Differential cooling rate
P
(a) 1
(c) 3
Q
3
4
R
2
2
S
4
1
(b)
(d)
P
4
1
Q
3
2
R
2
4
S
1
3
MoldShift
ld h f
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag
or molding
ldi boxes
b
h
have
nott been
b
properly
l aligned.
li
d
IES2001
Scabisa
(a) Sandcastingdefect
(b) Machiningdefect
(c) Weldingdefect
(d) Forgingdefect
F i d f
GATE2004
Misrun is a casting defect which occurs due to
(a) Very high pouring temperature of the metal
(b) Insufficient fluidity of the molten metal
(c) Absorption of gases by the liquid metal
(d) Improper
I
alignment
li
off the
h mould
ld flasks
fl k
GATE2009
Two streams of liquid metal which are not hot
enough
h to
t fuse
f
properly
l result
lt into
i t a casting
ti defect
d f t
known as
(a) Cold shut
(b) Swell
(c) Sand wash
(d) Scab
Metallurgical defects
Metallurgicaldefects
GATE2014
y Hot tears or hot cracking, cause of this defect is that
stresses and strains built up during solidification are too

high compared to the actual strength of the semisolid
material. This type of defects occurs in the lower part of
the solidification range, close to the solidus, when the
alloy has a wide solidification temperature range and a
small amount of liquid, when the solid fraction is more
than 0.9, the hot tearing is easy to occur. Proper mould
design prevents this type of defect.
y Hot spots are areas on the surface of casting that
quicklyy
become veryy hard because theyy cooled more q
than the surrounding material.
IAS2004
MatchListI(CastingDefects)withListII(Explanation)andselectthecorrect
MatchList I(CastingDefects)withList II(Explanation)andselectthecorrect
ListI
ListII
(CastingDefects)
(Explanation)
A.Metallicprojections 1.Consistofroundedorroughinternalorexposedcavities
includingblowholesandpinholes
B.Cavities
2.Formedduringmelting,solidificationandmoulding.
C.Inclusions
3.Includessinglefolds,laps,scarsadheringsandlayersand
oxidescale
D.Discontinuities
4.Includecracks,coldorhottearingandcoldshuts
5.Consistoffins,flashormassiveprojectionsandrough
Consistoffins flashormassi eprojectionsandrough
surfaces
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
5
3
2
(b)
1
5
2
4
(c)
5
1
2
4
(d)
5
1
3
2
Page 20 of 240
The hot tearing in a metal casting is due to

(a) high fluidity
(b) high melt temperature
(c) wide range of solidification temperature
(d) low
l coefficient
ffi i
off thermal
h
l expansion
i
GATE2003
Hardnessofgreensandmouldincreaseswith
(a) Increaseinmoisturecontentbeyond6percent
y
p
(b) Increaseinpermeability
(c) Decreaseinpermeability
(d) Increaseinbothmoisturecontentand
permeability
bilit
Rev.0
IES1998
Assertion(A):Stiffeningmembers,suchaswebs
A
i (A) S iff i
b
h b
andribs,usedonacastingshouldbeliberally
provided
provided.
Reason(R):Theywillprovideadditionalstrength
toacastmember.
toacastmember
Ai f l b tRi t
IES2009
In which one of the following furnaces most of the
nonferrous alloys are melted?
(a) Reverberatory furnace
(b) Induction furnace
(c) Crucible furnace
(d) Pot
P t furnace
f
Cast Aluminium Code

CastAluminiumCode
y Fourdigitidentificationsystem
y Firstdigitindicatesalloygroup
1 Aluminium,99%ormore
, 99
2 copper
3 Silicon,withcopperand/ormagnesium
3
Silicon withcopperand/ormagnesium
4 silicon
5 magnesium
6 notused
7 zinc
8 tin
8
9 otherelements
IES2005
In gating system design, which one of the
following is the correct sequence in which choke
area, pouring time, pouring basin and sprue sizes
are calculated?
(a) Chokearea Pouringtime Pouringbasin Sprue
(b) Pouringbasin
ou g bas
Sprue
Sp
ue C
Chokearea
o e a ea Pouringtime
ou g t e
(c) Chokearea Sprue Pouringbasin Pouringtime
(d) Pouringbasin
P i b i Pouringtime
P i ti Chokearea
Ch k
Sprue
S
IES1997
If the melting ratio of a cupola is 10: 1, then the
coke requirement for one ton melt will be
(a) 0.1 ton
(b) 10 tons
(c) 1 ton
(d) 11 tons
t
IAS2001
Whichofthefollowingpatternmaterialsareused
inPrecisionCasting?
1. PlasterofParis
2. Plastics
3. AnodizedAluminium Alloy
4. FrozenMercury
F
M
(a)1and2(b) 2and4(c)3and4(d)1and3
IAS2004
Whichoneofthefollowinggatingsystemsisbest
suitedtoobtaindirectionalsolidification?
(a) Topgrating
(b) Part
Partlinegrating
linegrating
(c) Bottomgrating
(d) Steppedgrating
St
d ti
C
l i i
C d
CastAluminiumCode
Contd..
y Second two digits identify the aluminium alloy or
indicate the aluminium purity.

y The last digit is separating from the other three by a
decimal point and indicates the product form; that is,
castings or ingots
y A modification of the original alloy is indicated by a
serial
i l letter
l tt before
b f
th numerical
the
i l designation.
d i
ti
y Alloy A514.0 indicates an aluminium alloy casting with
magnesium as the principal alloy. One modification to
the original alloy has made, as indicated by the letter A.
Page 21 of 240
IES2011
In the designation of Aluminium casting A514.0
A514 0
indicates :
( ) Aluminium
(a)
Al i i
purity
it
(b) Aluminium content
(c) Percentage of alloy element
(d) Magnesium Content
A
Ans.
(d)
Rev.0
ShellMoulding
y The sand is mixed with a thermosetting resin is
SpecialCasting
BySKMondal
y Can produce complex parts.
allowed to come in contact with a heated metal pattern

(2000C).
y A skin
ki (shell)
( h ll) off about
b
3.5 mm off sand
d and
d plastic
l i
mixture adhere to the pattern.
y Then the shell is removed from the pattern.
y The cope
p and drag
g shells are kept
p in a flask with
necessary backup material and the molten metal is
poured into the mold.
p
y A good
d surface
f
fi i h and
finish
d good
d size
i
t l
tolerance
MoldingSandinShellMolding
y Hot coating: the mixture is heated to 150oC 180oC prior
y The molding sand is a mixture of fine grained quartz sand
y Materials can be cast: CI, Al and Cu alloys.
to loading the sand. In the course of sand mixing, the

soluble phenol formaldehyde resin is added.
added The mixer is
and
d powdered
d d bakelite.
b k li
y Cold coating and Hot coating methods are used for
allowed to cool up to 80 90o C. Hot coting gives better

properties to the mixtures than cold method.
coating the sand grains with bakelite.

y
reduce the need for machining.

g
Cold coating: quartz sand is poured into the mixer and

th the
then
th solution
l ti
off powdered
d d bakelite
b k lit in
i acetone
t
and
d
ethyl aldehyde are added. (mixture is 92% quartz sand,
Shellmouldingprocess
h ll
ldi
Ad t
Advantages
5% bakelite, 3% ethylaldehyde )
Contd
Li it ti
Limitations
y Dimensional
Di
i
l accuracy.
y Expensive pattern
y Smoother surface finish.

finish (Due to finer size grain used)
y Small size casting

g only.
y
y Very
y thin sections can be cast.
y Highly complicated shapes cannot be obtained.
y Very small amount of sand is needed.
y More sophisticated equipment is needed for handling
y Cylinders and cylinder heads for air cooled IC
engines
y Automobile transmission parts.
y Piston rings
the shell moldings.
Applications
Page 22 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2010
IES2010
Considerthefollowingadvantagesofshell
mouldcasting:
1.Closedimensionaltolerance.
Cl di
i
lt l
2.Goodsurfacefinish.
3.Lowcost.
4.Easier.
E i
Whichofthesearecorrect?
(a)1,2and3only (b)2,3and4only
( )
(c)1,2and4only
( )
(d)1,2,3and4
IES2006
Shellmouldingcanbeusedfor:
(a) Producingmillingcutters
g
g
(b) Makinggoldornaments
(c) Producingheavyandthickwalledcasting
(d) Producingthincasting
IES1996
IES2005
Consider the following ingredients used in

moulding:
1. Dry silica sand
2.Clay
3.Phenol formaldehyde
4.Sodium
S di
silicate
ili t
Those used for shell mould casting include
(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 2, 3 and 4
((c)) 1and 3
((d)) 1,, 2,, 3 and 4
Inshellmoulding,howcantheshellthickness
I h ll
ldi h
th h llthi k
beaccuratelymaintained?
( )
(a)Bycontrollingthetimeduringwhichthepattern
isincontactwithmould
(b)Bycontrollingthetimeduringwhichthepattern
isheated
(c)Bymaintainingthetemperatureofthepatternin
therangeof175oC
C 380oC
(d)Bythetypeofbinderused
IES2007
IAS2007
Which of the following are employed in shell

moulding?
ldi ?
1. Resin binder 2. Metal pattern 3. Heating coils
Select the correct answer using the code given
below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1,
1 2 and 3
The mould in shell moulding process is made up

off which
hi h off the
th following?
f ll i ?
(a) Gypsum + setting agents
(b) Green sand + clayy
(c) Sodium silicate + dried sand
(d) Dried silica + phenolic resin
IAS1999
I
t
t C ti
InvestmentCasting
Match
Process)
M t h List
Li t I (Moulding
(M ldi
P
) with
ith List
Li t II (Binding
(Bi di
Agent) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists:
g
List I
List II
A. Green sand
1. Silicate
B. Core sand
2. Organic
C. Shell moulding
3. Clay
D CO2
D.
CO process
4. Plaster
Pl
off Paris
P i
5. Plastic
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
2
5
1
(b) 3
2
4
1
(c) 2
3
5
4
(d) 2
3
4
5
Investment casting process or lost wax process

Basic steps:
1 Produce expendable wax,
1.
wax plastic,
plastic or polystyrene patterns.
patterns
2. Assemble these patterns onto a gating system
3 Investing or covering the pattern assembly with refractory
3.
slurry
4 Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
4.
5. Firing the mould to remove the last traces of the pattern
material
6. Pouring molten metal
7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing.
Page 23 of 240
Rev.0
Fig.Investmentflaskcastingprocedure
CeramicShellInvestmentCasting
IES2009
y In ceramic shell investment casting a ceramic shell is
y 2marks
built around a tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a

pattern into a slurry (refractory material such as
zircon with binder).
y After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the
assembly is allowed to thoroughly dry before the next

coating is applied.
applied
Advantages
Limitations
Applications
y Tight dimensional tolerances

y Excellent surface finish (1.2
(1 2 to 3.0
3 0 m )
y Machining
g
can
be
reduced
or
completely
p
y
eliminated
y Costly patterns and moulds
y Aerospace and rocket components.
y Labour costs can be high
y Vanes and blades for gas turbines.
y Limited size
y Surgical instruments
y High melting point alloy can be cast, almost any
metal can be cast

y Almost unlimited intricacy
y
IES2011
The proper sequence of investment casting steps is :
(a) Slurry coating pattern melt outShakeout Stucco
coating
ti
(b) Stucco coating Slurry coating Shakeout Pattern
melt out
(c) Slurryy coating
g Stucco coating
g Pattern melt out
Shakeout
(d) Stucco coating Shakeout Slurry coating Pattern
melt out
GATE2006
An expendable pattern is used in
( ) Slush
(a)
l h casting
(b) Squeeze casting
(c) Centrifugal casting
(d) Investment casting
GATE2011(PI)
Which of the following casting processes uses
expendable pattern and expendable mould?
(a) Shell mould casting
( ) Investment casting
(b)
(c) Pressure die casting
(d) Centrifugal casting
Page 24 of 240
Rev.0
ISRO2010
Investment casting is used for
(a) Shapes which are made by difficulty using complex
patterns
tt
i sand
in
d casting
ti
(b) Mass production
p
IES1992
Themostpreferredprocessforcastinggasturbine
bladesis:
(a) Diemoulding
(b) Shellmoulding
(c) Investmentmoulding
(d) Sandcasting
S d ti
(c) Shapes which are very complex and intricate and

can't be cast by any other method
20 0
JWM2010
g
Considerthefollowingmaterials:
1.Wax
2 Wood
2.Wood
3.Plastic
Whichofthesematerialscanbeusedaspatternin
investmentcastingprocess?
(a)1,2and3
(b)1and2only
(c)2and3only
(d)1and3only
(d) There is nothing like investment casting
IES 2010
IES2010
( ) The investment casting
g is used for
Assertion (A):
precision parts such as turbine plates, sewing
machines etc.
Reason (R): The investment castings have a good
surface finish and are exact reproductions of the
master pattern.
(b) Both
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
b t R is
but
i NOT the
th
IAS1996
Light and intricate parts with close dimensional
tolerances of the order of 0.005 mm are
produced by
(a) Investment casting
g
(b) Die casting
(c) Centrifugal casting
(d) Shell mould casting
IES 2007
IES2007
Consider the following statements in respect of
investment castings:
1. The pattern or patterns is/are not joined to a stalk or
sprue also of wax to form a tree of patterns.
2.The prepared moulds are placed in an oven and heated
gently to dry off the invest and melt out the bulk of wax.
3.The moulds are usually poured by placing the moulds in
a vacuum chamber. Which of the statements given above
are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c)2 and 3 onlyy
(d) 1, 2 and 3
IES2006
Which of the following materials are used for
making patterns in investment casting method?
1. Wax
2. Rubber 3. Wood
4. Plastic
(a) Only 1 and 3
(b) Only 2 and 3
( ) Only
(c)
O l 1, 2 and
d4
(d) Only
O l 2, 3 and
d4
PermanentMouldCasting
y The process in which we use a die to make the
castings is called permanent mold casting or gravity

die casting, since the metal enters the mold under
gravity.
gravity
y Some time in diecasting we inject the molten metal
with a high pressure.
pressure When we apply pressure in
injecting the metal it is called pressure die casting
process.
process
y Grey cast iron is used for mould material.
Page 25 of 240
Advantages
y Good surface finish and dimensional accuracy
y Metal
M l mold
ld gives
i
rapid
id cooling
li
and
d finegrain
fi
i
structure
y Multipleuse molds.
Rev.0
Disadvantages
y High initial mold cost
y Shape,
Shape size
size, and complexity are limited
y Mold life is very limited with highmeltingpoint
metals such as steel.

steel
y Low melting point metals can be cast
Aluminum
Zinc
Magnesium alloys
Brass
Cast iron
Applications
y Pistons/cylinders/rods
y Gears
y Kitchenware
DieCasting
y Molten metal is injected into closed metal dies under
Die casting machines can be

Diecastingmachinescanbe
IES 2013
IES2013
Statement (I): Mould walls of a permanent mould are

kept thick.
thick
Statement (II): The thicker mould walls retain
maximum
i
h
heat
i
increasing
i flow
fl off molten
l
metal.
l
Statement (I)
p
of
Statement (I)
Hotchambermachinesare
y Good for low temperature (approx. 400C)
y Faster than
h cold
ld chamber
h b machines
h
pressures ranging from 100 to 150 MPa.

y Pressure is maintained during solidification
y Hotchamber
y After which the dies separate and the casting is ejected
y Coldchamber
along with its attached sprues and runners.

y Cores must be simple and retractable and take the
y Cycle times must be short to minimize metal
contamination
y Metal starts in a heated cylinder
y
y A piston forces metal into the die
y The piston retracts,
retracts and draws metal in
y Metal: Lead, Tin, Zinc
form of moving metal segments
Coldchambermachines
y Castshighmeltingpointmetals(>600C)
y Highpressuresused
y Metalisheatedinaseparatecrucible
l h
d
bl
y Metalisladledintoacoldchamber
y Themetalisrapidlyforcedintothemoldbeforeit
cools
For-2015
(IES, GATE & PSUs)
HotChamber
y Copper
Copper,BrassandAluminiumcancast.
BrassandAluminiumcancast
Page 26 of 240
Rev.0
Advantages
y Extremelysmoothsurfaces(1m)
Limitations
y Excellentdimensionalaccuracy
y Highinitialdiecost
y Rapidproductionrate
y Limitedtohighfluiditynonferrousmetals
y Bettermechanicalpropertiescomparedtosand
y Partsizeislimited
y Intricatepartspossible
y Minimumfinishingoperations
y Carburettors
y Automotive
A t
ti parts
t
y Bathroom fixtures
y Toys
y Porositymaybeaproblem
P
it
b
bl
casting
Applications
y Somescrapinsprues,runners,andflash,butthiscan
p
p
,
,
,
bedirectlyrecycled
Common metals
y Alloys
All
off aluminum,
l i
zinc,
i
magnesium,
i
and
d lead
l d
y Also possible with alloys of copper and tin
y Thinsectionspossible
IES2011
Consider the following advantages of die casting over
sand casting :
1 Rapidity of the process
1.
2. Smooth surface
3 Strong dense metal structure
3.
Which of these advantages are correct ?
( ) 1, 2 and
(a)
d3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 onlyy
IES2005
Which one of the following processes produces a
casting when pressure forces the molten metal
into the mould cavity?
(a) Shell moulding
g
(b) Investment casting
g
(c) Die casting
(d) Continuous casting
IES2009
Which of the following are the most suitable
materials for die casting?
(a) Zinc and its alloys
(b) Copper and its alloys
(c) Aluminium and its alloys
(d) Lead
L d and
d its
it alloys
ll
IES2006
In which of the following are metal moulds used?
(a) Greensand mould
(b) Dry sand mould
(c) Die casting process
(d) Loam moulding
Page 27 of 240
20 0
JWM2010
( ) : In die casting
g method,, small
Assertion (A)
thickness can be filled with liquid metal.
Reason (R) : The air in die cavity trapped inside the
casting causes problems.
(b) BothAandRareindividuallytruebutRisnot
B hA dR i di id ll
b Ri
the
h
((d)) AisfalsebutRistrue
IES1995
Assertion
(A):
alloy
is
A
i
(A) An
A aluminium
l
i i
ll with
i h 11 % silicon
ili
i
used for making engine pistons by die casting
technique.
technique
Reason (R): Aluminium has low density and addition
p
its fluidity
y and therefore its
of silicon improves
castability.
(a) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the correct
explanation of A
correct explanation
l
i off A
(d) A is false
f l but
b R is true
Rev.0
IES1995
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswertakingthehelp
ofcodesgivenbelowthelists:
ListI
ListII
(Products)
(Processofmanufacture)
A.
Automobilepistoninaluminium alloy
1.Pressurediecasting
B.
Enginecrankshaftinspheroidal
graphiteiron
hi i
2.Gravitydiecasting
G i di
i
C.
Carburettor housinginaluminium alloy 3.Sandcasting
D.
Casttitaniumblades
4.Precisioninvestment
casting
i
5.Shellmoulding
Code: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
3
1
5
(b)
3
2
1
5
(c) 2
1
3
4
(d)
4
1
2
3
IAS2007
1. Zincdiecastingshavelowstrength.
g
g
2. Inthediecastingprocess,verythinsectionsor
complexshapescanbeobtainedeasily.
( ) 1only
(a)
l
(b) 2only
(c) Both1and2
((d)) Neither1nor2
IES2011
Consider the following statements :
1. Hot chamber machine is used for casting zinc, tin and
other
th low
l melting
lti alloys.
ll
2. Cold chamber machine is used for die casting of
ferrous alloys
33. Rapid
p
cooling
g rate in die casting
g p
produces high
g
strength and quality in many alloys.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
( ) 2 and
(c)
d 3 only
l
(d) 1 and
d 3 only
l
( )
GATE2009(PI)
Hot chamber die casting process is NOT suited for
(a) Lead and its alloy
(b) Zinc and its alloy
( ) Tin
(c)
Ti and
d its
it alloy
ll
((d)) Aluminum and its alloyy
GATE2007
Which of the following engineering materials is
th mostt suitable
the
it bl candidate
did t for
f hot
h t chamber
h b die
di
casting?
( ) Low carbon
(a)
b steell
(b) Titanium
(c) Copper
(d) Tin
Assertion
off good
A
i (A):
(A) Die
Di casting
i yields
i ld a product
d
d
accuracy and finish.
R
Reason
(R) Low
(R):
L
melting
li
alloys
ll
used
d in
i die
di
casting.
( ) Both
(a)
B h A and
i di id ll true and
d R is
i the
h
(b) Both
B h A and
i di id ll true but
b R is
i not the
h
( ) A is
(c)
i true but
b R is
i false
f l
IES1995
Assertion
(A):
alloys
are cast in
A
i
(A) Aluminium
Al
i i
ll
i hot
h
chamber die casting machine.
Reason (R): Aluminium alloys require high melting
when compared to zinc alloys.
explanation of A
Centrifugal Casting
CentrifugalCasting
g sand,
y Process: Molten metal is introduced into a rotating
metal, or graphite mould, and held against the mould
wall by centrifugal force until it is solidified
y A mold is set up and rotated along a vertical (rpm is
reasonable), or horizontal (2001000 rpm is reasonable)

axis.
y The
Th mold
ld is
i coated
d with
i h a refractory
f
coating.
i
y During cooling lower density impurities will tend to rise
IAS1996
28 of 240
towards the center ofPage
rotation.
Fi T
Fig.Truecentrifugalcasting
if
l
i
Rev.0
P
Properties
ti
y The mechanical properties of centrifugally cast jobs are
better compared to other processes, because the inclusions

such as slag and oxides get segregated towards the centre
and can be easily removed by machining. Also, the
pressure acting
p
g on the metal throughout
g
the solidification
causes the porosity to be eliminated giving rise to dense
metal.
y No cores are required for making concentric holes in the
case of true centrifugal casting.
l
Commonmetals
y
y
y
y
Iron
steel
stainlesssteel
t i l t l
alloysofaluminium,copper,andnickel
( )
GATE2008(PI)
In hollow cylindrical parts, made by centrifugal casting,
the density of the part is
( ) maximum
(a)
i
at the
h outer region
i
(b) maximum at the inner region
((c)) maximum at the midpoint
p
between outer and inner
surfaces
(d) uniform throughout
Li it ti
Limitations
Advantages
y Fine
att the
off the
Fi grained
i d structure
t t
th outer
t surface
f
th
casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and

porosity
it
y Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without
cores
y Can p
produce a wide range
g of cylindrical
y
parts,
p
including ones of large size.
y Good dimensional accuracy, soundness, and
cleanliness
y There is no need for gates and runners,
runners which
increases the casting yield, reaching almost 100 %.
y More segregation of alloy component during pouring under
the forces of rotation

y Contamination of internal surface of castings with non
metallic
lli inclusions
i l i
y Inaccurate internal diameter
y Shape is limited.
y Spinning equipment can be expensive
y Poor machinability
GATE1993
GATE2002
In centrifugal casting, the impurities are
( ) Uniformly
(a)
f
l distributed
d
b d
(b) Forced towards the outer surface
(c) Trapped near the mean radius of the casting
(d) Collected at the centre of the casting
Centrifugally cast products have

(a) Large
g g
grain structure with high
g p
porosityy
(b) Fine grain structure with high density
(c) Fine grain structure with low density
(d) Segregation of slug towards the outer skin of the
casting
ti
IES2008
Which of the following casting processes does not
/do not require central core for producing pipe?
1 Sand casting process
1.
2. Die casting process
3 Centrifugal casting process
3.
( ) 1 and
(a)
d2
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 3 onlyy
Page 29 of 240
IES2009
Which one of the following casting processes is
b t
best
suited
it d
t
to
make
k
bi
bigger
size
i
symmetrical
y
pipes?
p
p
(a) Die casting
(b) Investment casting
(c) Shell moulding
(d) Centrifugal casting
Rev.0
h ll
hollow
IES2007
statement?
In a centrifugal casting method
(a) No core is used
(b) Core may be made of any metal
( ) Core
(c)
C
i made
is
d off sand
d
(d) Core is made of ferrous metal
IES2007
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegiven
belowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
(CastingProcess)
(Principle)
A.
Diecasting
1.Themetalsolidifiesinarotatingmould
B.
Investmentcasting
2.Thepatternclusterisrepeatedlydipped
intoaceramicslurryanddustedwith
refractory
f
C.
Shellmoulding
3.Moltenmetalisforcedbypressureinto
ametallicmould
D
D.
Centrifugalcasting
4 Aftercooling theinvestisremoved
4.Aftercooling,theinvestisremoved
fromthe Castingbypressurejettingor
vibratorycleaning
Code: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
1
3
4
(b)
3
4
2
1
(c) 2
4
3
1
(c)
3
1
2
4
IES1998
Poormachinability ofcentrifugallycastironpipe
isdueto
(a) Chilling
(b) Segregation
(c) Densestructure
(d) Highmouldrotationspeed
Hi h
ld t ti
d
MatchListI(Process)withListII(Products/materials)
M t hLi tI(P
) ithLi tII(P d t / t i l )
andselectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgiven
belowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
A. Diecasting
1.Phenolformaldehyde
B. Shellmolding
2.C.I.pipes
C. CO2 molding
3.Nonferrousalloys
D Centrifugalcasting
D.
C
if
l
i
4.Sodiumsilicate
S di ili
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
3
4
2
(b) 3
1
4
2
(c) 3
1
2
4
(d) 1
3
2
4
IAS2004
MatchListI(NameoftheProcess)withListII(Advantage)andselectthecorrect
List I
ListI
List II
ListII
(NameoftheProcess)
(Advantage)
A.
SandCasting
1.Largecylindricalpartswithgoodquality
B
B.
C
Ceramicmoldcasting
i ld ti
2.Excellentdimensionalaccuracyandsurface
E ll tdi
i
l
d f
finish
C.
Diecasting
3.Intricateshapesandclosetoleranceparts
D
D.
C
Centrifugalcasting
if
l
i
4.Almostanymetaliscastandthereifnolimitto
Al

li
d h if li i
size,shapeandweight
5.Gooddimensionalaccuracy,finishandlow
porosity
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
(a)
2
3
5
1
(b)
4
1
2
D
3
(c)
(d)
IAS2003
Assertion
(A):
Semicentrifugal
process is
A
i
(A) S
i
if
l casting
i
i
similar to true centrifugal casting except that the
central core is used in it to form inner surface.
surface
Reason (R): In semicentrifugal casting process the
p is always
y vertical
axis of spin
p
of A
explanation
y Centrifugal force assists the flow of metal from a
central
t l reservoir
i to
t the
th extremities
t
iti
off a rotating
t ti
symmetrical
y
mold,, which mayy be either expendable
p
or
multipleuse
y Rotational speeds are lower than for true centrifugal
casting
product.
Which of the following are the most likely

characteristics in centrifugal casting?
(a) Fine grain size and high porosity
(b) Coarse grain size and high porosity
(c) Fine grain size and high density
(d) Coarse
C
grain
i size
i and
d high
hi h density
d it
IES2000
SemicentrifugalCasting
y Cores can be used to increase the complexity of the

IES2009
Page 30 of 240
Fig. Semicentrifugalcasting
Rev.0
IES2013
Statement (I): In semi centrifugal casting a particular

p of the casting
g is p
produced byy mould, core and the
shape
centrifugal force of molten metal.
Statement (II): The centrifugal force aids to proper
feeding to produce the casting free from porosity.
Statement (I)
t
true
b t Statement
but
St t
t (II) is
i nott the
l
ti off
Statement (I)
( ) Statement (I)
(c)
( ) is true but
b Statement (II)
( ) is false
f l
Centrifuging
y Uses centrifuging action to force the metal from a central
pouring reservoir into separate mold cavities that are

offset from the axis of rotation.
y Low speed
y May used to assist in the pouring of investment casting
trees.
Fig.Methodofcastingbythecentrifugingprocess
IES2000
MatchListI(Typeofcasting)withListII(Workingprinciples)
M t hLi tI(T
f ti ) ithLi tII(W ki i i l )
andselectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowthe
Lists:
Li tI
ListI
Li tII
ListII
A. Diecasting
1.Moltenmetalisforcedintothedie
underpressure
B. Centrifugalcasting
2.Axisofrotationdoesnotcoincidewith
axisofmould
C. Centrifuging
g g
33.Metalsolidifieswhenmouldisrotating
g
D. Continuouscasting 4.Continuouslypouringmoltenmetal
intomould
Codes: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
3
2
4
(b)
4
3
2
1
(c) 1
2
3
4
(d)
4
2
3
1
IAS2004
Which of the following are produced by slush
casting?
(a) Hollow castings with thick walls
(b) Hollow castings with thin walls
(c) Thin castings
(d) Thick
Thi k castings
ti
DrySandMolding
SlushCasting
y To reduce gas forming materials air dried mould used.
y Slush casting is a variation of the permanent mold process
Types:
1 Skin drying and
1.Skin
2.Complete mold drying
IES2011
The method of casting for producing ornamental pieces
are:
( ) Slush
(a)
Sl h and
d gravity
it casting
ti
(b) Pressed and slush casting
(c) Gravity and semi permanent mould casting
(d) Semi permanent mould and pressed casting
Page 31 of 240
in which the metal is permitted to remain in the mold only

until a shell of the desired thickness has formed.
y The mold is then inverted and the remaining liquid is
poured out.
y When the mold halves are separated, the resulting casting
is a hollow shape with good surface detail but variable wall
thickness.
y Frequently used to cast lowmeltingtemperature metals
into ornamental objects such as candlesticks, lamp bases,
and
d statuary.
IES 2012
IES
The process of making hollow castings of non
circular
noncircular
shape and desired thickness by permanent mould
without the use of cores is known as
(a) Die casting
(b) Slush casting
( ) Pressed
(c)
P
d casting
ti
(d) Centrifugal
C t if
l casting
ti
Rev.0
SqueezeCasting
IAS2002
Si l C
SingleCrystalCasting
lC i
Process:
1. Molten metal is p
poured into an open
p face die.
2. A punch is advanced into the die, and to the metal.
3 Pressure (less than forging) is applied to the punch
3.Pressure
and die while the part solidifies.
4.The
Th punch
h is
i retracted,
t t d and
d the
th partt is
i knocked
k
k d outt
with an ejector pin.
y Overcomes problems
bl
with
h feeding
f d
the
h die,
d
and
d
produces near net, highly detailed parts.
MatchListI(CastingProcess)withListII
M t hLi tI(C ti P
) ithLi tII
(Applications)andselectthecorrectanswerusingthe
g
ListI
ListII
(CastingProcess)
(Applications)
A. Centrifugalcasting
1.
Carburetor
B. Squeezecasting
2.
Pipes
C DieCasting
C.
Di C i
3.
Wh l f
Wheelsfor
automobiles
4
4.
Gearhousings
Codes:A
B
C
A
B
C
(a) 2
3
1
(b) 4
1
3
(c) 2
1
3
(d) 4
3
1
The process is effectively:

1. Prepare a mold so that one end is a heated oven, and
the other end chilled.
chilled The part should be oriented so
that the cooling happens over the longest distance.
2. Cast
C t metal
t l into
i t the
th mold
ld
3. Solidification will begin at the chill plate. These
dendrites will grow towards the heated end of the
part as long dendritic crystals. The part is slowly
pulled out of the oven, past the chill plate.
4. Remove the solidified p
4
part.
IES2009
l
i
PlasterCasting
y Process: A slurry of plaster,
plaster water,
water and various additives is
y Creepandthermalshockresistanceproperties.
2marks
PitMoulding
IES1996
y This method is used for very large castings and is done on
Whichofthefollowingpairsarecorrectlymatched?
1. Pitmoulding
g ..................Forlargejobs.
g j
2. Investmentmoulding ...Lostwaxprocess.
3 PlastermouldingMouldpreparedin
3.
Plastermoulding
Mouldpreparedin
gypsum.
( ) 1,2and3
(a)
d
(b) 1and2
d
(c) 1and3
(d) 2and3
the foundry floor.
additives is pouted over a pattern and allowed to set. The

pattern is removed and the mould is baked to remove
excess water. After pouring and solidification, the mould is
broken and the casting
g is removed.
y Advantage: High dimensional accuracy and smooth
surface finish,, thin sections and intricate detail can
produce.
y Limitations: Lowertemperature
p
nonferrous metals only:
y
y Common metals: Primarily aluminium and copper
LoamMoulding
y Moulding
g loam is g
generallyy artificiallyy composed
p
of
common brickclay, and sharp sand.

y Loam means mud.
y Loam Moulding is restricted to forms which cannot be
cast conveniently in any other process.

process
y It is costly.
y
Page 32 of 240
Rev.0
IES1997
Which one of the following pairs is not correctly
matched?
(a) Aluminium alloy piston Pressure die casting
(b) Jewellery.. Lost wax process
(c) Large pipes ..Centrifugal casting
(d) Large
L
b ll Loam
bells
L
moulding
ldi
GATE1998
ListI
Li tI
(A) Sandcasting
circularshapesonly
(B) Plastermouldcasting
skinsandsoftinterior
(C) Shellmouldcasting
castingprocessing
(D) Investmentcasting
ListII
Li tII
(1)
Symmetricaland
(2)
Partshavehardened
(3)
Minimumpost
(4)
Partshaveatendency
towarp
Partshavesoftskin
andhardinterior
Suitableonlyfornon
f
ferrousmetals
t l
(5)
(6)
GATE1996
IES2003
ListI
ListII
(A) Rivetsforaircraftbody
y 1.
Forging
g g
(B) Carburettor body
2.
Coldheading
(C) Crankshafts
3
3.
Aluminiumbased
alloy
(D) Nails
N il
4.
P
Pressurediecasting
di ti
5.
Investmentcasting
MatchListI(Products)withListII(CastingProcess)andselect
M t hLi tI(P d t ) ithLi tII(C ti P
) d l t
thecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
(Products)
(CastingProcess)
A. Hollowstatues
1.
CentrifugalCasting
B
B.
Dentures
2
2.
InvestmentCasting
C. Aluminium alloypistons
3.
SlushCasting
D. Rockerarms
4.
ShellMoulding
5.
G i Di C i
GravityDieCasting
Codes: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
((a)
) 33
2
4
4
5
((b)
)
1
33
4
4
5
(c) 1
2
3
4
(d)
3
2
5
4
IAS2004
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
MatchListI(NameoftheCastingProcess)withListII(ProcessDefinition)andselect
M hLi I(N
f h C i P
) i hLi II(P
D fi i i ) d l
thecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowthelists:
ListI
ListII
(NameoftheCastin Process)
(NameoftheCastingProcess)
(ProcessDefinition)
A.
Diecasting
1.Thisprocessinvolvesuseofamouldmadeof
Driedsilicasandandphenolic resinmixture
B
B.
El t l casting
Electroslag
ti
2.Inthisprocess,moltenmetalisforcedby
I thi
lt t li f
db
Pressureintoametalmould
C.
Centrifugalcasting
3.Thisprocessemploysaconsumableelectrode
D
D.
P i i
Precisioncasting
i
4.Thisprocessinvolvesrotatingamouldwhilethe
Thi
i
l
i
ld hil h
metalsolidifies
5.Thisprocessproducesverysmooth,highly
Accuratecastingsfrombothferrousandnon
ferrousalloys
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a)
5
4
1
2
(b)
2
3
4
5
(c)
5
3
4
2
(d)
2
4
1
5
GATE1992
Matchthefollowingmoulding/castingprocesseswith
M h h f ll i
ldi /
i
i h
theproduct:
Moulding/Castingprocesses
Product
(A) Slushcasting
(P)Turbineblade
(B) Shellmoulding
(Q)Machinetoolbed
(C) Drysandmoulding
(R)Cylinderblock
(D) Centrifugalcasting
C t if
l ti
(S)H ll ti
(S)Hollowcastings
likelampshades
(T)Rainwaterpipe
(U)Castironshoe
brake
IES1993
MatchtheitemsofListI(Equipment)withtheitems
M h h i
fLi I(E i
) i h h i
ofListII(Process)andselectthecorrectanswerusing
thegivencodes.
thegivencodes
ListI(Equipment)
ListII(Process)
P HotChamberMachine 1.
1
Cleaning
Q Muller
2.
Coremaking
R DielectricBaker
3
3.
Diecasting
S SandBlaster
4.
Annealing
5
5.
Sandmixing
(a) P2,Q1,R4,S5
(b) P4,Q2,R3,S5
(c) P4,Q5,R1,S2
P 4 Q 5 R 1 S 2
(d) P3,Q5,R2,S1
P 3 Q 5 R 2 S 1
Match the lists
Group1
P.SandCasting
Q CentrifugalCasting
Q.CentrifugalCasting
R.InvestmentCasting
S.DieCasting
Group2
1.Turbineblades
2 ICEnginePistons
2.ICEnginePistons
3.Largebells
4.Pulleys
(a) P 4, Q 1, R 3, S 2
((c)) P 3, Q 4, R 1,, S 2
(b) P 2, Q 4, R 3, S 1
( ) P 3, Q 2,, R 1,, S 4
(d)
Page 33 of 240
BySKMondal
Rev.0
WeldingDefinition
y Welding is a process by which two materials, usually
metals, are permanently joined together by

coalescence, which is induced by a combination of
temperature, pressure, and metallurgical conditions.
y The particular combination of these variables can
g from high
g temperature with no pressure to high
g
range
pressure with no increase in temperature.
Cl ifi ti
Classificationofweldingprocesses
f ldi
Requirementforahighqualitywelding
Oxy fuel gas welding (OFW)

Arc
A welding
ldi (Aw)
(A )
1. A source of satisfactory heat and/or pressure,
Resistance welding
Solid
l d state welding
ld
(f
(friction
welding,
ld
ultrasonic
l
welding,
ld
2. A means of protecting or cleaning the metal, and

3 Caution to avoid,
3.
avoid or compensate for,
for harmful
forge welding etc.)
y Unique process
metallurgical
g
effects.
Thermit welding
g
Laser beam welding
y Welding (positive process)
Electroslag
g welding
g
Flash welding
y Machining (negative process)
Induction welding
y Forming, casting (zero process)
Electron beam welding
IES 2012
IES
Weldability /FabricationProcesses
CaseofAluminium
The advantage of the welding process is

(a) It relieves the joint from residual stresses
(b) It helps
h l in
i checking
h ki off distortion
di t ti off work
k piece
i
(c) Large number of metals and alloys, both similar and/or
dissimilar can be joined.
((d)) Heat p
produced during
g the welding
g does not p
produce
metallurgical changes.
y The
Th weldability
ld bilit off a material
t i l will
ill depend
d
d on the
th
y The
on aluminum
alloys
causes some
Th oxide
id coating
ti
l i
ll
specific welding or joining process being considered.

y For resistance welding of consistent quality, it is
usually necessary to remove the oxide immediately
before welding.
y Fabrication weldability
y test is used to determine
mechanical properties required for satisfactory
performance of welded jjoint.
p
y The correct sequence of the given materials in
ascending order of their weldability is
Aluminum < copper < cast iron < MS
Contd
difficulty in relation to its weldability.

y It also
l has
h high
hi h thermal
th
l conductivity
d ti it and
d a very short
h t
y
y
y
y
temperature range between liquidus and solidus and when

liquid its viscosity is very low.
low
Aluminium is poor absorber of laser light.
D i
During
f i
fusion
welding,
ldi
the
h aluminum
l i
would
ld oxidize
idi so
readily that special fluxes or protective inertgas
atmospheres must be employed.
employed
Friction welding and TIG welding is good for aluminium.
For aluminium
l
AC current plus
l high
h h frequency
f
is must.
CaseofCastIron
CaseofStainlessSteel
CaseofStainlessSteel
y Cast iron is more difficult to weld because of its high
y Stainless steel is a difficult metal to weld because it
y The ferritic stainless steels are generally less weldable
carbon content and brittleness (poor ductility)

y Massive carbon deposits have a tendency to form in
the areas adjacent to the weld, and highcarbon
martensite tends to form in the heat
heataffected
affected zones.
zones
These microstructures are very brittle and may crack
p
y while welding
g is in p
progress
g
or later
spontaneously
when load is applied to the workpiece.
y Cast iron can be jjoined by
y the oxyacetylene
y
y
brazing
g
process and shielded metalarc welding (stick)
process.
y Some cases preheating and/or post heating is required.
contains both nickel and chromium.

y The best method for welding stainless steel is TIG
welding.
y The electric arc is also preferred for welding stainless
steels. A heavily coated welding rod, which produce a
shielded arc,
arc is employed.
employed
y You must do a better job of precleaning.
y Using a low arc current setting with faster travel
speeds is important when welding stainless steel,
because some stainless steels are subject to carbide
precipitation.
Page 34 of 240
than the austenitic stainless steel and require both

preheating and postweld heat treatments.
treatments
y Welds of ferritic stainless steel can be by
Contd..
(i) autogenously (i.e.

(i e without the addition of filler
metal)
(ii) with an austenitic stainless steel
(iii) using a high nickel filler alloy.
(iv) Type 405 filler (low 11% Cr,
Cr low carbon and small
0.2% Al)
y Welding process:
TIG, MIG, Shielded

Shieldedmetal
metal arc
welding and Plasma arc welding
Rev.0
IES 2010
IES2010
( ) It is generally
g
y difficult to weld
Assertion (A):
Aluminum parts by normal arc welding process.
Reason (R): Hard and brittle Aluminum
Aluminumoxide
oxide film
is formed at the welded joints.
(b) Both
B h A and
i di id ll true but
b R is
i NOT the
h
IES2011
During plasma arc welding of aluminium,
aluminium improved
removal of the surface oxide from the base metal is
obtained with typical polarity of :
(a) DC Straight
(b) DC reverse
(c) AC potential
p
(d) Reverse polarity of phase of AC potential
IES1999
Thecorrectsequenceofthegivenmaterialsin
g
is
ascendingorderoftheirweldability
(a) MS,copper,castiron,aluminium
(b) Castiron,MS,aluminium
Castiron MS aluminium copper
(c) Copper,castiron,MS,aluminium
(d) Aluminium,copper,castiron,MS
Al i i
i
S
IES2006
Assertion(A):Aluminium
haspoorweldability.
( )
Reason(R):Aluminium hashighthermal
g
conductivityandhighaffinitytooxygen.
( ) AistruebutRisfalse
(c)
Ai t b tRi f l
IES2011
Considerthefollowingstatements.
Considerthefollowingstatements
Castironisdifficulttoweld,becauseof
1.Lowductility
L d tilit
2.Poorfusion
3.Tendencytocrackoncooling
(a)1,2and3
(b)1and2only
(c)2and3only
(d)1and3only
IES 2010
IES2010
Weldability of ferritic stainless steel used in
automotive exhaust system is improved by
selecting stainless steel electrode having low
content of
(a) Carbon
(b) Nitrogen
(c) Chromium
(d) Carbon and Nitrogen
Page 35 of 240
GATE2014
The major difficulty during welding of aluminium is
due to its
(a) high tendency of oxidation
(b) high thermal conductivity
(c) low melting point
(d) low
l density
d it
IES2006
Fabricationweldability testisusedtodetermine
(a) Mechanicalpropertiesrequiredforsatisfactory
ec a ca p ope t es equ ed o sat s acto y
performanceofweldedjoint
(b) Susceptibilityofweldedjointforcracking
(c) Suitabilityforjointdesign
(d) Appropriatemachiningprocess
A
i
hi i
IES 2010
IES2010
g statements regarding
g
g
welded joints:
1 It is a permanent type of joint.
1.
joint
2. It is reliable and economical for pressure vessel
construction.
construction
3. It is free from fabricational residual stresses.
4. Such joints are suitable for static loading only.
55. Welding
g is a versatile and flexible metal jjoining
gp
process.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 only
(b) 2,
2 3 and 4 only
Rev.0
(c) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
(d) 1, 2 and 5 only
IES 2012
IES
Whichofthefollowingfactorsimproveweldabilityof
steel?
1 Lowcarboncontent
1.Lowcarboncontent
2.Highcarboncontent
3.Goodaffinitycontent
4
4.Pooraffinitytooxygen
y
yg
(a)1and3
(b)2and3
(c)1and4
(d)2and4
IES 2013
IES2013
Weldability dependson
GasFlameProcesses:
Welding Cutting and Straightening
Welding,CuttingandStraightening
y Oxyfuel gas Welding (OFW): Heat source is the
1.Thermalconductivityy
flame produced
fl
d d by
b the
h combustion
b i off a fuel
f l gas and
d
oxygen.
2.Surfacecondition
3.Changeinmicrostructure
y OFW has largely

g y been replaced
p
byy other p
processes but
(a)1and2only
(b)1and3only
(c)2and3only
(d)1,2and3
it is still popular because of its portability and the low

p
investment.
capital
y Acetylene is the principal fuel gas employed.
employed
y Combustionofoxygenandacetylene(C2H2)ina
Three types of flames can be obtained by varying

the oxygen/acetylene (or oxygen/fuel gas) ratio.
y If the ratio is about 1 : 1 to 1.15 : 1, all reactions are
carried to completion and a neutral flame is produced.
produced
y Most welding is done with a neutral flame. It is
chemically
h i ll neutral
t l and
d neither
ith oxidizes
idi
or carburizes
b i
the metal being welded.
weldingtorchproducesatemp.inatwostagereaction.
y Inthefirststage
C2 H2 + O2 2CO + H2
+Heat
H t
Thisreactionoccursnearthetipofthetorch.
y InthesecondstagecombustionoftheCOandH2 and
occursjustbeyondthefirstcombustionzone.
2CO+O2 2CO2+Heat
1
H2 +O
2 2 H2O+Heat
Oxygenforsecondaryreactionsisobtainedfromthe
atmosphere
atmosphere.
Oxyacetylenegasweldingneutralflame
y A higher ratio, such as 1.5 : 1, produces an oxidizing
flame,
flame hotter than the neutral flame (about 3300oC)
but similar in appearance.
y Used when
hen welding
elding copper and copper alloys
allo s but
harmful when welding steel because the excess oxygen
reacts with the carbon,
carbon decarburizing the region
around the weld.
OxyacetylenegasweldingOxidisingflame
y Excess fuel, on the other hand, produces a carburizing
flame. Carburizing flame can carburize metal also.

y The excess fuel decomposes to carbon and hydrogen,
p
is not as g
great ((about
and the flame temperature
3000oC).
y Flames of this type are used in welding Monel (a
nickelcopper alloy), highcarbon steels, and some
alloy steels, and for applying some types of hard
hardfacing
facing
material.
Page 36 of 240
OxyacetylenegasweldingCarburizingflame
Metal
MS
High carbon steel
Grey cast iron
Alloy steel
Aluminium
Brass
Copper, Bronze
Nickel alloys
y
Lead
Flame
N
R
N
Slightly oxidizing
Slightly
g y carburizing
g
N
Rev.0
U
Uses,Advantages,andLimitations
Ad t
d Li it ti
y OFW is fusion welding.
welding
Diagram
y Exposer of the heated and molten metal to the various
y No pressure is involved.
gases in the flame and atmosphere makes it difficult to
y Filler
Fill metal
t l can be
b added
dd d in
i the
th form
f
off a wire
i or rod.
d
prevent contamination.
contamination
y Fluxes may be used to clean the surfaces and remove
contaminating oxide. The gaseous shield produced by

vaporizing flux can prevent oxidation during welding,
and the slag produced by solidifying flux can protect
the weld pool. Flux can be added as a powder, the
welding rod can be dipped in a flux paste, or the rods
can be precoated.
y Heat source is not concentrated, a large area of the
metal is heated and distortion is likely to occur.

y Flame welding is still quite common in field work, in
maintenance and repairs, and in fabricating small

quantities of specialized products.
products
Contd
Oxyacetyleneweldingequipment
y Oxygen is stored in a cylinder at a pressure ranging
from 13.8 MPa to 18.2 MPa .

y Due to high explosiveness of free acetylene it is stored
y
with 8085% p
porous calcium silicate and
in a cylinder
then filled with acetone which absorb upto 420 times
by its volume at a pressure 1.75 MPa .
y At the time of acetylene release if acetone comes with
acetylene
ace
y e e thee flame
a e would
ou d g
givee a pu
purple
p e co
colour.
ou .
y Another option is acetylene generator.
PressureGasWeldingg
y Pressure gas welding (PGW) or Oxyacetylene
Pressure Welding is a process used to make butt

joints between the ends of objects such as pipe
aandrailroad
d a oad rail.
a .
y The ends are heated with a gas flame to a
p
below the melting
gp
point,, and the soft
temperature
metal is then forced together under considerable
pressure.
y This process, therefore, is actually a 'form of solid
state welding.
IES 2010
IES2010
The ratio between Oxygen and Acetylene
gases for neutral flame in gas welding is
( )2:1
(a)
(b) 1 : 2
((c)) 1 : 1
((d)) 4 : 1
CaC2 + 2 H 2O C2 H 2 + Ca (OH ) 2
GATE1994
The ratio of
acetylene to
oxygen
is
approximately
approximately.
for a neutral flames used in
gas welding.
( ) 1:1
(a)
(b) 1 : 2
(c) 1 : 3
(d) 1.5
15:1
GATE2003
InOxyacetylenegaswelding,temperatureatthe
innerconeoftheflameisaround
(a) 3500C
(b) 3200
3200C
C
(c) 2900C
(d) 2550C
C
Page 37 of 240
IES 2010
IES2010
) Oxidizing
g flame is used in gas
g
Assertion ((A):
welding to join medium carbon steels having high
gp
point.
melting
Reason (R): In gas welding, oxidizing flame
produces the maximum temperature compared to
neutral and reducing flame.
(b) Both
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
b t R is
but
i NOT the
th
Rev.0
IES2009
GATE2002
The temperature of a carburising flame in gas
welding is that of a neutral or an oxidising flame.
(a) Lowerthan
(b) Higherthan
(c) Equalto
(d) Unrelatedto
U l t dt
IAS1994
IES1998
By which one of the following methods gray cast

iron is usually welded?
(a) TIGwelding
(b) MIGwelding
(c) Gaswelding
(d) Arcwelding
IES 2012
IES
IAS1995
In gas welding of mild steel using an oxy

acetylene flame. the total amount of acetylene
consumed was 10 litre. The oxygen consumption
from the cylinder is
(a) 5litre
(b) 10litre
(c) 15litre
(d) 20litre
li
OxygenTorchCutting(GasCutting)
y Iron and steel oxidize (burn)
(
) when heated to a
temperature between 8000C to 10000C.

y Highpressure oxygen jet (300 KPa) is directed against
plate, the oxygen
yg jjet burns the metal and
a heated steel p
blows it away causing the cut (kerf).
y For
o cutt
cutting
g metallic
eta c p
plates
ates sshears
ea s aaree used. These
ese aaree
useful for straightline cuts and also for cuts up to 40
c ess.
mm thickness.
Assertion (A):
( ) If neutral flame is used in oxy
acetylene welding, both oxygen and acetylene
cylinders of same capacity will be emptied at the same
time.
Reason (R): Neutral flame uses equal amounts of
oxygen and
d acetylene.
l
explanationofA
Contd
) In g
g the metal to be jjoined g
Statement ((I):
gas welding
gets
oxidized or carburized
) The neutral flame affects no chemical
Statement ((II):
change on the molten metal.
y For thicker plates with specified contour, shearing
y Larger size orifice produces kerf width wider and larger
cannot be used and oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC) is

useful.
y Gascutting
Gas cutting is similar to gas welding
elding except
e cept torch tip.
tip
oxygen consumed.
y At kindling temperature (about 870oC), iron form iron
oxide.
oxide
y Reaction:
3Fe + 2O2 Fe3O4 +6.67
+6 67 MJ/kg of iron
The other reactions:
2Fe + O2 2FeO + 3.18 MJ/kg
k off iron
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3 + 4.9 MJ/kg of iron
y All exothermic reactions preheat the steel.
Fig differencesintorchtipsforgasweldingandgascutting
In oxyacetylene gas welding, for complete

g
required per
combustion, the volume of oxygen
unit of acetylene is
((a)) 1
(b) 1.5
(c) 2
(d) 2.5
Page 38 of 240
Contd
Rev.0
Contd
y For complete oxidation 0.287 m3 oxygen/kg of iron is
required
i d
y Due to unoxidized metal blown away the actual
requirement is much less.
y Torch tip
p held verticallyy or slightly
g y inclined in the
direction of travel.
y Torch position is about 1.5
1 5 to 3 mm vertical from plate.
plate
y The drag lines shows the characteristics of the movement
y If torch moved too rapidly, the bottom does not get
sufficient heat and produces large drag so very rough

and irregularshapedcut edges.
y If torch moved slowly a large amount of slag is
generated and produces irregular cut.
of the oxygen stream.
Fig positioningofcuttingtorchinoxy fuelgascutting
y Drag
g is the amount byy which the lower edge
g of the drag
g
line trails from the top edge.

y Good cut means negligible
g g
drag.
g
Contd
Contd
y Gas cutting is more useful with thick plates.
Contd
Application
IAS2011Main
y For thin sheets (less than 3 mm thick) tip size should
Draw a self explanatory sketch of oxyacetylene gas
be small. If small tips are not available then the tip is

inclined at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees.
cutting torch. Briefly explain how cutting is

effected.
[ M k ]
[20Marks]
y Useful only for materials which readily get oxidized
and
d the
th oxides
id have
h
l
lower
melting
lti
points
i t than
th
th
the
metals.
y Widely used for ferrous materials.
y Cannot be used for aluminum, bronze, stainless steel
and like metals since they resist oxidation.

Fig.Recommendedtorchpositionforcuttingthinsteel
Difficulties
y For high carbon steel material around the cut should
y Metal
temperature goes beyond lower critical

temperature and structural transformations occur.
y Final microstructure depends on cooling rate.
be preheated (about 250 to 300oC) and may post heat

also necessary.
necessary
y Cutting CI is difficult, since its melting temp. is lower
y Steels
St l with
ith less
l
th 0.3 % carbon
than
b
cause no problem.
bl
than iron oxide.

y If chromium and nickel etc are present in ferrous
IES1992
The edge of a steel plate cut by oxygen cutting will
get hardened when the carbon content is
g
(a) Less than 0.1 percent
(b) Less than 0.3
0 3 percent
(c) More than 0.3 percent
(d) Anywhere
A
h
b
between
0.1 to 1.0 percent
alloys oxidation and cutting is difficult.

Contd
Page 39 of 240
Rev.0
IES2007
Considerthefollowingstatementsinrespectofoxy
acetylenewelding:
1
1.
Thejointisnotheatedtoastateoffusion
Thejointisnotheatedtoastateoffusion.
2. Nopressureisused.
3 Oxygenisstoredinsteelcylinderatapressureof14
3.
MPa.
4. Whenthereisanexcessofacetyleneused,thereisa
d id d h
decidedchangeintheappearance
i h
offlame.
(a)1,2and3
(b) 2,3and4
(c) 1,3and4
1 3and4
(d) 1,2and4
1 2and4
IES2005
Ingaswelding,thetorchshouldbeheldatanangleof
30 to45 fromthehorizontalplane.
f
h h
l l
2. Ingaswelding,theSizeofthetorchdependsuponthe
thi k
thicknessofmetaltobeformed.
f t lt b f
d
3. Dragingascuttingisthetimedifferencebetween
heatingoftheplateandstartingtheoxygengasfor
cutting.
1.
(a) 1,2and3 (b) 1and2
(c) 2and3
(d) 1and3
IES2001
Oxyacetylenereducingflameisusedwhile
g
g
carryingouttheweldingon
(a) Mildsteel
(b) Highcarbonsteel
(c) Greycastiron
(d) Alloysteels
IES1992
Thick steel plate cut with oxygen normally shows
g of cracking.
g This tendency for cracking
g can
signs
be minimised by
((a)) Slow speed
p
cutting
g
(b) Cutting in two or more stages
(c) Preheating the plate
(d) Using oxyacetylene flame
d C i
PowderCutting
( )
GATE2009(PI)
g alloyy steels are

y Cast iron,, stainless steel,, and others high
difficult to cut by oxyfuel cutting and we can use powder
g
cutting.
y By injecting a finely divided 200mesh iron powder into
the flame, a lower melting point eutectic oxide is formed
at the cutting interface, where additional ironoxygen
reaction is generated and cutting proceeds in a similar
way of oxyfuel cutting.
y The heat and the fluxing action of the burning iron
powder enable the cutting oxygen stream to oxidize the
base metal continuously,
continuously just as in cutting carbon steel.
steel
Which of the following powders should be fed for

effective oxyfuel cutting of stainless steel?
(a) Steel
( ) Aluminum
(b)
(c) Copper
(d) Ceramic
El t i A W ldi
ElectricArcWelding
Pl
C tti
PlasmaCutting
p
y Uses ionized g
gas jjet (plasma)
to cut materials resistant to
y
y
y
y
y
oxyfuel cutting,
High
g velocityy electrons g
generated byy the arc impact
p
gas
g
molecules, and ionize them.
The ionized g
gas is forced through
g nozzle ((upto
p 5500 m/s),
/ ), and
the jet heats the metal, and blasts the molten metal away.
More economical,, more versatile and much faster (5 to 8
times) than oxyfuel cutting, produces narrow kerfs and
smooth surfaces.
HAZ is 1/3 to th than oxyfuel cutting.
Maximum plate thickness = 200 mm
ElectricArcWelding
Fi B i i
Fig.Basiccircuitforarcwelding
i f ldi
Page 40 of 240
Rev.0
PrincipleofArc
ISRO2011
y Work is negative and electrode is positive is reverse
y An arc is generated between cathode and anode when
th are touched
they
t
h d to
t establish
t bli h the
th flow
fl
off currentt and
d
then separated
p
byy a small distance.
polarity (RPDC).
Inarcwelding,penetrationisminimumfor
g p
y SPDC conditions are preferred.

y DC arcwelding
ldi maintain
i t i a stable
t bl arc and
d preferred
f
d for
f
y 65% to 75% heat is generated at the anode.
(b)DCRP
difficult tasks such as overhead welding.

g
y If DC is used and the work is positive (the anode of the
(a)DCSP
(c)AC
y For a stable arc, the gap should be maintained.
circuit), the condition is known as straight polarity
(d)DCEN
(SPDC).
(SPDC)
Contd
y Manual arc welding is done with shielded (covered)
Contd
Threemodesofmetaltransferduringarcwelding
electrodes
MajorForcestakepartinMetalTransfer
(i)gravityforce
(i)
it f
y Baremetal wire used in automatic or semiautomatic
(ii)Surfacetension
machines
machines.
y Non consumable electrodes (e.g tungsten) is not
consumed
d by
b the
h arc and
d a separate metall wire is used
d
as filler.
y There are three modes of metal transfer (globular,
spray and shortcircuit).
20 0
JWM2010
Assertion
(A) : Bead
A
ti
B d is
i the
th metal
t l added
dd d during
d i
single pass of welding.
Reason (R)
( ) : Bead material is same as base metal.
(a) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the
(iii)electromagneticinteraction
g
(iv)hydrodynamicactionofplasma
GATE1993
Ind.c.welding,thestraightpolarity(electrode
(
negative)resultsin
(a) Lowerpenetration
(b) Lowerdepositionrate
(c) Lessheatingofworkpiece
(d) Smallerweldpool
S ll ld
l
Page 41 of 240
Arcweldingequipments
1. Droopers: Constant current welding machines
Good for manual welding
g
2. Constant voltage machines

Good for automatic welding
Rev.0
Contd
Formula
q
g current ((150
5 to 1000 A),
), voltage
g is
y Requires
a large
between 30 and 40 V, actual voltage across the arc
varying from 12 to 30 V.
y To initiate a weld,
ld the
h operator strike
k the
h electrode
l
d and
d
Fig.Machinewithdifferentsettings
start arc.
V
I
+
=1
OCV SCC
Fig.Characteristiccurveofaconstantvoltagearcweldingmachine
IES 2010
IES2010
In arc welding, the arc length should be equal to
(a) 4.5 times the rod diameter
(b) 3 times
ti
th rod
the
d diameter
di
t
(c) 1.5 times the rod diameter
(d) Rod diameter
IES2001
Inarcwelding,d.c.reversepolarityisusedtobear
g
greateradvantagein
g
(a) Overheadwelding
(b) Flatweldingoflapjoints
(c) Edgewelding
(d) Flatweldingofbuttjoints
l ldi fb j i
IES2005
IES2001
Inarcwelding,65%to75%heatisgeneratedatthe
anode.
2. Dutycycleincaseofarcweldingisthecycleof
completeweldingofworkpiecefromthe
beginning.
3 ArcblowismorecommonwithDCwelding.
3.
ArcblowismorecommonwithDCwelding
Inmanualarcwelding,theequipmentshould
Whichofthestatementsgivenaboveare
correct?
(a) 1,2and3 (b) 1and2
(c) 2and3 (d) 1and3
(c) Temperatureintheareconstant
1.
IES1998
The voltagecurrent characteristics of a dc
generator for arc welding
g
g is a straight
g
line
between an opencircuit voltage of 80 V and short
circuit current of 300 A. The generator settings for
maximum arc power will be
((a)) 0 V and 150
5 A
((b)) 4
40 V and 3300 A
(c) 40 V and 150 A
(d) 80 V and 300 A
Page 42 of 240
havedroopingcharacteristicsinordertomaintain
(a) Voltageconstantwhenarclengthchanges
(b) Currentconstantwhenarclengthchanges
(d) Weldpoolredhot
IAS1999
Opencircuit voltage of 60 V and current of 160A
were the welding
g conditions for arc welding
g of a
certain class of steel strip of thickness 10 mm. For
arc welding of 5mm thick strip of the same steel,
the welding voltage and current would be
((a)) 60 V and 80 A
(b) 120 V and 160 A
(c) 60 V and 40 A
(d) 120 V and 40 A
Rev.0
IAS1998
AssumingastraightlineVIcharacteristicsfora
gg
dcweldinggenerator,shortcircuitcurrentas400A
andopencircuitvoltageas400whichoneofthe
followingisthecorrectvoltageandcurrentsetting
formaximumarcpower?
((a)) 4
400Aand100V
((b)) 200Aand200V
(c) 400Aand50V
(d) 200Aand50V
GATE1992
A low carbon steel plate is to be welded by the manual
metal arc welding process using a linear V I
characteristic DC Power source. The following data are
available :
OCV of Power source = 62 V
Short
S
o t ccircuit
cu t cu
current
e t = 130
30 A
Arc length, L = 4 mm
T
Traverse
speed
d off welding
ldi = 15 cm/s
/
Efficiency of heat input = 85%
Voltage is given as V = 20 + 1.5 L
Calculate the heat input into the workprice
In
operation,
the
I a DC arc welding
ldi
ti
th voltagearc
lt
length characteristic was obtained as Varc = 20 + 5L
where
h
th arc length
the
l
th L was varied
i d between
b t
5 mm
and 7 mm. Here Varc denotes the arc voltage in Volts.
Th arc currentt was varied
The
i d from
f
400 A to
t 500 A.
A
Assuming linear power source characteristic, the
open circuit
i
it voltage
lt
and
d the
th short
h t circuit
i
it currentt for
f
the welding operation are
( ) 45 V, 450 A
(a)
(b) 75 V, 750 A
(c) 95 V, 950 A
(d) 150 V, 1500 A
GATE 2014 (PI)

GATE2014(PI)
In an arc welding operation, carried out with a
power source maintained at 40 volts and 400
amperes, the
h consumable
bl electrode
l
d melts
l and
d just
j
fills the gap between the metal plates to be butt
butt
welded. The heat transfer efficiency for the process
is 0.8, melting efficiency is 0.3 and the heat required
DutyCycle
y The percentage of time in a 5 min period that a
welding machine can be used at its rated output

without overloading.
y Time is spent
p
in setting
g up,
p metal chipping,
pp g cleaning
g
and inspection.
y For
o manual
a ua we
welding
d g a 60% duty cyc
cyclee iss suggested aand
d
for automatic welding 100% duty cycle.
of tthe
o
ee
electrode
ect ode iss 4 mm/s,
/s, tthe
e ccrosssectional
oss sect o a a
area,
ea,
in mm2, of the weld joint is _______
What is the maximum output current that can be

drawn at 100% duty cycle from a welding power source
rated at 600A at 60% duty cycle.
[3 Marks]
[3Marks]
Where,T=rateddutycycle
I=ratedcurrentattherateddutycycle
Io =Maximumcurrentattherateddutycycle
The DC power source for arc welding has the

characteristic 3V + I = 240, where V = Voltage and
I = Current in amp.
amp For maximum arc power at
the electrode, voltage should be set at
(a) 20 V (b) 40 V (c) 60 V (d) 80 V
3. If the
to melt
l the
h electrode
l
d is
i 20 J/mm
J/
h travell speed
d
IFS2011
I
Requireddutycycle,Ta = T
Ia
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
Page 43 of 240
Contd
Electrode
1. NonconsumableElectrodes
2. ConsumableElectrodes
NonconsumableElectrodes
Madeofcarbon,GraphiteorTungsten.
CarbonandGraphiteareusedforD.C.
b
d
h
df
Electrodeisnotconsumed,thearclengthremains
constant,arcisstableandeasytomaintain.
Rev.0
Contd
ConsumableElectrodes
Provides
P id filler
fill materials.
t i l
Same composition.
This requires that the electrode be moved toward or
away from the work to maintain the arc and
satisfactory welding conditions.
Consumable electrodes are three kinds:

(a)
( ) Bare
(b) Fluxed or lightly coated
(c) Coated or extruded / shielded
y For automatic welding,
welding bare electrode is in the form of
continuous wire (coil).
Electrodecoatingcharacteristic
1. Provide a protective atmosphere.
2. Stabilize the arc.
3. Provide a protective slag coating to accumulate
4
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
impurities, prevent oxidation, and slow the cooling of

the weld metal.
Reduce spatter.
spatter
Add alloying elements.
Affect
ff arc penetration
Influence the shape of the weld bead.
Add additional filler metal.
Contd
Electrodecoatings
GATE1994
Theelectrodesusedinarcweldingarecoated.
Thiscoatingisnotexpectedto
(a) Provideprotectiveatmospheretoweld
(b) Stabilizetheare
(c) Addalloyingelements
(d) Preventselectrodefromcontamination
P
t l t d f
t i ti
l. Slag Forming Ingredients. asbestos, mica, silica,

fluorspar, titanium dioxide, Iron oxide, magnesium
carbonate, Calcium carbonate and aluminium oxide.
2. Arc Stabilizing Ingredients. or ionizing agents:
potassium
potass
u
ssilicate,
cate, TiO
O2 + ZrO
O2 (Rut
(Rutile),
e), M
Mica,
ca,
Calcium oxide, sodium oxide, magnesium oxide,
e dspa ((KAI Si3 O8)
feldspar
3.DeoxidizingIngredients. Cellulose,Calcium
carbonate,dolo
carbonate,dolo mite,starch,dextrin,woodflour,
graphite,aluminium,ferromanganese.
4.BindingMaterials Sodiumsilicate,potassiumsilicate,
asbestos.
5.AlloyingConstituentstoImproveStrengthofWeld
6.TiO2 andpotassiumcompoundsincreasethemelting
p
p
g
rateofthebasemetalforbetterpenetration.
7.Ironpowderprovideshigherdepositionrate.
Contd
Contd
i d
Binders
y The slag is then easily chipped.
y AC arc welding
used
binders.
ld
d potassium silicate
l
b d
y Coatings are designed to melt more slowly than the
f ll wire.
filler
y DC arc welding used sodium silicate binders.

binders
y Potassium
otass u has
as a lower
o e ionization
o at o pote
potential
t a as co
compared
pa ed
with sodium.
Contd
Page 44 of 240
Rev.0
IES2007
The coating material of an arc welding electrode
g
contains which of the following?
1. Deoxidising agent
2 Arc stabilizing agent
2.
3. Slag forming agent
S l
Select
the
h correct answer using
i the
h code
d given
i
b l
below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
WeldingFlux
Availableinthreeforms
y Granular
y Electrodewirecoating
y Electrodecore
Welding Positions
WeldingPositions
IES1997
Assertion (A):
( ) The electrodes of ac arc welding are
coated with sodium silicate, whereas electrodes used
for dc arc welding are coated with potassium silicate
binders.
Reason (R): Potassium has a lower ionization
potential
i l than
h sodium.
di
explanation of A
Fig.Positioningofelectrodeforweldinginverticallyupwardposition
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswer:
ListI(Ingredients)
ListII(Welding
f
functions)
i
)
A. Silica
1.
Arc stabilizer
B. Potassium
i
oxalate
l
2.
Deoxidizer
idi
C. Ferrosilicon
3.
Fluxingagent
D. Cellulose
4.
Gasformingmaterial
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
4
2
1
(b) 2
1
3
4
(c) 3
1
2
4
(d) 2
4
3
1
y g
LowHydrogenElectrode
y The basic coatings contain large amount of
IFS2011
Whatismeantbylowhydrogenelectrode?
calcium
l i
carbonate
b
t (limestone)
(li
t
) and
d calcium
l i
fluoride (fluorspar) and produce low hydrogen.
y But it can absorb
b b moisture therefore
h f
coated
d low
l
hydrogen electrodes are backed before use to a
temperature off 200oC to 3000C and
d stored
d in an
oven at 110oC to 150oC
y Other types of electrode release large amount of
hydrogen, which can dissolve in the weld metal
and lead to embrittlement or cracking.
[
[2marks]
k ]
W ldi C
WeldingCurrent
t
y Weldingcurrentdependsupon:thethicknessofthe
Fig.Thepositionofelectrodeforhorizontalwelding
IES2002
weldedmetal,typeofjoint,weldingspeed,positionof
theweld,thethicknessandtypeofthecoatingonthe
electrodeanditsworkinglength.
y Weldingcurrent,I=k.d,amperes;disdia.(mm)
Page 45 of 240
WeldingVoltage
y Thearcvoltagedependsonlyuponthearclength
V=k1 +k2l
Volts
Wherelisthearclengthinmmandk1 andk2 are

constants,
t t
k1 =10to12;andk2 =2to3
TheminimumArcvoltageisgivenby
g
g
y
Vmin =(20+0.04l)Volt
Rev.0
ArcLength
y For good welds, a short arc length is necessary,
because:
1. Heat is concentrated.
2. More stable
3. More protective atmosphere.
A long arc results in

y Large heat
loss
into
atmosphere.
h
l
i
h
y Unstable arc.
y Weld pool is not protected.
y Weld has low strength,
strength less ductility,
ductility poor fusion and
excessive spatter.
Fig.ArcPowerVsArcLength
Contd
Arclengthshouldbeequaltothediameteroftheelectrodesize
G
2002 C
i
l
GATE2002,Conventional
The
characteristic
off a DC arc is given
h arc lengthvoltage
l
h l
h
by the equation: V = 24 + 4L,
4L where V is voltage in volts
and L is arc length in mm. The static voltampere
characteristic of the power source is approximated by a
Beadwidthshouldbeequaltothreediameteroftheelectrodesize
straight
h line
l
with
h a no load
l d voltage
l
off 80 V and
d a short
h
circuit current of 600A. Determine the optimum arc
length for maximum power.
GATE2008
In arc welding of a butt joint, the welding speed is
to be selected such that highest cooling rate is
achieved. Melting efficiency and heat transfer
efficiency are 0.5 and 0.7, respectively. The area of
the
h weld
ld cross section is 5 mm2 and
d the
h unit
energy required to melt the metal is 10 J/mm3. If
the
h welding
ld
power is 2 kW,
k
the
h welding
ld
speed
d in
mm/s is closest to
(a) 4
(b) 14
(c) 24
(d) 34
( )
GATE2010(PI)
g a steadyy g
g with direct
During
gas metal arc welding
current electrode positive polarity, the welding current,
voltage and weld speed are 150 A, 30 V and 6 m/min,
respectively. A metallic wire electrode of diameter 1.2
mm is being fed at a constant rate of 12 m/min. The
d it specific
density,
ifi heat
h t and
d melting
lti
t
temperature
t
off the
th
wire electrode are 7000 kg/m3, 500 J/kgoC and 1530oC,
respectively Assume the ambient temperature to be 30oC
respectively.
and neglect the latent heat of melting. Further, consider
that two
twothird
third of the total electrical power is available for
melting of the wire electrode. The melting efficiency (in
percentage)
p
g of the wire electrode is
(a) 39.58
(b) 45.25
(c) 49.38 (d) 54.98
GATE2006
In an arc welding process, the voltage and current
are 25 V and 300 A respectively. The arc heat
transfer efficiency is 0.85 and welding speed is 8
mm/sec. The net heat input (in J/mm) is
(a) 64
(b) 797
(c) 1103
(d) 79700
Page 46 of 240
( )
GATE2009(PI)
Autogenous gas tungsten arc welding of a steel
plate is carried out with welding current of 500 A,
voltage of 20 V, and weld speed of 20 mm/sec.
Consider the heat transfer efficiency from the arc
to the weld pool as 90%. The heat input per unit
length (in KJ/mm) is
(a) 0.25
(b) 0.35
(c) 0.45
(d) 0.55
Rev.0
Example
ArcblowinDCarcwelding
g the welding
g of magnetic
g
y Arc blow occurs during
Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of

arcwelding
g of steel with a p
potential of 20 V and
a current of 200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s
and .the
the cross
crosssectional
sectional area of the joint is 20
2
mm . Heat required to melt steel may be taken
as 10 J/mm3 and the heat transfer efficiency as
0.85.
materials with DC.

y The effect of arc blow is maximum when welding
g
corners where magnetic field concentration is

maximum.
y The effect is particularly noticeable when welding with
bare electrodes or when using currents below or above
y Again the problem of arc blow gets magnified when
welding highly magnetic materials such as Ni alloys,
because of the strong magnetic fields set up by these
metals.
y Cause: Unbalanced magnetic forces.
Contd
Effectofarcblow
y Low heat penetration.
y Excessive weld spatter.
p
y Pinch effect in welding is the result of electromagnetic
forces
y Weld spatter occurs due to
High
Hi h welding
ldi currentt
Too small an electrode arc
The effects of arc blow can be minimized with D.C.

welding by
y Shortening the arc.
y Reduce
R d
currentt
y Reducing weld speed.
y Balance magnetic field by placing one ground lead at
each end of the work piece.
y Wrapping the electrode cable a few turns around the
work piece.
p
Contd
IES2001
Arcblowismorecommonin
(a) A.C.welding
.C. e d g
(b) D.C.weldingwithstraightpolarity
(c) D.C.weldingwithbareelectrodes
D C elding ithbareelectrodes
(d) A.C.weldingwithbareelectrodes
Contd
IES 2013
IES2013
Statement (I): The deflection of Arc from its intended
path is called Arc
Arc blow.
blow
Statement (II): The chances of Arc blow is common in
A C Arc
A.C.
A welding.
ldi
Statement (I)
p
of
Statement (I)
GATE & PSUs)
(d) Statement For-2015
(I) is false(IES,
but Statement
(II) is true
IES2001
Pincheffectinweldingistheresultof
(a) Expansionofgasesinthearc
pa s o o gases t e a c
(b) Electromagneticforces
(c) Electricforce
(d) Surfacetensionofthemoltenmetal
Page 47 of 240
ISRO2006
Too
T high
hi h welding
ldi currentt in
i arc welding
ldi would
ld result
lt in
i
(a) Excessive spatter, under cutting along edges, irregular
deposits, wasted electrodes
(b) Excessive p
piling
g up
p of weld metal, p
poor p
penetration,
wasted electrodes
(c) Too small bead, weak weld and wasted electrodes
(d) Excessive piling up of weld metal, overlapping
without penetration of edges,
edges wasted electrodes
Rev.0
Gasshields
CarbonArcwelding
y Helium, most expensive, has a better thermal
y An inert gas is blown into the weld zone to drive away
conductivity, is useful for thicker sheets, copper and

aluminium welding,
welding higher deposition rate.
rate
other
th atmospheric
t
h i gases.
y Gases are argon,
argon helium,
helium nitrogen,
nitrogen carbon dioxide and
work.
k
y The arc in carbon dioxide shielding

g g
gas is unstable,
least expensive, deoxidizers needed.
a mixture of the above gases.

y Argon ionizes easily requiring smaller arc voltages.It is
y Shielding is not used.

used
y No pressure
p
y It is a heavy gas and therefore covers the weld zone
very well.
ll
good for welding thin sheets.
y Arc is produced between a carbon electrode and the
y With or without filler metal

y May be used in "twin arc method", that is, between
two carbon (graphite) electrodes.

Contd
IES 2010
IES2010
)
g
p
y is always
y
Assertion ((A):
Straight
polarity
recommended for Carbonelectrode welding.
Reason (R): Carbon arc is stable in straight polarity.
correct explanation
l
i off A
TungstenInertGaswelding(TIG)
y Arc
is established between a nonconsumable

tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
y Tungsten is alloyed with thorium or zirconium for
y g
and
electronemission
better currentcarrying
characteristics.
y Arcc length
e gt iss co
constant,
sta t, aarcc iss stab
stablee aand
d easy to
maintain.
y With or without filler.
filler
y Very clean welds.

y All metals and alloys can be welded.
welded (Al,
(Al Mg also)
y Straight polarity is used.
y Weld voltage 20 to 40 V and weld current 125 A for
RPDC to 1000 A for SPDC.

y Shielded Gas: Argon
y Torch
h is water or air cooled.
l d
Contd
GATE2011
Whichoneamongthefollowingweldingprocesses
usednon consumableelectrode?
( )G t l ldi
(a)Gasmetalarcwelding
(b)Submergedarcwelding
(c)Gastungstenarcwelding
(d)Fluxcoatedarcwelding
Fig.TIG
For-2015 (IES,
GATE & PSUs)
Page 48 of 240
IES 2010
IES2010
gp
y used
In an inert g
gas welding
process,, the commonly
gas is
(a) Hydrogen
(b) Oxygen
( ) Helium
(c)
H li
or Argon
A
(d) Krypton
Rev.0
ISRO2009
Following gases are used in tungsten inert
gas welding
ldi
(a) CO2 and H2
(b) Argon and neon
(c) Argon and helium
(d) Helium and neon
GATE2002
Whichofthefollowingarcweldingprocessesdoes
notuseconsumableelectrodes?
(a) GMAW
(b) GTAW
(c) SubmergedArcWelding
(d) Noneofthese
N
fth
IES1994
Whichoneofthefollowingweldingprocesses
usesnon consumableelectrodes?
(a) TIGwelding
(b) MIGwelding
(c) Manualarcwelding
(d) Submergedarcwelding.
S b
d ldi
IES2013
IES2000
Whichoneofthefollowingstatementsiscorrect?
(a) Nofluxisusedingasweldingofmildsteel
o u s used gas e d g o
d stee
(b) Boraxisthecommonlyusedfluxcoatingon
weldingelectrodes
(c) Laserbeamweldingemploysavacuumchamber
andthusavoidsuseofashieldingmethod
(d) ACcanbeusedforGTAWprocess
Statement ((I):
) Non consumable electrodes,, used in arc
welding are made of high melting point temperature
g of electrode g
goes on
materials,, even then the length
decreasing with passage of time.
Statement (II): The electrode material gets oxidized
and melts on the weld material to form a strong flux.
Statement (I)
true but
b Statement
S
(II) is
i not the
l
i off
Statement (I)
GasMetalArcWelding(GMAW)orMIG
y A consumable electrode in a gas shield.
y Arc is between workpiece
p
and an automaticallyy fed
barewire electrode.
y Argon, helium, and mixtures of the two can be used.
y Any metal can be welded but are used primarily with
the nonferrous metals.
metals
y When welding steel, some O2 or CO2 is usually added
t improve
to
i
th arc stability
the
t bilit and
d reduce
d
weld
ld spatter.
tt
Contd
IES2007
InMIGwelding,themetalistransferredintothe
g
formofwhichoneofthefollowing?
(a) Afinesprayofmetal
(b) Moltendrops
(c) Weldpool
(d) Molecules
l
l
y Fast and economical.

y A reversepolarity
l
d arc is generally
dc
ll used
d because
b
of its deep penetration, spray transfer, and ability

to produce
d
smooth
h welds
ld with
h good
d profile.
fl
Page 49 of 240
Fig.MIG
Rev.0
IES1997
MIGweldingprocessuses
gp
1.Consumableelectrode2. nonconsumableelectrode
3.D.C.powersupply
4.A.C.powersupply
Ofthesestatements
(a) 2and4arecorrect
(b) 2and3arecorrect
( ) 1and4arecorrect
(c)
d
(d) 1and3arecorrect
IES 2012
IES
() C
p
y
G
Statement(I):DCwithreversepolarityisusedinMIG
welding
( )
p
y
Statement(II):UseofDCwithreversepolarityenables
deeperpenetrationandacleanSurface
IES 2013
IES2013
IES 2010
IES2010
g statements:
In metal are welding
1. Utilizes a consumable electrode
2. A welding torch used is connected to acetylene gas
supply
3. The
Th electrode
l t d and
d workpiece
k i
are connected
t d to
t the
th
welding power supply
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 3 only
( )
g
Assertion(A):Inertgasandbareelectrodeinstead
offluxcoatedelectrodeisusedinthecaseof
gp
automaticTIGandMIGweldingprocesses.
Reason(R):Betterprotectionisprovidedbyacloud
ofinertgasthanthecovercreatedbytheflux.
l
ti off A
SubmergedArcwelding(SAW)
y A thick layer of granular flux is deposited just ahead of
a bare
b
wire
i consumable
bl electrode,
l t d and
d an arc is
i
maintained beneath the blanket of flux with onlyy a few
y Most suitable
or fillet
bl for
f flat
fl butt
b
f ll welds
ld in low
l
carbon steel (< 0.3% carbon).

y The process is not recommended for highcarbon
g
steels,
small flames being visible.

y A portion of the flux melts. Molten flux and flux
tool
steels,
aluminum,
magnesium,
titanium, lead, or zinc.
provides thermal insulation, slows cooling rate and

produce soft,
soft ductile welds.
welds
Contd
Advantages
Characteristicofsubmergedarcwelding
y Highspeeds,
y Wireelectrodesareinexpensive.
y Highdepositionrates,
y Noweldspatter.
y Deeppenetration,
Deeppenetration
y Nearly100%depositionefficiency.
Nearly100%depositionefficiency
y Highcleanliness(duetothefluxaction).
y Lesserelectrodeconsumption.
Page 50 of 240
Rev.0
IES2011
Limitations
The welding process in which bare wire is used as

electrode, granular flux is used and the process is
characterized by its high speed welding,
welding is known as:
(a) Shielded arc welding
(b) Plasma arc welding
(c) Submerged
g arc welding
g
(d) Gas metal arc welding
y Extensive flux handling,

y Contamination of the flux by moisture.
y Largegrainsize
Large grain size structures.
structures
y Welding is restricted to the horizontal position.
y Chemical control is important
IES2005
IES2008
Whichofthefollowingarethemajor
characteristicsofsubmergedarcwelding?
1. Highweldingspeeds.
2. Highdepositionrates.
3. Lowpenetration.
4. Lowcleanliness.
4
(a) 2and3
(b) 1,2and3
1 2and3
(c) 3and4
(d) 1and2
AtomicHydrogenwelding(AHW)
y An
two tungsten electrodes
A a.c. arc is
i formed
f
d between
b
l
d
along which streams of hydrogen are fed to the

welding zone.
zone The molecules of hydrogen are
dissociated by the high heat of the arc in the gap
between the electrodes.
electrodes The formation of atomic
hydrogen proceeds with the absorption of heat:
H2 = 2H 421.2
421 2 k J / mol
y This atomic hydrogen recombines to form molecular
hydrogen outside the arc, particularly on the relatively
cold surface of the work being welded, releasing the
gained p
previously:
y
heat g
2H =For-2015
k J GATE
/ mol. & PSUs)
H2 + 421.2
(IES,
Contd
Assertion (A):
( ) Submerged arc welding is not
recommended for high carbon steels, tool steels,
aluminium, magnesium etc.
Reason (R): This is because of unavailability of
suitable fluxes, reactivity at high temperatures and
l
low
sublimation
bli
i temperatures.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct
explanation of A
p
y Temperature
of about 37
3700oC.
y Hydrogen acts as shielding also.
y Used for very thin sheets or small diameter wires.
y Lower thermal efficiency than Arc welding.
y Ceramics may be arc welded.
IES2006
Inwhichofthefollowingweldingprocesses,flux
g
isusedintheformofgranules?
(a) ACarcwelding
(b) Submergedarcwelding
(c) Argonarcwelding
(d) DCarcwelding
C ldi
GATE1999
For butt welding 40 mm thick steel plates, when
the expected quantity of such jobs is 5000 per
month over a period of 10 year, choose the best
suitable welding process out of the following
available
l bl alternatives.
l
(a) Submerged
g arc welding
g
(b) Oxyacetylene welding
(c) Electron beam welding
(d) MIG welding
IES2005
Inatomichydrogenwelding,hydrogenactsas
(a) Aheatingagent
eat g age t
(b) Oneofthegasestogeneratetheflame
(c) Aneffectiveshieldinggasprotectingtheweld
Aneffecti eshieldinggasprotectingthe eld
(d) Alubricanttoincreasetheflowcharacteristicsof
weldmetal
ld
l
y AC used.
used
Page 51 of 240
Rev.0
ResistanceWelding
ResistanceWelding
Principle
y Both heat and pressure are used.
y Heat is generated by the electrical resistance of the
work pieces and the interface between them.
y Pressure is supplied externally and is varied
g
the weld cycle.
y
throughout
y Due to pressure, a lower temperature needed than
oxyfuel
oxy
fuel or arc welding.
BySKMondal
y They are not officially classified as solidstate welding
by the American Welding Society.

y Very rapid and economical.
y Extremely
l well
ll suited
d to automated
d manufacturing.
f
y No filler metal,
metal no flux,
flux no shielding gases.
gases
Contd
Contd
y Overall resistance very low.

y Very highcurrent (up to 100,000 A)
y Very lowvoltage
l
l
(
(0.5
to 10 V)) is
i used.
d
Fig. The desired temperature

distribution
across
the
electrodes and the work
pieces in lap resistance
welding.
Fig.
g
Typical
yp
pressure cycle
welding. The
forging and
operations.
current
and
for resistance
cycle includes
post heating
FIG.Thefundamentalresistanceweldingcircuit
Advantages
IES2007
What is the principle of resistance welding?
Indicate where the resistance is maximum in spot
welding operation.
[
[2marks]
k ]
Fig. The arrangement of the electrodes and the work in spot

welding, showing design for replaceable electrode tips.
Limitations
1. Very rapid.
1. High initial cost.
2. Fully automation possible.
2. Limitations to the type of joints (mostly lap joints).
3 Conserve material; no filler metal,

3.
metal shielding gases,
gases or
3 Skilled maintenance personne1 are required:

3.
flux is required.
q
4. special surface treatment needed.
4. Skilled operators are not required.

5.Dissimilar metals can be easily joined.
6. High reliability and

High
Page
52reproducibility.
of 240
Rev.0
Application
Differenttypes
y The resistance welding processes are among the
most common technique for high volume

joining.
1. Resistance spot welding

2. Resistance seam welding
3 Projection welding
3.
Resistancespotwelding
y The process description given so far is called resistance
spot welding (RSW) or simply spot welding.

y This is essentially done to join two sheetmetal jobs in
p jjoint, forming
g a small nugget
gg at the interface of
a lap
the two plates.
4. Upset welding
5. Flash welding
6. Percussion welding
HeatinputandEfficiencyCalculations
Electric Resistance Welding

JJoules law applicable
pp
Q = I2 Rt, Joules
IES2003
Inresistancewelding,heatisgeneratedduetothe
resistancebetween
(a) Electrodeandworkpiece
(b) Asperitiesbetweentouchingplates
(c) Twodissimilarmetalsbeingincontact
(d) Interatomicforces
i f
Contd
IES2001
Themaximumheatinresistanceweldingisatthe
(a) Tipofthepositiveelectrode
p o t e pos t e e ect ode
(b) Tipofthenegativeelectrode
(c) Topsurfaceoftheplateatthetimeofelectric
contactwiththeelectrode
(d) InterfacebetweenthetwoplatesbeingJoined
f b
h
l
b i i d
GATE2007
p jjoint
Two metallic sheets,, each of 2.0 mm thickness,, are welded in a lap
configuration by resistance spot welding at a welding current of 10 kA
and welding time of 10 millisecond. A spherical fusion zone extending
up to the full thickness of each sheet is formed. The properties of the
metallic sheets are given as:
ambient temperature = 293 K
melting temperature = 1793 K
l t t heat
latent
h t off fusion
f i = 300 kJ/kg
kJ/k
density = 7000 kg/m3
specific heat = 800 J/kg K
Assume:
(i) Contact resistance along sheetsheet interface is 500 microohm and
along electrodesheet interface is zero;
( ) No conductive heat loss through the bulk sheet materials; and
(ii)
(iii) The complete weld fusion zone is at the melting temperature.
g efficiencyy (in %) of the p
process is
The melting
(a) 50.37 (b)
60.37 (c)
70.37 (d)
80.37
Page 53 of 240
Resistance spot welding of two steel sheets is carried out in
lap joint configuration by using a welding current of 3 kA and
a weld time of 0.2 S. A molten weld nugget
gg of volume 20 mm3
is obtained. The effective contact resistance is 200
(microohms). The material properties of steel are given as:
(i) latent heat of melting: 1400 kJ/kg, (ii) density: 8000
kg/m3, (iii) melting temperature: 1520oC, (iv) specific heat:
0.5 kJ/kg
kJ/k oC.
C The
Th ambient
bi
temperature is
i 20oC.
C
Heat (in Joules) used for producing weld nugget will be
(
(assuming
100%
% heat
h
transfer
f efficiency)
ff
)
(a) 324
(b) 334
(c) 344
(d) 354
Rev.0
Resistance spot welding of two steel sheets is carried out in
lap joint configuration by using a welding current of 3 kA and
a weld time of 0.2 S. A molten weld nugget
gg of volume 20 mm3
is obtained. The effective contact resistance is 200
(microohms). The material properties of steel are given as:
(i) latent heat of melting: 1400 kJ/kg, (ii) density: 8000
kg/m3, (iii) melting temperature: 1520oC, (iv) specific heat:
0.5 kJ/kg
kJ/k oC.
C The
Th ambient
bi
temperature is
i 20oC.
C
Heat (in Joules) dissipated to the base metal will be
(
(neglecting
l
all
ll other
h heat
h
l
losses)
)
(a) 10
(b) 16
(c) 22
(d) 32
GATE2004
Two 1 mm thick steel sheets are to be spot welded
at a current of 5000 A. Assuming effective
resistance to be 200 microohms and current flow
time of 0.2 second, heat generated during the
process will
ll be
b
(a) 0.2 Joule (b) 1 Joule
(c) 5 Joule
(d) 1000 Joules
GATE2014
For
metal)
F spott welding
ldi off two
t steel
t l sheets
h t (base
(b
t l) each
h off
3 mm thickness,, welding
g current of 10000 A is applied
pp
for 0.2 s. The heat dissipated to the base metal is 1000 J.
Assuming that the heat required for melting 1 mm3
volume
l
off steel
t l is
i 20 J and
d interfacial
i t f i l contact
t t resistance
i t
between sheets is 0.0002,, the volume ((in mm3) of weld
GATE2005
Spot welding of two 1 mm thick sheets of steel
(density = 8000 kg/m3) is carried out successfully
by passing a certain amount of current for 0.1
second through the electrodes. The resultant weld
nugget formed
f
d is 5 mm in diameter
d
and
d 1.5 mm
thick. If the latent heat of fusion of steel is 1400
k k and
kJ/kg
d the
h effective
ff
resistance in the
h welding
ld
operation in 200 , the current passing through
the
h electrodes
l
d is approximately
l
(a) 1480A
(b) 3300 A
(c) 4060 A
(d) 9400 A
Resistance spot welding is performed on two

plates of 1.5 mm thickness with 6 mm diameter
electrode, using 15000 A current for a time
duration of 0.25 seconds. Assuming the interface
resistance to be
b 0.0001 , the
h heat
h
generated
d to
form the weld is
(a) 5625 Wsec
(b) 8437 Wsec
(c) 22500
5 Wsec
sec
(d) 3375
33750 Wsec
sec
GATE1992
For resistance spot welding of 1.5 mm thick steel
sheets, the current required is of the order of
(a) 10 A
(b) 100 A
(c) 1000 A
(d) 10,000 A
GATE2010
Two pipes of inner diameter 100 mm and outer
diameter 110 mm each joined by flash butt
welding using 30 V power supply. At the interface,
1 mm of material melts from each pipe which has
a resistance off 42.4 . Iff the
h unit melt
l energy is
64.4 MJm3, then time required for welding in
seconds
d is
(a) 1
(b) 5
(c) 10
(d) 20
IES 2007 C
ti
l
IES2007Conventional
Two steel sheets of thickness one mm are welded
by resistance projection welding technique. A
current of 30,000 A for 0005 second is made to
flow. The effective resistance of joint can be taken
as 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered as
a cylinder of diameter 5 mm and height 15 mm.
The density of steel is 000786 gm/mm3. The heat
needed for welding steel is 10 J/mm3. Calculate the
efficiency of welding.
[20]
nugget is .
GATE2001
GATE 2008(PI)
Aluminum strips of 2 mm thickness are joined together
by resistance spot welding process by applying an
electric current of 6000 A for 0.15 sec. The heat required
for melting
g aluminum is 2.9
9 J/
J/mm3. The diameter and
the thickness of weld nugget are found to be 5 mm and
2 5 mm,
2.5
mm respectively.
respectively Assuming the electrical resistance
to be 75 (micro ohms), the percentage of total
energy utilized in forming the weld nugget is
(a) 28
Page 54 of 240
(b) 35
(c) 65
(d) 72
Rev.0
IAS2003
Resistanceseamwelding
Assertion (A):
( ) Spot welding is adopted to weld two
overlapped metal pieces between two electrode
points.
Reason (R): In this process when current is switched
on, the lapped pieces of metal are heated in a
restricted
i d area.
explanation of A
y Welding current is a bit higher than spot welding, to
y Weld is made between overlapping sheets of metal.
Th seam is
The
i a series
i off overlapping
l
i spott welds.
ld
compensate short circuit of the adjacent weld.

y In other process a continuous seam is produced by
passing a continuous current through the rotating
electrodes with a speed of 1.5 m/min for thin sheet.
y The basic equipment is the same as for spot welding.

welding
except that the electrodes are now in the form of

rotating disks.
y Timed pulses of current pass to form the overlapping
welds.
welds
Contd
( )
GATE 2012(PI)
In resistance seam welding, the electrode is in the
f
form
off a
(a) cylinder
(b) flat plate
((c)) coil of wire
(d) circular disc
Contd
Projectionwelding
y Limitations of spot welding.
1. Electrode
condition must be maintained

continually, and only one spot weld at a time.
2. For additional strength multiple welds needed.
y Projection welding
(RPW) overcomes above
limitations.
limitations
Fig.Resistanceseamwelding
Contd
y Dimples are embossed on work pieces at the weld
g
placed between largearea
locations and then p
electrodes, and pressure and current applied like spot
welding.
g
y Current flows through the dimples and heats them
and pressure causes the dimples to flatten and form a
weld.
For-2015 (IES, GATE
Fig.Principleof
projectionwelding,
j ti ldi
(a)priortoapplicationof
currentandpressure
( )
(b)andafterformationof
&welds
PSUs)
Contd
Upsetwelding
y Projections are pressformed in any shape.

y Multiple welds at a time.
y Made butt joint compared to lap joint.
y No indentation mark on the surface.
y Pieces are held tightly and current is applied.
y Bolts and nuts can be attached to other metal parts.
y Due to pressure joints get slightly upset and hence its
name.
y Useful for joining rods or similar pieces.
Page 55 of 240
Rev.0
Contd
FlashWelding
y This is the process used for making electric resistance
welded (ERW) pipes starting from a metal plate of suitable

thickness.
y The plate is first formed into the shape of the pipe with the
help of the three roll set as shown in Fig. above. The ends
of the p
plate would then be forming
g the butt jjoint.
y The two rotating copper disc electrodes are made to
contact the two ends of the p
plate through
g which the
current is passed. The ends get heated and then forge
welded under the p
pressure of the rolls.
y The ends of the pieces to be upset welded must be perfectly
parallel. Anyy high
p
g spots
p
if p
present on the ends would g
get
melted first before the two ends are completely joined.
y It is similar to upset welding except the arc rather than
resistance
i t
h ti
heating.
y One pieces is clamped with cam controlled movable
platen and other with is fixed platen.
Contd
Contd
PercussionWelding
y Two pieces are brought together and the power supply is
p
pieces are separated
switched on. Momentarilyy the two p
to create the arc to melt the ends of the two pieces.
g
the p
pieces are brought
g together
g
and the
Then again
power switched off while the two ends are fused under
force. Most of the metal melted would flash out
through the joint and forms like a fin around the joint.
y Faster than upset welding.
y Similar to flash welding except arc power by a rapid
discharge of stored electrical energy.

energy
y The arc duration is only
y 1 to 10 ms, heat is intense and
highly concentrated.
y Small weld metal is produced, little or no upsetting, and
low HAZ.
HAZ
y Application: Butt welding of bar or tube where heat
damage is a major concern.
Contd
Thermit Welding
y Temp. 2750C produced in 30 seconds, superheating
y Heating and coalescence is by superheated molten
OtherWelding
Technique
h i
metal
t l obtained
bt i d from
f
a chemical
h i l reaction
ti
b t
between
a
metal oxide and a metallic reducing
g agent.
g
y Used mixture one part aluminum and three parts iron
y Copper, brass, and bronze can be welded using a
different starting mixture.
8Al+3Fe3O4 9Fe+4Al2O3 +heat

Page 56 of 240
metal.
metal
y Runners and risers are provided like casting.
oxide and ignited by a magnesium fuse. (1150C).
the molten iron which provide both heat and filler
y Used to joint thick sections, in remote locations.
Contd
Rev.0
IES2000
ElectroSlagWelding
Considerthefollowingprocesses:
1. Gaswelding
2. Thermit welding
33. Arcwelding
g
4. Resistancewelding
Thecorrectsequenceoftheseprocessesinincreasing
orderoftheirweldingtemperaturesis
(a) 1,3,4,2
1 3 4 2
(b) 1,2,3,4
1 2 3 4
(c) 4,3,1,2
(d)4,1,3,2
y A 65mm deep layer of molten slag, protect and
cleanse the molten metal.
y Very effective for welding thick sections.

y Heat is derived from the passage of electrical current
y Watercooled
W
l d copper molding
ldi
plates
l
confined
fi d the
h
liquid and moved upward.
through a liquid slag and temp.

temp 1760
1760C
C
y Multiple electrodes are used to provide an adequate
supply of filler.
Contd
Contd
IAS2003
y Applications: Shipbuilding, machine manufacture,
heavy pressure vessels, and the joining of large
Whichoneofthefollowingisnotanelectric
g
resistancemethodofwelding?
(a) Electroslagwelding
(b) Percussionwelding
(c) Seamwelding
(d) Flashwelding
l h ldi
castings and forgings.

forgings
y Slow cooling
gp
produces a coarse g
grain structure.
y Large HAZ.
Contd
IAS2000
Considerthefollowingweldingprocesses:
1.. TIGwelding
G ed g
2.. Sub
Submergedarcwelding
e ged a c e d g
3. Electroslagwelding4. Thermit welding
Whichofthese eldingprocessesareusedfor elding
Whichoftheseweldingprocessesareusedforwelding
thickpiecesofmetals?
( ) 1,2and3
(a)
d (b) 1,2and4
d
(c) 1,3and4 (d) 2,3and4
ElectronBeamWelding
y A beam of electrons is magnetically focused on the
work
k piece
i
i a vacuum chamber.
in
h b
y Heat of fusion is produced by electrons decelerate.
decelerate
y Allows
precise
p
beam
control
and
deep
p
weld
penetration.
y No shield gas (vacuum chamber used)
Page 57 of 240
Rev.0
IES2004
IES2002
Assertion (A): In electron beam welding process,

vacuum is an essential process parameter
Reason (R): Vacuum provides a highly efficient
shield on weld zone
IAS2004
IES1993
Inwhichoneofthefollowingweldingtechniques
isvacuumenvironmentrequired?
(a) Ultrasonicwelding
(b) Laserbeamwelding
(c) Plasmaarcwelding
(d) Electronbeamwelding
l
b
ldi
LaserBeamWelding
consistsofsmallerHeatAffectedZone(HAZ)?
(a) Arcwelding
(b) Electronbeamwelding
(c) MIGwelding
(d) Thermit welding
Electronbeamweldingcanbecarriedoutin
(a) Ope
Openair
a
(b) Ashieldinggasenvironment
(c) Apressurizedinertgaschamber
Apressuri edinertgaschamber
(d) Vacuum
y Very thin HAZ and little thermal distortion.
y Used a focused laser beam provides power intensities
i excess off 10kW/cm

in
kW/ 2
y Filler metal and inert gas shield may or may not used.
y Deep penetration.
y The high
highintensity
intensity beam produces a very thin column
of vaporized metal with a surrounding liquid pool.
y No
N vacuum needed.
d d
y No direct contact needed.
needed
y Depthtowidth ratio greater than 4: 1.
Contd
IES2007
y Heat input is very low, often in the range 0.1 to 10 J.

y Adopted by the electronics industry.
y Possible
to weld
wires without removing
the
polyurethane insulation.
insulation
Contd
Considerthefollowingstatementsinrespectofthe
laserbeamwelding:
1. Itcanbeusedforweldinganymetalortheir
I b df ldi
l h i
combinationsbecauseofveryhightemperatureofthe
focalpoints.
focalpoints
2. Heataffectedzoneisverylargebecauseofquick
heating.
3. Highvacuumisrequiredtocarrytheprocess.
(a) 1and2only (b) 2and3only
(c) 1only
(d) 1,2and3
Page 58 of 240
Contd
IES2006
consistsofminimumheataffectedzone(HAZ)?
(a) ShieldedMetalArcWelding(SMAW)
(b) LaserBeamWelding(LBW)
(c) UltrasonicWelding(USW)
(d) MetalInertGasWelding(MIG)
l
G ldi ( G)
Rev.0
GATE2012(PI)
IAS2007
Which of the following welding processes results in

the smallest heat affected zone?
(a) Shielded metal arc welding
(b) Gas welding
(c) Laser beam welding
(d) Thermit
h
i welding
ldi
ForgeWelding
IAS1999
Consider the following welding processes:

1.. Arcc welding
ed g
2..
MIG
G welding
ed g
3. Laser beam welding
4.
Submerged arc
welding
Select the correct sequence in increasing order of Heat
affected zone (HAZ) using the code
given below:
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 1 4 2 3
((c)) 3 2 4 1 ((d)) 4 3 2 1
FrictionWelding
y Blacksmith do this.
y Machine is similar to a centre lathe.
y Heat is obtained by the friction between the ends of
th two
the
t parts
t to
t be
b joined.
j i d
y Borax is used as a flux.

y The ends to be joined were then overlapped on the
anvil and hammered to the degree

g
necessaryy to
y Quality depends on the skill of the worker and not
y Power requirements 25 kVA to 175 kVA.

y The axial pressure depends on the strength and
y One part is rotated at a high speed and other part is
axially aligned and pressed tightly against it.
h d
hardness
off the
h metals
l being
b
joined.
d
y Pressure 40 MPa for lowcarbon
low carbon steels to as high as 450
y Friction raises the temperature of both the ends. Then
produce an acceptable weld.
Match List I (Shielding

method)) with List II (Welding
(
(
process) and select the correct answer using the codes
g
List I
List II
A. Flux coating
1.
Gas metal arc welding
B
B.
Fl granules
Flux
l
2.
S b
Submerged
d arc welding
ldi
C. CO2
3.
Shielded metal arc welding
D Vacuum
D.
4
4.
Laser beam welding
5.
Electron beam welding
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
5
3
(b)
1
4
2
5
(c) 3
5
1
4
(d)
3
2
1
5
MPa for alloy steels.
rotation is stopped abruptly and the pressure is

increased to join.
join
used
d by
b industry.
i d
Contd
Contd
GATE2007
y Very efficient.
y Wide variety of metals or combinations of metals can
be jjoined such as aluminium to steel.

y Grain size is refined
y Strength is same as base metal.
metal
y Only round bars or tubes of the same size, or
connecting
i bars
b or tubes
b to flat
fl surfaces
f
can join.
j i
y One of the components must be ductile.
y Friction welding is a solid state welding.
y A low contact pressure may be applied initially to
permit cleaning
of the
surfaces
burnishing action.
For-2015
(IES,
GATEby
& aPSUs)
Contd
Whichoneofthefollowingisasolidstatejoining
process??
(a) Gastungstenarcwelding
(b) Resistancespotwelding
p
g
(c) Frictionwelding
(d) submergedarcwelding
Page
59 of 240
Fig
frictionweldingprocess
Rev.0
GATE2013
pairs
Match the CORRECT pairs.
GATE2014
In solidstate welding, the contamination layers
b t
between
th surfaces
the
f
t be
to
b welded
ld d are removed
d by
b
(a) alcohol
(b) p
plastic deformation
(c) water jet
(d) sand blasting
Characteristics/Applications
1.Nonconsumableelectrode
Two steell bars,

each
10 mm, are coaxially
b
h off diameter
d
ll
Q.GasMetalArc
Q
GasMetalArc
Welding
R T
R.TungstenInertGas
t I tG
Welding
2 Joiningofthickplates
2.Joiningofthickplates
friction welded,
welded end to end,
end at an axial pressure of 200
S.Electroslag Welding
4.Joiningofcylindrical
dissimilarmaterials
MPa and at a rotational speed of 4000 rpm. The

3.Consumableelectrodewire
C
bl l t d i
( ) 4 Q3
(a)P4,Q3,R1,S2
(c)P2,Q3,R4,S1
3/4th radius of the rotating bar. The power (in KW)

consumed at the interface for welding is
( ) 4 Q
(b)P4,Q2,R3,S1
3
(d)P2,Q4,R1,S3
(a) 12.33 (b) 16.44
(d) 24.66
sheet, foil, and wire

or the
Weld thin materials
materialssheet,
wireor
Discusswithfigurethevariousstepsrequiredfor
Highfrequency
g
q
y (10 to 200, KHz) is applied.
pp
frictionwelding,mentioningatleasttwomethods
Surfaces are held together under light normal
[
[5marks]
k ]
(c) 18.50
Restricted to the lap joint
USW is a solidstate welding.
ofcontrol.
coefficient of friction between the mating faces of the

rotating bars
b
is 0.50. The
h torque is assumed
d to act at the
h
UltrasonicWelding(USW)
IFS2011
G
20 0 ( )
GATE2010(PI)
Processes
P.FrictionWelding
pressure.
Temp. do not exceed onehalf of the melting point.
The
Th ultrasonic
lt
i transducer
t
d
i same as ultrasonic
is
lt
i
machining.
attaching thin sheets to heavier structural members.

Maximum thickness 2.5
2 5 mm for aluminum and 1.0
10
mm for harder metals.
N b off metals
Number
t l and
d dissimilar
di i il metal
t l combinations
bi ti
and non metals can be joined such as aluminum to
ceramics
i or glass.
l
Equipment is simple and reliable.
Less surface preparation and less energy is needed.
Contd
pp
Applications
y Joiningthedissimilarmetalsinbimetallics
y Makingmicrocircuitelectricalcontacts.
Contd
ExplosionWelding
y Done at room temperature in air, water or vacuum.
y Surface contaminants tend to be blown off the surface.
y Weldingrefractoryorreactivemetals
W ldi f

i
l
y Typical impact pressures are millions of psi.

psi
y Bondingultrathinmetal.
g
y Well suited to metals that is prone to brittle joints
Important factors are,

y Critical velocity
y
y Critical angle
y The cladding plate can be supported with tack welded
supports at the edges, or the metal inserts.
when heat welded, such as,

y Aluminum on steel
y Titanium on steel
Page 60 of 240
Contd
Rev.0
Contd
y Typically the detonation velocity should not exceed
120% of the sonic velocity in the metal.
High velocity explosives, 45727620 m/s.

y TNT
y RDX
y PETN
y Composition
C
iti B
y Composition C4
y Datasheet
y Primacord
Medium velocity explosives, 15244572 m/s
y Ammonium nitrate
y Ammonium perchlorate
y Amatol
y Nitroguonidine
y Dynamites
y diluted PETN
Contd
Disadvantages,
y The metals must have high enough impact resistance,
and ductilityy ((at least 55%))
y The cladding plate cannot be too large.
y Noise and blast can require worker protection,
protection vacuum
chambers, buried in sand/water.
g ,
Advantages,
y Can bond many dissimilar, normally unweldable
metals
y The lack of heating preserves metal treatment
y The
Th process is
i compact, portable,
bl and
d easy to contain
i
y Inexpensive
y No need for surface preparation
Contd
Contd
yp
pp
Typicalapplications:
y Verylargeplatescanbecladded.
y Joinsdissimilarmetals.
(titaniumtosteel,Altosteel,AltoCuetc.)
y Jointubetotubesheetsoflargeheatexchangers.
Contd
Contd
IES2011S1Contd
GATE1992
Inanexplosiveweldingprocess,the..
(maximum/minimum)velocityofimpactisfixed
bythevelocityofsoundinthe
(flyer/target)platematerial
(a) Maximum;target
(b) M
Minimum;target
u ; ta get
(c) Maximum;flyer
(d) Minimum;flyer
Mi i
fl
usingthecodegivenbelowthelists:
ListI
A.Laserbeam
welding
B.Electron
beamwelding
ListII
1.Canbeappliedforweldingorrefractorymetals
likeniobium,tantalum,molybdenumandtungsten.
2.Asoundandcleanweldedjointiscreateddueto
rubbingoftwopartsagainsteachotherwith
adequatespeedandpressureproducingintenseheat
raisingtemperatureabovemeltingpoint.
raisingtemperatureabovemeltingpoint
C.Ultrasonic 3.Cleanheatsourcecreatedmuchawayfromjob,a
welding
narrowspotisheated workchamberoperatesina
narrowspotisheated,workchamberoperatesina
highvacuum.
D.Friction
D
Friction
welding
4.Cleanheatsourceveryquickheating,verysmall
4
Cleanheatsourceveryquickheating,verysmall
focalspot,novacuumchamberisrequired.
Page 61 of 240
IES2011FromS1
Codes:
A
(a) 4
((c)) 4
B
3
1
C
1
3
D
2
4
(b)
( )
(d)
A
2
2
B
3
1
Rev.0
C
1
3
D
4
4
IES2009
IAS2002
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegiven
belowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
(WeldingProcess)
(Application)
A. Laserwelding
1.
Unitinglargeareasheets
B. Frictionwelding
2.
Repairinglargeparts
C Ultrasonicwelding
C.
3
3.
Weldingarodtoaflatsurface
D. Explosivewelding
4.
Fabricationofnuclearreactor
components
55.
Weldingverythinmaterials
g
y
Code:
(a)
A
B
C
D
(b)
A
B
C
D
5
4
3
2
1
4
2
5
(c)
A
1
B
3
C
4
D
2
(d)
A
5
B
3
C
4
D
1
MatchListI,(Welding)withListII(Application)andselectthecorrect
(
)
(
)
answerusingthecodesgivenbelowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
(
(Welding)
)
(
(Application)
)
A.
Explosive
1.
Joiningthicksheets
g
B.
Ultrasonic
2.
Manufactureofheatexchanges
C.
Thermit
3.
Joiningthinsheetsorwiresof
similar/dissimilar metals
D.
Projection
4.
Joininghydraulicpistonrodsfor
agricultural
l
l machinery
h
5.
Joiningrails,pipesandthicksteel
sections
Codes:A
d
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
5
1
3
(b)
4
5
1
3
(c) 2
3
5
1
(d)
4
3
5
1
Autogeneous Welding
MicroPlasmaArcWeld(PAW)
y Autogeneous welding or fusion of the parent
y Similar to GTAW except the plasma caused by the arc
material in an inert g
gas shield without the use
of filler metals.
i constricted
is
t i t d by
b a watercooled
t
l d orifice
ifi
y Capable of high welding speeds where size permits
y Argon
g is used as the shielding
gg
gas.
IFS 2009
Two plates of aluminium and stainless steel are to
be welded back to back to create a single plate of
thickness equal to the sum of the thicknesses of
the two plates.
plates Suggest the suitable process and
explain it in brief.
[10 marks]
DiffusionWelding
g p
y It is a solid state welding
process which p
produces
coalescence of the faying surfaces by the application of
pressure and elevated temperatures (about 50 to 80%
of absolute melting point of the parent materials) for a
time ranging from a couple of minutes to a few hours.
y Produces high quality bonds with good strength with
little or no distortion.
y Can join very dissimilar materials.
y A solid filler metal may or may not be inserted.
y Materials welded for aircraft and rocket industry:
Boron, Titanium, Aluminium, Ceramic, Composite,
Graphite, Magnesium etc.
JWM2010
GATE 2008(PI)
Which
solid
h h pair among the
h following
f ll
l d state welding
ld
processes uses heat from an external source?
P Diffusion welding;
Q Friction welding
R Ultrasonic welding
S Forge welding
(a) P and R
(b) R and S
(c) Q and S
(d) P and S
IAS2001
MatchListI(Weldingprocesses)withListII(Features)and
(
)
(
)
selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowtheLists:
ListI
A. Ultrasonicwelding
1.
B.
Electronbeamwelding2.
C
C.
Plasmaarcwelding
3
3.
4.
Codes:A
C
d A
(a) 1
(c) 2
B
2
1
C
4
4
(b)
(d)
ListII
Gasheatedtoionizedcondition
forconductionofelectriccurrent
Highfrequencyandhigh
intensityvibrations
Concentratedstreamofhigh
Concentratedstreamofhigh
energyelectrons
Exothermalchemicalreaction
A
B
C
4
3
1
2
3
1
Page 62 of 240
M hLi I i hLi II d l h
usingthecodegivenbelowthelists:
ListI
ListII
A.Atomic
1.Twopiecesarebroughttogetherand
h d
hydrogenwelding
ldi powersupplyisswitchedon
l i i h d
B.Plasmaarc
B
Plasma arc
welding
22.Nuggetisformedattheinterfaceof
Nuggetisformedattheinterfaceof
twoplates
C Spotwelding
C.Spotwelding
3 Gasisionized
3.Gasisionized
D.Flashwelding
4.Inertgasshieldedarcwelding
Code:A
(a) 4
(c) 4
B
3
2
C
2
3
D
1
1
(b)
(d)
A
B
1
3
Rev.0
1
2
C
2
3
D
4
4

IES2011Conventional
BrazingandSoldering
Discuss the process capabilities and applications of Gas
y Brazing
is
off metals
B i
i the
th joining
j i i
t l through
th
h the
th use off heat
h t
Metal Arc Welding, Gas tungsten Arc Welding, and
BrazingandSoldering
g
g
Diffusion Bonding processes.

[15Marks]
Brazingprocesshasseveraldistinct
Brazing
process has several distinct
advantages:
g
1. All metals can be joined.
2. Suited for dissimilar metals.
3. Quick and economical.
4. Less defects.
d f
5 Corrosion prone
5.
and a filler metal whose melting temperature is above

450C; but below the melting
45
g p
point of the metals being
g
joined.
Comparison with welding and the brazing process
1. The
Th composition
ii
off the
h brazing
b i
alloy
ll is
i significantly
i ifi
l
different from that of the base metal.
2 The strength of the brazing alloy is substantially lower
2.
than that of the base metal.
3. The melting point of the brazing alloy is lower than that
off the
h base
b
metal,
l so the
h base
b
metall is not melted.
l d
4. Capillary action or capillary attraction draws the
molten filler metal into the joint,
joint even against the flow of
gravity.
Brazingmetalsaretypicallyalloyssuchas,
y Brazingbrass(60%Cu,40%Zn)
g
y Manganesebronze
y Nickelsilver
y Coppersilicon
y Silveralloys(with/withoutphosphorous)
l
ll
( h
h
h
h
)
y Copperphosphorous
Contd
y Extremely clean surface needed.
y A popular composition is 75% borax and 25% boric
y Fluxes used are combinations of borax, boric acid,
acid.
chlorides fluorides,
chlorides,
fluorides tetraborates
tetra borates and other wetting
y Sodium
S di
cyanide
id is
i used
d in
i brazing
b i tungsten to copper.
agents.
g
y Base materials not melted.

melted
Contd
Contd
Page 63 of 240
Rev.0
S O 20 0
ISRO2010
IES2006
GATE2005
Thestrengthofabrazedjoint
(a) Decreaseswithincreaseingapbetweenthetwo
g p
joiningsurfaces
(b) Increaseswithincreaseingapbetweenthetwo
joiningsurfaces
(c) Decreasesuptocertaingapbetweenthetwo
joiningsurfacesbeyondwhichitincreases
(d) Increasesuptocertaingapbetweenthetwo
I
t t i b t
th t
joiningsurfacesbeyondwhichitdecreases
BrazeWelding
Whichoneofthefollowingisnotafusionwelding
process?
(a) Gaswelding
(b) Arcwelding
(c) Brazing
(d) Resistancewelding
i
ldi
Which is not correct statement about the function of

flux in brazing
(a) To avoid thermal distortion and cracking
(b) To dissolve surface oxide coatings which have formed
prior to brazing
(c) To prevent oxides from forming during the brazing
operation
i
on both
b h the
h base
b
metall and
d the
h brazing
b i
material
(d) To facilitate the wetting process by reducing the
viscosity of the melt
Soldering
y Done with an oxyacetylene torch.
y Capillary action is not required.
y By definition, soldering is a brazing type of operation
y Edge preparation needed.
where
h
th filler
the
fill metal
t l has
h
a melting
lti
t
temperature
t
y Can join cast iron.

iron
below 450C.
45
y Strength of the filler metal is low.
y Soldering is used for a neat leakproof joint or a low
resistance electrical joint.

y Not
N suitable
i bl for
f hightemp.
hi h
application.
li i
Contd
Effective soldering generally involves six important

steps:
(1) Design of an acceptable solder joint,
( ) Selection
(2)
l
off the
h correct solder
ld for
f the
h job,
b
(3) Selection of the proper type of flux,
(4) Cleaning the surfaces to be joined,
(5) Application of flux,
flux solder,
solder and sufficient heat to
allow the molten solder to fill the joint by capillary
action and solidify,
solidify and
(6) Removal of the flux residue, if necessary.
Fig.BrazeWelding
Contd
S ld M t l
SolderMetals
S ld
l
SolderFlux
y Ammonium
chloride
A
i
hl id or rosin
i for
f soldering
ld i tin
ti
y Most solders are alloys of lead and tin.

y Three commonly used alloys contain 60, 50, and 40%
y Hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride for soldering
galvanized iron
tin and all melt below 240

240C
C.
y Some fluxes are corrosive and should be removed after
use
Page 64 of 240
Contd
Rev.0
g
p
y Silver solders uses for highertemperature
service,,
Electrical and Electronic purpose.
GATE2014(PI)
BrazingandSolderingare
d ld
(a)plasticjoiningmethods
(b) o oge eous jo
(b)homogeneousjoiningmethods
g et ods
y
DifficultieswithGreyCastIron
Soldering and brazing are difficult of grey cast Iron due
to surface contamination with graphite having a very low
surface energy.
(c)autogenous joiningmethods
(d)heterogeneousjoiningmethods
IES1994
MatchList IwithList IIandselectthecorrect
answerusingthecodesgivenbelowtheLists:
List I(Filler)
List
List II(Joiningprocess)
List
A. Cu,Zn,Agalloy
1.
Brazewelding.
B Cu,Sn,alloy
B.
Cu Sn alloy
2
2.
Brazing
C. Pb,Sb,alloy
3.
Soldering
D.Iron oxideandaluminium p
powder4.
4
TIGweldingof
g
aluminium
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 2
(a)
1
3
(b) 1
2
4
(c) 2
1
3
4
(d) 2
3
4
IES2004
MatchListI(Weldingproblems)withListII(Causes)andselect
(
)
(
)
ListI
ListII
A. Crackingofweldmetal
1.
Excessivestresses
B. Crackingofbasemetal
2.
Highjointrigidity
C
C.
Porosity
3
3.
Failuretoremoveslag
frompreviousdeposit
D. Inclusions
4.
Oxidation
5.
E
ExcessiveH
i H2,O
O2,N
N2,in
i
theweldingatmosphere
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
1
5
3
(b)
3
4
2
1
(c) 2
4
5
3
(d)
3
1
4
2
W ldi d i
Weldingdesignanddefect
dd f
IAS1996
thecodesgivenbelowthelists
ListII
List
ListII
List
II
(Fillerrodmaterial) (Joiningprocess)
A. Mildsteel
1.
MIGwelding
B. Bronze
2.
Soldering
C. Brass
3.
Brazing
D Leadandtinalloy
D.
L d dti ll 4.
Th
Thermit
it welding
ldi
5.
Brazewelding
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
5
3
2
(b)
4
3
2
5
(c) 4
3
5
2
(d) 1
3
5
4
IES2003,ISRO2011
MatchListI(WeldingDefects)withListII(Causes)and
(
)
(
)
selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowthe
Lists:
ListI
ListII
(WeldingDefects)
(Causes)
A Spatter
A.
S
1.
D
Dampelectrodes
l
d
B. Distortion
2.
Arcblow
C Slaginclusion
C.
3
3.
Impropercleaningin
multipasswelding
D. Porosity
4.
Poorjointselection
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
2
3
1
(b) 4
2
1
3
(c) 2
4
1
3
(d) 2
4
3
1
Page 65 of 240
Welding
Problem
W ldi
P
bl
Cracking of weld metal
Cracking of base metal
Spatter
Distortion
Slag inclusion
Porosity
LamellarTearing
Causes
C
High joint rigidity
Excessive stresses
Arc blow
Poor joint selection
Improper cleaning in multipass welding
Excessive H2, O2, N2, in the
welding atmosphere or Damp
electrodes
inclusionssuchasMn FeandS
inthebasemetaland/or
h b
l d
residualstress
C k
Cracks
y Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in
the weld metal or base metal or base metal and weld

metal boundary.
y Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks,
g/
cracks and cracks in
transverse cracks or radiating/star
the weld crater.
y Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the ultimate
tensile strength of material.
y These stresses are developed due to shrinkage during
solidification of weld metal.
Rev.0
Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base

metal,
metal high sulphur and carbon contents,
contents high arc travel
speeds i.e. fast cooling rates, too concave or convex weld
bead and high hydrogen contents in the weld metal.
metal
HAZ Cracking
HAZCracking
g
y
y
y Crackinginheataffectedzonemaybecausedby:
(i)Hydrogeninweldingatmosphere
(ii)hotcracking
(iii)lowductility
(iv)highresidualstresses
(v)brittlephaseinthemicrostructure
Fig.VariousTypesofCracksinWelds
f
k
ld
Hydrogen Induced Cracking

HydrogenInducedCracking
y Duetothepresenceofmoisture,grease,rustetc.,
hydrogenmayentertheweldpoolandgetdissolvedin
h d
h ld
l d di l di
theweldmetal.
y DuringcoolinghydrogendiffusestotheHAZ.
y Crackingmaydevelopduetoresidualstressesassistedby
g
y
p
y
hydrogencoalesence.
y Thefactorsthatdeterminetheprobabilityofhydrogen
inducedembrittlementandcrackingofweldare:
(a)Hydrogencontent
(b)fracturetoughnessofweldandHAZ
(c)stresstowhichthejointisexposedasaresultof
theweldthermalcycle.
Residualstress
Porosity
y The residual stresses result from the restrained expansion
y Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the

solidifying weld metal.
y These gases are generated from the flux or coating
constituents of the electrode or shielding gases used
during welding or from absorbed moisture in the
coating.
y Porosity
P
it can also
l
b controlled
be
t ll d if excessively
i l high
hi h
welding currents, faster welding speeds and long arc
l
lengths
th are avoided
id d flux
fl
and
d coated
t d electrodes
l t d
are
properly baked.
and contraction that occur during localized heating and

cooling in the region of weld deposit.
y The magnitude of residual stresses depends on the weldment
design support and clamping of the components being
design,
welded, their materials, welding process used, part
dimensions,, welding
g sequence,
q
,p
post weld treatment,, size of
the deposited weld beads, etc.
y Residual stresses should not have a harmful effect on the
strength performance of weldments, reduces fatigue
strength,
g
Mayy cause distortion. This residual stress mayy
result in the cracking of a brittle material and is not
important as far as a ductile material.
Solid Inclusion
SolidInclusion
y Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other
Fig DifferentFormsofPorosities
Fig.DifferentFormsofPorosities
nonmetallic material entrapped in the weld metal as

these may not able to float on the surface of the
solidifying weld metal.
metal
y During arc welding flux either in the form of granules or
coating after melting,
melting reacts with the molten weld metal
removing oxides and other impurities in the form of slag
and it floats on the surface of weld metal due to its low
density.
y Slag
Sl
i l i
inclusion
can be
b prevented
d if proper groove is
i
selected, all the slag from the previously deposited bead
i removed,
is
d too high
hi h or too low
l
welding
ldi
currents and
d
long arcs are avoided.Page 66 of 240
Fig SlagInclusioninWeldments
Fig.SlagInclusioninWeldments
Rev.0
Lack of Fusion
LackofFusion
y Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the
base
metall and
beads
b
d weld
ld metall or subsequent
b
b d in
i
multipass welding because of failure to raise the
temperature off base
b
metall or previously
i
l deposited
d
i d weld
ld
layer to melting point during welding.
y Lack of fusion can be avoided by properly cleaning of
surfaces to be welded, selecting proper current, proper
welding technique and correct size of electrode.
I
l t P
t ti
IncompletePenetration
y Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not
upto the desired level or root faces have not reached to

melting point in a groove joint.
y If either low currents or larger arc lengths or large root
face or small root gap or too narrow groove angles are
used then it results into poor penetration.
ImperfectShape,Distortions
p
p
y Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and
size of the weld bead.

y During undercutting a notch is formed either on one side of the
weld bead or both sides in which stresses tend to concentrate and

it can result in the early failure of the joint. Main reasons for
undercutting are the excessive welding currents, long arc lengths
and fast travel speeds.
y Underfilling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and
small size of electrodes. Overlap may occur due to low currents,
longer arc lengths and slower welding speeds.
speeds
y Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents, low voltages,
slow travel speeds and large size electrodes are used. Excessive
root penetration and sag occur if excessive high currents and slow
travel speeds are used for relatively thinner members.
y Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large
heat input during welding.
IES 2011 C
ti
l
IES2011Conventional
y Enumeratefourdefectscausedduetoresidualstressesin
weldedjoints.
[2Marks]
Ans.
1 Distortion
1.
2. Crackinginthebasemetal
g
3.
LamellarTearing
4. Reductionoffatiguestrength
IES2004
The magnitude of residual stresses in welding
d
depends
d upon
1. Designofweldment
2. Supportandclampingofcomponents
S
d l
i f
3. weldingprocessused
4. Amountofmetalmelted/deposited
(a) 1,2and4
(b)1,2and3
(c) 1and3
(d)2and3
GATE2003
Matchthefollowing
M h h f ll i
Workmaterial
P Aluminium
P.Aluminium
Q.DieSteel
R.CopperWire
S.Titaniumsheet
(a)P 2
(a)P
(b)P 6
(c)P 4
(d)P 5
Q 5
Q
Q 3
Q 1
Q 4
R 1
R
R 4
R 6
R 2
Typeofjoining
1
1.
SubmergedArcWelding
2.
Soldering
3.
Thermit Welding
4.
AtomicHydrogenWelding
5.
GasTungstenArcWelding
6
6.
L
LaserBeamWelding
B
W ldi
7.
Brazing
S 3
S
S 4
S 2
S 6
Page 67 of 240
IES2004
Thesizeoftheheataffectedzone(HAZ)willincreasewith
1. Increasedstartingtemperature
2. Increasedweldingspeed
3. Increasedthermalconductivityofthebasemetal
4 Increaseinbasemetalthickness
4.
( ) 1,2and3
(a)
d
(b) 1and3
d
(c) 1and4
(d) 2and3
Rev.0
IES1992
Weld spatter occurs due to any of the following
except
(a) High welding current
(b) Too small an electrode
(c) Arc
(d) Wrong polarity
l i
IES2004
Assertion (A): A sound welded joint should not only
be strong enough but should also exhibits a good
amount of ductility
Reason (R): Welding process is used for fabricating
mild steel components only
explanation of A
p
of A
correct explanation
IES2011
Coldcrackinginsteelweldments
Cold crackinginsteelweldments dependson
1.Carbonequivalent
2.Heatinput
3
3.Effectivethickness
3.Hydrogencontentinweldpool
(a)1 2and3only
(a)1,2and3only
(b)1,2and4only
( )
(c)2,3and4only
3
(d)1,2,3and4
20 0
JWM2010
p
g defects.
Assertion ((A)) : Spatter
is one of the welding
Reason (R) : In submerged arc welding process,
there is no spatter of molten metal.
correct explanation
l
i off A
IES1998
An arc welded joint is shown in the above figure.
g
is known as
The part labelled 'B' in the figure
(a) Weld preparation
(b) Penetration
(c) Reinforcement
(d) Slag
Sl
IAS2003
GATE1996
Toolmaterialnotsuitedtoresistanceweldingis
Preheatingbeforeweldingisdoneto
(a) Makethesteelsofter
(b) Bumawayoil,grease,etc,fromtheplatesurface
(c) Preventcoldcracks
(d) Preventplatedistortion
(a) Aluminium oxide

(c) Highspeedsteel
(b)
(d)
Stellite
Masonite
GATE2001
Two plates of the same metal having equal
thickness are to be butt welded with electric arc.
When the plate thickness changes, welding is
achieved by
(a) Adjusting the current
(b) Adjusting
djust g tthee du
duration
at o o
of cu
current
e t
(c) Changing the electrode size
(d) Changing
Ch
i the
th electrode
l t d coating
ti
Page 68 of 240
IES 2012
IES
Brittle welds are mainly obtained due to
(a) Wrong electrode, faulty preheating and metal
hardened by air
(b) Faulty welds, faulty sequence and rigid joints
(c) Wrong speed, current improperly adjusted and faulty
preparation
(d) Uneven heat, improper sequence and deposited
metal shrinks
Rev.0
IES 2012
IES
Which of the following are associated with Heat
Affected Zone?
1 Coldcracking
1.Coldcracking
2.Notchtoughness
3.Hydrogenembrittlement
4
4.Stresscorrosioncracking
g
(a)1,2and3only
(b)1 3and4only
(b)1,3and4only
(c)2,3and4only
(d)1,2,3and4
GATE 2014
GATE2014
Within the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in a fusion
welding process, the work material undergoes
(a) microstructural changes but does not melt
(b) neither melting nor microstructural changes
(c) both melting and microstructural changes after
solidification
(d) melting and retains the original microstructure after
solidification
Page 69 of 240
IES 2012
IES
) Hydrogen
y
g induced cracking
g occurs in the
Statement ((I):
heat effected zone adjacent to fusion zone and
classified as solid state cracking
Statement (II):Hydrogen from burning of flux coating
penetrates martensitic micro cracks preventing healing
as well as enlarging them.
them
Statement (I)
((b)) Both Statement ((I)) and Statement ((II)) are individuallyy
Statement (I)
Rev.0
Lathe
h
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
L th
Lathe
L th
Lathe
g machine that rotates the work,, and

y A lathe is a large
cutting is done with a nonrotating cutting tool. The
shapes cut are generally round, or helical. The tool is
typically moved parallel to the axis of rotation during
cutting.
y headstock thisendofthelathecontainsthedriving
motorandgears.Powertorotatethepartisdelivered
f
fromhere.Thistypicallyhasleversthatletthespeeds
h
Thi t i ll h l
th tl tth
d
andfeedsbeset.
y ways thesearehardenedrailsthatthecarriagerides
th h d
d il th tth
i id
on.
y tailstock
t il t k thiscanbeusedtoholdtheotherendofthe
thi b dt h ldth th d fth
part.
NumberofSpindleSpeed
y Number of spindle speed is in a geometric progression.
progression
y If n number of spindle speed is required with N1 is the
minimum speed then
N1 , N1r, N1r 2 , N1r 3 ,.............N1r n1

N1 = N min and N1r n1 = N max
1
y Bed this is a bottom pan on the lathe that catches chips,

chips
cutting fluids, etc.
y carriage this part of the lathe carries the cutting tool and
moves based on the rotation of the lead screw or rod.
y Lead
L d screw A large
l
screw with
ith a few
f threads
th d per inch
i h used
d
for cutting threads. It has ACME threads with included angle

of 29o for easy engagement and disengagement of half nut.
nut
y Lead rod a rod with a shaft down the side used for driving
normal cutting feeds.
feeds
y The critical parameters on the lathe are speed of rotation
(speed in RPM) and how far the tool moves across the work
for each rotation (feed in IPR)
Generalclassificationsusedwhendescribinglathes
y Swing the largest diameter of work that can be rotated.
rotated
y Distance Between Centres the longest length of
workpiece
y Length of Bed Related to the Distance Between
C t
Centres
y Power The range of speeds and feeds, and the
horsepower available
IES 2001
IES
IES 1992
IES
Thespindlespeedrangeinageneralpurposelathe
isdividedintostepswhichapproximatelyfollow
(a) Arithmeticprogression
(b) Geometricprogression
(c) Harmonicprogression
((d)) Logarithmicprogression
g
p g
Feedgearboxforascrewcuttinglatheisdesigned
onthebasisof
(a) Geometricprogression
(b) Arithmeticprogression
(c) Harmonicprogression
((d)) None.
N n1
Therefore, Step Ratio ( r ) = max
N min
y The values of step ratios are 1.06, 1.12, 1.26, 1.41, 1.58 and 2
Page 70 of 240
Rev.0
Threading
T i
Turning
y Turning
Turning producesasmoothandstraightoutsideradius
onapart.
y Threading
Threading Thecuttingtoolismovedquicklycutting
threads.
IES 1998
IES
h di
Threading
y Inonerevolutionofthespindle,carriagemusttravel
thepitchofthescrewthreadtobecut.
N s Pz s = N L Lz L
P = Pitch of the screw thread to be cut
L = Pitch of the lead screw
z s = Number of start of the screw thread to be cut
z L = Number of start of the lead screw
icg = gear ratio
ti off spindle
i dl ( N s ) to
t carriage
i ( N L ) gear train
t i
A single start thread of pitch 2 mm is to be produced

on a lathe having a lead screw with a double start
thread of pitch 4 mm. The ratio of speeds between
the spindle and lead screw for this operation is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2: 1
(c) 1: 4 (d) 4: 1
Facing
y Facing The end of the part is turned to be square.
square
Tapering
y Tapering
Tapering thetoolismovessoastocutataper(cone
shape).
IES 1993,ISRO2009
1993 ISRO 2009
IES
It is required to cut screw threads of 2 mm pitch on
a lathe. The lead screw has a pitch of 6 mm. If the
spindle speed is 60 rpm, then the speed of the lead
screw will be
(a) 10 rpm
(b) 20 rpm
(c) 120 rpm
(d) 180 rpm
P ti /Sl tti /G
i
Parting/Slotting/Grooving
y A tool is moved in/out of the work.
work shallow cut will leave
a formed cut, a deep cut will cut off the unsupported

part.
Page 71 of 240
Rev.0
D illi /B i
Drilling/Boring
K li
Knurling
S i i
Spinning
y Drilling/Boring a cutter or drill bit is pushed into the
y Knurling is a manufacturing process whereby a
y Metal Spinning is a process by which circles of metal are
visuallyattractive diamondshaped (crisscross)

pattern is cut or rolled into metal.
y This pattern allows human hands or fingers to get a
better grip on the knurled object than would be
provided by the originallysmooth metal surface.
shaped over mandrels (also called forms) while mounted

on a spinning lathe by the application of levered force
with various tools.
end to create an internal feature.
ISRO2007
Spinning operation is carried out on
(a) Hydraulic press
(b) Mechanical press
Reaming
y A reamer enters the workpiece axially through the end
and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the

tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material
and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a
more accurate diameter and a smoother internal
finish.
Tapping
y A tap enters the workpiece axially through the end and
cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The

existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap
drill size that will accommodate the desired tap.
(c) Lathe
(d) Milling
Milli machine
hi
W k h ldi D i
f L th
WorkholdingDevicesforLathes
y Held between centers
y 3 jaw self centering chuck (Disc type jobs being held
in chucks )
y 4 jaw independently adjusted chuck
y Held in a collet (Slender rod like jobs being held in
collets )
y Mounted on a face plate (Odd shape jobs, being held
p
)
in face plate)
y Mounted on the carriage
y Mandrels
(IES,
GATE
y MagneticFor-2015
chuck for
thin
job & PSUs)
L th h k
Lathechucks
pp
y Lathe chucks are used to support
a wider varietyy of
workpiece shapes and to permit more operations to be
performed than can be accomplished when the work is
held between centers.
y Threejaw, selfcentering chucks are used for work that
has a round or hexagonal cross section.
y Each jaw in a fourjaw independent chuck can be moved
inward and outward independent of the others by means
of a chuck wrench. Thus they can be used to support a
wide
id variety
i t off work
k shapes.
h
y Combination fourjaw chucks are available in which each
j
jaw
can be
b moved
d independently
i d
d tl or can be
b moved
d
Page of
72 aofspiral
240 cam.
simultaneously by means
3JawChuck
4JawChuck
Rev.0
T i
Turning
F
l f T i
FormulaforTurning
y Depth of cut,
cut d = DOC =
Collets
D1 D2
mm
2
y Average diameter of workpiece
Magnetic Chuck
MagneticChuck
Davgg =
D1 + D2
mm
2
y Cutting Time,
Time CT = L + A + O
fN
y Metal Removal Rate
M RR =
y Cutting Speed, V =
Face Plate
FacePlate
Example
How much
time will
h machining
h
ll be
b required
d to reduce
d
the diameter of a cast iron rod from 120 mm to 116 mm
over a length of 100 mm by turning using a carbide
insert. Cutting velocity is 100 m/min and feed rate = 0.2
mm/rev.
GATE 2013 (PI) C

D
GATE2013(PI)CommonData
A disc of 200 mm outer and 80 mm inner diameter is
faced of 0.1 mm/rev with a depth of cut of 1 mm. The
facing operation is undertaken at a constant cutting
speed of 90 m/min in a CNC lathe. The main
(tangential) cutting force is 200 N.
Assuming approach and overtravel of the cutting
tool to be zero,
zero the machining time in min is
(a) 2.93
(b) 5.86
(c) 6.66
(d) 13.33
IES 2010
IES2010
In turning a solid round bar, if the travel
of the cutting tool in the direction of
f d motion
feed
i
i 1000 mm, rotational
is
i
l
speed
p
of the workpiece
p
is 5500 rpm,
p , and
rate of feed is 0.2 mm/revolution, then
th machining
the
hi i time
ti
will
ill be
b
(a) 10 seconds
(b) 100 seconds
(c) 5 minutes
(d) 10 minutes
IAS 2002
IAS
A 150 mm long, 12 mm diameter 304 stainless steel
rod is being reduced in diameter to 115 mm by
turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N = 400
rpm and the tool is travelling at an axial speed of
200 mm/min. The time taken for cutting is given by
(a) 30 s
(b) 36 s
( ) 1 minute
(c)
i t
(d) 45 s
Page 73 of 240
(D
2
1
D 22
4 / fN
)=
D a v g d fN
D1N
,m / min
1000
IES 2003
IES
The time taken to face a workpiece of 72 mm
diameter, if the spindle speed is 80 r.p.m. and cross
feed is 0.3 mm/rev, is
(a) 1.5 minutes (b) 3.0 minutes
( ) 5.4 minutes
(c)
i t (d) 8.5
8 minutes
i t
IES 2004
IES
A medium carbon steel workpiece is turned on a
lathe at 50 m/min. cutting speed 0.8 mm/rev feed
and 1.5 mm depth of cut. What is the rate of metal
removal?
(a) 1000 mm3/min
(b) 60,000 mm3/min
(c) 20,000 mm3/min
((d)) Can not be calculated with the g
given data
Rev.0
T i T
L th
TurningTapersonLathes
y Usingacompoundslide,
d ld
y Usingformtools,
y Offsettingthetailstock,and
Using a Compound Slide

UsingaCompoundSlide
y Limited movement of the compound slide
y Feeding is by hand and is nonuniform. This is
responsible for lowproductivity and poor surface

finish.
y Can be employed
p y
for turning
g short internal and
external tapers with a large angle of (steep) taper.
y Usingtaperturningattachment.
IES 2006
IES
For taper turning on centre lathes, the method of
swiveling the compound rest is preferred for:
(a) Long jobs with small taper angles
(b) Long jobs with steep taper angles
(c) Short jobs with small taper angles
((d)) Short jjobs with steep
p taper
p angles
g
Off tti th t il t k Contd..

Offsettingthetailstock
y Tailstock offset (h) can be determined by
h=
L(D d )
or h = L tan
2l
E
l
Example
Find the angle at which the compound rest should
be set up to turn taper on the workpiece having a
length of 200 mm, larger diameter 45 mm and the
smaller 30 mm.
IES 1992
IES
Tailstocksetovermethodoftaperturningis
preferredfor
(a) Internaltapers
(b) Smalltapers
(c) Longslendertapers
((d)) Steeptapers
p p
Page 74 of 240
UsingaCompoundSlidecontd..
y The angle is determined by
tan =
= Half taper angle
Dd
2l
D = Diameter of stock
d = smaller diameter
l = length of the taper
Off tti th t il t k
Offsettingthetailstock
y It is necessary to measure the tailstock offset when using
this method.
y This method is limited to small tapers (Not exceeding 8o
) over long lengths.
y By
B offsetting
ff tti the
th tailstock,
t il t k the
th axis
i off rotation
t ti off the
th job
j b
is inclined by the half angle of taper.
IAS 2002
IAS
The amount of offset of tail stock for turning taper
on full length of a job 300 mm long which is to have
its two diameters at 50 mm and 38 mm respectively
is
(a) 6 mm
(b) 12 mm
(c) 25 mm
(d) 44 mm
Rev.0
IES 1998
IES
A 400 mm long shaft has a 100 mm tapered step at
the middle with 4 included angle. The tailstock
offset required to produce this taper on a lathe
would be
(a) 400 sin 4
4 (b) 400 sin 22
(c) 100 sin 4 (d) 100 sin 2
F
t l
Formtool
Taper Turning Attachment

TaperTurningAttachment
y Special form tool for generating the tapers is used.

used The
y Additional equipment is attached at the rear of the lathe.

lathe
feed is given by plunging the tool directly into the work.

This method is useful for short external tapers, where
the steepness is of no consequence, such as for
chamfering.
E
i t l tti
Errorsintoolsettings
y Setting the tool below the centre decrease actual rake angle,
while clearance angle increases by the same amount. Thus

cutting force
f
increased.
d
y Setting the tool above the centre causes the rake angle to
increase, while clearance angle reduces. More rubbing with
flank.
T
t L th
TurretLathe
TurretLathe
y The cross slide is disconnected from the cross feed nut.

y The
Th cross slide
lid is
i then
th connected
t d to
t the
th attachment.
tt h
t
y As the carriage is engaged, and travels along the bed, the
attachment will cause the cutter to move in/out to cut

the taper.
y For turning tapers over a comprehensive range is the use
p turning
g attachment.
of taper
IES 2010
IES2010
The effect of centering error
when the tool is set above the
center line as shown in the figure
results
lt effectively
ff ti l in
i
1. Increase in rake angle.
2. Reduction
R d ti in
i rake
k angle.
l
3. Increase in clearance angle.
4. Reduction
R d i in
i clearance
l
angle.
l
Which of these statements is/are
correct?
t?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 4 only
( ) 2 and
(c)
d 4 only
l
(d) 1, 2, 3 and
d4
CapstanLathe
p
A turret lathe, a number of tools can be set up on the

machine and then quickly be brought successively into
working position so that a complete part can be
machined without the necessity for further adjusting,
changing tools, or making measurements.
Page 75 of 240
Rev.0
Capstan lathe
Turret lathe
slide since the saddle is Saddle moves along the bed,

bed
Short slide,
thus allowing the turret to be of
clamped on the bed in position.
g size.
large
Light duty machine, generally for Heavy duty machine, generally
components
p
whose diameter is for components
p
with large
g
less than 50 mm.
diameters, such as 200 mm.
Too much overhang of the turret Since the turret slides on the
when it is nearing cut.
bed, there is no such difference.
Ram type turret lathe,
Ramtype
lathe the ram and
the turret are moved up to the
cutting position by means of the
capstan Wheel. As the ram is
moved toward the headstock, the
t
turret
t is
i automatically
t
ti ll locked
l k d into
i t
position.
Saddle type lathes,

Saddletype
lathes the main
turret is mounted directly on the
saddle, and the entire saddle
and
turret
assembly
reciprocates.
A t
ti L th
AutomaticLathe
y The term automatic is somewhat loosely applied, but is
normally restricted to those machine tools capable of

producing identical pieces without the attention of an
operator, after each piece is completed. Thus, after
setting up and providing an initial supply of material,
further attention beyond replenishing the material
supply is not required until the dimensions of the work
pieces change owing to tool wear.
y A number of types of automatic lathes are developed
that can be used for large volume manufacture
application such as single spindle automatics,
application,
automatics Swiss type
automatics, and multispindle automatics.
l i S i dl
i
h
MultiSpindleAutomaticLathe
IES 2012
IES
Lathe machine with turret can turn a work piece of
limited length only because,
(a) Cross slide motion is obstructed by turret
(b) Turret cannot work on a long job
(c) Chuck cannot be replaced by a face plate
((d)) Turret replaces
p
the loose centre
i d i
h i
Turretindexingmechanism
y The
indexing)
h hexagonal
h
l turret is rotated
d (for
(f
d
) by
b a
Geneva mechanism where a Geneva disc having six

radial slots is driven by a revolving pin. Before starting
rotation, the locking pin is withdrawn by a cam lever
mechanism.
h
The
h single
l rotation off the
h disc
d holding
h ld
the
h
indexing pin is derived from the auxiliary shaft with the
help of another single revolution clutch as indicated.
y For automatic lathe: Ratchet and Pawl mechanism
Swiss type Automatic Lathe Or Sliding Headstock Automatics

SwisstypeAutomaticLatheOrSlidingHeadstockAutomatics
y Headstock travels enabling axial feed of the bar stock
against the cutting tools.

y There is no tailstock or turret
y High spindle speed (2000 10,000 rpm) for small job
diameter
y The cutting tools (upto five in number including two on
the rocker arm) are fed radially
y Used for lot or mass production of thin slender rod or
tubular
b l jobs,
j b like
lik components off small
ll clocks
l k and
d wrist
i
watches, by precision machining.
Norton type Tumbler gear quick change Gear box

NortontypeTumblergearquickchangeGearbox
N t t
T bl
i k h
G
b
NortontypeTumblergearquickchangeGearbox
p
y It comprises
a cone of g
gears 1 to 8 mounted on shaft S2.
y For increase in rate of production of jobs usually of
y The tumbler gear can slide on shaft S1. It can mesh with any
smaller size and simpler geometry.
gear on shaft S2 through an intermediate gear which is
y Having four to eight parallel spindles are preferably used.
located
ocated o
on a sswinging
g g aand
d ssliding
d g lever
e e so tthat
at itt ca
can eengage
gage
y Multiple spindle automats also may be parallel action or
gears 1 to 8 of different diameters, on shaft S2.
progressively working type.
y The lever can be fixed in any desired ratio position with the
help of a stop pin.

y The drive is usually from the driving shaft S1 to the driven
Page 76 of 240
shaft S2.
Rev.0
GATE 2002
GATE
A leadscrew
with
to
l d
ith half
h lf nuts
t in
i a lathe,
l th free
f
t rotate
t t
in both directions has
(a) Vthreads
(b) Whitworth threads
(c) Buttress threads
GATE 2008
2008
GATE
GATE 2008
GATE2008
Contd.
The figure shows an incomplete schematic of a

conventional lathe to be used for cutting threads
with different pitches. The speed gear box Uv, is
shown and the feed gear box Us, is to be placed. P, Q.
R and S denote locations and have no other
significance. Changes in Uv, should NOT affect the
pitch of the thread being cut and changes in Us,
should NOT affect the cutting speed.
(d) ACME threads

Contd..
IES 2004
IES
Match List I (Cutting tools) with List II (Features)
below the Lists:
List I
List II
A Turning
A.
T i tool
t l
1.
Chi l edge
Chisel
d
B. Reamer
2.
Flutes
C. Milling cutter
3.
Axial relief
4.
Side relief
Codes: A
B
C
A
B
C
( ) 1
(a)
2
3
(b) 4
3
2
(c) 4
2
3
(d) 1
3
2
IES 2009
IES
Whatisthenumberofjawsinself
centred chuck?
Whatisthenumberofjawsinselfcentred
(a) Eight
(b) Six
Si
(c) Four
(d) Three
G
99
GATE1994
To get good surface finish on a turned job,
job
one should use a sharp tool with a ..feed
and
d
speed
d off rotation
t ti off the
th job.
j b
((a)) Minimum, minimum
(b) Minimum, maximum
( ) Maximum,
(c)
M i
maximum
i
((d)) Maximum,, minimum
IES 1999
IES
Which one of the following sets of forces are
encountered by a lathe parting tool while groove
cutting?
(a) Tangential, radial and axial
(b) Tangential
T
ti l and
d radial
di l
(c) Tangential and axial
(d) Radial and axial
Page 77 of 240
ThecorrectconnectionsandthecorrectplacementofUsare
givenby
((a)) Q
QandEareconnected. Us,,isplacedbetweenPandQ.
p
Q
(b) SandEareconnected.Us isplacedbetweenRandS.
((c)) Q
QandEareconnected.Us,,isplacedbetweenQandE.
p
Q
(d) SandEareconnected.Us,isplacedbetweenSandE.
IES 1996
IES
Inturningofslenderrods,itisnecessarytokeep
thetransverseforceminimummainlyto
(a) Improvethesurfacefinish
(b) Increaseproductivity
(c) Improvecuttingefficiency
((d)) Reducevibrationsandchatter.
IES 2009
IES
Whichoneofthefollowingmethodsshouldbeused
forturninginternaltaperonly?
(a) Tailstockoffset
(b) Taperattachment
(c) Formtool
((d)) Compoundrest
p
Rev.0
IES 1992
IES
Whichofthefollowingstatementisincorrectwith
referenceoflathecuttingtools?
(a) Theflankofthetoolisthesurfacebelowand
adjacenttothecuttingedges
(b) Thenoseisthecorner,orchamferjoiningtheside
Th
i th
h f j i i th id
cuttingandtheendcuttingedges
(c) Theheelisthatpartofthewhichisshapedto
producethecuttingedgesandface
(d) Thebaseisthatsurfaceoftheshankwhichagainst
pp
g
thesupportandtakestangent
IES 2006
IES
It is required to cut screw threads with double start
and 2 mm pitch on a lathe having lead screw pitch
of 6 mm. What is the speed ratio between lathe
spindle and lead screw?
(a) 1 : 3 (b) 3: 1
(c) 2 : 3 (d) 3: 2
IES 2009
IES
A capstan lathe is used to mass
produce, in batches
massproduce,
of 200, a particular component. The direct material
cost is Rs 4 per piece, the direct labour cost is Rs 3
per piece and the overhead costs are 400% of the
labour costs. What is the production cost per piece?
(a) Rs 19 (b) Rs 23
( ) Rs
(c)
R 16
6 (d) Rs
R 15
IES 1995
IES
C
g characteristics:
1. Multiple operations can be performed
2 Operator
2.
Operator'ss fatigue is greatly reduced.
reduced
3. Ideally suited for batch production
4 A breakdown
4.
break down in one machine does not affect the
flow of products.
5 Can accommodate modifications in design of
5.
components, within certain limits.
The characteristics which can be attributed to special
purpose machines would include
(a) 1,
1 3 and 4 (b) 1,
1 2 and 4
GATE
(c) 2, 3 and For-2015
5 (d) (IES,
1, 2 and
5 & PSUs)
IES 1996
IES
Assertion (A): Special purpose machine tools and
automatic machine tools are quite useful for job
shops
Reason (R): Special purpose machine tools can do
special types of machining work automatically
l
ti off A
(d) A is false but R isPage
true78 of 240
IES 1997
IES
Consider the following operations:
1. Under cutting
2.
Plain turning
3. Taper
T
t
turning
i
4.
Th d cutting
Thread
tti
The correct sequence of these operations in machining a
product is
((a)) 2, 33, 4
4, 1
((b)) 33, 2, 4
4, 1
(c) 2, 3, 1, 4
(d) 3, 2, 1, 4
IES 2007
IES
Assertion (A): In a multi
spindle automatic lathe, the
multispindle
turret tool holder is indexed to engage the cutting tools
one by
y one for successive machining
g operations.
p
Reason (R): Turret is a multiple tool holder so that for
successive machining
g operation,
p
, the tools need not be
changed.
explanation of A
IES 2003
IES
Which one of the following mechanisms is
employed for indexing of turret in an automatic
lathe?
(a) Whitworth
(b) Rack and pinion
( ) Ratchet
(c)
R t h t and
d pawll
(d) Geneva
G
wheel
h l
Rev.0
IES 2009
IES
For the manufacture of screw fasteners on a mass
scale, which is the most suitable machine tool?
(a) Capstan lathe
(b) Singlespindle automatic lathe
(c) CNC turning centre (lathe)
((d)) CNC machining
g centre
IES 1992
IES
Maximum production of small and slender parts is
done by
(a) Watch maker
maker'ss lathe
(b) Sliding head stock automatic lathe
(c) Multispindle automatic lathe
((d)) Capstan
p
lathe
IAS 1996
IAS
Apart from hexagonal turret, the elements (s) in a
turret lathe include (s)
(a) Crossslide
Cross slide tool post
(b) Crossslide tool post and rear tool post
(c) Crossslide tool post and tail stock
((d)) Teal tool p
post and tail stock
IES 2001
IES
The indexing of the turret in a single
spindle
singlespindle
automatic lathe is done using
(a) Geneva mechanism
(b) Ratchet and Pawl mechanism
(c) Rack and pinion mechanism
((d)) Whitworth mechanism
IAS 2007
IAS
Which one of the following is the characteristic for
capstan lathe?
(a) Rate of production is low
(b) Labour cost is high
(c) Used for handling jobs of varying shapes and sizes
((d)) Capstan
p
head is mounted on a slide
IAS 2004
IAS
Swiss type screw machines have
(a) Turrets
(b) Radial slides
( ) Spindle
(c)
S i dl carriers
i
(d) Tool
T l posts
t
Page 79 of 240
IES 1995
IES
) In a Swiss type
yp automatic lathe,, the
Assertion ((A):
turret is given longitudinal feed for each tool in a
specific order with suitable indexing.
Reason (R): A turret is a multiple tool holder to
facilitate machining with each tool by indexing
without the need to change the tools.
IAS 2002
IAS
Consider the following statements related to Turret
lathe:
1 Turret is mounted directly on the saddle.
1.
saddle
2. Turret is mounted on an auxiliary slide.
3. Much heavier and larger jobs than Capstan lathe can
be produced.
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 only
(d) 2 only
IAS 2001
IAS
Consider the following operations and time
required on a multi spindle automatic machine to
produce a particular job
1. Turning
1.2 minutes
2. Drilling
D illi
1.6
6 minutes
i t
3. Forming
0.2 minute
4. Parting
0.6 minute
The time required to make one piece (cycle time) will be
(a) 0.6 minutes
(b) 1.6 minutes
( ) 3.6
(c)
6 minutes
i t
(d) 0.9 minute
i t
Rev.0
IAS 1995
IAS
) In a multispindle
p
Assertion ((A):
automat,, the turret
is indexed to engage each of the cutting tool
mounted on it.
Reason(R): Turret is a multiple tool holder so that
the machining can be continued with each tool
without the need to change the tool.
IAS 1994
IAS
A multi
spindle automat performs four operations
multispindle
with times 50, 60, 65 and 75 seconds at each of its
work centers. The cycle time (time required to
manufacture one work piece) in seconds will be
(a) 50 + 60 + 65 + 75
(b) (50 + 60 + 65 + 75) /4
(c) 75/4
((d)) 75
IAS 1998
IAS
Consider the following features:

1. All spindles operate simultaneously,
2. One
O
piece
i
i completed
is
l t d each
h time
ti
th tools
the
t l are
withdrawn and the spindles are indexed
3. The tool slide indexes or revolves with the spindle
carrier
Which of these features are characteristics of a multi
p
automatic machine used for bar work?
spindle
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
Assertion (A): For thread cutting, the spindle speed

selected on a lathe, is very low.
Reason (R): The required feed rate is low in
threading operation.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
IES2011
Consider the following statements associated with

the lathe accessories:
1 Steady rest is used for supporting a long job in
1.
between head stock and tail stock.
2. Mandrel
M d l is
i used
d for
f turning
t
i small
ll cylindrical
li d i l job.
j b
3. Collects are used for turning discshaped job.
Of these statements:
(a) 1 and 2 are correct
(b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 3 alone is correct
(d) 1 alone is correct
IAS 2000
IAS
IAS 1998
IAS
In Norton type feed gearbox for cutting Whitworth

standard threads with a standard TPI Leadscrew, power
flows from:
(a) Spindle to Tumbler gear to Norton cone to Meander
drive to Leadscrew
(b) Spindle to Norton cone to Tumbler geat to Meander
drive to Leadscrew
(c) Spindle t o Tumbler gear to Meander drive to Norton
cone to Leadscrew
(d) Spindle to Norton cone to Meander drive to Tumbler
gear to Leadscrew
g
Drilling
D illi
Drilling
y Drilling is a operation that cuts cylindrical holes.
holes
BySKMondal
Page 80 of 240
Rev.0
TYPES OF DRILL PRESSES

TYPESOFDRILLPRESSES
D illi O
ti
DrillingOperations
Chip formation
of a drill
y Verticalorpillartype
V ti l ill t
y RadialArmtype
y Gangdrill
g
y MultiSpindledrill
y NumericalControldrill
Drill
y The twist drill does most of the cutting with the tip of
D ill
Drill
the bit.
There are flutes
to carry the chips
up
from
the
cutting edges to
the top of the
hole where they
are cast off.
IES 2004
IES
The helical flute in a twist drill provides the necessary
1. Clearance
Cl
angle
l for
f the
th cutting
tti edge
d
2. Rake angle for the cutting edge
3. Space for the chip to come out during drilling
4. Guidance for the drill to enter into the workpiece
( ) 1 and
(a)
d2
(b) 2 and
d3
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 4
IES 2003
IES
D ill
Drill
D ill
Drill
The purpose of helical grooves in a twist drill is to

1. Improve the stiffness
2. Save
S
a tool
t l material
t i l
3. Provide space for chip removal
4. Provide rake angle for the cutting edge
Codes:
( ) 1 and
(a)
d2
(b) 2 and
d3
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 4
y Axial rake angle is the angle between the face and the line
y Drill sizes
si es are typically
t picall measured across the drill points with
ith
parallel to the drill axis. At the periphery of the drill, it is

equivalent to the helix angle.
y The lip clearance angle is the angle formed by the portion of
the flank adjacent to the land and a plane at right angles to

the drill axis measured at the periphery of the drill.
y Lead
L d off the
th helix
h li is
i the
th distance
di t
measured
d parallel
ll l to
t the
th drill
d ill
axis, between corresponding point on the leading edge of the

land in one complete revolution.
Page 81 of 240
a micrometer
y Most widely used material is High Speed Steel
y The drill blanks are made by forging and then are twisted to
provide the torsional rigidity.

rigidity Then the flutes are machined
and hardened before the final grinding of the geometry.
y Deep hole drilling requires special precautions to take care of
the removal of large volume of chips.
Rev.0
GATE 1996
GATE
The rake angle in a drill
(a) Increases from centre to periphery
(b) decreases
d
f
from
centre
t to
t periphery
i h
(c) Remains constant
(d) Is irrelevant to the drilling operation
H li A l ()
HelixAngle()
y Helix angle is the angle between the leading edge of the
land and the axis of the drill. Sometimes it is also called

as spiral angle.
y The helix results in a positive cutting rake
y This angle is equivalent to back rake angle of a single
point cutting tool.
y Usual 20
20 to 35
35 most common
y Large helix : 45 to 60 suitable for deep holes and softer
work
k materials
i l
y Small helix : for harder / stronger materials
y Zero helix : spade drills for high production drilling
microdrilling and hard work materials
IES 1992
IES
Low helix angle drills are preferred for drilling
holes in
(a) Plastics
(b) Copper
(c) Cast steel
(d) Carbon steel
IES 1997
IES
P i t A l (2)
PointAngle(2)
The rake angle in a twist drill

(a) Varies from minimum near the dead centre to a
maximum value at the periphery
(b) Is maximum at the dead centre and zero at the
periphery
i h
(c) Is constant at every point of the cutting edge
(d) Is a function of the size of the chisel edge.
y The point angle is selected to suit the hardness and brittleness of
the material being drilled.

drilled
y Harder materials have higher point angles, soft materials have
lower point angles.

y An increase in the drill point angle leads to an increase in the
y
y
y
y
y
y
thrust force and a decrease in the torque due to increase of the

orthogonal
h
l rake
k angle.
l
This angle (half) refers to side cutting edge angle of a single point
tool.
tool
Standard Point Angle is 118
It is 116 to 118 for medium hard steel and cast iron
It is 125 for hardened steel
It is 130
3 to 140
4 for brass and bronze
It is only 60 for wood and plastics
IES 1992
IES
A drill for drilling deep
have
(a) High helix angle
(c) Small point angle
GATE 1997
GATE
holes in aluminum should

(b)
(d)
Taper shank
No lip
Helix angle of fast helix drill is normally

(a) 35o
(b) 60
6 o
(c) 90o
(d) 5o
Cutting Speed in Drilling

CuttingSpeedinDrilling
IFS2011
y Thecuttingspeedindrillingisthesurfacespeedofthe
Discuss deephole drilling keeping in mind speed and

feed, mentioning the technique of applying coolant.
twistdrill.
V=
DN
1000
m / min
i
[5marks]
Page 82 of 240
Rev.0
D illi Ti
DrillingTime
y Time for drilling the hole
T=
L
, min
i
fN
MRR i D illi
MRRinDrilling
D2
3
MRR =
fN , mm / min
4
E
l
Example
A hole
h l with
ith 40mm diameter
di
t and
d 50mm depth
d th is
i to
t
be drilled in mild steel component.
p
The cutting
g
speed can be taken as 65 m/min and the feed rate as
0.25 mm/rev. Calculate the machining time and the
material
t i l removall rate.
t
Some Formulae for Drilling

SomeFormulaeforDrilling
D
Cone height (h) =
2 tan
U t chip
Uncut
hi thickness
thi k
(t ) =
Width of cut (b) =
f
sin
i
2
D
2sin
GATE 2002
GATE
The time taken to drill a hole through a 25 mm thick
plate with the drill rotating at 300 r.p.m. and
moving at a feed rate of 0.25 mm/revolution is
(a) 10 sec
(b) 20 sec
( ) 60
(c)
6 sec
(d) 100 sec
t
( 2r / D ) tan
Orthogonal rake angle ( ) = tan 1
sin
GATE 2012
GATE
In
a through
I a single
i l pass drilling
d illi operation,
ti
th
h hole
h l off
155 mm diameter is to be drilled in a steel p
plate of 550
mm thickness. Drill spindle speed is 500 rpm, feed
is 0.2 mm/rev and drill point angle is 118. Assuming
2 mm clearance
l
att approach
h and
d exit,
it the
th total
t t l drill
d ill
time ((in seconds)) is
(a) 35.1
(c) 31.2
IES 2002
IES
The arm of a radial drilling machine is being raised
at a speed of 3.9 m/min by single start square
threads of 6 mm pitch and 30 mm diameter. The
speed of the screw
(a) Is 650 rpm
(b) Is 180 rpm
(c) Is 130 rpm
((d)) Cannot be determined as the data is insufficient
GATE 2004
GATE
Through holes of 10 mm diameter are to be drilled
in a steel plate of 20 mm thickness. Drill spindle
speed is 300 rpm, feed 0.2 mm/ rev and drill point
angle is 120. Assuming drill over travel of 2 mm, the
time for producing a hole will be
(a) 4 seconds
(b) 25 seconds
( ) 100 seconds
(c)
d
(d) 110 seconds
d
IES 1994
IES
The ratio between two consecutive spindle speeds
for a sixspeed drilling machine using drills of
diameter 6.25 to 25 mm size and at a cutting velocity
of 18 m/min is
(a) 1.02
1 02 (b) 1.32
1 32
(c) 1.62 (d) 1.82
(b) 32.4
For-2015 (IES,
GATE & PSUs)
(d) 30.1
Page 83 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2009
IES
What is the drilling time for producing a hole in an
MS sheet of 25 mm thickness using an HSS drill of
20 mm diameter? The cutting speed and feed for
drill are 20 m/min and 0.25 mm/revolution
respectively, Neglect time taken for setting up,
approaching and travelling of tools.
(a) 0.314
0 314 min (b) 0.236
0 236 min
(c) 0.438 min (d) 0.443 min
IES 2002
IES
A 31.8 mm H.S.S. drill is used to drill a hole in a cast
iron block 100 mm thick at a cutting speed 20
m/min and feed 0.3 mm/rev. If the over travel of
drill is 4 mm and approach 9 mm, the time required
to drill the hole is
(a) 1 min 40 s (b) 1 min 44 s
( ) 1 min
(c)
i 49 s (d) 1 min
i 53 s
GATE 2014
GATE
A hole
h l off 20 mm diameter
di
t is
i to
t be
b drilled
d ill d in
i a steel
t l block
bl k
of 4
40 mm thickness. The drilling
g is p
performed at
rotational speed of 400 rpm and feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev.
The required approach and over run of the drill together
i equall to
is
t the
th radius
di
off drill.
d ill The
Th drilling
d illi
ti
time
(i
(in
minute)) is
(a) 1.00
IAS 1999
IAS
GATE2014(PI)
An HSS drill of 20 mm diameter with 5 mm cone
height is used to drill a through hole in a steel work
work
piece of 50 mm thickness. Cutting speed of 10
m/min and feed rate of 0.3 mm/rev are used. The
To drill a 10 mm diameter hole through a 20 mm

thick M.S. plate with a drill bit running at 300 rpm
and a feed of 0.25 mm per revolution, time taken
will be
(a) 8 s (b) 16 s
(c) 24 s (d) 32 s
drilling time, in seconds, neglecting the approach
(b) 1.25
(c) 1.50
(d) 1.75
2007 (PI) Li k d S 1
GATE
Blind holes 10 mm diameter, 50 mm deep are
being drilled in steel block. Drilling spindle
speed is 600 rpm,
rpm feed 0.2
0 2 mm/rev,
mm/rev point angle of
drill is 120o.
Machining time (in minutes) per hole will be
(a) 0.08
0 08
(b) 0.31
0 31 (c) 0.44
0 44 (d) 0.86
0 86
and over travel,

travel is _______
2007 (PI) Li k d S 2
GATE
Blind holes 10 mm diameter, 50 mm deep are
being drilled in steel block. Drilling spindle
speed is 600 rpm,
rpm feed 0.2
0 2 mm/rev,
mm/rev point angle of
drill is 120o.
During the above operation, the drill wears out
after p
producing
g 200 holes. Taylors
y
tool life
equation is of the form VT0.3 = C, where V =
cutting speed in m/minute and T = tool life in
minutes. Taylors constant C will be
( ) 15
(a)
( ) 72
(b)
( ) 93
(c)
( ) 490
(d)
IAS 1994
IAS
The time (in minutes) for drilling a hole is given by
t=
Depth of the hole + h

Feed RPM
where 'h' is the

(a) Length of the drill
(b) Drill diameter
(c) Flute length of the drill
(d) Cone
C
h i ht off the
height
th drill.
d ill
Page 84 of 240
IES 1999
IES
pp
Match ListI (Drill bits) with ListII (Applications)
and select the correct
ListI
ListII
A Core
A.
C
d ill
drill
1.
T enlarge
To
l
a hole
h l to
t a certain
t i depth
d th so as to
t
accommodate the bolt head of a screw
g an alreadyy existing
g hole in a
B.
Reamer 2.
To drill and enlarge
casting
C.
Counter bore drill 3.
To drill a hole before making internal
thread
h d
D.
Tap drill
4.
To improve the surface finish and dimensional
accuracy of the already drilled hole
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
3
2
4
(b)
2
3
1
4
(c) 2
4
1
3
(d)
3
2
4
1
Rev.0
R
i
Reaming
Reamer
g removes a small amount of material from the

y Reaming
surface of holes.
y It is done for two purposes: to bring holes to a more exact
Reaming,Boring,Broaching
size and to improve the finish of an existing hole.

y Multiage cutting tools that has many flutes, which may be
straight
i h or in
i a helix
h li are used.
d
y No special machines are built for reaming. The same
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
machine that was employed for drilling the hole can be used
for reaming by changing the cutting tool.
y Only a minimum amount of materials should be left for
removal by reaming. As little as 0.1 mm is desirable, and in
no case should the amount exceed 0.4 mm.
y A properly reamed hole will be within 0.025 mm of the
correct size and have a fine finish.
Reamer Flutes
ReamerFlutes
y The reamer flutes are either straight or helical.
y The helical flutes promote smoother cutting and should be
y
y
used specifically for holes that are not continuous, such as

y y p
parallel to the axis of the hole.
those with keyways
The cutting action of the helical flutes is smoother and helps
in preventing chatter.
The reamers are termed as left hand or right hand,
depending upon the direction in which they are moved,
l ki from
looking
f
th shank
the
h k to
t the
th cutting
tti portion.
ti
The righthand reamer with righthand helix is used for
roughing cuts,
cuts since the tool tends to go into the workpiece
more efficiently and thereby promotes the material removal.
A right
righthand
hand reamer with left
lefthand
hand flutes is used for
finishing cuts.
R
i
Reaming
R
i
Reaming
y To meet quality requirements, including both finish and
y Reamers,, like drills,, should not be allowed to become dull.
accuracy (tolerances on
diameter,
roundness,
straightness, and absence of bell
bellmouth
mouth at ends of
holes). Reamers must have adequate support for the
cutting edges, and reamer deflection must be minimal.
y Reaming speed is usually twothirds the speed for
drilling the same materials.
materials However,
However for close tolerances
and fine finish, speeds should be slower.
y Feeds
F d are usually
ll much
h higher
hi h than
th
th
those
f drilling
for
d illi
and depend upon material.
y Recommended cutting fluids are the same as those for
drilling.
The chamfer must be reground long before it exhibits

excessive wear. Sharpening is usually restricted to the
starting
t ti taper
t
or chamfer.
h f Each
E h flute
fl t mustt be
b ground
d exactly
tl
evenly or the tool will cut oversize.
y Reamers tend to chatter when not held securely,
securely when the
work or work holder is loose, or when the reamer is not
properly
p
p yg
ground.
y Irregularly spaced teeth may help reduce chatter. Other cures
for chatter in reaming are to reduce the speed, vary the feed
rate, chamfer the hole opening, use a piloted reamer, reduce
the relief angle on the chamfer, or change the cutting fluid.
y Any
A misalignment
i li
b
between
the
h work
k piece
i
and
d the
h reamer
85 ofreaming.
240
will cause chatter and Page
improper
T
fR
TypesofReamers
Theprincipaltypesofreamersare:
1. Handreamers
a.
St i ht
Straight
b.
Taper
2. Machineorchuckingreamers
a.
Rose
b.
Fluted
3. Shellreamers
Sh ll
4. Expansionreamers
5. Adjustablereamers
RoseReamer
Rose chucking reamers
are ground
d cylindrical
li d i l
and have no relief
b hi d the
behind
th outer
t edges
d
of the teeth. All cutting
is done on the beveled
be eled
ends of the teeth
Rev.0
g
ChuckingReamer
Fluted
chucking
reamers have
h
relief
li f
behind the edges of the
t th as well
teeth
ll as beveled
b l d
ends. They can cut on
all portions of the teeth.
teeth
Their
flutes
are
relatively short and they
are intended for light
finishing cuts.
cuts
Trepanning
y Trepanning is a annular groove producing operation
which leaves a solid cylindrical core in the centre. In

trepanning a cutter consisting of one or more cutting
edges placed along the circumference of a circle is used
to produce the annular groove.
ShellReamer
Shell reamers often are
used
d for
f sizes
i
over 20
mm to save cuttingtool
material.
t i l
Th
The
shell,
h ll
made of HSS for smaller
si es and with
sizes
ith carbide
edges for larger sizes or
for
mass production
massproduction
work.
IES 1999
IES
Which one of the following processes results in the
best accuracy of the hole made?
(a) Drilling
(b) Reaming
(c) Broaching (d) Boring
IFS2011
What is the main difference between rose reamer
and chucking reamer ? Write in short about shell
reamer.
[
[5marks]
k ]
IES 1999
IES
Consider the following statements regarding
reaming process:
1 Reaming generally produces a hole larger than its
1.
own diameter
2. Generally
G
ll rake
k angles
l are nott provided
id d on reamers.
3. Even numbers of teeth are preferred in reamer
design.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1,
1 2 and 3
TrepanningTool
IES 1998
1998
IES
Match List
II and select the correct answer
ListII with List
ListII
using the codes given below the lists:
ListII
List
ListII
List
II
A. Reaming
1. Smoothing and squaring surface
around the hole for proper seating
B. Counterboring 2.Sizing and finishing the hole
C Countersinking
C.
Counter sinking 3.
3 Enlarging the end of the hole
D. Spot facing
4. Making a conical enlargement at the
end of the hole
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 3
(a)
2
4
1
( ) 2
(b)
3
1
4
(c) 3
2
1
4
(d) 2
3
4
1
IES 1994
IES
In reaming process
(a) Metal removal rate is high
(b) High
Hi h surface
f
fi i h is
finish
i obtained.
bt i d
(c) High form accuracy is obtained
(d) High dimensional accuracy is obtained.
Page 86 of 240
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
Reaming is primarily used for achieving
(a) Higher MRR
(b) Improved
I
d dimensional
di
i
l tolerance
t l
(c) Fine surface finish
(d) Improved positional tolerance
Rev.0
GATE 2014(PI)
2014 (PI)
GATE
Reamingisaprocessusedfor
R
i i
df
(a)creatingacircularholeinmetals
(b)cuttingaslotontheexistingholesurface
g
g
(c)finishinganexistingholesurface
(d)makingnoncircularholesinmetals
IES 1993
IES
A hole of 30 mm diameter is to be produced by reaming.
The minimum diameter permissible is 30.00 mm while
the maximum diameter p
permissible is 330.055 mm. In this
regard, consider the following statements about the
reamer size:
1. The minimum diameter of the reamer can be less than 30 mm.
2. The minimum diameter of the reamer cannot be less than 30 mm.
3. The maximum diameter of the reamer can be more than 30.05 mm.
4.The maximum diameter of the reamer must be less than 30.05 mm.
Of these statements
(a)
1 and 4 are correct
(c)
2 and 3 are correct
IAS 1999
IAS
For reaming operation of blind hole, the type of
reamer required is
(a) Straight flute reamer
(b) Right hand spiral fluted reamer
(c) Left hand spiral fluted reamer
((d)) None of the above
Boring
(b)
(d)
1 and 3 are correct

2 and 4 are correct
IAS 2003
IAS
p
) with List II ((Application)
pp
) and select
Match List I ((Operation)
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
ListI
ListII
(
(Operation)
)
(
(Application)
)
(A) Reaming 1. Used for enlarging the end of a hole to give it a
conical
i l shape
h
f a short
for
h distance
di
(B) Boring
2. Used for enlarging only a limited portion of the
hole
(C) Counter boring
3.
Used for finishing a hole
(D) Counter sinking
4
4.
Used for enlarging a hole
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
2
4
1
(b)
1
4
2
3
(c) 3
4
2
1
(d)
1
2
4
3
IES 1998
IES
A component requires a hole which must be within
the two limits of 25.03 and 25.04 mm diameter.
Which of the following statements about the
reamer size are correct?
1 Reamer size cannot be below 25.03
1.
25 03 mm.
mm
2. Reamer size cannot be above 25.04 mm.
3. Reamer size can be 25.04 mm.
4. Reamer size can be 25.03
4
5 3 mm.
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 2 and 4
IES 1992
IES
Shell reamers are mounted on
(a) Tool holders
(b) Amour plates
( ) Arbor
(c)
Ab
(d) Shanks
Sh k
Boring
y Boring always involves the enlarging of an existing hole,
which may have been made by a drill or may be the result of a

core in a casting.
g
y An equally important and concurrent purpose of boring may
be to make the hole concentric with the axis of rotation of
the workpiece and thus correct any eccentricity that may
have resulted from the drill drifting off the centerline.
Concentricity is an important attribute of bored holes.
y When boring is done in a lathe, the work usually is held in a
chuck or on a faceplate. Holes may be bored straight,
tapered, or to irregular contours.
y Boring is essentially internal turning while feeding the tool
Page 87 of 240
parallel to the rotation axis of the workpiece.
Rev.0
B i
Boring
B i
Boring
y The same principles are used for boring as for turning.

turning
y Because the tool overhang will be greater, feeds and
y The tool should be set exactly at the same height as the
depths of cut may be somewhat less than for turning to

prevent tool vibration and chatter.
y In some cases, the boring bar may be made of tungsten
carbide because of this material
material'ss greater stiffness.
stiffness
y The boring tool is a singlepoint cutting tool.
y Hole quality, finish boring can typically achieve holes
within tolerances of IT9.
y Surface finishes better than Ra 1 micron can be achieved.
axis of rotation.
rotation Slightly larger end clearance angles
sometimes have to be used to prevent the heel of the tool
from rubbing on the inner surface of the hole.
hole
F
l f B i
FormulaforBoring
y Average diameter of workpiece
Davg =
IES 1993
IES
D1 + D2
mm
2
y Cutting Time,
Time CT = L + A + O
fN
The main purpose of boring operation, as compared

to drilling is to:
(a) Drill a hole
(b) Finish the drilled hole
(c) Correct the hole
((d)) Enlarge
g the existing
g hole
IES2009
IES 1994,ISRO2008
1994 ISRO 2008
IES
Enlarging an existing circular hole with a rotating
single point tool is called
(a) Boring
(b) Drilling
(c) Reaming (d) Internal turning.
y Metal Removal Rate

M RR =
(D
2
1
D 22
4 / fN
)=
D a v g d fN
IES 1992,ISRO2010
1992 ISRO 2010
IES
Which of the machine tools can be used for boring
1. Lathe
2. Drilling
D illi machine
hi
3. Vertical milling machine
4. Horizontal milling machine
(a) 1, 2, 3
(b) 1, 3, 4
(c) 2 and 4
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4
IES 2000
IES
Which one of the following sets of tools or tools and
processes are normally employed for making large
diameter holes?
(a) Boring tool
(b) BTA tools
t l (Boring
(B i and
d trepanning
t
i association)
i ti ) and
d
gun drill
(c) Gun drill and boring tool
((d)) Boring
g tools and trepanning
p
g
Page 88 of 240
IES 1996
IES
Which of the following statements are correct?
1. A boring machine is suitable for a job shop.
2. A jig
ji boring
b i machine
hi is
i designed
d i
d specially
i ll for
f doing
d i
more accurate work when compared to a vertical
milling
illi machine.
hi
3. A vertical precision boring machine is suitable for
boring holes in cylinder blocks and liners.
((a)) 1, 2 and 3 ((b)) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3.
Rev.0
IES 1995
IES
The effects of setting a boring tool above centre
height leads to a/an.
(a) Increase in the effective rake angle and a decrease in
the effective clearance angle.
(b) Increase
I
i both
in
b th effective
ff ti rake
k angle
l and
d effective
ff ti
clearance angle.
(c) Decrease in the effective rake angle and an increase
in the effective clearance angle.
(d) Decrease in both effective rank angle and effective
g
clearance angle.
JWM2010
Considerthefollowingoperationsregardingboring
machines:
1.Counterboring
C
t b i
2.Countersinking
3.Trepanning
Whichoftheaboveoperationsis/arecorrect?
(a)1,2and3
(b)1and2only
( ) d l (d)1only
(c)2and3only
(d) l
Broaching
B
hi
Broaching
g is a multipletooth
p
g operation
p
y Broaching
cutting
with the
y The material removal using the broach teeth is shown
tool reciprocating.
y Since in broaching
g the machining
g operation
p
is
completed in a singlestroke as the teeth on the cutting
tool, called broach, are at gradually increasing height
corresponding to the feed per tooth of a milling cutter.
y The shape of the broach determines the shape of the
machined part.
y Broaching was originally developed for machining
internal keyways, but looking at the advantages, it has
been extensively used in the mass production of
automobile
t
bil componentt manufacture
f t
f various
for
i
other
th
surfaces as well.
Broaching
B
h C t ti
BroachConstruction
schematically in Fig. shown in below. The dotted line in

the figure indicates the amount of material being
removed by successive individual teeth.
B
h C t ti
BroachConstruction
B
h C t ti
BroachConstruction
B
h C t ti
BroachConstruction
y The broach is composed of a series of teeth, each tooth
y The last set of teeth is called the finishing or sizing teeth.

teeth
y The rear pilot helps to keep the broach to remain square
standing slightly higher than the previous one. This rise

per tooth is the feed per tooth and determines the
material removed by the tooth.
y There are basically three sets of teeth present in a broach
as shown in Fig. shown above.
y The
Th roughing
hi teeth
t th that
th t have
h
th highest
the
hi h t rise
i per tooth
t th
remove bulk of the material.
y The semifinishing teeth, whose rise per tooth is smaller,
remove relatively smaller amounts of material compared
to the roughing teeth.
Very little material will be removed by these teeth.

y The necessary size will be achieved by these teeth and
hence all the teeth will be of the same size as that
required finally.
finally With the progress of time,
time when the
first set of teeth wear out, the next set of teeth will be
able to provide the sizing function.
function
y The pull end of the broach (Fig. shown in above) is
attached
tt h d to
t the
th pulling
lli
mechanism
h i
off the
th broaching
b
hi
machine with the front pilot aligning the broach
properly
l with
ith respectt to
t the
th workpiece
k i
axis
i before
b f
th
the
actual cutting starts.Page 89 of 240
with the workpiece as it leaves the workpiece after

broaching.
y Broaching speeds are relatively low, of the order of 6 to 15
m/min However,
m/min.
However the production rate is high with the
cycle times being about 5 to 30 seconds, including the
workpiece and tool handling times.
times The low cutting
speeds are conducive to very high tool life with very
small tool wear rates.
rates
Rev.0
B
h C t ti
BroachConstruction
B
h C t ti
BroachConstruction
y Broaches are generally made of high speed steel in view
y For smooth operation, it is essential that at least two or
of its high impact strength. Sometimes, the titanium

nitride coating helps to improve the tool life further.
Also, the carbide inserttype broaches are used more for
surface broaching of cast iron for very large volume
production to reduce the frequent resharpening of the
broach, which is a very difficult operation.
y Standard broaches are available for common and more
often used forms,
forms such as round and square holes,
holes
keyways, etc.
Li it ti
fb
hi
Limitationsofbroaching
p
1. C
Custom made broaches are veryy expensive
and can
therefore be justified only for very large volume
production.
2. A broach has to be designed for a specific application
and can be used only for that application. Hence, the
lead time for manufacture is more for custom designed
broaches.
3. Broaching, being a very heavy metal removal
operation, requires that the workpiece is rigid and
capable
bl off withstanding
ith t di the
th large
l
f
forces.
4. Broaching can only be carried out on the workpiece
whose
h
geometry
t is
i such
h that
th t there
th
i no interference
is
i t f
f
for
the broach movement for the cutting.
IES 1993,2001
1993 2001
IES
Assertion (A): No separate feed motion is required
during broaching.
Reason (R): The broaching machines are generally
hydraulically operated.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
three teeth be simultaneously engaged.

y The thumb rule for tooth spacing,
spacing s =1.75
1 75 l , mm
y The cut per tooth f is kept in the range 0.05 mm 0.09
mm.
y In the normal speed BUE may be a problem. To avoid
this a copious supply of the cutting fluid is provided.
IES 2007
IES
Among the following machining processes, which
can be used for machining flat surfaces?
1 Shaping
1.
2
2.
Milling
3
3.
Broaching
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
((c)) 2 and 3 onlyy
((d)) 1, 2 and 3
IES 2001
IES
The screw and nut in a broaching machine are
changed from square thread to ACME thread. The
power requirement of the machine at the same
r.p.m. will
(a) Remain same
(b) Decrease
(c) Increase
((d)) Depend
p
on the operator
p
Page 90 of 240
Ad t
fb
hi
Advantagesofbroaching
g an operation
p
g
1. It is the fastest wayy of finishing
with a single
stroke.
2. Since all the machining parameters are built into the
broach very little skill is required from the operator.
broach,
operator
3. Broaching machine is simple since only a single
reciprocating
p
g motion is required
q
for cutting.
g
4. Final cost of the machining operation is one of the lowest
for mass production.
5. Any
A type off surface,
f
i
internal
l or external,
l can be
b generated
d
with broaching.
6 Many surfaces,
6.
surfaces which are very difficult or impossible by
other means, can be done by broaching. For example, square
hole and internal splines.
7. Good surface finish and fine dimensional tolerances can be
achieved by broaching, often better than boring or reaming
IES 1993
IES
Assertion (A): Soluble oils are employed with
broaching machine.
Reason (R): Soluble oils have excellent cooling
effect.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
IAS 2004
IAS
Which one of the following is true for the last few
teeth of a broach which are meant for fine
finishing?
(a) They have equal diameter
(b) They
Th have
h
i
increasing
i diameter
di
t
(c) They have decreasing diameter
(d) They have alternately increasing and decreasing
diameter.
Rev.0
IES 2005
2005
IES
IES 2002
IES
(
) with List II (Element
(
Match List I (Tool)
of Tool)) and
select the correct answer using the code given below the
Lists:
List I
List II
A Broach
1.
Tang
B. Reamer
2.
Pilot
C. Drill
3.
Front taper
D. Carbide insert face mill 4.
Bond
5.
Sweeper tooth
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
5
1
3
(b) 1
3
4
5
(c) 2
3
1
5
(d) 1
5
4
3
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer:

List I (Machine tool)
List II (Features)
A Lathe
A.
1
1.
Push or pull tool
B. Drilling machine
2.
Rachet and pawl
mechanism
C. Shaper
3.
Dividing head
D Broaching
D.
B
hi machine
hi
4.
H ll tapered
Hollow
d spindle
i dl
5.
Face plate
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
4
5
1
(b) 5
3
2
4
(c) 2
3
5
4
(d) 5
4
2
1
Milli
Milling
Milli
Milling
Milling machines of various types are widely used

for the following purposes using proper cutting
tools called milling cutters:
y Flat surface in vertical, horizontal and inclined planes
y Making
M ki slots
l t or ribs
ib off various
i
sections
ti
y Slitting or parting
y Often producing surfaces of revolution
y Making helical grooves like flutes of the drills
y Long thread milling on large lead screws, power screws,
worms etc and short thread milling for small size
fastening screws, bolts etc.
y 2D
clutches
D contouring
t i like
lik cam profiles,
fil
l t h etc
t and
d 3D
D
U
illi
dd
illi
Upmillinganddownmilling
Ad t
fD
Milli
AdvantagesofDownMilling
y In down milling, though the cut starts with a full chip
thickness, the cut gradually reduces to zero. This helps in

eliminating the feed marks present in the case of up
milling and consequently better surface finish.
y Climb milling also allows greater feeds per tooth and
longer cutting life between regrinds than the
conventional milling.
milling
y Up milling needs stronger holding of the job and down
milling
illi
needs
d backlash
b kl h free
f
screwnutt systems
t
f
for
feeding.
Milling
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
U
illi
dd
illi
Upmillinganddownmilling
contouring
g like die or mould cavities
y Cutting teeth in piece or batch production of spur gears,
straight toothed bevel gears, worm wheels, sprockets,

clutches
l h etc.
y Producing some salient features like grooves,
grooves flutes,
flutes
gushing and profiles in various cutting tools, e.g., drills,

taps, reamers, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.
1.
to hold parts since
1 Suited to machine thin and hard
hardtohold
the workpiece is forced against the table or holding
device by the cutter.
2. Work need not be clamped as tightly.
3. Consistent
C
i t t parallelism
ll li
and
d size
i may be
b maintained,
i t i d
particularly on thin parts.
4. It may be used where breakout at the edge of the
workpiece could not be tolerated.
5. It requires upto 20% less power to cut by this method.
6. It may be used when cutting off stock or when milling
deep, thin slots.
Page 91 of 240
Di d t
fD
Milli
DisadvantagesofDownMilling
1. It cannot be used unless the machine has a backlash
eliminator and the table jibs have been tightened.
2. It cannot be used for machining castings or hot rolled
steel, since the hard outer scale will damage the cutter.
Rev.0
IES 2007
IES
What is the process of removing metal by a milling
cutter which is rotated against the direction of
travel of the work piece, called?
(a) Down milling
(b) Up milling
( ) End
(c)
E d milling
illi
(d) Face
F
milling
illi
IES 1997
IES
g statements:
In Up milling process,
1. The cutter starts the cut from the machined surface and
proceeds upwards.
p surface and
2. The cutter starts the cut from the top
proceeds downwards.
3. The job is fed in a direction opposite to that of cutter
rotation.
i
4. The job is fed in the same direction as that of cutter
rotation.
rotation
Of these statements correct are:
( ) 1 and
(a)
d3
(b) 1 and
d4
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 2 and 4
IES 2010
IES2010
Assertion (A): Climb or down milling operation ensures
smoother operation of the machine tool and longer tool life
as compared to the conventional up milling operation.
Reason (R):
( ) In climb or down milling operation, the
rotational motion of the cutter as well as the feed motion of
the workpiece
work piece are in the same direction,
direction and the depth of
cut is maximum at the entry point as the cutter engages the
workpiece.
p
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct
explanation of A
Cl ifi ti
f illi
hi
Classificationofmillingmachines
Cl ifi ti
f illi
hi
Classificationofmillingmachines
(a) According to nature of purposes of use:

y
General purpose
y
Si l purpose
Single
y
Special purpose
(b) According to configuration and motion of the
workholding
g table / bed
y
Knee type
y
Bed type
y
Planer type
y
Rotary table type
((c)) According
g to the orientation of the spindle(s).
p
( )
y Plain horizontal knee type
y Horizontal axis ((spindle)
p
) and swiveling
g bed type
yp
y Vertical spindle type
y Universal head milling machine
(d) According to mechanization / automation and
production rate
p
y Hand mill (milling machine)
y Planer and rotary
y table type
yp vertical axis milling
g machines
y Tracer controlled copy milling machine,
y Milling
g machines for short thread milling
g
y Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) milling machine
Cl ifi ti
f illi
tt
Classificationsofmillingcutters
Cl ifi ti
f illi
tt
Classificationsofmillingcutters
Sl b Pl i
illi
tt
SlaborPlainmillingcutters
(a) Profile sharpened cutters where the geometry of

the machined surfaces are not related with the tool
shape, viz;
i. Slab or plain milling cutter: straight or helical
fluted
ii. Side milling cutters single side or both sided type
iii. Slotting cutter
iv. Slitting
g or p
parting
g tools
v. End milling cutters with straight or taper shank
vi Face milling cutters.
vi.
cutters
(b) Form relieved cutters where the job profile

becomes the replica of the
Tool form e.g.,
Toolform,
e g viz.;
viz ;
i. Form cutters
ii. Gear (teeth) milling cutters
iii. Spline
p
shaft cutters
iv. Tool form cutters
v Tslotcutters
v.
T slotcutters
vi. Threadmillingcutter
Page 92 of 240
IAS2009main
Definethetermfeedinmilling
Definetheterm
feedinmilling.[2Marks]
[2Marks]
Rev.0
Sid
d l t illi
tt
Sideandslotmillingcutters
Slitti
ti t l
Slittingsaworpartingtool
E d illi
tt
E d ill
EndmillingcuttersorEndmills
F
illi
tt
Facemillingcutters
U
ff
li d
( illi )
Useofformrelievedcutters(milling)
Toolformcutters
T slotcutter
l t tt
T
G
t th illi
tt
Gearteethmillingcutters
S li shaftcutters
h ft tt
Spline
Page 93 of 240
Rev.0
St ddl
illi
Straddlemilling
IES 1995,ISRO2010
1995 ISRO 2010
IES
G
illi
Gangmilling
In a milling operation two side milling cutters are

mounted with a desired distance between them so
that both sides of a work piece can be milled
simultaneously. This set up is called.
(a) Gang milling
(b) Straddle milling
(c) String milling
(d) Side milling.
IES 2006
IES
IAS2009Main
With a sketch, explain the principle of working
and variations of bedtype milling machine.
[9marks]
T i b
l ( illi
)
Turningbyrotarytools(millingcutters)
Gang milling is a
(a) Milling process for generating hexagonal surfaces
(b) Process
P
off cutting
tti gears
(c) Process in which two or more cutters are used
simultaneously
((d)) Milling
g operation
p
combined with turning
g
I d i
Indexing
IES 2009
IES
For machining, which one of the following gang
milling operations is employed?
(a) Threads
(b) Bores
(c) Grooves
((d)) Steps
p on p
prismatic p
parts
Si l
Pl i I d i
SimpleorPlainIndexing
y Plain indexing is the name given to the indexing method
carried out using any of the indexing plates in

conjunction with the worm.
Page 94 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2004,ISRO2011
2004 ISRO 2011
IES
One brand of milling machine has the following two
index plates supplied along with the indexing head:
Plate 1: 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 hole circles
Plate 2: 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 hole circles
It is proposed to mill a spur gear of 28 teeth using simple
indexing method. Which one of the following combinations
of index plate and number of revolutions is correct?
(a) Plate 1: 1 revolution and 9 holes in 18 hole circles
(b) Plate 2:
2 1 revolution
re olution and 9 holes in 21 hole circles
(c) Plate 2: 1 revolution and 9 holes In 33 hole circles
( ) Plate 1: 1 revolution and 9 holes In 15 hole circles
(d)
Milli V l it
MillingVelocity
IES 2000
IES
One of the index plates of a milling machine
dividing head has the following hole circles: 15; 16;
17; 18; 19; 20
A gear wheel of 34 teeth has to be milled by simple
indexing method.
method To machine each tooth,
tooth the index
crank has to be rotated through
( ) 17 holes
(a)
h l in
i the
th 20hole
h l circle
i l
(b) 18 holes in the 20hole circle
(c) 1 revolution and 3 holes in 17hole circle
(d) 1 revolution and 2 holes in 18
18hole
hole circle
V=
DN
DN
1000
MRR i Milli
MRRinMilling
Consideringtheparametersdefinedinthediscussionof
speedsandfeeds,etc,theMRRisgivenbelow,
Where,
Where
y Approach distance,
d=depthofcut
p
AC50steelflatsurfaceofdimensions100mm 250
mmistobeproducedonahorizontalaxismilling
machine.AnHSSslabmillwitha100mmdiameter
and150mmwidthistobeusedforthepurpose.The
millingcutterhas8teeth.
Calculatethemachiningtimeassumingthatentire
stockcanberemovedinonedepthof2mm.
stockcanberemovedinonedepthof2mm
Given,
Feed,f=0.13mm/tooth,
Cuttingspeed,V=20m/min.
g p
L + 2 A minutes
fZN
2
D D
A = d = d (D d )
2 2
Some Formulae for Milling

SomeFormulaeforMilling
Maximum uncut chip thickness (t max ) =
2f
NZ
f
Average uncut chip thickness (t a vg ) =
NZ
wd F
MRR =
where,w=widthofcut,
y Time for one pass =
d
D
d
D
f2
Peak to valley surface roughness (h max ) =
4DN 2 Z 2
Page 95 of 240
A standard dividing head is equipped with the

following index plates
1 Plate with 12,
1.
12 16,
16 17,
17 18,
18 19,
19 20 holes circles
2. Plate with 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes circles
3. Plate with 37, 39, 41,43,47,49 holes circles
For obtaining
g 24
4 divisions on a work p
piece byy simple
p
indexing
(a) Hole plate 2 alone can be used
(b) Hole plates 1 and 2 can be used
( ) Hole
(c)
H l plates
l t 1 and
d 3 can be
b used
d
(d) Any of the three hole plates can be used
Example
Milli Ti
MillingTime
y The cutting speed in milling is the surface speed of the
milling cutter.
IAS 1994
IAS
GATE 2014
GATE
Two
separate
operations,
1 and
T
t slab
l b milling
illi
ti
d 2, are
performed with identical milling
p
g cutters. The depth
p of
cut in operation 2 is twice that in operation 1. The other
cutting parameters are identical. The ratio of maximum
uncutt chip
hi thicknesses
thi k
i operations
in
ti
1 and
d 2 is
i
Rev.0
GATE 1995
GATE
List
ListII
(Manufacturing Processes)
(A) Finish
Fi i h turning
t
i
1.
(B) Forming
2.
(C) Thread cutting
3.
(D) Down milling
4.
Codes:A B
C
D
( ) 2
(a)
3
4
1
(b)
(c) 1
2
3
4
(d)
List
List II
(Condition)
B kl h eliminator
Backlash
li i t
Zero rake
Nose radius
Low speed
A
B
C
D
3
4
1
2
4
1
2
3
IES 2009
IES
The arbor of a milling machine is used to hold
which one of the following?
(a) Spindle
(b) Overarm
Over arm
(c) Cutting tool
(d) Mandrel
GATE 1992
GATE
In horizontal milling process. (up/down)
milling provides better surface finish and..
(updown)
(up
down) milling provides longer tool life.
GATE 1993
GATE
A milling cutter having 8 teeth is rotating at 150
rpm. If the feed per tooth is 0.1 mm, the table speed
in mm per minute is
(a) 120 (b) 187
( ) 125 (d) 70
(c)
IES 1994
IES
Consider the following operations:
1. Cutting key ways on shafts
2. Cutting
C tti external
t
l screw threads.
th d
3. Cutting teeth of spur gears
4. Cutting external splines.
Those which can be performed with milling cutters
would include
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2,3
2 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1,2,3 and 4 .
IES 1995
IES
Assertion (A): Up milling or climb milling is
commonly used for machining castings and
forgings.
Reason (R): Up milling can be done on universal
milling machines.
machines
l
ti off A
(d) A is false but R isPage
true96 of 240
IES 2003
IES
In milling machine, the cutting tool is held in
position by
(a) Chuck
(b) Spindle
(c) Arbor
(d) Tool holder
IES 1992
IES
A set of eight form relieved milling cutters for each
module is provided to enable cutting of gears of
different
(a) Materials
(b) Types
T
e.g. spur, helical,
h li l etc.
t
(c) Number of teeth
(d) Width of gears
IES 2005
IES
In upmilling operation, the undeformed chip thickness,
a)) Is
I zero att the
th start
t t off the
th cutt and
d increases
i
t a
to
maximum value just before the tooth disengages the
workpiece.
k i
b) Increases to the maximum value at the centre of the
travel and decreases towards the end of tooth
engagement.
c) Has a maximum value just after the cut is started and
p to zero at the end of the cut.
drops
d) Remains unchanged.
Rev.0
IES 1993
IES
Climb milling is chosen while machining because
(a) The chip thickness increases gradually
(b) It enables
bl the
th cutter
tt to
t dig
di in
i and
d depth
d th off cutt
(c) The specific power consumption is reduced
(d) Better surface finish can be obtained
IES 1999
IES
A straight teeth slab milling cutter of 100 mm
diameter and 10 teeth rotating at 200 r.p.m. is used
to remove a layer of 3 mm thickness from a steel bar.
If the table feed is 400 mm/minute, the feed per
tooth in this operation will be
(a) 0.2 mm
(b) 0.4 mm
( ) 0.5 mm
(c)
(d) 0.6
6 mm
Data for a plain milling operation are given below.
below
Length of workpiece
200 mm
Cutter diameter
100 mm
No. of teeth
4
Cutter speed
100 rpm
Feed
200 mm/min
Depth of cut
2 mm
Total clearance (entry
(
and exit)) 5 mm
g
g p
Machiningtimeforasinglepass(inseconds)is
(a)60 (b)66
(c)126
For-2015 (IES,
GATE &(d)150
PSUs)
IES 2002
IES
) Virtually
y all modern milling
g machines
Assertion ((A):
are capable of doing downmilling.
Reason (R): In downmilling the cutter tends to push
the work along and lift it upward from the table. This
action tends to eliminate any effect in looseness in the
feed screw and nut of the milling machine table and
results in smooth cut.
explanation of A
IES 2002
IES
A side and face cutter 125 mm diameter has 10 teeth.
It operates at a cutting speed of 14 m/min with a
table traverse 100 mm/min. The feed per tooth of
the cutter is
(a) 10 mm
(b) 2.86
2 86 mm
(c) 0.286 mm (d) 0.8 mm
IES 2004
IES
(
g p
Match List I (Milling
problem)) with List II ((Probable
causes) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the Lists:
List I
List II
A. Chatter
1.
Too high feed
B. Poor surface finish 2.
Lack of rigidity in machine
fixtures, bar or workpiece
C Loss
C.
L
off accuracy 3.
Hi h cutting
High
i load
l d
D. Cutter burrs
4.
Radial relief too great
5.
Not enough
h lubricant
l b
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 2
(a)
1
5
3
( ) 2
(b)
1
3
5
of 2404
(c) 4
5
2 Page
3 97(d)
2
3
5
IES 2004
IES
The cutting speed of a milling cutter while cutting
brass is:
(a) 45 to 60 m/min
(b) 30 to 40 m/min
(c) 25 to 35 m/min
(d) 15 to 20 m/min
Data for a plain milling operation are given below.
below
Length of workpiece
200 mm
Cutter diameter
100 mm
No. of teeth
4
Cutter speed
100 rpm
Feed
200 mm/min
Depth of cut
2 mm
Total clearance (entry
(
and exit)) 5 mm
Mean undeformed chip
p thickness (in microns) is
(a) 142
(b) 100
(c) 71
(d) 50
IAS 2001
IAS
Which one of the following statements are correct in respect of
upmilling
illi and
d downmilling?
d
illi ?
1.
In upmilling the cutter rotates in a direction opposite to that of
workpiece travel whereas in downmilling the cutter rotates in a
di
direction
i similar
i il to that
h off workpiece
k i
travel.
l
2.
In downmilling chip will be thin at the beginning and increase to a
maximum at the end of the cut and reverse will be the case for a chip
p
f
formed
d by
b upmilling.
ll
3.
Downmilling is desirable with milling cutters having a high radial
g when compared
p
to upmilling.
p
g
rake angle
4.
Downmilling forces the workpiece against the milling table to
exert more pressure while upmilling tends to lift the workpiece from the
table.
Codes:
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3
(b)
1 2 and 4
1,
(c) 3 and 4
(d)
1, 3 and 4
Rev.0
IAS 1998
IAS
IAS 2001
IAS
g statements are true of face

milling?
g cutter is held on an arbor.
1. Face milling
2. It has two rake angles axial rake and radial rake.
3 The maximum chip thickness equals the feed per
3.
tooth.
4 The chip thickness varies from a minimum at the
4.
start of cut to a maximum at the end of cut.
Codes :
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 and 4
(d) 3 and 4
IAS 2003
IAS
S 99
IES1994
A milling cutter of 70 mm diameter with 12 teeth is

operating at a cutting speed of 22 m/min and a feed
of 0.05 mm/tooth. The feed per minute is
(a) 110 m/min (b) 35 mm/min
( ) 6 mm/min
(c)
/ i (d) 60
6 mm/min
/ i
IES 2011
IES2011
ListI
ListII
A.Lathe
1.Flute
B.Shaper
2.Universalindexing
C D illi
C.Drillingmachine
hi
3.Leadscrew
L d
D.Millingmachine
g
C d
Codes
4.Rockerarm
4
A
((a)) 2
(c) 2
Which of the following mechanisms are suitable for

indexing the table of rotary transfer line?
1 Rack and pinion
1.
2
2.
Ratchet and pawl
3. Lead screw
4.
Geneva mechanism
Select the correct answer by using the codes given below:
Codes:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1,
1 3 and 4 (d) 1,
1 2 and 4
B
C
D
A
B
4
1
3
(b) 3
4
(IES,
GATE
1 For-2015
4
3
(d) &3PSUs)
1
C
1
4
D
2
2
Whichoneofthefollowingoperationsiscarriedout
attheminimumcuttingvelocityifthemachinesare
equallyrigidandthetoolworkmaterialsarethe
same?
(a) Turning
(b) Grinding
(c) Boring
((d)) Milling
g
IAS 2000
IAS
Consider the following mechanisms:
1. Geneva gearing
2. Rack
R k and
d pinion
i i
3. Ratchet and pawl
Which of these mechanisms are used to index the work
table on a transfer machine?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1,
1 2 and 3
IES 2012
IES
) Vibrations in milling
g are induced due to
Statement ((I):
interrupted cutting operation.
Statement (II):Vibrations can be suppressed to a large extent
by using equal spacing of teeth along the periphery of the
cutters.
( ) Both
(a)
B h Statement
S
(I) and
d Statement
S
(II) are individually
i di id ll
Statement (I)
p
of
Statement (I)
IES 2002
IES
Match List I with List
answer:
List I (Machine tools)
A. Lathe
B. Milling machine
C. Shaper
p
D. Drilling machine
Codes:A B
C
D
(a) 4
2
3
1
(c) 4
3
2
1
II and select the correct

List II (Machine tool parts)
1.
Lead strew
2.
Rocker arm
33.
Universal indexing
g
4.
Flute
A
B
C
D
(b) 1
3
2
4
(d) 1
2
3
4
Page 98 of 240
GearManufacturing
G M
f t i
BySKMondal
Rev.0
M
f t
fG
ManufactureofGears
Manufacture of gears needs several processing operations in
sequentiall stages depending
upon the
d
d
h materiall and
d type off the
h
gears and quality desired. Those stages generally are:
y Preforming the blank without or with teeth
y Annealing of the blank, if required, as in case of forged or
cast steels
y Preparation of the gear blank to the required dimensions
by machining
y Producing teeth or finishing the preformed teeth by
b
machining
y Full or surface hardening of the machined gear (teeth), if
required
y Finishing teeth, if required, by shaving, grinding etc
y Inspection of the finished gears
F
i
dG
ti
FormingandGeneration
Gear teeth are produced by machining based on
Forming
g where the p
profile of the teeth are obtained as
the replica of the form of the cutting tool (edge); e.g.,
milling, broaching etc.
Sunderlandmethodusingracktypecutter
y The rack type HSS cutter (having rake and
clearance angles) reciprocates to accomplish the

machining
hi i
( tti ) action
(cutting)
ti
while
hil rolling
lli
t
type
interaction with the gear blank like a pair of rack
and pinion.
Generation where the complicated tooth profile are

provided by much simpler form cutting tool (edges)
through rolling type, tool work motions, e.g., hobbing,
gear shaping etc.
External gear teeth generation by rack type cutter (Sunderland method)
Sunderlandmethodusingracktypecutter
G
h i
Gearshaping
G
h i
Gearshaping
y Applicationsofthismethod(andmachine)include:
A li ti
fthi th d( d
hi )i l d
y Gear shaping is similar to the rack type cutting process,
y automatic indexing
g
y Generation method is characterised by
y Moderatesizestraightandhelicaltoothedexternal
spurgearswithhighaccuracyandfinish
excepting that, the linear type rack cutter is replaced by a

circular cutter where both the cutter and the blank
rotate as a pair of spur gears in addition to the
reciprocation of the cutter.
y Cuttingtheteethofdoublehelicalorherringbone
gearswithacentralrecess(groove)
y Cuttingteethofstraightorhelicalflutedclustergears
C i
h f
i h h li lfl d l
y Howeverthismethodneeds,thoughautomatic,few
Howeverthismethodneeds thoughautomatic few
indexingoperations.
G
H bbi
GearHobbing
g teeth like g
g
y The HSS or carbide cutter having
gear milling
cutter and the gear blank apparently interact like a pair

of worm and worm wheel.
y The
Th hob
h b (cutter)
(
) looks
l k and
d behaves
b h
lik a single
like
i l or
multiple start worms.
G
H bbi
GearHobbing
y Having
lesser
number
(only
H i
l
b
( l three)
th ) off tool
t l work
k
motions,, hobbing
g machines are much more rigid,
g , strong
g
and productive than gear shaping machine.
y But hobbing provides lesser accuracy and finish and is
used
d only
l for
f cutting straight
h or helical
h l l teeth
h (single)
(
l ) off
external spur gears and worm wheels.
wheels
(a)Straight(b)helicaltoothand(c)wormwheel
Page 99 of 240
and ability of a single cutter to cover the entire range of

number of teeth for a given combination of module and
pressure angle
l and
d hence
h
provides
id high
hi h productivity
d ti it and
d
economy.
y The gear type cutter is made of HSS and possesses proper
rake and clearance angles.
y The additional advantages of gear shaping over rack type
cutting are:
Separate
p
indexing
g is not required
q
at all
Straight or helical teeth of both external and internal
p g
gears can be p
produced with high
g accuracyy and
spur
finish
Productivity is also higher.
Ad t
fG
H bbi
AdvantagesofGearHobbing
(a) The method is versatile and can generate spur,
helical, worm and worm wheels.
(b) Since gear hobbing is a continuous process,
process it is
rapid; economical and highly productive.
( ) The
(c)
Th method
th d produces
d
accurate
t gears and
d is
i suitable
it bl
for medium and large batch production.
(d) The cutter is universal, because it can cut all gears of
same module, irrespective of number of teeth on the
gear.
Rev.0
Di d t
f
H bbi
DisadvantagesofgearHobbing
(a) Gear hobbing cannot generate internal gears and
bevel gears.
(b) Enough
h space has
h
to be
b there
h
in component
configuration for hob approach.
Milli
Milling
Milli
Milling
yp
y Gear teeth can be p
produced byy both disc and end mill type
g
g are characterised
Production of gear
teeth byy form milling
by:
y Use of HSS form milling cutters
y Use of ordinary milling machines
y Low p
production rate for
form milling cutter.
Need of indexing after machining each tooth gap

Slow speed and feed
ApplicationsofHobbing
pp
g
y Low accuracy and surface finish

y Inventory problem due to need of a set of eight cutters for
y The gears produced by gear hobbing are used in
automobiles, machine tools, various instruments, clocks

and other equipments.
Fig.
(a) disc type and end mill type for

( ) single
(b)
g helical and
(c) double helical teeth
Sh i
Pl
i
d Sl tti
Shaping,PlanningandSlotting
module.
F
d i
f
h f
Fastproductionofteethofspurgears
y Straight toothed spur gear can be produced in shaping
machine.
y Both productivity and product quality are very low in
this process which therefore, is used, if at all, for making
one or few teeth on one or two pieces of gears as and
when required for repair and maintenance purpose.
y Planning
Pl
i
and
d slotting
l tti
machines
hi
work
k on the
th same
principle. Planning machine is used for making teeth of
l
large
gears whereas
h
slotting
l tti for
f internal
i t
l gears.
Fig gearteethcuttinginordinaryshapingmachine
F
d i
f
h f
Fastproductionofteethofspurgears
M
f t
f
b
lli
Manufactureofgearsbyrolling
Broaching
y Teeth of small internal and external spur gears; straight
or single helical,
helical of relatively softer materials are
produced in large quantity by broaching.
y This
Thi method
th d leads
l d to
t very high
hi h productivity
d ti it and
d quality
lit
but cost of machine and broach are very high.
y The straight and helical teeth of disc or rod type external
each module pressure angle combination

y End mill type
yp cutters are used for teeth of large
g g
gears and / or
steel gears of small to medium diameter and module are

generated by cold rolling by either flat dies or circular
dies.
y Such rolling imparts high accuracy and surface integrity
of the teeth which are formed by material flow unlike
cutting.
cutting
y Gear rolling is reasonably employed for high productivity
and
d high
hi h quality
lit though
th
h initial
i iti l machinery
hi
costs
t are
relatively high.
y Larger size gears are formed by hot rolling and then
Page 100 of 240
finished by machining.
Parallel multiple teeth

shaping
y It is similar to ordinary
shaping but all the tooth gaps
are made simultaneously,
simultaneously
without requiring indexing,
by a set of radially in feeding
single point form tools.
y This
Thi old
ld process was highly
hi hl
productive but became almost
obsolete
b l t for
f very high
hi h initial
i iti l
and running costs.
Rev.0
Powder Metallurgy
PowderMetallurgy
Wire EDM
WireEDM
y Small size high quality external or internal spur, bevel or
y Geometrically accurate but moderately finished straight
spiral gears are also produced by powder metallurgy

process.
y Large size gears are rolled after briquetting and sintering
for more strength and life.
life
y Powder metallurgically produced gears hardly require
any further
f th finishing
fi i hi work.
k
toothed metallic spur gears, both external and internal

type, can be produced by wire type Electro
Electrodischarge
discharge
Machining (EDM).
to obtain a certain level of toughness in the gear teeth to

reduce and/or eliminate bending and contact fatigue
failures.
y Reduction of index undulation errors associated with
helical gear teeth caused by the grinding process during
the manufacture of the gears without degrading other
gear accuracies
i (e.g.
(
profile,
fil tooth
t th spacing)
i ) below
b l
l l
levels
required for precision (AGMA16 or DIN1) gears.
y A mold
ld off the
th space between
b t
severall gear teeth
t th is
i
obtained, with the mold having a length equal to or
greater than the wavelength of the undulation error to be
reduced.
y Sandcasting
y Metalmouldcasting
y Diecasting
Di ti
y Investmentcasting
y Shellmouldcasting
y Centrifugalcasting
G
fi i hi
Gearfinishingprocess
gp
yO
One of the g
goals of the g
gear finishing
process in g
gears is
Casting
G
h i
Gearshaving
y A micro finishing film is affixed to the mold and the
mold is placed relative to a gear tooth so that the micro

finishing film rests against a tooth surface having the
undulation error.
y The grit size of the micro finishing film is such as to
remove approximately 2 to 3 millionths of gear material
with each pass through the teeth by the mold.
mold Multiple
passes are made by hand until the undulation error is
reduced to an acceptable value.
value During the process the
micro finishing film is replaced after approximately 3 or
4 passes and the process is repeated for each tooth of the
gear.
g is a g
g operation
p
g
yG
Gear shaving
gear finishing
with high
efficiency and high precision.
y When a work g
gear has been shaved byy a shaving
g cutter
with a true involute profile, the ''midconcave''

phenomena inevitably exist around the pitch points of
the work gear tooth flanks.
y Aiming at this problem, a newstyle shaving cutter with
unequal depth gashes is designed and manufactured.
y This paper analyses the forming of the gash on the basis
of the slotting principle, and proposes a gashdesigning
method.
y Experiment has proven that the shaved gear has a better
surface finish that achieves the anticipated effect.
G
b i hi
Gearburnishing
G
L
i
GearLapping
IES 1992
IES
y It is designed
gear tooth
d
d to remove or reduce
d
h nicks
k and
d
y Gear lapping is used to finish hardened gears by
Gear lapping
(a) An operation after heat treatment
(b) An
A operation
ti prior
i to
t heat
h t treatment
t t
t
(c) An independent operation for gear reconditioning
(d) None of the above
burrs along with improving the smoothness of the

burrs,
tooth's active p
profile finish.
correcting small errors in spacing, profile, helix

angle, and eccentricity.
y The operation is performed with all forms of gears
y The action of the burnishing

g dies on the tooth surface
running
i together
t th with
ith mating
ti gears, and
d castt iron
i
allows the machine to accomplish these quality
toothed laps,
p , under a flow of fine oil mixed with
improvements without altering the tooth profile or lead.
an abrasive compound.
y Both internalFor-2015
and external
possible to burnish.
(IES, gears
GATEare
& PSUs)
Page 101 of 240
Rev.0
IES 1999
IES
Consider the following processes for the
manufacture of gears:
1 Casting
1.
2. Powder metallurgy
3. Machining from bar stock
4. Closed die forging
4
g g
The correct sequence in increasing order of bending
strength of gear teeth is
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4
(b) 1, 2, 4, 3
( ) 2, 1, 4, 3
(c)
(d) 2, 1, 3, 4
IES 2010
IES2010
the code given below the lists:
List I
List II
(Type of work)
(Manufacturing)
A. High rate production of worm Gears and 1. Gear shaving
worm wheel
B. Generating internal gears and Cluster gears 2. Gear milling
C. Finishing of gear tooth profiles
3. Gear hobbing
D. Repair and piece production of gears
4. Gear shaping
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
4
3
(b)
3
1
4
2
(a)
2
1
(c)
2
4
1
3
(d)
3
4
1
2
IES 2009
IES
) Gears p
y employing
p y g form
Assertion ((A):
produced by
cutting principle using gearmilling cutter on a milling
machine are not very accurate.
Reason (R): Production of the correct gear tooth profile
employing formcutting principle would require a
separate cutter for cutting different numbers of teeth
even for the same module and also errors are associated
p
of indexing
g mechanism.
with inaccurate operation
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of
A
explanation of A
IES 2006
IES
Which of the following is/are used for cutting
internal gears?
1 Gear hobber
1.
2
2.
Gear shaper
3. Rack cutter
4.
Jig borer
((a)) Onlyy 1 and 2
((b)) Onlyy 2 and 3
(c) Only 1 and 4
(d) Only 2
IES 1996
IES
Gear cutting on a milling machine using an involute
profile cutter is a
(a) Gear forming process
(b) Gear generating process.
(c) Gear shaping process
((d)) Highly
g y accurate g
gear p
producing
gp
process.
IES 1996
IES
Consider the following processes of gear
manufacture:
1 Milling with form cutter
1.
2. Rack type gear shaper (gear planer)
3. Rotary gear shaper (gear shaper)
4. Gear hobbing
4
g
The correct sequence of these processes in increasing
order of accuracy of involute profile of the gear
(a) 3, 2, 4, 1
(b) 2, 3, 4, 1
( ) 3, 2, 1, 4
(c)
(d) 2, 3, 1, 4
Page 102 of 240
IES 2005
IES
In helical milling, the ratio of the circumference of
the gear blank to the lead of the helix determines
the:
(a) Proper speed to use
(b) Proper
P
f d and
feed
d depth
d th off cutt required
i d
(c) Angle setting of the machine table
(d) Gear ratio for table screw and dividing head
IES 2000
2000
IES
Which one of the following processes of gear
manufacture results in best accuracy of the involute
gear tooth profile?
(a) Milling
(b) Hobbing
H bbi
(c) Rotary gear shaper
(d) Rack type gear shaper
IES 2009
IES
By which one of the following machines the teeth of
an internal spur gear can be cut accurately?
(a) Milling machine
(b) Slotting machine
(c) Hobbing machine
((d)) Gearshaping
p g machine
Rev.0
IES 2004
IES
Gear shaping is a process of manufacturing gears.
Which one of the following principles is employed by it?
( ) Form
(a)
F
cutting
tti with
ith cutter
tt
(b) Generating tooth form with a reciprocating cutter
(c) Generating tooth form by a rotating cutter
(d) Generating form with a reciprocating and revolving
cutter
IES 2008
IES
Which machining processes are used for gear
manufacture?
1 Form milling
1.
2
2.
Broaching
3. Roll forming
4.
Hobbing
((a)) 1, 2 and 3
((b)) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
IES 2007
IES
Which of the following methods are gear generating
processes?
1 Gear shaping
1.
2. Gear hobbing
3. Gear milling
g the code g
given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
IES 1992
IES
In gear hobbing
(a) Only hob rotates
(b) Only
O l gear blank
bl k rotates
t t
(c) Both hob and gear blank rotate
(d) Neither hob nor gear blank rotates
IES 1999
IES
A 60
teeth gear when hobbed on a differential
60teeth
hobber with a twostart hob, the index change gear
ratio is governed by which one of the following
kinematic balance equations?
(a) 1 revolution of gear blank = 1/60 of hob revolutions
(b) 1 revolution of gear blank = 2/60 of hob revolutions
(c) 1 revolution of hob = 2/60 of blank revolutions
((d)) 1 revolution of hob = 1/60 of blank revolutions
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
Which one of the following gear manufacturing
processes is NOT based on generation principle?
( ) Gear
(a)
G
H bbi
Hobbing
(b) Gear
G
Sh i
Shaping
((c)) Gear Milling
g
((d)) Gear Shaving
g
Page 103 of 240
IES 2003
IES
A spur gear of 40 teeth is machined in a gear
hobbing machine using a double start hob cutter.
The speed ratio between the hob and the blank is
(a) 1:20 (b) 1:40
( ) 40: 1 (d) 20: 1
(c)
IES 1997
IES
Which of the following motions are not needed for
spur gear cutting with a hob?
1 Rotary motion of hob
1.
2. Linear axial reciprocator motion of hob
3. Rotary motion of gear blank
4. Radial advancement of hob.
4
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 (b) 1,
1 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
IES 1993
1993
IES
Internal gear cutting operation can be performed by
(a) Milling
(b) Shaping
Sh i with
ith rack
k cutter
tt
(c) Shaping with pinion cutter
(d) Hobbing
Rev.0
IAS 1998
IAS
Assertion (A): Internal gears are cut on a gear
shaper.
Reason (R): Hobbing is not suitable for cutting
internal gear.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
IES 1995
IES
While cutting helical gears on a non
differential
nondifferential
gear hobber, the feed change gear ratio is
(a) Independent of index change gear ratio
(b) dependent on speed change gear ratio
(c) Interrelated to index change gear ratio
((d)) Independent
p
of speed
p
and index change
g g
gear ratio.
IAS 2001
IAS
Consider the following motions and setting in a
hobbing machine:
1 Hob rotation
1.
2. Job rotation
3. Axial reciprocating hob rotation
4. Tilting
4
g of hob to its helix angle
g
Which of these motions and setting in a hobbing
machine are required to machine a spur gear?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
( ) 1, 2 and
(c)
d 4 (d) 1, 3 and
d4
IES 2006
IES
Which of the following cannot be cut by hobbing
process?
(a) Helical gears
(b) Bevel gears
(c) Worm gears
(d) Spur gears
IES 1992
IES
Gear burnishing process for
(a) Removing residual stresses from teeth roots
(b) Surface
S f
fi i hi
finishing
(c) Undercut gears
(d) Cycloidal gears
IES 1996
IES
For the manufacture of full depth spur gear by
hobbing process, the number of teeth to be cut = 30,
module = 3 mm and pressure angle = 20
20.. The radial
depth of cut to be employed should be equal to
(a) 3.75
3 75 mm
(b) 4.50
4 50 mm
(c) 6.00 mm
(d) 6.75 mm
IAS 2003
IAS
Which one of the following is not a feature of gear
hobbing process?
(a) High rate of production
(b) Generation of helical gears
(c) Very accurate tooth profile
((d)) Generation of internal g
gears
IES 1994
IES
Consider the following machine tools:
1. Hobbing machine
2. Gear
G
shaping
h i machine
hi
3. Broaching machine.
The teeth of internal spur gears can be cut in
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 1and 3
(d) 2 and 3
Page 104 of 240
ScrewThread
S
Th d
Manufacturing
f
i
Rev.0
BySKMondal
Processes,MachinesandTools
UsedForProducingScrewThreads
(a)Machining
(b)Rolling
( )G i di
(c)Grinding
Thread Cutting
ThreadCutting
Internal
y Can cut both external and
Threading on a lathe
g on a NC lathe
Threading
With a die held in a stock
((manual))
With an automatic die
((turret lathe or screw
machine) or NC lathe
y milling
g
By
By Grinding
Threading (on a lathe or

NC lathe))
With a tap and holder
((manual NC,, machine,,
semiautomatic,
or
automatic))
With a collapsible tap
((turret
lathe,,
screw
machine,
or
special
g machine))
threading
By milling
Internal thread
y Thread cutting
g is a form
cutting operation an
p tool is
accuratelyy shaped
used (with zero rake)
y The lead screw and the
split nut, which provide
positive motion of the
carriage relative to the
rotation of the spindle.
spindle
C i
h d ih i
CuttingThreadswithDies
Th d T i
ThreadTapping
g and tapered
p
y Straight
external threads can be cut q
quicklyy
g internal thread byy a multiplepoint

p p
y Cutting
tool is called
manually by means of threading dies.

y Dies are made of carbon or high
highspeed
speed tool steel
thread tapping, and the tool is called a tap.

y A hole of diameter slightly larger than the minor
diameter of the thread must already exist.
(a)Solidthreadingdie;(b)solidadjustablethreadingdie
y Grinding
Th d G i di
ThreadGrinding
can produce
very accurate threads,
h d and
d
it also permits threads to
be produced in hardened
materials.
y A singleribbed
single ribbed grinding
wheel is employed, but
multipleribbed
multiple
ribbed
wheels
are used occasionally.
y Centerless
thread
grinding is used for
g headless sets
making
screws.
Thread Cutting on Lathe

ThreadCuttingonLathe
External
The
Th flutes
fl t on tap
t create
t cutting
tti
edges on the thread profile and
provide
d space for
f the
h chips
h
and
d
the passage of cutting fluid.
Taps are made of either carbon
g p
steel and coated
or highspeed
with TiN.
Th d R lli
ThreadRolling
g is used to p
y Thread rolling
produce threads in substantial
quantities.
y Cold
Coldforming
forming process operation in which the threads are
formed by rolling a thread blank between hardened dies
that cause the metal to flow radially into the desired
shape.
y Chip less process,
process
fast and economical.
y Mechanical properties
are good.
g
Page 105 of 240
Thread Milling
ThreadMilling
y Highly accurate threads,
particularly in larger
sizes, are often form
milled Either a single or
milled.
a multipleform Cutter
may be used.
used
y The milling cutter is
tilted
il d at an angle
l equall
to the helix angle of the
thread
h d and
d is
i fed
f d inward
i
d
radially to full depth
while
hil
the
h
work
k is
i
stationary.
GATE 2003
GATE
Qualityscrewthreadsareproducedby
(a) Threadmilling
(b) Threadchasing
Th d h i
(c) Threadcuttingwithsinglepointtool
(d) Threadcasting
Rev.0
IES2011
External threads can be produced by :
1. Rolling
2. Grinding
33. Milling
g
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3only
( ) 1, 2 and 3
(d)
IES 2010
IES2010
For producing both internal and external
screw threads, the method used is
( ) Thread
(a)
Th d chasing
h i with
ith multiplerib
lti l ib chasers
h
((b)) Thread milling
g and multiplethread
p
cutters
(c) Thread tapping with taps
(d) Die
Di threading
h di with
i h selfopening
lf
i die
di heads
h d
ISRO2011
ISRO2010
Whichofthefollowingscrewthreadisadaptedfor
Internal and external threads can be produced
powertransmissioninonedirection
on tapered surfaces conveniently by
(a)Acmethreads
(a) Universal milling machine
( )
(b)Buttressthreads
(b) Plano
l
miller
ll
(c)Squarethreads
(c) Planetary milling machine
(d)Multiplethreads
(d) lathe
IES 2012
IES
Multistart threads are used to get
(a) Smaller linear displacement
(b) Larger
L
li
linear
di l
displacement
t with
ith assured
d self
lf locking
l ki
(c) Larger linear displacement with no guarantee of self
locking
IES 2007
IES
Screw threads are produced on solid rods by using
(a) Dies
(b) Punch
(c) Mandrel (d) Boring bar
IES 2012
IES
The differential screw is used in a
(a) Turnbuckle
(b) Micrometer
Mi
t
(c) Vernier Caliper
(d) Coupler
IES 2012
IES
Which of the following screw threads is adopted for
power transmission in either direction
(a) ACME threads
(b) Square threads
(c) Buttress threads
((d)) Multiple
p threads
Shaper,Planner,Slotter
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
Page 106 of 240
Rev.0
Sh
Shaper
Quick return motion Mechanism

QuickreturnmotionMechanism
RamDrive
FeedMechanism
y Themechanicalramdriveisaslottedarmquickreturn
y Table feed is intermittent and is accomplished on the
Sh
Shaper
y The relative motions between the tool and the workpiece,
shaping and planing use a straightline cutting motion with a

singlepoint
g p
cutting
g tool to g
generate a flat surface.
y In shaping, the workpiece is fed at right angles to the cutting
motion between successive strokes of the tool.
y For either shaping or planing, the tool is held in a clapper box
which p
prevents the cutting
g edge
g from being
g damaged
g on the
return stroke of the tool.
y Relatively
y skilled workers are required
q
to operate
p
shapers
p and
planers, and most of the shapes that can be produced on
them also can be made byy much more p
productive p
processes,
such as milling, broaching, or grinding.
Q i k t
ti M h i
QuickreturnmotionMechanism
y In shaping, the cutting tool is held in the tool post
located in the ram, which reciprocates over the work

with a forward stroke, cutting at velocity V and a quick
return stroke at velocity VR.
y The rpm rate of the drive crank (Ns) drives the ram and
determines the velocity of the operation.
y The stroke ratio, Rs
motionmechanism,
motionmechanism
return (non cutting) stroke when the tool has cleared

th workpiece.
the
k i
y The cross feed is given to the table with the help of a
cutting stroke angle

=
3600
cross feed screw which is actuated by a pawl which

engages a notched wheel (ratchet) keyed to the screw.
Cl ifi ti
f Sh
M hi
ClassificationofShaperMachine
Shapers,asmachinetoolsusuallyareclassified
accordingtotheirgeneraldesignfeaturesasfollows,
1 Horizontal
1.
a.
Pushcut
b.
Pullcutordrawcutshaper
2. Vertical
a.
Regularorslotters
b
b.
Keyseaters
3. Specialpurpose
F
l
Formula
HydraulicShaper
NL(1 + m)
1000
w
y Numberofstrokes, N s =
f
y Cuttingspeed, V =
y Timeofonestroke, t =
y Totaltime,T =
L(1 + m)
min
1000V
L(1 + m)
Lw(1 + m)
Ns =
min
1000v
1000vf
Page 107 of 240
Rev.0
Advantagesofhydraulicshaping
y 1. Cutting speed remains constant throughout most of the cutting
stroke, unlike the crank shaper where the speed changes continuously.
y 2. Since the power available remains constant throughout, it is possible
to utilise the full capacity of the cutting tool during the cutting stroke.
y 3. The ram reverses quickly without any shock due the hydraulic
cylinder utilised. The inertia of the moving parts is relatively small.
y 4. The range and number of cutting strokes possible are relatively large
in hydraulic shaper.
y 5. More strokes per minute can be achieved by consuming less time for
Planer
Slotter
y Planing can be used to produce horizontal, vertical, or
y Slotting machine is basically a vertical axis shaper.

shaper Thus
inclined flat surfaces on workpieces that are too large to

be accommodated on shapers.
y Planing is much less efficient than other basic
machining processes,
processes such as milling,
milling that will produce
such surfaces.
y Planing
Pl i and
d planers
l
h
have
l
largely
l been
b
replaced
l d by
b planer
l
milling machines or machines that can do both milling
and
d planing.
l i
the workpieces, which cannot be conveniently held in

shaper, can be machined in a slotter.
y Generally, keyways, splines, serrations, rectangular
grooves and similar shapes are machined in a slotting
machine.
y The
Th stroke
t k off the
th ram is
i smaller
ll in
i slotting
l tti
machines
hi
than in shapers to account for the type of the work that
i handled
is
h dl d in
i them.
th
Sl tt
Slotter
Sl tt
Slotter
reversal and return strokes.
y The types of tools used in a slotter are very similar to
those in a shaper, except that the cutting actually takes

place in the direction of cutting.
y However, in view of the type of surfaces that are possible
in the case of slotter,
slotter a large variety of boring bars or
singlepoint tools with long shanks are used.
GATE 2012 (PI)

GATE2012(PI)
IAS 1994
IAS
Stroke of a shaping machine is 250 mm. It makes 30
double strokes per minute. Overall average speed of
operation is
(a) 3.75 m/min
(b) 5.0 m/min
( ) 7.5 m/min
(c)
/ i
(d) 15 m/min
/ i
In
I a shaping
h i process, the
th number
b off double
d bl strokes
t k per
minute is 330 and the q
quick return ratio is 0.6. If the
length of the stroke is 250 mm, the average cutting
velocity in m/min is
( ) 3.0
(a)
GATE 2005
GATE
(b) 4.5
( ) 7.5
(c)
Page 108 of 240
(d) 12.0
A 600 mm x 30 mm flat surface of a plate is to be

finish machined on a shaper. The plate has been
fixed with the 600 mm side along the tool travel
direction. If the tool overtravel at each end of the
plate is 20 mm, average cutting speed is 8 m/min,
feed rate is 0.3 mm/stroke and the ratio of return
time to cutting time of the tool is 1:2, the time
required for machining will be
(a) 8 minutes (b) 12 minutes
(c) 16 minutes (d) 20 minutes
Rev.0
IES 1994,ISRO2008
1994 ISRO 2008
IES
Given that, average cutting speed = 9 m/min, the
return time to cutting time ratio is = 1 : 2, the feed
rate = 0.3 mm/stroke, the clearance at each end of
cut = 25 mm and that the plate is fixed with 700 mm
side along the direction of tool travel, the time
required for finishing one flat surface of a plate of
size 700 x 30 mm in a shaper, will be
(a) 10 min
(b) 12.5 min
( ) 15 min
(c)
i
(d) 20 min
i
GATE 2014
GATE2014
A castt iron
block
i
bl k off 200 mm length
l
th is
i being
b i shaped
h
d in
i a
shaping
p g machine with a depth
p of cut of 4 mm,, feed of
0.25 mm/stroke and the tool principal cutting edge angle
of 30o. Number of cutting strokes per minute is 60.
Ui
Using
specific
ifi energy for
f cutting
tti
as 1.49 J/
J/mm3 the
th
average
g p
power consumption
p
((in watt)) is .
IES 2001
IES
In
machine,
the
for
I a shaper
h
hi
th mechanism
h i
f tool
t l feed
f d is
i
(a) Geneva mechanism
(b) Whitworth mechanism
(c) Ratchet and Pawl mechanism
(d) Ward Leonard system
IES 2010
IES2010
Consider the following alignment tests on machine

tools
1 Straightness
1.
2
2.
Flatness
3. Run out
4.
Parallelism
Which of the above alignment tests on machine tools are
common to both lathe and shaper?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 4
IES 1997
IES
) Longitudinal
g
g motion of the
Assertion ((A):
cutting
tool and crosswise feed motion of the job generates
planning
gp
process.
flat surfaces in p
Reason (R): Jobs used in planning machines are
generally long and heavy compared to shaping.
l
ti off A
IES 1995
IES
In a mechanical shaper, the length of stroke is
increased by
(a) Increasing the centre distance of bull gear and crank
pin
(b) Decreasing
D
i
th centre
the
t distance
di t
off bull
b ll gear and
d
crank pin
(c) Increasing the length of the ram
((d)) Decreasing
g the length
g of the slot in the slotted lever
IES 2004
IES
IAS 1995
IAS
ISRO2010
Size
is
by
Si off a shaper
h
i given
i
b
(a) Stroke length
(b)
Motor power
(c) Weight
g of the machine
(d)
Table size.
Page 109 of 240
Which of the following are the advantages of a

hydraulic shaper over a mechanically driven shaper?
1 More strokes per minute can be obtained at a given
1.
cutting speed.
2. The
Th cutting
tti stroke
t k has
h a definite
d fi it stopping
t
i point.
i t
3. It is simpler in construction.
4. Cutting speed is constant throughout most of the
g stroke.
cutting
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 4
(d) 1, 3 and 4
The cutting speed of the tool in a mechanical

shaper
h
i
is
(a) Maximum at the beginning of the cutting stroke
(b) Maximum at the end of the cutting stroke
((c)) Maximum at the middle of the cutting
g stroke
(d) Minimum at the middle of the cutting stroke
Rev.0
AbrasiveMachiningProcesses
GATE2014 (PI)
GATE2014(PI)
Matchthefollowing
GroupI(Mechanism)
PQuickreturn
QApron
RIntermittentindexing
SDifferentialmechanism
S
e e t a ec a s
(a)P1 Q2 R4 S3
(a)P1Q2R4S3
(c)P4Q1R2S3
GroupII(Machines)
1Lathe
2Shaping
3Gearhobbing
4Milling
4
g
Grinding&Finishing
(b)P2 Q1 R4 S3
(b)P2Q1R4S3
(d)P2Q3R1S4
BySKMondal
Process
Features
Grinding
Useswheels,accuratesizing,finishing,lowMRR;
canbedoneathighspeeds.
Creepfeed
grinding
d
Useswheelswithlongcuttingarc,veryslowfeed
rateandlargedepthofcut
dl
d h f
Abrasive
machining
Abrasivewater
jetMachining
Honing
HighMRR,toobtaindesiredshapesand
approximatesizes
Waterjetswithvelocitiesupto1000m/seccarry
abrasiveparticles(silicaandgarnet)
"Stones"containingfineabrasives;primarilya
h l finishingprocess
hole
fi i hi
Fineparticlesembeddedinsoftmetalorcloth;
primarilyasurfacefinishingprocess
i
il f
fi i hi
Lapping
Grinding
Whyishighvelocitydesiredingrinding?
g is the most common form of abrasive

yG
Grinding
y It is desired to off set the adverse effect of very high

negative rake angle of the working grit, to reduce the
force per grit as well as the overall grinding force.
machining.
y It is a material cutting
gp
process which engages
g g an abrasive
tool whose cutting elements are grains of abrasive

material known as grit.
y These grits are characterized by sharp cutting points,
high hot hardness, and chemical stability and wear
resistance.
y The grits are held together by a suitable bonding
material to give shape of an abrasive tool.
y Grinding can be compared with milling with an infinite
number of cutting edge.
Fig- cutting action of abrasive grains
Advantages of Grinding
AdvantagesofGrinding
Applications of Grinding
ApplicationsofGrinding
y Dimensionalaccuracy
Di
i
l
y Surfacefinishing
S f fi i hi
y Goodsurfacefinish
y Slittingandparting
y Goodformandlocational accuracy
y
y Descaling,deburring
g
g
y Applicabletobothhardenedandunhardenedmaterial
y Stockremoval(abrasivemilling)
Onwhichfactorsdoesthetransverseroughness
p
p
gg
g
ofworkpiecedependduringgrinding?
y It mainly depends on the shape of the grits and overlap
cuts made by the grits in the transverse direction. Lateral

plastic flow of the material as a result of ploughing also
influences the surface roughness.
y Finishingofflataswellascylindricalsurface
y Grindingoftoolsandcuttersandresharpening ofthe
same
Page 110 of 240
Rev.0
G i di
Grinding
y If each abrasive grain is viewed as a cutting tool then in
grinding operation.
High
y Rake angle can be positive, zero, or negative ranging from
Interactionofthegritwiththeworkpiece
Interactionofthegritwiththeworkpiece
y Shape of grit is very important because it determines the
y Grit with favourable geometry can produce chip in shear
grit geometry e.g. rake and clearance angle.

y The grits do not have definite geometry unlike a cutting
tool.
y However,
However grits having large negative rake angle or
+45o to 60
60o, dull,
dull rounded grits has large negative rake angle
y Cutting speed is very high
y Very
V
hi h specific
high
ifi energy off cutting
i
mode.
rounded cutting edge do not form chips but may rub or
make a groove by ploughing leading to lateral flow of the
workpiece material.
Low
y Low shear angle
y Low feed rate
Fig Grits engage shearing, ploughing and rubbing
y Low depth of cut
Howischipaccommodationvolumeis
relatedtomaterialremovalrate?
related to material removal rate?
Specificenergyconsumptioningrinding
Howmaythespecificgrindingenergyvary
withmaterialremovalrateingrinding?
with material removal rate in grinding?
y Volume of chip accommodation space ahead of each grit
y Specific grinding energy will start decreasing with
must be greater than the chip volume produced by each

grit to facilitate easy evacuation of the chip from the
grinding wheel.
material removal rate because rake angle of the grit

becomes more favourable with increase of grit depth of
cut. However, if increase of material removal rate causes
chip accommodation problem in the available inter
intergrit
grit
space then specific energy may increase.
GRatio
( )
GATE2011(PI)
y The grinding ratio or G ratio is defined as thee cubic mm
of stock removed divided by the cubic mm of wheel lost.

y In conventional grinding, the G ratio is in the range 20: 1
to 80: 1.
1
y The G ratio is a measure of grinding production and
reflects the amount of work a wheel can do during its

useful life.
life
y As the wheel losses material,
material it must be reset or
repositionedFor-2015
to maintain
workpiece
size.
(IES,
GATE & PSUs)
Grindingratioisdefinedas
volume of wheel wear
volume of work material removed
volume of work material removed
(b)
volume of wheel wear
cutting speed
(c)
feed
longitudinal feed
(d)
transverse feed
(a)
Page 111 of 240
Parametersforspecifyagrindingwheel
1) The type of grit material
2) The grit size
3)) The
Th bond
b d strength
t
th off the
th wheel,
h l commonly
l known
k
as wheel hardness
4) The structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e.
the amount of inter grit spacing
5) The type of bond material
6) Other than these parameters, the wheel
manufacturer may add their own identification code
prefixing or suffixing (or both) the standard code.
Rev.0
Abrasive
Material
CommentsandUses
Aluminium oxide
Softer and tougher than silicon

carbide; use on steel,
steel iron,
iron brass
Siliconcarbide
Used
for
brass,,
bronze,,
aluminum, stainless steel and
cast iron
For grinding hard, tough tool
steels, stainless steel, cobalt and
nickel based superalloys, and
hard coatings
Used
to
grind
nonferrous
materials tungsten carbide and
materials,
ceramics
cBN (cubicboron
nitride))
Diamond
Whyisaluminium oxidepreferredto
siliconcarbideingrindingsteel?
silicon carbide in grinding steel?
y Al2O3 is tougher than SiC.
SiC Therefore it is
preferred to grind material having high tensile

strength like steel.
steel Moreover,
Moreover Al2O3 shows higher
chemical inertness than SiC towards steel leading
to much improved wear resistance during
g
grinding.
g
Grit size
Gritsize
y The grain size affects material removal rate and the
surface quality of workpiece in grinding.

y Large grit
grit big grinding capacity,
capacity rough workpiece
surface
y Fine
Fi
grit
it small
ll grinding
i di
capacity,
it smooth
th workpiece
k i
surface
Grade
Structure / concentration
Structure/concentration
y The worn out grit must pull out from the bond and make
y The structure should be open for grinding wheels
room for fresh sharp grit in order to avoid excessive rise

of grinding force and temperature.
y A soft wheel should be chosen for grinding hard
material.
material
y A hard wheel should be chosen for grinding soft
material.
t i l
engaged in high material removal to provide chip

accommodation space.
y The space between the grits also serves as pocket for
holding grinding fluid.
fluid
y Dense structured wheels are used for longer wheel life,
f holding
for
h ldi precision
i i forms
f
and
d profiles.
fil
Page 112 of 240
IES2009
y 2marks
Whydoessinglelayergrindingwheelshowprogressive
riseofforceduringgrindingofhighspeedsteel?
y The geometry of grit undergoes irreversible change in
the form of rounding or flattening due to wear caused by

rubbing action of hard carbides present in high speed
steel.
Whyiscoarsegrainandopenstructuredwheel
ispreferredforstockremovalgrinding?
is preferred for stock removal grinding?
y Coarse grit allows large grit protrusion and open
structure provides large inter grit chip space. Thus in

combination those two provide large space for chip
accommodation during stock removal grinding and risk
of wheel loading is minimized.
Rev.0
B di M
i l f G i di
h l
BondingMaterialsforGrindingwheels
Type of Bond
Attributes
Vitrified bonds Composed of clays and other ceramic

substances, porous, strong, rigid, and
unaffected
by
oils,
water,
or
temperature. Brittle and can not be used
for high wheel speed.
Resinoid,
or Plastic bond, replaced shellac and
phenolic
p
rubber wheels,, not with alkaline
resins
grinding fluid.
Shellac bond
For flexible cut off wheels, replaced by
resin bond.
Bonding Materials for Grinding wheels

Type of Bond
Attributes
Rubber bond
For use in thin wheels, replaced by resin

bond.
bond
Limited use.
Oxychloride
b d
bond
Metal bond
Electroplated
bond
Extensively used with super abrasive

wheels, high toughness, high accuracy,
large stock removal.
Used for small wheel, form wheel and
p abrasive wheels,, for abrasive
thin super
milling and ultra high speed grinding.
Replace by electroplated bond
B di M
i l f G i di
h l
Vitrified bonds
y They are composed of clays and other ceramic
substances.
y Vitrified wheels are p
porous,, strong,
g, rigid,
g , and unaffected
by oils, water, or temperature over the ranges usually
g
encountered in metal cutting.
y The operating speed range in most cases is 1500 to 5000
m/min.
Resinoid or phenolic resins

Resinoid,orphenolic
Shellac bond
Shellacbond
y Because plastics can be compounded to have a wide
y At one time this bond was used for flexible cut off
range of properties, such wheels can be obtained to cover

a variety of work conditions.
y They have, to a considerable extent, replaced shellac and
rubber wheels.
wheels
y Resin bond is not recommended with alkaline grinding
fl id for
fluid
f a possible
ibl chemical
h i l attack
tt k leading
l di
t bond
to
b d
weakening.
wheels.
y At present use of shellac bond is limited to grinding
wheels engaged in fine finish of rolls.
Rubber bond
Rubberbond
Oxychloride bond
Metal bond
Metalbond
off
y Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut
cutoff
y Itislesscommontypebond,butstillcanbeusedindisc
y Metal bond is extensively used with super abrasive
Whatisthemainshortcomingofvitrified
bond?
Vitrified bond is brittle and can not with stand high
impact loads. This bond can not be used for high wheel
speed due to risk of wheel breakage under centrifugal
force.
operation.
y Rubber bond was once popular for finish grinding on
bearings and cutting tools.
grindingoperation.Itisusedunderdrycondition.
Page 113 of 240
wheels. Extremely high toughness of metal bonded

wheels makes these very effective in those applications
where form accuracy as well as large stock removal is
desired.
Rev.0
Electroplated bond
Electroplatedbond
Brazed bond
Brazedbond
Gl i
Glazing
y This
large
(3040%)
Thi bond
b d allows
ll
l
(
%) crystal
t l exposure above
b
y This
crystal
Thi is
i relatively
l ti l a recentt development,
d l
t allows
ll
t l
y With continuous
use a grinding
dull
ti
i di wheel
h l becomes
b
d ll with
ith
the bond without need of anyy truing

g or dressing.
g This
exposure
p
as high
g 6080%. In addition g
grit spacing
p
g can be
bond is specially used for making small diameter wheel,
precisely controlled. This bond is particularly suitable for
form wheel and thin super abrasive wheels. Presently it is
very high material removal either with diamond or cBN
th only
the
l bond
b d for
f making
ki wheels
h l for
f abrasive
b i milling
illi and
d
wheel.
h l The
Th bond
b d strength
t
th is
i much
h greater
t than
th provided
id d
ultra high
g speed
p
grinding.
g
g
byy electroplated
p
bond. This bond is expected
p
to replace
p
the sharp
p abrasive g
grains becoming
g rounded.
y This condition of a dull grinding wheel with worn out
grains is termed as glazing.
electroplated bond in many applications.
L di
Loading
Dressing
y Some
grinding
S
i di chips
hi gett lodged
l d d into
i t the
th spaces between
b t
y Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which

ensures that grit cutting edges are exposed from the
bond and thus able to penetrate into the workpiece
material.
y In dressing attempts are made to splinter the abrasive
grains to make them sharp and free cutting and also to
remove any residue left by material being ground.
ground
y Dressing therefore produces microgeometry.
the g
grits resulting
g in a condition known as loaded wheel.
y Loading is generally caused during the grinding of soft
and ductile materials.

y A loaded grinding wheel cannot cut properly and need
dressing.
dressing
G
20
GATE2014
Match the Machine Tools (Group A) with the probable
Operations (Group B):
Group A
G
P:CenterLathe
Q:Milling
R:Grinding
S:Drilling
P
( ) 1
(a)
(c) 3
CanaresinbondedcBN wheelbe
electrochemicallydressed?
electrochemically dressed?
Isdressingnecessaryforsinglelayer
wheel?
y Electrochemical dressing is not possible with resin
y Conventional macro level dressing is not required
bonded wheel because it is not electrically conducting.
because the wheel inherently has an open structure.

However, touch dressing is carried out to obtain better
uniformity in grit height in order to improve surface
finish of the workpiece.
Page 114 of 240
Q
2
1
R
4
4
GroupB
G
B
1:Slotting
2:Counterboring
3:Knurling
4:Dressing
S
3
2
( )
(b)
(d)
P
2
3
Q
1
4
R
4
2
S
3
1
Truing
y Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry
on the grinding wheel.

y Truing is also required on a new conventional wheel to
ensure concentricity with specific mounting system.
y Truing
T i and
d dressing
d
i are commonly
l combined
bi d into
i t one
operation for conventional abrasive grinding wheels, but
are usually
ll two
t
di ti tl separate
distinctly
t operation
ti
f super
for
abrasive wheel.
Rev.0
BalancingGrindingWheels
y Because of the high rotation speeds involved,
involved grinding
wheels must never be used unless they are in good

balance.
balance
y Grinding wheel must be balanced Statically and
D
Dynamically.
i ll
y A slight imbalance will produce vibrations that will cause
waviness in the work surface. It may cause a wheel to
break, with the probability of serious damage and injury.
IES2011Conventional
What is creep feed grinding? Discuss its salient
f t
features,
advantages,
d
t
and
d application.
li ti
[10 marks]
Whatarethecharacteristicfeaturesofa
universalcylindricalgrinder?
universal cylindrical grinder?
y Characteristicfeaturesofauniversalcylindricalgrinder
notpossessedbyplaincylindricalgrinderare:
Swivelling wheelhead
Swivelling wheelheadslide
Swivelling headstock
Creep feed grinding

Creepfeedgrinding
y Thismachineenablessinglepassgrindingofasurface
withalargerdownfeedbutslowertablespeedthanthat
adoptedformulti passconventionalsurfacegrinding.
adoptedformultipassconventionalsurfacegrinding.
y Increepfeedgrinding,theentiredepthofcutis
completedinonepassonlyusingverysmallin feed
completedinonepassonlyusingverysmallinfeed
rates.
Statethebasicadvantageofacreepfeed
grinderoveraconventionalsurface
grinder over a conventional surface
y Productivityisenhancedandlifeofthegrindingwheelis
extended.
C li d i l G i di
CylindricalGrinding
type cylindrical grinding is commonly used far
y Center
Centertype
producing external cylindrical surfaces.
y The grinding wheel revolves at an ordinary cutting
speed, and the workpiece rotates on centers at a much
slower speed.
speed
y Grinding machines are available in which the workpiece
i held
is
h ld in
i a chuck
h k for
f grinding
i di both
b th external
t
l and
d internal
i t
l
cylindrical surfaces.
C t l
G i di
Centerless
Grinding
y Centerless grinding makes it possible to grind both
external and internal cylindrical surfaces without

requiring the workpiece to be mounted between centers
or in a chuck.
y This eliminates the requirement of center holes in some
workpieces and the necessity for mounting the
workpiece thereby reducing the cycle time.
workpiece,
time
y Two wheels are used. The larger one operates at regular
grinding
i di
speeds
d and
d does
d
th actual
the
t l grinding.
i di
Th
The
smaller wheel is the regulating wheel. It is mounted at
an angle
l to
t the
th plane
l
off the
th grinding
i di wheel.
h l
Page 115 of 240
C t l
G i di
Centerless
Grinding
y The regulating
wheel controls the rotation and

longitudinal motion of the workpiece and usually is a
plastic or rubber
plastic
rubberbonded
bonded wheel with a fairly wide face.
y Theworkpieceisheldagainsttheworkrestbladebythe
cuttingforcesexertedbythegrindingwheelandrotates
atapproximatelythesamesurfacespeedasthatofthe
regulatingwheel.
regulatingwheel
Rev.0
Centerless Grinding
C t l
G i di
Centerless
Grinding
The axial feed is calculated by the equation
F = dN sin
where
F = feed (mm/min)
d = diameter of the regulating wheel (mm)
N = revolutions per minute of the regulating wheel
C t l
i t
l G i di
Centreless
internalGrinding
y This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and
tapered holes in cylindrical parts (e.g. cylindrical liners,

various bushings etc).
y The workpiece is rotated between supporting roll,
pressure roll and regulating wheel and is ground by the
grinding wheel.
= angle
g of inclination of the regulating
g
g wheel
Statethedisadvantagesofcentreless
cylindricalgrindingmachine?
cylindrical grinding machine?
Itdoesnotgrindconcentricallywithcentres.
Largediametershortworkpiecearedifficultto
controlintheprocess
Itmaynotimproveworkpieceperpendicularity.
Istransversefeedprovidedinvertical
spindlereciprocatingtablesurfacegrinder?
spindle reciprocating table surface grinder?
y Usually no transverse feed is provided in such machine.
The wheel diameter is kept larger than the width of the

workpiece surface to be ground.
S f
G i di
hi
SurfaceGrindingMachines
y Surface grinding machines are used primarily to
grind flat surfaces.

formed irregular surfaces can be
formed,
produced on some types of surface grinders by use
of a formed wheel.
wheel
Four basic types of surface grinding machines are:
1 Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table
1.
2. Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
3. Horizontal
H i
l spindle
i dl and
d rotary table
bl
4. Vertical spindle and rotary table
y However
L
i
Lapping
Ch
t i ti
fl
i
Characteristicsoflappingprocess
y Lappingisbasicallyanabrasiveprocessinwhichloose
y Useoflooseabrasivebetweenlapandtheworkpiece
abrasivesfunctionascuttingpointsfindingmomentary
supportfromthelaps.
y Materialremovalinlappingusuallyrangesfrom.003to
.03mmbutmanyreach0.08to0.1mmincertaincases.
03mmbutmanyreach0 08to0 1mmincertaincases
y Usuallylapandworkpiecearenotpositivelydrivenbut
Page 116 of 240
areguidedincontactwitheachother
y Relativemotionbetweenthelapandtheworkshould
changecontinuouslysothatpathoftheabrasivegrains
h
ti
l th t th fth b i i
ofthelapisnotrepeatedontheworkpiece.
y Castironisthemostlyusedlapmaterial.However,soft
steel,copper,brass,hardwoodaswellashardenedsteel
andglassarealsoused.
Rev.0
Ab i
fl
i
Abrasivesoflapping
V hi l
t i l f l
i
Vehiclematerialsforlapping
Technicalparametersaffectinglappingprocessesare
y Al2O3 andSiC,grainsize5~100m
dSiC i i
y Machineoil
M hi il
y unitpressure
it
y Cr2O3,grainsize1
grainsize1~2m
2m
y Rapeside oil
y thegrainsizeofabrasive
y B4C3,grainsize5
g
5 60m
y grease
g
y concentrationofabrasiveinthevehicle
y Diamond,grainsize0.5~5m
y lappingspeed
H i
Honing
y Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone
carries out a combined rotary and reciprocating motion

while the workpiece does not perform any working
motion.
y Most honing is done on internal cylindrical surface,
surface such
as automobile cylindrical walls. The honing stones are
held against the workpiece with controlled light
pressure. The honing head is not guided externally but,
instead floats in the hole,
instead,
hole being guided by the work
surface.
H i
Honing
y It is desired that
1. Honing stones should not leave the work surface

2. Stroke
St k length
l
th mustt cover the
th entire
ti work
k length.
l
th
3. In honing rotary and oscillatory motions are
combined to produce a cross hatched lay pattern.
The honing stones are given a complex motion so as

to prevent every single grit from repeating its path
over the work surface.
surface
Fig.Honingtool
Fig.Laypatternproducedbycombinationofrotaryand
oscillatorymotion
ill
Buffing
Th
iti l
t
Thecriticalprocessparametersare
g is a p
g operation
p
p
y Buffing
polishing
in which the workpiece
y 1.rotationspeed
t ti
d
y 2.oscillationspeed
2 oscillationspeed
y 3.lengthandpositionofthestroke
3
g
p
y 4.honingstickpressure
H i
Honing
Page 117 of 240
is brought into contact with a revolving cloth wheel that

has been charged with a fine abrasive, such as polishing
rough.
y The wheels are made of disks of linen, cotton,
broadcloth, or canvas, and achieve the desired degree of
firmness through the amount of stitching used to fasten
th layers
the
l
off cloth
l th together.
t th
y Negligible amount of material is removed in buffing
while
hil a very high
hi h luster
l t is
i generated
t d on the
th buffed
b ff d
surface.
y The
Th dimensional
di
i
l accuracy off the
th parts
t is
i nott affected
ff t d by
b
Rev.0
the buffing operation.
SuperFinishing
S
Fi i hi
SuperFinishing
Statethespecificapplicationofaplanetary
internalgrinder.
internal grinder
y Planetary internal grinders find application for grinding
holes in workpieces of irregular shape or large heavy

workpieces.
Fig. super finishing of end face
of a cylindrical work piece in radial mode
In this both feeding and oscillation of the super

finishing stone is given in the radial direction.
GATE 1995
GATE
Among the conventional machining processes,
maximum specific energy is consumed in
(a) Turning
(b) Drilling
(c) Planning (d) Grinding
GATE 2000
GATE
Abrasive material used in grinding wheel selected
for grinding ferrous alloys is
(a) Silicon carbide
(b) Diamond
(c) Aluminium oxide
(d) Boron carbide
Fig. super finishing operation in plunge mode
IIn this
hi case the
h abrasive
b i stone covers the
h section
i
off the
h
workpiece requiring super finish. The abrasive stone is
slowly
l l fed
f d in
i radial
di l direction
di
i
while
hil its
i oscillation
ill i
i
is
imparted in the axial direction. It reduce surface
roughness
h
and
d increase
i
b i load
bearing
l d capacity.
it
GATE 1998
GATE
Ideal surface roughness, as measured by the
maximum height of unevenness, is best achieved
when, the material is removed by
(a) An end mill
(b) A grinding
i di wheel
h l
(c) A tool with zero nose radius
(d) A ball mill.
GATE 2002
GATE
The hardness of a grinding wheel is determined by
the
(a) Hardness of abrasive grains
(b) Ability of the bond to retain abrasives
(c) Hardness of the bond
((d)) Abilityy of the g
grinding
g wheel to p
penetrate the work
piece
Page 118 of 240
GATE 1998
GATE
In machining using abrasive material, increasing
abrasive grain size
(a) Increases the material removal rate
(b) Decreases the material removal rate
(c) First decreases and then increases the material
removal rate
(d) First increases and then decreases the material
removal rate
GATE 2006
GATE
If each abrasive grain is viewed as a cutting tool,
then which of the following represents the cutting
parameters in common grinding operations?
(a) Large negative rake angle, low shear angle and high
cutting speed
(b) Large positive rake angle, low shear angle and high
cutting
tti speed
d
(c) Large negative rake angle, high shear angle and low
cutting speed
(d) Zero rake angle,
g high
g shear angle
g and high
g cutting
g
speed
Rev.0
GATE 1997
GATE
List I
(A) Grinding
(B) Honing
H i
(C) Superfinishing
D)) Burnishing
g
1.
2.
3.
4.
4
5.
6
6.
List II
Surface for oil retention
S f
Surface
f max. load
for
l d
capacity
Surface of limiting friction
Surface of matte finish
Surface for pressure sealing
Surface for interference fit.
fit
IES 1997
IES
Which one of the following materials is used as the
bonding material for grinding wheels?
(a) Silicon carbide
(b) Sodium silicate
(c) Boron carbide
((d)) Aluminum oxide
IES 1996
IES
Specific energy requirements in a grinding process
are more than those in turning for the same metal
removal rate because of the
(a) Specific pressures between wheel and work being
high.
high
(b) Size effect of the larger contact areas between wheel
and
d work.
k
(c) High cutting velocities
(d) High heat produced during grinding.
IES 2005
IES
Consider the following statements in respect of
grinding?
1 The pitch of the grit cutting edges is larger than the
1.
pitch of the milling cutter.
2. The
Th cutting
tti
angles
l
off the
th grits
it have
h
a random
d
geometry.
3. The size of the chip cuts is very small for grinding.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1,
1 2 and 3
IES 1996
IES
Grinding wheel is said to be loaded when the
(a) Metal particles get embedded in the wheel surface
blocking the interspaces between cutting grains.
grains
(b) Bonding material comes on the surface and the
wheel
h l becomes
b
bl t
blunt.
(c) Work piece being ground comes to a stop in
cylindrical grinding.
((d)) Grinding
g wheel stops
p because of veryy large
g depth
p of
cut
IES 1994
IES
The ratio of thrust force to cutting force is nearly 2.5
in
(a) Turning
(b) Broaching
(c) Grinding (d) Plain milling
Page 119 of 240
IES 2009
IES
Which one of the following is NOT used as abrasive
material in grinding wheels?
(a) Aluminium oxide
(b) Silicon carbide
(c) Cubic boron nitride
((d)) Manganese
g
oxide
IES 2001
IES
Specific cutting energy is more in grinding process
compared to turning because
(a) Grinding (cutting) speed is higher
(b) The wheel has multiple cutting edges (grains)
(c) Plaguing force is significant due to small chip size
((d)) Grinding
g wheel undergoes
g
continuous wear
IES 1992
IES
Assertion (A): Vitrified bond is preferred for thin
grinding wheels.
Reason (R): Vitrified bond is hard brittle.
brittle
l
ti off A
Rev.0
IES 2000
IES
) The ratio of cutting
g force to thrust force is
Assertion ((A):
very high in grinding process as compared to other
machining processes.
Reason (R): Random orientation and effective negative
rake angles of abrasive grains increase the cutting force
and adversely affect the cutting action and promote
rubbing action.
explanation of A
IES 2009
IES
Given that the peripheral speed of the grinding
wheel of 100 mm diameter for cylindrical grinding
of a steel work piece is 30 m/s, what will be the
estimated rotational speed of the grinding wheel in
revolution per minute (r.p.m.)?
(a) 11460
(b) 5730
( ) 2865
(c)
86
(d) 95
IES 2000
IES
The sequence of markings "S
S 14 K 14 S
S" on a grinding
wheel represents respectively
(a) Bond type,
type structure,
structure grade,
grade grain size and abrasive
type
(b) Abrasive
Ab i type,
t
grain
i size,
i
grade,
d structure
t t
and
d bond
b d
type
(c) Bond type, grade, structure, grain size and abrasive
type
(d) Abrasive type, structure, grade, grain size and bond
yp
type
IES 1995
IES
IES 2010
IES2010
Soft materials cannot be economically grind due to

(a) The high temperatures involved
(b) Frequent
F
t wheel
h l clogging
l
i
(c) Rapid wheel wear
(d) Low work piece stiffness
In relation to the peripheral or surface

speeds of the grinding wheel and that of the
workpiece in cylindrical grinding of alloy
steel workpieces, the grinding wheel speed is
(a) Less than the speed of the workpiece
(b) Same as the speed of the workpiece
(c) Double the speed of the workpiece
(d) 65 to 75 times the speed of the workpiece.
IES 2002
IES
IES 2001,ISRO2009
2001 ISRO 2009
IES
Which of the following materials are used in

grinding wheel?
1 Aluminium oxide
1.
2. Cubic boron nitride
3. Silicon carbide
g the codes g
given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
The marking on a grinding wheel is '51

51 A 36 L 5 V 93
93'..
The code '36' represents the
(a) Structure
(b) Grade
(c) Grain size
((d)) Manufacturer's number
IES 1995
IES
IES 1993
IES
In the grinding wheel of A 60 G 7 B 23, B stands for

(a) Resinoid bond
(b) Rubber bond
( ) Shellac
(c)
Sh ll bond
b d
(d) Silicate
Sili t bond.
b d
Tool life in the case of a grinding wheel is the time

(a) Between two successive regrinds of the wheel
(b) Taken
T k for
f the
th wheel
h l to
t be
b balanced
b l
d
(c) Taken between two successive wheel dressings
(d) Taken for a wear of 1mm on its diameter
Page 120 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2001
IES
Assertion (A): Hard wheels are chosen for grinding
hard metals.
Reason (R): In hard wheels only the abrasive grains
are retained for long time.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
IES 2001
IES
Dry and compressed air is used as cutting fluid for
machining
(a) Steel
(b) Aluminium
(c) Cast iron (d) Brass
IES 1996
IES
A grinding wheel of 150 mm diameter is rotating at
3000 rpm. The grinding speed is
IES 1994
IES
grinding of high carbon steel:
1 Grinding at high speed results in the reduction of
1.
chip thickness and cutting forces per grit.
2. Aluminium
Al i i
oxide
id wheels
h l are employed.
l d
3. The grinding wheel has to be of open structure.
Of these statements
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(b) 1 and 2 are correct
(c) 1 and 3 are correct
(d) 2 and 3 are correct
IES 1993
IES
In centre less grinding, the work piece centre will be
(a) Above the line joining the two wheel centres
(b) Below
B l the
th line
li joining
j i i the
th two
t wheel
h l centres
t
(c) On the line joining the two wheel centres
(d) At the intersection of the line joining the wheel
plate p
plane.
centres with the work p
IES 1993
IES
Consider the following parameters:
1. Grinding wheel diameter.
2. Regulating
R
l ti wheel
h l diameter.
di
t
3. Speed of the grinding wheel.
4. Speed of the regulating wheel.
5. Angle between the axes of grinding and regulating
wheels.
Among these parameters,
parameters those which influence the
axial feed rate in centreless grinding would include
( ) 2, 4 and
(a)
d 5 (b) 1, 2 and
d3
(c) 1, 4 and 5 (d) Page
3, 4121
andof5 240
IES 1999
IES
Consider the following reasons:
1. Grinding wheel is soft
2. RPM off grinding
i di wheel
h l is
i too
t low
l
3. Cut is very fine
4. An improper cutting fluid is used
A grinding wheel may become loaded due to reasons
stated at
(a) 1 and 4
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 4
(d) 2 and 3
IES 2000
IES
Consider the following advantages:
1. Rapid process
2. Work
W k with
ith keyways
k
can be
b ground
d
3. No work holding device is required.
Which of these are the advantages of centre less
g
grinding?
g
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
IES 2007
IES
Honing Process gives surface finish of what order?
(a) 10 m (CLA)
(b) 1.0 m (CLA)
( ) 0.1 m (CLA)
(c)
(d) 0.01 m (CLA)
Rev.0
IES 1992
IES
CLA value for Honing process is
(a) 6
(b) 0.05 3.0
( ) 0.05 1.0 (d) 0.025 0.1
(c)
IES 1992
IES
A surface finish of 0.025 0.1 micrometer CLA values
is to by produced. Which machining process would
you recommend?
(a) Grinding (b) Rough turning
( ) Lapping
(c)
L
i
(d) Honing
H i
IAS 2000
IAS
Consider the following statements in respect of a
grinding wheel of specification, 51A 36L7R23,
using the standard alphanumeric codification:
1. Abrasive used in the wheel is aluminum oxide
2. The
Th grain
i size
i off abrasive
b i is
i medium
di
3. The wheel grade is medium hard
4. It has an open structure
5. It has resinoid as bonding agent
Which (If these statements are correct?
( ) 1, 2 and
(a)
d 3 (b) 1, 3 and
d4
GATE & PSUs)
(c) 2, 3 and For-2015
5 (d) (IES,
1, 4 and
5
IES 2012
IES
()
g
gp
Statement(I):Honingisanabradingprocesstoremove
stockfrommetallicsurfaces.
( )
g
y
Statement(II):Honingiscommonlydoneoninternal
surfaces.
IES 1992
IES
Buffing wheels are mode of
(a) Softer metals
(b) Cotton fabric
( ) Carbon
(c)
C b
(d) Graphite
G hit
IAS 1999
IAS
Assertion (A): The grade of a grinding wheel is a
measure of hardness of the abrasive used for the
wheel.
Reason (R): Grading is necessary for making right
selection of the wheel for a particular work.
work
l
ti off A
(d) A is false but R is
true122 of 240
Page
IES 2001
IES
(
g Tools)) with ListII ((Applications)
pp
)
Match ListI (Cutting
below the lists:
List I
List II
A. Trepanning tool 1.
For surface finishing by
h i
honing
B. Side milling cutter 2.
For machining gears
C Hob
C.
H b cutter
3.
F cutting
For
i keyways
k
i shafts
in
h f
D. Abrasive sticks
4.
For drilling large diameter
holes
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 1
(a)
3
2
4
(b) 4
3
2
1
(c) 1
2
3
4
(d) 4
2
3
1
IAS 2004
IAS
The size effect refers to the increase in specific
cutting energy at low values of under formed chip
thickness. It is due to which one of the following?
(a) Existence of ploughing force
(b) Work
W k hardening
h d i
(c) High strain rate
(d) Presence of high friction at chiptool interface.
IAS 2001
IAS
The setup for internal centreless grinding consists of a
regulating wheel, a pressure roll and a support roll, between
which the tubular workpiece is supported with the grinding
wheel within the tube, wherein
1.The grinding wheel, workpiece and regulating wheel centers
must lie on one line
2.The directions of rotation of workpiece and grinding wheel are
same
3.The directions of rotation of pressure roll, support roll and
regulating wheel are same
4 The directions of rotation of grinding wheel and regulating
4.The
wheel are same
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b)
1, 3 and 4
Rev.0
(c) 2 and 3
(d)
3 and 4
IAS 1997
IAS
IAS 2007
2007
IAS
Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?

1. Drill press :
Trepanning
2. Centreless
C t l grinding:
i di
Th
Through
h feeding
f di
3. Capstan lathe:
Ram type turret
Codes:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1, 2 and 3
( ) 1 and
(c)
d3
(d) 2 and
d3

using the code given below the Lists:
List I
List II
(Machine Tool/ Cutting Tool)
(Part/ Characteristics)
A. Screw cutting
g lathe1.
Self locking
g taper
p
B. Drill
2.
Chasing dial
33.
Wiper
p insert
C. End mill
D. Grinding wheel
4.
Self releasing taper
55.
Balance weights
g
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
((a)) 4
5
3
1
((b)) 2
1
4
5
(c) 4
1
3
5
(d) 2
5
4
1
IAS 2001
IAS
IAS 1999
IAS
Which one of the following processing sequences
will give the best accuracy as well as surface finish?
(a) Drilling,
Drilling reaming and grinding
(b) Drilling, boring and grinding
(c) Drilling, reaming and lapping
((d)) Drilling,
g reaming
g and electroplating
p
g
NC,CNC&Robotics
Which one of the following grinding wheels (with

Grade, Grit and Bond) is suitable for cutter
grinding?
(a) K 60 vitrified
(b) K 320 vitrified
( ) T 60
(c)
6 resinoid
i id
(d) T 320 resinoid
i id
Wh t i NC/CNC?
WhatisNC/CNC?
y NC is
i an acronym for
f Numerical
N
i l Control
C t l and
d CNC is
i an
acronym
y for Computer
p
Numerical Control.
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
WhatisthedifferencebetweenNCandCNC?
WhatisthedifferencebetweenNCandCNC?
Wh
did CNC t t t d?
WheredidCNCgetstarted?
y The difference between NC and CNC is one of age and
y Some
off the
with
S
th enhancements
h
t that
th t came along
l
ith CNC
y 1940 Jhon
Parson
developed
Jh
P
d l
d first
fi t machine
hi able
bl to
t drill
d ill
include: Canned Cycles,

y
, Sub Programming,
g
g, Cutter
holes at specific
p
coordinates p
programmed
g
on p
punch
Compensation, Work coordinates, Coordinate system
cards.
capability.
y The earliest NC machines performed limited functions
and movements controlled by punched tape or punch
cards.
cards
y As the technology evolved, the machines were equiped
with
ith increasingly
i
i l powerful
f l microprocessors
i
(
(computers)
t )
with the addition of these computers, NC machines
b
become
CNC machines.
hi
y CNC machines have far more capability than their
predecessor.
contd..
rotation, automatic corner rounding, chamfering, and B
y 1951 MIT developed servomechanism
spline
li interpolation.
i t
l ti
y 1952 MIT developed first NC machines for milling.

y 1970 First
Fi CNC machines
hi
came into
i
picture
i
Nowadayss modified 1970

Nowaday
1970ss machines are used.
used
Page 123 of 240
Rev.0
IAS 1996
IAS
Assertion (A): The temperature control of an
electric iron is an example of servomechanism.
Reason (R): It is an automatic control system.
system
l
ti off A
Do all machines speak the same CNC

DoallmachinesspeakthesameCNC
language
y CNC machine
tool
offer
what
hi
t l builders
b ild
ff an option
ti
h t is
i
y No, while there is fairly standard set of G and M codes,
known as the conversational control. This control lets
Wh t i C
ti
l C t l
WhatisaConversationalControl
there is some variation in their application. For example
the
operator/programmer
use
simple
descriptive
a G0 or G00 command is universally regarded as the
language to program the part. The control then
command
d for
f rapid
id travel.
l Some
S
older
ld machines
hi
d not
do
di l d a graphical
displayed
hi l representation
t ti off the
th instructions
i t ti
have a G00 command. On these machines, rapid travel is
so the operator/programmer
p
p g
can verifyy the tool p
path.
commanded by using the F (feed) word address.
C C
hi
f
h
AreCNCmachinesfasterthan
conventionalmachines?
conventional machines?
C C
hi
AreCNCmachinesmoreaccurate
thanconventionalmachines?
than conventional machines?
y Yes, No, Sometimes. When it comes to making a single,
y Yes, they can be. But like anything else it depends on
simple part it is hard to beat a conventional mill or lathe.

lathe
who
h is
i running
i the
th machine,
hi
h
how
well
ll the
th machines
hi
h
has
CNC machines move faster in rapid travel than
been maintained,, q
qualityy of setup
p and so on.
GATE 1994
GATE
CNC machines are more accurate than conventional
machines because they have a high resolution
encoder and digital read
readouts
outs for positioning.
T
True
or false?
f l ?
conventional machines.
NC/CNCMachinesAdvantages
y High
Hi h Repeatability
R
t bilit and
d Precision
P i i e.g. Aircraft
Ai
ft parts
t
y Volume of production is very high
NC/CNCMachinesDisadvantages
y Costlysetup,skilledoperators
y Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined. E.g.
y Computers,programmingknowledgerequired
C
t
i k
l d
i d
Turbines
y Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less
scrap
y More safe, higher productivity, better quality
y Less
L
paper work,
k faster
f t prototype
t t
production,
d ti
reduction
d ti
in lead times
y Maintenanceisdifficult
Page 124 of 240
IES 1999
IES
Consider the following statements
numerically controlled machine tools:
1 They reduce nonproductive
1.
non productive time
2. They reduce fixturing
3. They reduce maintenance cost
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
Rev.0
regarding
IES 1995
IES
Consider
the
following
characteristics
of
production jobs:
1 Processing of parts frequently in small lots
1.
2. Need to accommodate design changes of products.
3. Low rate of metal removal
4. Need for holding
4
g close tolerances
The characteristics which favour the choice of
numerically controlled machines would include
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2, 3 and 4
( ) 1, 3 and
(c)
d 4 (d) 1, 2 and
d4
NC/CNC/DNC
y Direct Numerical Control is a system that uses a
Directnumericalcontrol
central computer to control several machines at the same

time
y Distributed Numerical Control (DNC): the central
computer
t downloads
d
l d complete
l t programs to
t the
th CNC
machines, which can be workstations or PCs, and can get
th information
the
i f
ti for
f the
th machine
hi operations.
ti
y The speed of the system is increased, large files can be
handled and the number of machine tools used is
expanded.
497
IES 2009
IES
DNC
In which of the following machining manual part

programming is done?
(a) CNC machining
(b) NC machining
(c) DNC machining
(d) FMS machining
498
GATE 1993
GATE
With reference to NC machine, which of the
following statement is wrong?
(a) Both closedloop
closed loop and openloop
open loop control systems are
used
(b) Paper
P
t
tapes,
fl
floppy
t
tapes
and
d cassettes
tt are used
d for
f
data storage
(c) Digitizers may be used as interactive input devices
((d)) Post p
processor is an item of hardware
499
IES 2007
IES
What are the main components of an NC machine?
1. Part program
2. Machine
M hi Control
C t l Unit
U it
3. Servo motor
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
20 0
JWM2010
g components
p
g
g numerical
regarding
control system :
1 Programme of instructions
1.
2. Machine control unit
3. Processing
P
i equipment
i
Which of these are correct ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
Page 125 of 240
IES 2009
IES
What is the purpose of satellite computers in
Distributed Numerical Control machines?
(a) To act as standby
stand by systems
(b) To share the processing of largesize NC programs
(c) To serve a group of NC machines
((d)) To network with another DNC setup
p
Rev.0
IES 1999
IES
Consider the following components:
1. A dedicated computer
2. Bulk
B lk memory
3. Telecommunication lines
Which of these components are required for a DNC
y
system?
(a) 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 1,
1 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
IES 2002Contd..FromS1
2002 C td F
S1
IES
C.
y
DNC system
33.
D. Machining centre 4.
Codes:A
( ) 4
(a)
(c) 4
B
2
3
C
3
2
D
1
1
IES 2002S1
2002
S1
IES
20 0
JWM2010
The controller consists of

softwired computer and
hard wired logic Graphic
display of tool path is
also possible
The instructions on tape is
prepared in binary
d i l form
decimal
f
and
d operated
d by
b
a series of coded
instructions
A
B
C
D
(b) 1
3
2
4
(d) 1
2
3
4
g
g
y
ConsiderthefollowingadvantagesofDNCsystems:
1.Timesharing
2 Greatercomputationalcapability
2.Greatercomputationalcapability
3.Remotecomputerlocation
Whichoftheaboveis/arecorrect?
(a)1and2only
(b)2and3only
(c)2only
(d)1 2and3
(d)1,2and3

answer:
List I
List II
(NC machine tool systems)
(Features)
A NC system 1.
A.
1
It has an integrated automatic tool
changing unit and a component
g device
indexing
B. CNC system 2.
A number of machine tools are
p
No tape
p
controlled byy a computer.
reader, the part program is
transmitted directly to the
machine tool from the
computer memory
St
M t
StepperMotor
IAS2011main
y The
motor
off synchronous
motor
Th stepper
t
t is
i special
i l type
t
h
t
Explain, at least two, characteristics each of NC,
which is designed
g
to rotate through
g a specific
p
angle
g
CNC and DNC.
(Called step) for each electrical pulse received from the

[10Marks]
control unit.
BasicCNCPrinciples
IAS2010Main
IAS2009main
Illustratewiththehelpofneatsketchesthedifferences
What is the function of stepper motor?
betweenopen loopandclosed loopcontrolinNC

betweenopenloopandclosedloopcontrolinNC
[2 marks]
system.Whyisfeedbacknotpossibleinopenloop
controlsystem?
[22 Marks]
Page 126 of 240
Rev.0
GATE 2007
GATE
WhichtypeofmotorisNOTusedinaxisorspindle
drivesofCNCmachinetools?
(a) Inductionmotor
(b) DCservomotor
(c) Steppermotor
(d) Linearservomotor
IES 1994
IES
IES 2002
IES
Feed drives in CNC milling machines are provided

by
(a) Synchronous motors
(b) Induction motors
(c) Stepper motors
((d)) Servomotors.
In a CNC machine tool, encoder is used to sense and

control
(a) Table position
(b) Table velocity
(c) Spindle speed
((d)) Coolant flow
B i L
th U it (BLU)
BasicLengthUnit(BLU)
GATE 1997
GATE
y In NC machine, the displacement length per one pulse
In a point to point control NC machine, the slides

are positioned by an integrally mounted stepper
motor drive. If the specification of the motor is
1o/pulse, and the pitch of the lead screw is 3.6 mm,
what is the expected positioning accuracy?
output from machine is defined as a Basic Length Unit

(BLU).
y In the CNC computer each bit (binary digit) represents 1
BLU.
BLU
Bit = BLU
y Example: If one pulse makes a servo motor rotate by one
degree and the servo motor moves the table by 0.0001
mm, one BLU will be 0.0001 mm.
y The lead of a ball screw is related to the displacement
p
unit of the machine tool table.
( a ) 1 m
(c ) 50 m
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
In a CNC machine feed drive, a stepper motor
with step angle of 1.8o drives a lead screw with
pitch of 2 mm.
mm The Basic Length Unit (BLU) for
this drive is
(a) 10 microns
(b) 20 microns
(c) 40 microns
(d) 100 microns
GATE 2008(PI)
A stepper
motor
The
t
t has
h 150 steps.
t
Th output
t t shaft
h ft off the
th
motor is directlyy coupled
p
to a lead screw of p
pitch 4 mm,,
which drives a table. If the frequency of pulse supply to
the motor is 200 Hz, the speed of the table (in mm/min)
is
(a) 400
(b) 320
(c) 300
Page 127 of 240
(d) 280
(b) 10 m
(d ) 100 m
l
Example
y A DC servomotor is coupled directly to a leadscrew
which drives the table of an NC machine tool. A

digital encoder,
encoder which emits 500 pulses per
revolution, is mounted on the other end of the
leadscrew If the leadscrew pitch is 5 mm and the
leadscrew.
motor rotates at 600 rpm, calculate
( ) The
(a)
Th linear
li
velocity
l it off the
th table
t bl
(b) The BLU of the NC system
(c) The frequency of pulses transmitted by the encoder.
Rev.0
GATE 2014(PI)
IES 2011 C
ti
l
IES2011Conventional
G
20 0 ( )
GATE
2010(PI)
y The table of a CNC machine is driven by a Lead screw which
is rotated by a DC servomotor. A digital encoder which emits

1000 pulses per second is mounted on the lead screw as a
feedback device. If the lead screw p
pitch is 6 mm and motor
rotates at 500 rpm, find
1.
Basic length Units of the system
2
2.
Linear velocity of the table.

table
3.
Frequency of pulses generated by the feedback device.
For a 3 axes
axes CNC table, the slide along the vertical axis
of the table is driven by a DC servo motor via a lead
screw nut mechanism. The lead screw has a pitch of 5
screw
mm. This lead screw is fitted with a relative
(incremental) circular encoder. The basic length unit
(BLU) of the slide along the vertical axis of the table is
0.005 mm. When the table moves along the vertical axis
by 9 mm, the corresponding number of pulses generated
by the encoder is
(a) 1400
(b) 1800
(c) 4200
(d) 9000
[5 Marks]
StatementforLinkedAnswersquestions:S1
In the feed drive of a Point
to Point open loop CNC
PointtoPoint
drive, a stepper motor rotating at 200 steps/rev drives a
table through a gear box and lead screw
screwnut
nut mechanism
(pitch = 4 mm, number of starts = 1).
Output rotational speed
The gear ratio = Input rotational speed is given by U = 14
The stepper motor (driven by voltage pulses from a pulse
generator)
t ) executes
t 1 step/pulse
t / l off the
th pulse
l generator.
t
The frequency of the pulse train from the pulse
generator
t is
i f = 10,000 pulses
l
per minute.
i t
GATE 2009(PI)
with a pitch of 5.0
5 0 mm to drive the work
worktable
table by a
distance of 200 mm in a NC machine is
(a) 14400
(b) 28800
(c) 57600
(d) 72000
((a)) become
b
d bl off previous
double
i
value
l
(b) become half of previous value
(c) remain the same
(d) become zero
GATE 2008Q1
2008 Q 1 (StatementinS2)
(St t
t i S 2)
GATE
GATE 2008Q2
2008 Q 2 (StatementinS3)
(St t
t i S 3)
GATE
The Basic Length Unit (BLU), i.e., the table

movement corresponding to 1 pulse of the pulse
generator, is
(a) 0.5 microns
(b) 5 microns
( ) 50 microns
(c)
i
(d) 500 microns
i
A customer insists on a modification to change the BLU

of the CNC drive to 10 microns without changing the
table speed. The modification can be accomplished by
GATE2014(PI)
The
h totall angular
l movement (in
( degrees)
d
) off a leadscrew
l d
loop pointtopoint
point to point controlled CNC drilling
In an open loop,
machine, a stepper motor, producing 200 angular steps per
revolution,
revolution drives the table of a drilling machine by one
angular step per each pulse generated by a pulse generator
(shown in figure).
figure) Each angular step moves the table by
one Basic Length Unit (BLU) along X axis with a lead screw
having a pitch of 4 mm. If the frequency of pulse generator
is doubled, the BLU will
Each
driven
by a stepper
motor
E h axis
i off NC machine
hi iis d
i
b
t
t
drive with a lead screw. The pitch of lead screw is p mm.
Th step
The
t angle
l off stepper
t
motor
t per pulse
l input
i
t is
i
degrees/pulse. The ratio of gear drive in stepper motor
d i is
drive
i g(number
(
b off turns
t
off the
th motor
t for
f each
h single
i l
turn of the lead screw). The number of pulses required
t achieve
to
hi
a linear
li
movementt off x mm is
i
g
360 g
g
360 g
x
x
x
x
(a)
(b)
(c )
(d )
360 p
p
360 p
p
Page 128 of 240
IAS2010
Main
IAS
2010Main
In openloop NC system the shaft of a stepping motor is
connected directly to the lead screw xaxis
x axis of the
machine table. The pitch of the lead screw is 3.0 mm.
The number of step angles on the stepping motor is 200.
200
Determine how closelyy the p
position of the table can be
controlled, assuming that there are no mechanical errors
positioning
g system.
y
in the p
Also, what is the required frequency of the pulse train
and
d the
h corresponding
d
rotationall speed
d off the
h stepping
motor in order to drive the table at a travel rate of 100
mm/min?
[ Marks]
[8
k ]
Rev.0
ControlSystemspossibleinCNCMachine
y Point to point mode:
GATE 1992
GATE
P i tt
i t t i ht li
d
Pointtopointstraightlinemode
In a point
to point type of NC system
pointtopoint
(a) Control of position and velocity of the tool is
essential
(b) Control of only position of the tool is sufficient
(c) Control of only velocity of the tool is sufficient
((d)) Neither p
position nor velocityy need be controlled
GATE 2006
GATE
NC contouring is an example of
(a) Continuous path positioning
(b) Pointtopoint
P i tt
i t positioning
iti i
(c) Absolute positioning
(d) Incremental positioning
GATE2005
WhichamongtheNCoperationsgivenbeloware
continuouspathoperations?
ArcWelding(AW)
Milling(M)
Drilling(D)
g
PunchingisSheetMetal(P)
g
LaserCuttingofSheetMetal(LC)SpotWelding(SW)
(a) AW,LCandM
(c) D,LC,PandSW
C
di t
t
Coordinatesystem
ordinate system.
y All the machine tool use Cartesian Co
Coordinate
system
y The first axis to be identified is the Z axis, This is
followed by X and Y axes respectively.

respectively
(b)AW,D,LCandM
(d)D,LC,andSW
Righthandcoordinatesystems
Page 129 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2000
IES
Assertion (A): The axis of an NC drilling machine
spindle is denoted as zaxis.
Reason (R): In NC machine tool,
tool the axis
perpendicular to both x and yaxis is designated as
z axis
zaxis
l
ti off A
IES 1996
IES
Assertion (A): Numerically controlled machines
having more than three axes do not exist.
Reason (R): There are only three Cartesian
coordinates namely xyz.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
5axesCNCverticalaxismachiningcentreconfiguration
Absolute and Incremental Coordinate System
For-2015 (IES, GATE &

PSUs)
Incremental Coordinate System
Absolute Coordinate System
Page 130 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2003S1
2003
S1
IES
While part programming
in CNC machines, the
input
of
dimensional
information for the tool
path can be given in the
absolute
coordinate
system or in incremental
coordinate system. The
above figure shows the
route to be followed by the
tool from O to C, i.e., O A
B C.
IES 2003Contd..FromS1
2003 C td F
S1
IES
Q
( )
If incremental co
ordinates system is used, the co
coordinates
co
ordinates of each point A, B and C are
(a) A: X 5.0,
5 0 Y 10.0
10 0
(b) A: X 5.0,
5 0 Y 10.0
10 0
B: X 20.0, Y5.0
B: X 25, Y 15.0
C: X 10.0, Y 10.0
C: X 35, Y 5.0
((c)) A: X 10.0, Y 55.0
((d)) A: X 10.0, Y 55.0
B: X 15.0, Y 25.0
B: X 5.0, Y 20.0
C: X 15.0,
15 0 Y 35.0
35 0
C: X 10.0,
10 0 Y 10
10.0
0
A CNC vertical milling machine has to cut a

straight
t i ht slot
l t off 10 mm width
idth and
d 2 mm depth
d th by
b a
cutter of 10 mm diameter between points (0, 0)
and
d (100,
(
100)) on the
th XY plane
l
(di
(dimensions
i
i
in
mm). The feed rate used for milling is 50 mm/min.
Milling time for the slot (in seconds) is
(a) 120
(b) 170
(c) 180
(d) 240
P tP
i
PartProgramming
Th f ll i
th t
t b f ll
d
Thefollowingarethestepstobefollowed
whiledevelopingtheCNCpartprograms.
y FANUCCONTROLL
y Processplanning
y SIEMENSCONTROLL
y Axesselection
y Toolselection
y Cuttingprocessparametersplanning
y Jobandtoolsetupplanning
J
pp
g
y Machiningpathplanning
y Partprogramwriting
y Partprogramproving
CNC programming
CNCprogramming
Importantthingstoknow:
y For a CNC machine control unit (MCU) decides cutting
speed, feed,
speed
feed depth of cut,
cut tool selection , coolant on off
and tool paths. The MCU issues commands in form of
numeric data to motors that position slides and tool
accordingly.
TableofImportantGcodes
ProgrammingKeyLetters
y O Programnumber(Usedforprogramidentification)
CoordinateSystem
Units,incrementalorabsolutepositioning
G01
LinearInterpolation
N__G01X___Y___Z___F___
G02
CircularInterpolation,
CircularInterpolation
CW
N G02X Y Z
N__G02X__Y__Z___R___F___
R
F
G
G03
CircularInterpolation,
C
l
l
CCW
N G X___Y___Z__R__F___
N__G03
X
Y
Z R F
G04
G17
Dwell
XY Plane
N__G04P___
G18
G19
9
XZPlane
y X Xaxisdesignation
y Z Zaxisdesignation
y F Feedratedesignation
y S Spindlespeeddesignation
CoolantControl:On/Off,Flood,Mist
C l C
l O /Off Fl d Mi
ToolControl:Toolandtoolparameters
T lC
l T l d l
Format
N__G00X___Y___Z___
N G00X
Y Z
y G
G Preparatoryfunction
y R Radiusdesignation
Feedrateandspindlespeed
F d
d i dl
d
Meaning
RapidTransverse
y N Sequencenumber(Usedforlineidentification)
y Y Yaxisdesignation
g
Coordinates:X,Y,Z,RX,RY,RZ
Code
G00
y H
H Toollengthoffsetdesignation
y D Toolradiusoffsetdesignation
y T ToolDesignation
g
y M Miscellaneousfunction
Page 131 of 240
N__G02X___Y__Z__I___J__K__F__
N__G03 X__Y__Z__I__J__K__F__
YZPlane
Rev.0
Code
Meaning
G20/G70 InchUnit
G21/G71 MetricUnit
Rapidtraverse:G00
G28
AutomaticReturntoReference
Point
Code Meaning
Format
G44 Toollengthcompensation N__G44H__
N G44H
(minus)
G49 Toollengthcompensation
cancel
G40
Cuttercompensationcancel
G80
Cancelcannedcycles
Ca
ce ca ed cyc es
G41
G
G42
Cuttercompensationleft
C tt
Cuttercompensationright
ti i ht
G81
Drillingcycle
G90
G91
Absolutepositioning
Incrementalpositioning
G92
Absolutepreset,changethe
Absolutepreset
changethe N__G92X__Y__Z__
N G92X Y Z
datumposition
G43
Format
N__G41D__
N G D
N__G42D__
Toollengthcompensation
(plus)
N G43H
N__G43H__
Linearinterpolation:G01
y Itisusedforpositioningmotion.
G90G00X20 0Y10 0
G90G00X20.0Y10.0
N__G81Z__R__F__
End
G90:
9
absolute
coordinates
Start
Circularinterpolation:G02,G03
y Forcircularinterpolation,thetooldestinationandthecircle
y linearinterpolationatfeedspeed.
p
p
centerareprogrammedinoneblock
y G02isclockwiseinterpolation,G03iscounterclockwise
interpolation
G91G0lX200.0Y100.0F200.0
Y
End
100.0
200 0
200.0
Start
p
,
Y
y tomakethemachinemoveatmaximumspeed.
t k th
hi
t
i
(
(20,10)
)
(10,10)
(0,0)
y G02,G03:
y G01:
G91:
incremental
coordinates
y G00:
y I,J,Karetheincremental
distancefromthestartof
thearc;
h
X
Start
j
Center
y Viewingthestartofarcas
theorigin,I,J,Khave
th
i i I J Kh
positiveornegativesigns.
F __;
J __
F __;
K __
G 02
R
G19
Y __ Z __
G 03
J __
F __;
K __
End
point
Start
N0010G92X200.0Y40.0Z0;
N0020G90G03X140.0Y100.0I60.0F300
N0030G02X120.0Y60.0I 50.0
N0010G92X200.0Y40.0Z0
N0010G92X200
0Y40 0Z0
N0020G90G03X140.0Y100.0R60.0F300
N0030G02X120.0Y60.0R50.0
Y
100
60
40
SpecifyRwith
signbeforeit:
>180
R
R=50mm
AnnotationforCircularInterpolation
G92:
Todefineworking
coordinate
G90:
absolute
coordinates
di t
End
G91G02X60.0Y20.0R50.0 F300.0
9
5
F300.0
3
G91G02X60.0Y20.0R50.0
Circlecenter radius
Circlecenter,radius
Or
R=-50mm
180 +R
y SpecifyCenterwithI,J,K
End
G 02
R
G17
X __ Y __
G 03
I __
G 02
R
G18
X __ Z __
G 03
I __
y I0.0,J0.0,andK0.0canbeomitted.
I
J
dK b itt d
y IfX,Y,Zareallomittedintheprogram,thatmeans
startandendofarcaresamepoints
startandendofarcaresamepoints.
N0020G02I20.0(afullcircle)
y IfI,J,K,andRallappearsincircularinterpolation
IfI J K andRallappearsincircularinterpolation
instruction,RisvalidandI,J,andKareinvalid
R50
R60
X
Page 132 of 240
90 120 140
200
Rev.0
GATE 2014
GATE2014
FortheCNCpartprogramming,matchGroupAwith
GroupB:
GroupA
Group B
P:circularinterpolation,counter
clockwise
Q:dwell
R:circularinterpolation clockwise
R:circularinterpolation,clockwise
S:pointtopointcountering
P
( ) II
(a)
(c) I
Q
III
IV
R
I
II
S
IV
III
( )
(b)
(d)
P
I
II
I:G02
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
The interpolator in a CNC machine controls
(a) Spindle Speed
(b) Coolant flow
(c) Feed rate
(d) Tool change
II:G03
III:G04
IV:G00
Q
III
I
R
II
III
During the execution of a CNC part program block

N020 G02 X45.0 Y25.0 R5.0 the type of tool motion will
be
(a) Circular Interpolation clockwise
(b) Circular Interpolation counter clockwise
((c)) Linear Interpolation
p
(d) Rapid feed
S
IV
IV
GATE 2010
GATE
In a CNC program block, N002 G02 G91 X40 Z40,
G02 and G91 refer to
(a) Circular interpolation in counterclockwise direction
and incremental dimension
(b) Circular
Ci l interpolation
i t
l ti in
i counterclockwise
t l k i direction
di ti
and absolute dimension
(c) Circular interpolation in clockwise direction and
incremental dimension
(d) Circular interpolation in clockwise direction and
absolute dimension
GATE 2005
GATE
The tool of an NC machine has to move along a
circular arc from (5, 5) to (10,10) while performing an
operation. The centre of the arc is at (10, 5). Which
one of the following NC tool path commands
performs the above mentioned operation?
(a) N010G02 X10 Y10 X5 Y5 R5
(b) N010G03
N G X10
X Y10
Y X5
X Y5
Y R5
R
(c) N010G01 X5 Y5 X10 Y10 R5
(d) N010G02 X5 Y5 X10 Y10 R5
GATE 2004
GATE
IES 2009
IES
Interpolation
in
to
I t
l ti
i the
th controller
t ll refers
f
t control
t l off
which one of the following
g in a CNC machine?
(a) Loading/unloading of jobs on machine
(b) Loading/unloading of tools from the tool changer
(c) Axes of machine for contouring
(d) Coolant and miscellaneous functions on machine
GATE2014(PI)
A CNC instruction G91G01X30Y40F100 commands the
GATE 2001
GATE
In an NC machining operation, the tool has to be
moved from point (5, 4) to point (7, 2) along a
circular path with centre at (5, 2). Before starting the
operation, the tool is at (5, 4). The correct G and M
code for this motion is
(a) N010 G03 X7.0 Y2.0 I5.0 J2.0
(b) N010
N
G X7.0
G02
X
Y
Y2.0
I
I5.0
J
J2.0
(c) N010 G01 X7.0 Y2.0 I5.0 J2.0
(d) N010 G00 X7.0 Y2.0 I5.0 J2.0
ToolCompensation
y ToolRadiusCompensation
movement of tool along the path at a feed rate of 100
y LefthandG41
L fth dG
mm/min (G91 incremental format and G01 linear
y RighthandG42
interpolation). The feed rate of the tool (in mm/min)

along the X axis will be _______
y CanceltoolradiuscompensationG40
C
l l di
i G
y ToolHeightCompensation
y PositiveG43
y NegativeG44
y CanceltoolheightcompensationG49
Page 133 of 240
Rev.0
ToolRadiusCompensation
y Toolradiuscompensationsmakeitpossibleto
programdirectlyfromthedrawing,andthuseliminate
thetooloffsetcalculation
th
t l ff t l l ti
G41(G42)D
CancelToolCompensation:G40
y Notethedifferencebetweentwoways
N0060G40G01 X2.000Y1.700M02
y D:theradiusoftooltocompensateissavedinamemoryunitthat
D th di ft lt
t i
di
itth t
N0060G01 X2.000Y1.700
N0070G40
7
4 M02
isnamedD
y G41/G42isdirectlyrelatedwithdirectionoftoolmovementand
whichsideofpartiscut
whichsideofpartiscut.
rampoffblock
GATE 2014
GATE
For machining a rectangular island represented by
coordinates P(0, 0), Q(100, 0), R(100, 50) and S(0, 50) on
a casting using CNC milling machine, an end mill with a
diameter of 16 mm is used. The trajectory of the cutter
center to machine the island PQRS is
(a) (8, 8), (108, 8), (108, 58), (8, 58), (8, 8)
(b) (8,
(8 8),
8) (94,
(94 8),
8) (94,
(94 44),
44) (8,
(8 44),
44) (8,
(8 8)
(c) (8, 8), (94, 0), (94, 44), (8, 44), (8, 8)
(d) (0,
( 0),
) (100,
(
0),
) (100,
(
50),
) (50,
(
0),
) (0,
( 0))
TableofImportantMcodes
effectivetotheendpoint
ToolHeightCompensation
G43(G44)H
y H:specifiedmemoryunitusedtosaveheight
compensationoftool.
y Positivecompensation(G43):
realposition=specifiedposition+valuesavedinH
y Negativecompensation(G44):
realposition=specifiedposition
l iti
ifi d iti valuesavedinH
l
di H
g
p
ToolHeightCompensation
y Example:
y N0010G91G00X12.0Y80.0
G G
y N0020G44Z32.0H02
G91:
incremental
coordinates
y Ifweput0.5mmintoH02,
y realposition=32.0 0.5=32.5
y Canceltoolheightcompensation:G49
p g
g
Rulesforprogramming
Block Format
y M01Optionalprogramstop
N135 G01 X1.0

X1 0 Y1.0
Y1 0 Z0.125
Z0 125 F5
y M03Spindleonclockwise
S i dl l k i
y M04Spindleoncounterclockwise
Sample Block
Restrictions on CNC blocks
Each may contain only one tool move
Each may contain any number of non-tool move G-codes
Each may contain only one feed rate
Each may contain only one specified tool or spindle speed
The block numbers should be sequential
Both the program start flag and the program number must be
independent of all other commands (on separate lines)
The data within a block should follow the sequence shown
in the above sample
p block
y M05Spindlestop
y M06Toolchange
y M08Coolanton
y M09Coolantoff
y M10Clampson
y M11Clampsoff
In finish machining of an island on a casting with

CNC milling machine, an end mill with 10 mm
diameter is employed. The corner points of the
island are represented by (0, 0), (0, 30), (50, 30), and
(50, 0). By applying cutter radius right
compensation, the trajectory of the cutter will be
(a) (5,
( 5 0),
0) (5,
( 5 35),
35) (55,
(55 35),
35) (55,
(55 5),
5) (5,
( 5 5)
5)
(b) (0, 5), (55, 5), (55, 35), (5, 35), (5, 5)
(c) (5, 5), (5, 25), (45, 25), (45, 5), (5, 5)
(d) (5,
5 55), (45,
45 55), (45,
45 25),
5 (5,
5 25),
5 (5,
5 55)
GATE 2009
2009
GATE
y M00Programstop
M P
y M02orM30Programstop,resettostart
GATE 2000
GATE
Page 134 of 240
Rev.0
IES 1993
1993
IES
A 'block'
block of information in N.C. machine program
means
(a) One row on tape
(b) A word comprising several rows on tape
(c) One complete instruction
((d)) One complete
p
program
p
g
for a jjob
ToolHome
IES 1996
IES
In manual programming and tape preparation for a
NC drilling machine, the spindle speed was coded
as S 684 (using the magic
magicthree
three code). The spindle
speed in rpm will be
(a) 684
(b) 68.4
(c) 840
((d)) 6840
4
Top
p
View
Top
View
2.)ZAxisRapidMove
JustAboveHole
3.)TurnOnCoolant
)
ExampleofCNCProgramming
Example of CNC Programming
y WhatMustBeDoneToDrillAHoleOnACNC
VerticalMillingMachine
g
Top
View
55.)ZAxisFeedMoveto
DrillHole
4.)TurnOnSpindle
)
O S i dl
1 )X&YRapidToHolePosition
1.)X&YRapidToHolePosition
Front
View
.100
Front
View
Front
View
HeresTheCNCProgram!
Top
View
6.)RapidZAxisMove
6
)RapidZAxisMove
OutOfHole
Front
View
Top
View
Top
View
8.)TurnOffCoolant
Front
View
7.)TurnOffSpindle
9.)X&YAxisRapid
MoveHome
Page 135 of 240
Front
View
ToolAtHome
O0001
O
N005G54G90S600M03
N010G00X1.0Y1.0
N015G43H01Z.1M08
N020G01Z.75F3.5
N025G00Z 1M09
N025G00Z.1M09
N030G91G28X0Y0Z0
N035M30
Rev.0
ToolAtHome
Top
View
O0001
O
O0001
N
NumberAssignedtothisprogram
b A i
d hi
Front
View
Top
View
Front
View
Top
View
Front
View
ToolAtHome
Top
View
O0001
O
N005G54G90S600M03
N005
G54
G90
S600
M03
SequenceNumber
FixtureOffset
AbsoluteProgrammingMode
SpindleSpeedsetto600RPM
SpindleoninaClockwiseDirection
Front
View
O0001
O
N005G54G90S600M03
N010G00X1.0Y1.0
N015G43H01Z.1M08
G43
H01
Z.1
M08
ToolLengthCompensation
SpecifiesToollengthcompensation
ZCoordinate.1in.fromZero
FloodCoolantOn
O0001
N005G54G90S600M03
N
G G S6 M
N010G00X1.0Y1.0
N015G43H01Z.1M08
N020G01Z.75F3.5
75 3 5
N025G00Z.1M09
N030G91G28X0Y0Z0
G91
IncrementalProgrammingMode
G28
ZeroReturnCommand
X0,Y0,Z0
X,Y,&ZCoordinatesatZero
Top
View
Front
View
p
Top
View
Front
F
View
Top
View
O0001
O
N005G54G90S600M03
N010G00X1.0Y1.0
G
G00
X1.0
Y1.0
R idM i
RapidMotion
XCoordinate1.0in.fromZero
YCoordinate1.0in.fromZero
Front
View
O0001
O
N005G54G90S600M03
N010G00X1.0Y1.0
N015G43H01Z.1M08
N020G01Z.75F3.5
G01
Z.75
35
F3.5
StraightLineCuttingMotion
ZCoordinate.75 in.fromZero
FeedRatesetto3.5in/min.
35 /
O0001
N005G54G90S600M03
N
G G S6 M
N010G00X1.0Y1.0
N015G43H01Z.1M08
N020G01Z.75F3.5
N020G01Z
.75F3.5
N025G00Z.1M09
N030G91G28X0Y0Z0
N035M30
M30
Page 136 of 240
EndofProgram
Top
View
Front
View
O0001
O
N005G54G90S600M03
N010G00X1.0Y1.0
N015G43H01Z.1M08
N020G01Z.75F3.5
N025G00Z 1M09
N025G00Z.1M09
G00
Z
Z.1
M09
RapidMotion
ZCoordinate.1in.fromZero
ZC
di
i f
Z
CoolantOff
IES 1995
1995
IES
List I
List II
(A function
f
i connected
d
(A
(Associated
i d parameter))
with NC m/c tool)
A Interpolation
A.
1 Tape preparation
1.
B. Parity check
2. Canned cycle
C Preparatory function
C.
3 Drilling
3.
D. Point to point control
4. Contouring
5. Turning
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
1
2
3
(b) 4
1
2
5
(c) 5
1
3
2
(d) 1
4
3
2
Rev.0
IAS 2011 M i
IAS2011Main
g operation,
p
, the tool tip
p is at location (
(
In an NC drilling
100, 0, 100). The datum (0, 0, 0) is left hand lower corner
p surface of the workpiece,
p
, which is rectangular
g
on top
(300 mm x 300 mm x 1.5 mm thick). A thru' hole of 10
mm diameter is t o be drilled in the centre of the
workpiece. Using only rapid positioning and linear
p
functions,, write the p
program
g
blocks,, in
interpolation
absolute mode.
Assume permitted cutting speed = 32 m/min and feed
rate = 150 mm/min.
[10Marks]
IFS2011
one to six letters or numerals with the first one being

ga
letter. No special character is allowed in the words.
check ? What is the function of Data Processing

Unit (DPU) and Control Loop Unit (CLU) of MCU.
How is Feed Rate Number (FRN) expressed ? What
is indirect feedback ?
[10marks]
IES 1998
IES
Which of the following are the rules of
programming NC machine tools in APT language?
1 Only capital letters are used
1.
2. A period is placed at the end of each statement
3. Insertion of space does not affect the APT word
g the codes g
given below:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1 alone
OtherPartProgrammingLanguages
programming system for smaller computers
d l
developed
d by
b IBM and
d first
fi t introduced
i t d d in
i 1962
6
y EXAPT (EXtended subset of APT) was developed jointly in
German in about 1964 by several universities to adapt APT for

European use. It is compatible with APT and thus can use the
same processor as APT
y COMPACT was developed
d l
d by
b Manufacturing
f
Data Systems, Inc.
(MDSI)
y SPLIT (Sundstrand Processing Language Internally Translated)
was developed by Sundstrand Corporation, intended for its own
machine tools
y MAPT (MicroAPT) is a subset of APT, to be run on the
microcomputers
61
Th
l t APT
t
it f
ThecompleteAPTpartprogramconsistsof
thefollowingfourtypesofstatements
y Geometry
y Motion
y Postprocessor
y Compilationcontrol
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.3, 0.1

FROM/P0
CALL/DRILL,
/
X=1.0,
1 0 Y=1.0,
1 0 Z=0.1,
0 1 DEPTH=0.7
0
CALL/DRILL, X=2.0, Y=1.0, Z=0.1, DEPTH=0.7
GOTO/P0
MACHIN/DRILL,
MACHIN/DRILL 2
COOLNT/
COOLNT/FLOOD
statements made up of the following valid letters, numerals

and punctuation marks.
y Letters:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
y Numerals: 0123456789
/
Aslashdividesastatementintotwosections eg
Aslashdividesastatementintotwosections.eg.,
GO/PAST,
, Acommaisusedasaseparatorbetweentheelementsin
Acommaisusedasaseparatorbet eentheelementsin
astatementgenerallytotherightoftheslash.
= Anequalsisusedforassigninganentitytoasymbolic
A
l i df i i tit t
b li
name,e.g.,P1=POINT/25,50,30.
OthercapabilitiesofAPT,themacrofacility,withusevariableargumentasina
FORTRANsubroutine,forexample:
FORTRAN b
i f
l
Additionalstatements:
Forexample: COOLNT/MIST
y The APT language consists of many different types of
APTLanguage
g g
APTLanguage
D
((ADaptation
Daptat o APT)) was tthee first
st atte
pt to adapt APT
y ADAPT
attempt
y AUTOSPOT (AUTOmatic Sytem for POsitioning Tools) was
y APT (Automatically Programmed Tools)
In NC machine, what is the purpose of the parity
Words
y The
Th words
d to
t be
b used
d in
i the
th statements
t t
t are built
b ilt up from
f
APT L
APTLanguage
COOLNT/OFF
FEDRAT/
whenthedefinitionofthemacroDRILLis:
SPINDL/
Forexample:
l SPINDL/ON
/
TOOLNO/
TURRET/
END
DRILL = MACRO/X, Y, Z, DEPTH

GOTO/X,Y,Z
GODLTA/0,0, -DEPTH
, , DEPTH
GODLTA/0,0,
TARMAC
SPINDL/1250,
/
CCLW
Page 137 of 240
62
Rev.0
63
Point (POINT)
Point (POINT)
(
)
PTA = POINT/ 33,4,5
45
Point (POINT)
PTB = POINT/ INTOF

INTOF, LIN1
LIN1, LIN2
PTD = POINT/ YSMALL, INTOF, LIN3, C1

PTD = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, LIN3, C1
PTC = POINT/ YLARGE, INTOF, LIN3, C1
PTC = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, LIN3, C1
PTC
(3, 4, 5)
LIN2
PTA
z
LIN3
PTB
C1
LIN1
PTD
Point (POINT)
PTE = POINT/ YLARGE,
YLARGE INTOF,
INTOF C1,
C1 C2
PTE = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2
PTF = POINT/ YSMALL,, INTOF,, C1,, C2
PTF = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2
Point (POINT)
(
)
Line (LINE)
(
)
PT7 = POINT/ CENTER,

CENTER C6
LIN1 = LINE/ P1, P2
y
y
C1
y
C6
PTE
P2
PT7
PTF
P1
C2
LIN1
Line (LINE)
Line (LINE)
(
)
Line (LINE)
L12 = LINE/ PT4, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS

L14 = LINE/ PT1,
PT1 ATANGL,
ATANGL 40
L15 = LINE/ 32, -3, 2, ATANGL, -15, XAXIS
L16 = LINE/ PT3, ATANGL, 40, YAXIS
LIN4 = LINE/ PT6,

PT6 15,
15 -30,
30 3
LIN = LINE/ POINT, ATANGL, ANGLE (in degrees), LINE

y
LINE2
PT6
PT3
L
L14
P1
40
L4
L12
PT1
L16
30
PT4
LINE1
LINE
(15,30,3)
LINE LINE/P ATANGL LINE

LINE2=LINE/P1,ATANGL,30,LINE1
40
x
L15
20
15
Page 138 (32,3,2)

of 240
Rev.0
Line (LINE)
Line (LINE)
Line (LINE)
LIN = LINE/ SLOPE, SLOPE VALUE, INTERC, MODIFIER, d

where the slope value is y/x. The modifier options are [XAXIS,
YAXIS], and d is the corresponding intercept value on the selected
axis
i (i.e.,
(i modifier).
difi )
N = LINE/
N / ATANGL,
NG , DEGREES,
G
S, INTERC,
N
C, MODIFIER,
O
,d
LIN
The modifier options are [XAXIS, YAXIS], and d is the
corresponding
p
g intercept
p value on the selected axis ((i.e., modifier).
)
The LEFT & RIGHT modifier indicates whether the line

is at the left or right tangent point, depending on how
one looks at the circle from the point.
point
LINE1
L1
LINE1
LINE1=LINE/SLOPE 1 INTERC XAXIS 6

LINE1=LINE/SLOPE,1,INTERC,XAXIS,6
C11
LINE1=LINE/ATANGL 30 INTERC d
LINE1=LINE/ATANGL,30,INTERC,d
PT51
=30
x
(6 )P i t fX I t
(6,0)PointofXIntercept
t
Line (LINE)
Line (LINE)
Line (LINE)
L6 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C3, LEFT, TANTO, C4

L6
L6 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C4, RIGHT, TANTO, C3

C4
Left
L3
C3
Right
L6
Right
Right
PT40
L1
L8
L9
Left
f
Left
Left
The descriptive words LEFT and RIGHT are used by

g from the first circle written towards the
looking
second circle.
PT51
Right
C3
L7
L4
L
L2
Line (LINE)
L8
L9
L77
Plane (PLANE)
Line
LN5 = LINE/ INTOF,
INTOF PLAN1,
PLAN1 PLAN2
LN3 = LINE/ PNT6, PARLEL, LN15

LN4 = LINE/ PNT5, PERPTO, LN13
PLAN10 = PLANE/ PT6

PT6, PT12,
PT12 PT15
LN5
PLAN10
PT15
y
PNT6
PNT5
LN3
PT6
LN15
LN13
3.0
PLAN1
PT4
PLAN2
PT12
LN4
4
Page 139 of 240
z
PLAN14
Rev.0
C4
Plane (PLANE)
Circle (CIRCLE)
(
)
PLAN14 = PLANE/ PT4,

PT4 PARLEL,
PARLEL PLAN10
PLAN14 = PLANE/ PARLEL, PLAN10, YSMALL, 3.0
Circle (CIRCLE)
(
)
C3 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT6, TANTO, LN4
C7 = CIRCLE/ CENTER
CENTER, PT8,
PT8 PT5
C1 = CIRCLE/ 3, 6, 5, 4.3
C1 = CIRCLE/
C C / CENTER,
C
PT3,
3 RADIUS,
A
S 4.3
43
PLAN10
PT15
C1
y
PT6
LN4
PT12
PT5
43
4.3
3.0
PT3
PT4
PT6
PT8
(3,6,5)
C7
C3
z
PLAN14
x
The Machining
g Plan
Contouring:
The Machining Plan
The Machiningg Plan
y Part surface: the surface on which the end of the
CS
CS
CS
tool is riding.
y Drive surface: the surface against which the edge of
the tool rides.
Checksurface
Drivesurface
cutter
Directionof
cuttermotion
DS
DS
DS
y Check surface: a surface at which the current tool
motion
i is
i to stop.
GOUP
The Machining
g Plan
Motion
i commands:
GOLFT/
: Move left alongg the drive surface
GORGT/
: Move right along the drive surface
GOUP/
: Move up along the drive surface
GOBACK
ON
PAST
FROM/PTARG
GO/TO,L1,TO,PL2,TOL3
GORGT/L3,PAST,L4
GORGT/L3 PAST L4
GOLFT
GODOWN/ : Move down along the drive surface

GOFWD/
TO
Partsurface
GOFWD
Present tool
position
GORGT
: Move forward from a tangent position
GODOWN
GOBACK/ : Move backward from a tangent position

Previous
Page 140 of 240
tool position
Rev.0
M hi i Specifications
S ifi i
Machining
Postprocessor
commands
P
d for
f a particular
i l machine
hi tooll are:
MACHIN/ : used to specify the machine tool and call the
postprocessor for that tool:
MACHIN/ DRILL,, 3
COOLNT/ : allows the coolant fluid to be turned on or off:
Machining Specifications
FEDRAT/ : specifies the feed rate for moving the tool along the
part surface in inches per minute:
FEDRAT/ 4.5
SPINDL/ : gives the spindle rotation speed in revolutions per
minute:
COOLNT/ MIST
SPINDL/ 850
COOLNT/ FLOOD
TURRET/ : can be used to call a specific tool from an automatic

tool changer:
COOLNT/ OFF
TOLERANCE SETTING:
motion
is
SETTING Nonlinear
N li
i
i accomplished
li h d in
i
straight-line segments, and INTOL/ and OUTTOL/ statements
di
dictate
the
h number
b off straight-line
i h li segments to be
b generated.
d
INTOL/ 0.0015
OUTTOL/ 0.001
TURRET/ 11
M hi i Specifications
S ifi i
Machining
PARTNO:
PARTNO identifies
id ifi the
h part program andd is
i inserted
i
d at the
h start off
the program.
FINI:
FINI specifies
ifi the
h endd off the
h program.
g g
APTLanguage
OtherMotionstatements:
GO/{TO}, Drive surface, {TO} Part surface, {TO},
Ch k surface
Check
f
Or
GO/{TO}, Drive surface, {TO} Part surface, {TANTO},
Check surface
AndthesamewithPASTorONinsteadofTO
GOLFT/
GORGT/
GOUP/
GODOWN/
GOFWD/
/
GOBACK/
Forexample:
GO/TO, L1, TO, PS, TANTO, C1
GO/PAST, L1, TO, PS, TANTO, C1
CLPRNT: indicates that a cutter location printout is desired.

CUTTER: specifies a cutter diameter for offset (rough versus finish
cutting). If a milling cutter is 0.5 in. in diameter and we have
CUTTER/ 0.6
then the tool will be offset from the finish cut by 0.05 in.
96
IES 2008
IES2008
Name the four types of statements in a complete APT
part program.
program Prepare part program for geometry
description of the contour shown in the figure below:
Y
[15Marks]
[15
Marks]
40
30
20
L2
L3
135
80
20
C1
L4
L1
C2
L5
P2
20
20
P1

X
Answer:
Contd.
PARTNO CONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL, 1
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0
P1 = POINT/110.0,
POINT/110 0 20.0,
20 0 0.0
00
P2 = POINT/20.0, 20.0, 0.0
P3 = POINT/90.0, 110.0, 0.0
P4 = POINT/20.0, 100.0, 0.0
P5 = POINT/50.0, 130.0, 0.0
L1 = LINE/P2, ATANGL, 90, XAXIS
L2 = LINE/P4, ANTNGL, 45, XAXIS
L3 = LINE/P5, ATANGL, 135, L2
L4 = LINE/P1,, PERPTO,, L3
C2=CIRCLE/CENTER,
C2
CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 20.0
Page 141 of 240
CUTTER/25.0
TOLER/0.1
INTOL/0.05
INTOL/0 05
OUTTOL/0.05
FEDRAT/200
SPINDL/500, CLW
COOLNT/ON
FROM/P0
GOLFT/L1, PAST, L2
GORGT/L2 PAST,
GORGT/L2,
PAST L3
GORGT/L3, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1, PAST, L4
GOFWD/L4, PAST, C2
GORGT/C2, PAST, L5
GORGT/L5 PAST,
GORGT/L5,
PAST L1
Rev.0
Contd.
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
IES 2007
IES2007
Prepare part using APT language for milling the contour

shown in Fig.
[20Marks]
Fig in a single pass.
pass D
[20 Marks]
110
R30
Q
110
120
E
R40
40
+ 40
P
Material : M S.
100
8 mm
Answer:
Contd.
Contd.
CUTTER/25.0
TOLER/0.1
INTOL/0.05
INTOL/0 05
OUTTOL/0.05
FEDRAT/200
SPINDL/500, CLW
COOLNT/ON
FROM/P0
GO/TO, LAB, TO, PL1, TO, LAF
GOLFT/LAB, TANTO, CBC
GOFWD/CBC PAST
GOFWD/CBC,
PAST, LCD
GORGT/LCD, PAST, LDE
GORGT/LDE, PAST, CEF
GORGT/CEF, PAST, LAF
GORGT/LAF, PAST, LAB
PARTNO CONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL, 2
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 10.0
PTA = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0
PTB = POINT/0.0, 120.0, 0.0
PTC = POINT/30.0, 150.0, 0.0
PTD = POINT/140.0, 150.0, 0.0
PTE = POINT/140.0, 40.0, 0.0
PTF = POINT/100.0, 0.0, 0.0
PTQ = POINT/30.0, 120.0, 0.0
PTP = POINT/140.0, 0.0, 0.0
LAB = LINE/PTA, PTB
LCD
C = LINE/PTC,
/ C, PTD
LDE = LINE/PTD, PTE
LAF = LINE/PTA, PTF
CBC = CIRCLE/CENTRE,, PTQ,
Q, RADIUS,, 30.0
CEF = CIRCLE/CENTRE, PTP, RADIUS, 40.0
PL1=PLANE/PTA, PTB, PTC
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
R30
L2
Y
C1
IES 2006
IES2006
Prepare part program to machine the contour shown in
C2
Answer:
P2
the figure using APT on CNC milling machine.

machine
[15Marks]
R30
L3
100 mm
80
L1
R20
X
100 mm
P1
60
80
50
60
200 mm
Material: MS
Thickness: 8.0 mm
Page 142 of 240
L4
200 mm
50
P4
C2
P3
C1
R20
R30
L2
P3
R20
P2
PARTNO CONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL, 3
CLPRNT
80 L1
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 10.0
P1 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 0.0
P2 = POINT/60.0, 80.0, 0.0
P3 = POINT/150.0, 100.0, 0.0
60
P1
P4 = POINT/200.0,
POINT/200 0 0.0,
0 0 0.0
00
C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P2, RADIUS, 20
C2 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 30
L1 = LINE/P1, LEFT, TANTO, C1
L3 = LINE/P4
LINE/P4, RIGHT,
RIGHT TANTO
TANTO, C2
L4 = LINE/P1, P4
L3
100 mm
X
L4
200 mm
Rev.0
50
P4
Contd.
CUTTER/25.0
TOLER/0.1
INTOL/0.05
INTOL/0 05
OUTTOL/0.05
COOLNT/ON
SPINDL/500, CLW
FEDRAT/200
FROM/P0
GOLFT/L1, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1 PAST,
GOFWD/C1,
PAST L2
GOFWD/L2, TANTO, C2
GOFWD/C2, PAST, L3
GOFWD/L3, PAST, L4
GORGT/L4, PAST, L1
IES 2011 C
ti
l
IES2011Conventional
State the method of defining line segment of
cutter motion using APT program format.
[5 Marks]
H
W k
HomeWork
p
p
p g
g
Write a complete
part
program
in APT for machining
the product which is given in the diagram. Thickness of
the workpiece is 6 mm. All dimensions are in mm.
[15]
L1 LINE/RIGHT TANTO C1 RIGHT TANTO C3

L1=LINE/RIGHT,TANTO,C1,RIGHT,TANTO,C3
L2=LINE/LEFT,TANTO,C1,LEFT,TANTO,C2
C4=CIRCLE/XLARGE,OUT,C2,OUT,C3,RADIUS,62
C CIRCLE/XLARGE OUT C OUT C RADIUS 6
PL1=PLANE/P1,P2,P3
REMARKPOSTPROCESSORSTATEMENTFOLLOW
CUTTER/50.0
TOLER/0.01
TOLER/
INTOL/0.05
OUTTOL/0.05
OUTTOL/
FEDRAT/200
SPINDL/
SPINDL/1000,CLW
CLW
COOLNT/ON
PARTNOCONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL,1
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
P0=POINT/25.0,25.0,25.0
P1=POINT/0.0,0.0,6.0
/ ,
,
P2=POINT/117.0,32.0,6.0
P3=POINT/117 0 32 0 6 0
P3=POINT/117.0,32.0,6.0
C1=CIRCLE/CENTER,P1,RADIUS,10.0
C CIRCLE/CENTER P RADIUS
Contd.
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
IES 1997
IES
Which of the following are valid statements for
point to point motion of the tool in APT language?
1 GO/TO/............
1.
GO/TO/
2. GO DLTA/............
3. GO/TO, .
g the codes g
given below:
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1,
1 2 and 3
Page 143 of 240
REMARKMOTIONSTATEMENTFOLLOW
FROM/P0
GO/TO,L1,TO,PL1,TANTO,C1
GORGT/L1,TANTO,C3
GOFWD/C3,TANTO,C4
GOFWD/C4 TANTO C2
GOFWD/C4,TANTO,C2
GOFWD/C2,PAST,L2
GOFWD/L2 TANTO C1
GOFWD/L2,TANTO,C1
GOFWD/C1,PAST,L1
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
IES 1995
IES
In APT language, the cutter motion in incremental
coordinate mode is addressed as
(a) GO/TO/.....
GO/TO/
(b) GO/TO.....
(c) GO DLTA/....
((d)) GO FWD/...
Rev.0
GATE 2008 (PI)

GATE2008(PI)
Robotics
Suppose point P1 in APT programming is coded by statement

P1 = POINT/XSMALL, INTOF, LN1, CR1
The coded g
geometric situation without causing
g error is
Advantages of Robots
AdvantagesofRobots
y Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase

y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
p
y, safety,
y, efficiency,
y, q
y, and consistencyy of
productivity,
quality,
products
Robots can work in hazardous environments
R b t need
Robots
d no environmental
i
t l comfort
f t
Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and
illnesses
Robots have repetable precision at all times
Robots can be much more accurate than humans, they may have
mili or micro inch accuracy.
accuracy
Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of
humans
Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously,
humans can only one.
Robots replace human workers who can create economic
problems
Asimov's three laws of robotics

Asimov'sthreelawsofrobotics
First law (Human safety):
y A robot may not injure a human being, or, through
i
inaction,
ti
allow
ll a human
h
b i to
being
t come to
t harm.
h
Second law (Robots are slaves):
y A robot must obey orders given it by human beings,
p where such orders would conflict with the First
except
Law.
Third law (Robot survival):
y A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the First or Second
Law.
Disadvantages of Robots
DisadvantagesofRobots
y Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause:

pp p
g responses
p
Inappropriate
and wrong
A lack of decisionmaking power
A loss of power
Damage to the robot and other devices
Human injuries
y Robots may have limited capabilities in
Degrees
D
off Freedom
F d
Dexterity
Sensors
Vision systems
Realtime Response
y Robots are costly,
y, due to
Initial cost of equipment
Installation Costs
Need for peripherals
Need for training
Need for Programming
All robots have the following basic components:

Allrobotshavethefollowingbasiccomponents:
1. Manipulators: the mechanical unit, often called the
2.
3.
4.
5.
"arm,"
the
the robot.
"
" that
th t does
d
th actual
t l work
k off th
b t It iis
composed of mechanical linkages and joints with actuators
to drive the mechanism directly or indirectly through gears,
chains, or ball screws.
Feedback devices: transducers that sense the p
positions of
various linkages and joints and transmit this information to
the controllers in either digital or analog Form.
End effectors: the "hand" or "gripper" portion of the
robot, which attaches the end of the arm and perform the
operations of the robot.
robot
Controller: the brains of the system that direct the
movements of the manipulator.
manipulator
Power supply
Page 144 of 240
Wh t i
Whatisanindustrialrobot?
i d t i l b t?
A robot is a reprogrammable,
reprogrammable multifunctional
manipulator designed to handle material, parts, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
WhatCanRobotsDo?
IndustrialRobots
d
l b
Material
Material handling
Material transfer
Machine loading and/or unloading
Spot welding
Continuous arc welding
Spray
p y coating
g
Assembly
Inspection
MaterialHandling
Manipulator
A
Assembly
bl
Manipulator
SpotWelding
Manipulator
WristConfigurations
y Wristassemblyisattachedtoendofarm
y Endeffector
E d ff
i
isattachedtowristassembly
h d i
bl
y Functionofwristassemblyistoorientendeffector
y Bodyandarmdeterminesglobalpositionofend
effector
y Twoorthreedegreesoffreedom:
h
d
ff d
y Roll
y Pitch
y Yaw
Rev.0
End Effectors
EndEffectors
y Thespecialtoolingforarobotthatenablesitto
DegreesofFreedom
g
pp
GrippersandTools
y The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be
compared to the way in which the human body moves.
performaspecifictask
y Twotypes:
y For
F each
h degree
d
off freedom
f d
a joint
j i is
i required.
i d
y Grippers tograspandmanipulateobjects(e.g.,
y The degrees of freedom located in the arm define the
parts)duringworkcycle
y Tools toperformaprocess,e.g.,spotwelding,spray
configuration.
painting
y Each of the five basic motion configurations utilizes three
degrees of freedom in the arm.

y Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end
effector all the flexibility.
Degrees of Freedom (contd )

DegreesofFreedom(contd.)
y A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a
robot
robotss hand at any point in its work space.
space
y Although six degrees of freedom are needed for
maximum flexibility,
flexibility most robot employee only three to
five degrees of freedom.
y The more the degrees of freedom,
freedom the greater is the
complexity of motions encountered.
y The three degrees of freedom located in the arm of
a robotic system are:
The
Th rotational
t ti
l reverse: is
i the
th movementt off the
th arm
assembly about a rotary axis, such as leftandright
swivel
i l off the
th robots
b t arm about
b t a base.
b
T
fR b t
TypesofRobot
y Cartesian
or
y
Gantry
robot:
y It's a robot whose arm
has
three
prismatic
joints, whose axes are
coincident
with
a
Cartesian coordinator.
y Used for pick and place
work, application of
sealant,
assembly
operations,
handling
machine tools and arc
welding.
welding
Degrees of Freedom (contd )

DegreesofFreedom(contd.)
The radial traverse: is the extension and retraction
of the arm or the inandout

in and out motion relative to the
base.
The
Th vertical
i l traverse: provides
id the
h upanddown
dd
motion of the arm of the robotic system.
y The three degrees of freedom located in the wrist,
which bear the names of aeronautical terms, are
Pitch or bend: is the upanddown movement of the
wrist.
Yaw: is the rightandleft movement of the wrist.
Roll or swivel: is the rotation of the hand.
hand
T
fR b t
TypesofRobot
T
fR b t
TypesofRobot
y Cylindrical robot:
p
y Spherical
or
y It's a robot whose axes
Polar robot:
y It
It'ss a robot whose axes
form a polar coordinate
y
system.
y Used for handling at
p
machine tools,, spot
welding,
diecasting,
fettling machines, gas
welding
and
arc
welding.
form a cylindrical
coordinate system.
y Used
U d for
f
assembly
bl
operations, handling at
machine
hi
t l
tools,
spott
welding, and handling
att
di
die
casting
ti
machines.
Page 145 of 240
Rev.0
Types of Robot
TypesofRobot
T
fR b t
TypesofRobot
y SCARA robot
y Articulated
or
Revolute Robot:
y It
It'ss a robot whose arm
has at least three rotary
joints.
joints
y Used for assembly
operations,
ti
di casting,
die
ti
fettling machines, gas
welding,
ldi
arc welding
ldi
and spray painting.
y The
SCARA
acronym
stands
for Selective Compliant Assembly
Robot Arm or Selective Compliant
Articulated Robot Arm.
y It's a robot which has two parallel
provide compliance
p
rotaryy jjoints to p
in a plane
y Used for pick and place work,
work
application of sealant, assembly
operations and handling machine
tools
Theconfigurationofarobotusingatelescopingarmthat
canberaisedorloweredonahorizontalpivotmounted
onarotatingbaseiscalled
(a)Polar
(b)C li d i l
(b)Cylindrical
(c)Cartesiancoordinate
(d)Jointedarm
y
JointDriveSystems
y Electric
y Useselectricmotorstoactuateindividualjoints
y Preferreddrivesystemintoday'srobots
y Hydraulic
y Useshydraulicpistonsandrotaryvaneactuators
y Notedfortheirhighpowerandliftcapacity
y Pneumatic
y Typicallylimitedtosmallerrobotsandsimplematerial
T i ll li it dt
ll b t d i l t i l
transferapplications
Working Envelope
WorkingEnvelope
y
RobotControlSystem
Joint2
Level2
Controller
&Program
Level1
Joint4
Joint5
One use is a mobile

platform
handling
cockpit
flight
simulators It
simulators.
It'ss a robot
whose
arms
have
concurrent prismatic
or rotary joints.
Joint6
Sensors
y Limitedsequencecontrol pickandplace
operationsusingmechanicalstopstosetpositions
i
i
h i l
ii
y Playbackwithpointtopointcontrol records
workcycleasasequenceofpoints,thenplaysback
thesequenceduringprogramexecution
y Playbackwithcontinuouspathcontrol
greatermemorycapacityand/orinterpolation
capabilitytoexecutepaths(inadditiontopoints)
y Intelligentcontrol exhibitsbehaviorthatmakes
itseemintelligent,e.g.,respondstosensorinputs,
makesdecisions,communicateswithhumans
Robotic Arc Welding Cell

RoboticArcWeldingCell
y Robotperforms
Cell
C
ll
Supervisor
Joint3
y Parallel robot
Robot Control Systems

RobotControlSystems
IES 2012
IES
Joint1
T
fR b t
TypesofRobot
fluxcoredarc
welding(FCAW)
operationatone
workstation
k
i
whilefitter
changespartsat
theother
workstation
Level0
Page 146 of 240
Rev.0
Robot Programming
RobotProgramming
Leadthrough Programming
y Leadthrough programming
y Work cycle is taught to robot by moving the
manipulator through the required motion cycle and

simultaneously entering the program into controller
memory for later playback
y Robot programming languages
y Textual programming language to enter commands
into robot controller
y Simulation and offline
off line programming
y Program is prepared at a remote computer terminal
and
d downloaded
d
l d d to robot
b controller
ll for
f execution
i
without need for leadthrough methods
IES2011
Trajectoryofarobotmean:
(a)Pathtracedbytheendeffectors
(b)KinematicsofRobot
( )
(c)Robotjoints
j
(d)Robotprogramming
1. Poweredleadthrough
y Commonforpointto
pointrobots
y Usesteachpendant
2. Manualleadthrough
y Convenientfor
continuouspath
controlrobots
y Humanprogrammer
physicalmoves
manipulator
y Easilylearnedbyshoppersonnel
y Logicalwaytoteacharobot
y Nocomputerprogramming
y Disadvantages:
y Downtimeduringprogramming
y Limitedprogramminglogiccapability
Li i d
i l i
bili
y Notcompatiblewithsupervisorycontrol
IES 2010
IES2010
g statements:
Good dynamic performance is usually difficult to achieve
in robots which contain a rotary base because
1. Position, speed and acceleration of the other joints cause
variations in the reflected torque and moment of inertia.
2. The moment of inertia reflected at the base depends upon the
weight of the object being carried.
3. The moment of inertia reflected at the base also depends upon
the distance between the base axis and the manipulated object.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
IES 2000
IES
Consider the following characteristics of a robot:
1. The tip of the robot arm moves from one point to
another with its in
inbetween
between path not being defined.
2. It can be used for drilling holes at difference points in a
workpiece.
workpiece
3. It can be used for V butt joint welding between two
points.
points
4. The memory capacity required for its control unit is low.
Which of these are the characteristics associated with
ith a point
to point robot?
( ) 1 and
(a)
d2
(b) 1, 3 and
d4
GATE
(c) 1, 2 and 4For-2015
(d) (IES,
2, 3 and
4 & PSUs)
L dh
h ProgrammingAdvantages
P
i Ad
Leadthrough
g
y Advantages:
IES 2006
IES
Which one of the following is the third basic
component of robots besides power supply and
control (memory) console?
(a) Software
(b) Coaxial cable
( ) Mechanical
(c)
M h i l unit
it arm (d) Microcomputer
Mi
t
GATE 2013
GATE2013
CAD
Computer Aided
d d Design (CAD):
(
) Used
d for
f creating the
h
In
mirror
image
off a 2D
I a CAD package,
k
i
i
D point
i t
product database
P(5,10)
(5, ) is to be obtained about a line which p
passes
Geometric Modeling
Engineering Analysis
Design Review and Evaluation
Automated Drafting
Page 147 of 240
through the origin and makes an angle of 45o

counterclockwise with the Xaxis. The coordinates
off the
th transformed
t
f
d point
i t will
ill be
b
(a) (7.5,
(7 5 5)
(b) (10,
(10 5)
(c) (7.5,
(7 5 5)
5)
Rev.0
(d) (10,
(10 5)
5)
GATE 2014
GATE2014
ArobotarmPQwithendcoordinatesP(0,0)andQ(2,5)
A b t
PQ ith d
di t P( ) dQ( )
rotatescounterclockwiseaboutPintheXYplaneby90
p
y 9 o.
ThenewcoordinatepairoftheendpointQis
(a)(2,5)
(b)(5,2)
(c)(5,2)
(d)(2,5)
CAM
ComputerAidedManufacturing(CAM):
y ComputerAidedProcessPlanning(CAPP)
y ComputerizedmaterialResourcePlanning(MRP)
IES 2006
IES
Which item best describes a CAM technology?
(a) Geometric modeling (b) Documentation
( ) Drafting
(c)
D fti
(d) Numerical
N
i l control
t l
y NCpartprogramming
y RobotProgramming
R b P
i
y ComputerizedScheduling
y Computerizedprocesscontrol
y ComputerizedManufacturingControlbyFMS
y Shopfloorcontrol
y ComputerAidedQualityControl(CAQC)
p
Q
y
( Q )
y ComputerAidedInspection
Automation
ISRO2011
In CAM, " Part programming" refers to
(a) Generation of cutter location data
(b) Online Inspection
(c) Machine Selection
(d) Tool
T l Selection
S l i
y Automation is the process of following a predetermined
sequence of operations with little or no human intervention,

using
specialized
and
that
and
i
i li d equipment
i
d devices
d i
h perform
f
d
control the manufacturing process.
Why go for Automation?
1. Increased productivity
2. Reduced cost of labour
3. Improved quality
4. Reduced inprocess
p
inventoryy
5. Reduce Manufacturing time
6. Increased safety
There are three types of Automation
1. Fixed Automation
2. Programmable
P
bl Automation
A t
ti
3. Flexible Automation
Automation
Automation
Programmable Automation
Flexible Automation
y Can change the design of the product or even change the
y If is also known as FMS, and uses CAD/CAM
product by changing the program.

y Used
U d for
f the
th low
l
quantity
tit production
d ti off large
l
number
b off
y Produce different products on the same equipment in
Automation
Fixed Automation
y It
as hard
I is
i also
l known
k
h d automation.
i
y Used to produce a standardized product.
product
y Used for very large quantity production of one or few
marginally different components.

y Highly specialized tools, devices, equipment, special
purpose machine tools,

tools are utilized to produce a
product.
y Very efficient, high production rate , low unit cost.
IES 2012
IES
Programmableautomationissuitablefor
P
bl t
ti i it bl f
(a)Lowproductionvolumeandlargevarietiesofparts
(b)Lowproductionvolumeandsmallvarietiesofparts
p
p
any order
d or mix.
i
(c)Highproductionvolumeandsmallvarietiesofparts
different components.
p
(d)Highproductionvolumeandlargevarietiesofparts
y Equipment are designed to be flexible or programmable.

y Used for batch production.
Page 148 of 240
Rev.0
Wh t i
FMS?
WhatisanFMS?
f
g system
y
((FMS)) is a
y A fflexible manufacturing
manufacturing system in which there is some
amount of flexibilityy that allows the system
y
to
react in the case of changes.
y Two categories of flexibility
y Machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be
changed to produce new product types,

types and ability to
change the order of operations executed on a part.
y Routing flexibility,
flexibility which consists of the ability to
use multiple machines to perform the same operation
on a part, as well as the system
system'ss ability to absorb
largescale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or
capability.
FMSComponents
y
Most FMS systems comprise of three main

systems
y Work
W k machines
hi
(t i ll automated
(typically
t
t d CNC
machines) that perform a series of operations;
y An integrated material transport system and a
computer that controls the flow of materials,
tools, and information (e.g. machining data
and machine malfunctions) throughout the
system;
y Auxiliary
y work stations for loading
g and
unloading, cleaning, inspection, etc.
FMS G l
FMSGoals
y Reduction in manufacturing cost by lowering direct
labor cost and minimizing scrap, rework, and material

wastage.
y Less skilled labor required.
y Reduction in work
workinprocess
in process inventory by eliminating
the need for batch processing.
y Reduction in production lead time permitting
manufacturers to respond more quickly to the variability
of market demand.
demand
y Better process control resulting in consistent quality.
f
AdvantagesofFMS
Di d t
f FMS
DisadvantagesofFMS
IES 1996
IES
g from one p
y Faster,, lower cost changes
part to another
y Limited ability to adapt to changes in product or product
1. CNCmachinePostprocessor
2. Machiningcentre.Toolmagazine
M hi i t
T l
i
3. DNC.FMS
(a) 1,2and3 (b) 1and2
(c) 1and3
(d)2and3
which will improve capital utilization

y Lower direct labor cost,, due to the reduction in number
of workers
y Reduced inventory,
y, due to the p
planning
g and
programming precision
y Consistent and better q
quality,
y, due to the automated
control
y Lower cost/unit
/
of output,
p , due to the g
greater
productivity using the same number of workers
y Savings
g from the indirect labor,, from reduced errors,,
rework, repairs and rejects
IES 2006
2006
IES
Flexible manufacturing allows for:
(a) Tool design and production
(b) Automated
A t
t d design
d i
(c) Quick and inexpensive product change
(d) Quality control
mix (e.g., machines are of limited capacity and the

tooling necessary for products, even of the same family,
is not always feasible in a given FMS)
y Substantial preplanning
pre planning activity
y Expensive, costing millions of dollars
y Technological problems of exact component positioning
and precise timing necessary to process a component
y Sophisticated manufacturing systems
IES 2004
IES
Consider the following characteristics:
1. Single machine tool
2. Manual
M
l materials
t i l handling
h dli system
t
3. Computer control
4. Random sequencing of parts to machines
Which of the above characteristics are associated with
flexible manufacturing system?
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
Page 149 of 240
IES 2012
IES
Rankorderclusteringasappliedtomanufacturing
automationis
(a)Atechniqueofidentifyingprocesssequencein
productionofacomponent
(b)Aj ti ti (JIT) th d
(b)Ajustintime(JIT)method
(c)Anapproachofgroupingthemachinesintocellsin
anFMSsystem
( )
(d)Atooltogeneratebillofmaterials
g
Rev.0
ReferenceBook
IFS2011
y CAD/CAM:ComputerAidedDesignand
ManufacturingByGroover
y CNCMachines ByB.S.Pabla,M.Adithan
ByB S Pabla M Adithan
y Machinetooldesignandnumericalcontrol By
Mehta
y ComputerControlOfManu.Systems ByKoren
N df U
ti
lP
NeedforUnconventionalProcesses
y New materials having high strength and hardness,
hardness such as
Prepare a flow diagram for writing the computer
nimonic alloys and alloys with alloying elements such as
programme in FORTRAN for Pulse MIG welding
tungsten, molybdenum, and columbium are difficult to

machine by the traditional methods.
methods
process.
[
[10marks]
k ]
y By conventional machining the MRR reduces with an
increase in the work material hardness.

y Need
N d
f
for
d l
development
t off
processes
which
utilize
nontraditional
t diti
l
other
machining
hi i
methods
such
as
electrochemical processes for the material removal.
N df U
ti
lP
NeedforUnconventionalProcesses
y Complex
C
l shapes.
h
y A very high accuracy is desired besides the complexity of
the surface to be machined.
1 Th
lE
M th d
1.ThermalEnergyMethods
I U
ti
l M hi i
InUnconventionalMachining
y Different forms of energy directly applied to the
workpiece to have shape transformation or material

removal from work surface.
y No chips, No lay pattern on work surface, no direct
physical contact between the tool and the workpiece .
y The tool material does not have to be harder than the
work
k material.
t i l
y Tool forces do not increase as the work material gets
harder.
y Economic metal removal rate does not decrease as the
work material gets harder.
2 El
Ch i l E
M h d
2.Electro
ChemicalEnergyMethod
y Electricaldischargemachining(EDM)
El t i ldi h
hi i (EDM)
y ElectroChemicalMachining(ECM)
El
Ch i lM hi i (ECM)
y LaserbeamMachining(LBM)
y ElectroChemicalgrinding(ECG)
El t Ch i l i di (ECG)
y PlasmaArcMachining(PAM)
g
y ElectronBeamMachining(EBM)
y IonBeamMachining(IBM)
Cl ifi ti
f NTMM
ClassificationofNTMM
The Non
traditional Machining Methods are classified
Nontraditional
according to the major energy sources employed in
machining.
1.ThermalEnergyMethods
2.Electro ChemicalEnergyMethod
3.ChemicalEnergyMethods
4.MechanicalEnergyMethods
3 ChemicalEnergyMethods
Ch i l E
M th d
3.
These methods involve controlled etching of the
workpiece material in contact with a chemical solution.
y Chemical Machining Method (CHM).
y ElectroChemicalHoning(ECH)
El t Ch i lH i (ECH)
y ElectroChemicalDeburring
Electro ChemicalDeburring (ECD)
Page 150 of 240
Rev.0
GATE 2014
GATE2014
4 MechanicalEnergyMethods
M h i lE
M th d
4.
S
Ob
ti
SomeObservations
y UltraSonicMachining(USM)
Ult S i M hi i (USM)
The process utilizing mainly thermal energy for
p
p
q
y EDM has the lowest specific
power requirement
and can
y AbrasiveJetMachining(AJM)
removing material is
y WaterJetMachining(WJM)
g
(a) Ultrasonic Machining
y ECM has the highest

g
metal removal rate,, MRR.
y USM and AJM have low MRR and combined with high
(b) Electrochemical Machining
y LBM and EBM have high penetration rates with low
(c) Abrasive Jet Machining

(d) Laser
L
B
Beam
M hi i
Machining
Sh
C tti C
bilit
ShapesCuttingCapability
The various NTMM have some special shape cutting
capability as given below:
1. Micromachining and Drilling : LBM and EBM
2 Cavity sinking and standard Hole Drilling: EDM and
2.
USM
GATE2014
4. Clean, rapid Cuts and Profiles: PAM

5. Shallow Pocketing: AJM
IES 2012
IES
Whichofthefollowingprocesseshasveryhighmaterial
removalrateefficiency?
(a)Electronbeammachining
(b)Electrochemicalmachining
(c)Electrodischargemachining
( )
(d)Plasmaarcmachining
g
g
tool wear,, are used for nonmetal cutting.
MRR and,, therefore,, are commonlyy used for micro
drilling, sheet cutting, and welding.
y CHM is used for manufacturing
g PCB and other shallow
components.
y PAM can be used for clean,, rapid
p cuts and p
profiles in
almost all plates upto 20 cm thick with 5o to 10o taper.
Li it ti
f NTMM
LimitationsofNTMM
The
unconventional
Th following
f ll i four
f
ti
l machining
hi i processes
y Expensive
required.
E
i sett up, low
l MRR and
d skilled
kill d labour
l b
i d
are available in a shop

p floor. The most appropriate
pp p
one to
y The limitation of electrical machining methods is that
drill a hole of square cross section of 6 mm 6 mm and
the work material must be an electrical conductor. Also,
25 mm deep is
consumption of electrical energy is very large.
( ) Abrasive
(a)
b
Jet Machining
h
3. Fine hole drilling and Contour Machining: ECM
achieve sufficient accuracy.
(b) Plasma Arc Machining
y The NTMM which have not been proved commercially
economical are: USM,

USM AJM,
AJM CHM,
CHM EBM and PAM.
PAM
((c)) Laser
ase Beam
ea Machining
ac
g
(d) Electro Discharge Machining
GATE 2006
GATE
g the p
g order of
Arrange
processes in the increasing
their maximum material removal rate.
g ((ECM))
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Laser Beam Machining (LBM) and
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
(a) USM, LBM, EBM, EDM, ECM
(b) EBM,
EBM LBM,
LBM USM,
USM ECM,
ECM EDM
(c) LBM, EBM, USM, ECM, EDM
(d) LBM, EBM, USM, EDM, ECM
Page 151 of 240
IES 2007
IES
Consider the following statements in relation to the
unconventional machining processes:
1 Different forms of energy directly applied to the
1.
piece to have shape transformation or material removal
from work surface.
surface
2. Relative motion between the work and the tool is
essential.
ti l
3. Cutting tool is not in physical contact with work
piece.
(b) 1, 2 and 3 onlyy
(a) 1 and 2 onlyy
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
Rev.0
IES 2009
2009
IES
IAS 2002
IAS
Which one of the following statements is correct in

respect of unconventional machining processes?
(a) The cutting tool is in direct contact with the job
(b) The tool material needs to be harder than the job
material
t i l
(c) The tool is never in contact with the job
(d) There has to be a relative motion between the tool
j
and the job
(
) with List II (Tolerances
(
Match List I (Processes)
obtained) and select the correct answer using the codes
List I
List II
(Processes)
(Tolerances obtained)
A. Plasma Arc machining 1.
75 microns
B. Laser Beam machining 2.
25 microns
C. Abrasive Jet machining 3.
50 microns
D. Ultrasonic machining
4.
125 microns
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
1
3
2
(b) 3
2
4
1
(c) 4
2
3
1
(d) 3
1
4
2
ECM
B SKM d l
BySKMondal
El t h i l M hi i
ElectrochemicalMachining
El t h i l M hi i
y Electrochemical machining is the reverse of electro
y Variation in the current density will result in work
plating
y The workpiece
work piece is made the anode,
anode which is placed in
close proximity to an electrode (cathode), and a high
amperage direct current is passed between them through
an electrolyte, such as salt water, flowing in the anode
cathode gap.
gap
y Metal is removed by anodic dissolution and is carried
away in
i the
th form
f
off a hydroxide
h d id in
i the
th electrolyte
l t l t for
f
recycling or recovery.
y MRR in ECM depends on atomic weight of work material
taking the electrodes shape.

y The electrode is fed with a constant velocity,
velocity and the
electrolyte is fed through the tool.
ECM E i
t
ECMEquipment
Fig- Electrochemical Machining process
ECM E i
t
ECMEquipment
ECM E i
t
ECMEquipment
y Supply Voltage 2 to 35 V DC and Current 500 to 40,000 A
y The electrolyte consists of the metal debris removed
y The tooltowork gap needs to be maintained at a very
from the anode, which will have to be filtered before it is

repumped
re
pumped into the system.
y Also a large amount of heat is generated during the
electrolysis which heats up the electrolyte,
electrolysis,
electrolyte and hence it
needs to be cooled.
small value 0.1

0 1 to 0.25
0 25 mm.
mm A servo drive is provided on
the tool axis for this purpose.
y The
Th electrolyte
l t l t needs
d to
t be
b pumped
d through
th
h this
thi gap att
high pressures ranging from 0.70 to 3.00 MPa. This
i t d
introduces
a large
l
amountt off load
l d on the
th machine,
hi
because of the large working areas involved. Hence the
machine
hi
structure
t t
will
ill have
h
t be
to
b made
d rigid
i id to
t a
withstand such forces.
Page 152 of 240
Rev.0
Tool
El t l t
Electrolyte
y is so chosen that the anode (workpiece)
(
p
)
The electrolyte
is dissolved but no deposition takes place on the cathode
(tool).
Properties electrolyte should be
1. High
g electrical conductivityy
2. Low viscosity
3 High specific heat
3.
4. Chemical stability
5 Resistance to formation of passivating film on
5.
workpiece surface
6 Noncorrosive
6.
Non corrosive and nontoxic
non toxic
7. Inexpensive and readily available
p
The p
properties
of tool materials should be:
ForECMofsteelNaCl isusedastheelectrolyte.
accurately. Good for low machinability or complicated

shapes.
shapes
2. As ECM leads to atomic level dissolution, the surface
fi i h is
finish
i excellent
ll t (Ra 0.2 to
t 0.6
6 m)) with
ith almost
l
t stress
t
free machined surface and without any thermal
damage.
3. The tool wear is practically nil which results in a large
number of components produced per tool.
4. MRR is highest
g
(1600 mm3/min) among
g NTMM and
comparable with conventional machining.
ISRO2009
The machining process in which the work picce is
di l d into
dissolved
i t an electrolyte
l t l t solution
l ti is
i called
ll d
(a) Electro
Electrochemical
chemical machining
(b) Ultrasonic machining
g
High electrical and thermal comductivity
2.
Easy machinability
3.
Good shiffness
4.
High corrosion resistance
y Tool materials: Copper, brass, bronze, Al, Stainless
Steel Cupro nickel,

Steel,
nickel etc.
etc
y Material wear / Tool wear: Infinite
d
Advantages
1.
1 Complex threedimensional
three dimensional surfaces can be machined
1.
i d
Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
6.
7
7.
y
Use of corrosive media as electrolytes
makes it difficult to
handle.
Sharp interior edges and corners (< 0.2 mm radius) are
difficult to produce.
Very expensive machine.
Forces are large with this method because of fluid pumping
forces.
V
Very
hi h specific
high
ifi energy consumption
i
( b
(about
150 times
i
that required for conventional processes),
Not applicable with
ith electrically
electricall nonconducting
non conducting materials
and jobs with very small dimensions
Lower fatigue strength
PSU
ECMcannotbeundertakenfor
ECM
tb d t k f
(a)steel
(b)Nickelbasedsuperalloy
(c)Al2O3
(d)Titaniumalloy
(c) Electrodischarge machining
A li ti
Applications
y Any electrically conductive work material irrespective
of their hardness, strength or even thermal properties.

y The machining surface can be situated at any
i
inaccessible.
ibl
y Shape application blind complex cavities, curved
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
surfaces, through cutting,

surfaces
cutting large through cavities.
cavities
It is used for the machining of the gas turbine blades.
Die sinking
Profiling and contouring
T
Trepanning
i
Grinding
D illi
Drilling
Micromachining
PSU
Commercial ECM is carried out at a combination
off
(a) low voltage high current
(b) low current low voltage
((c)) high
g current high
g voltage
g
(d) low current low voltage
(d) Laser machining

Page 153 of 240
Rev.0
IAS2011Main
What is the principle of electrochemical
machining
hi i (ECM)?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of
ECM over conventionall drilling?
d ll
Comment on the surface finish and the accuracy of
the ECM.
[
[20Marks]
]
ECM C l l ti
ECMCalculations
y laws state that,,
Faradays
m=
It E
F
Where
m
I
t
E
F
ECM C l l ti
ECMCalculations
yMRR =
=weight(g)ofamaterial
=current(A)
=time(sec)
=gramequivalentweightofthe
gramequivalentweightofthe
material
co sta t o p opo t o a ty
=constantofproportionality
Faraday(96,500coulombs)
y MRR for Alloy
Eeq I cm
eq F sec
100
x
= i
eq
i i
Atomicweightofiron56,density7.8g/cm3 valency,2
g/s
IfyouputE=equivalentweightinCGSi.e.g/mole
IfyouputE=equivalentweightinCGSi
e g/mole
IinAmpere(A)
F=96500columb/molei.e.As/mole
l b
l
l
TheMRRwillbeing/s
GATE 2014
GATE2014
chemical machining is
(a)Ficks law
and
( )Ki hh ff l
(c)Kirchhoffslaws
(d)Ohm slaw
(d)Ohmslaw
100
x v
= i i
Eeq
i Ai
GATE 2011(PI)
2011 (PI)
GATE
GATE2008(PI)
In an electro chemical machining (ECM) operation,
operation a
square hole of dimensions 5 mm x 5 mm is drilled in a
block of copper. The current used is 5000 A. Atomic
weight
g of cupper
pp is 633 and valencyy of dissolution is 1.
Faradays constant is 96500 coulomb. The material
removal rate (in g/s) is
(a) 0.326
AI
F V
F.
(b)Faradayslaws
3
E
l
Example
g/s =
p
The p
principle
of material removal in Electro
AI cm3 EI cm3
vF sec F sec
whatcurrentisrequired?
q
EI
F
ECM C l l ti
ECMCalculations
y MRR for pure metal
UsingECMremove5cm
U i ECM
3/minfromanironworkpiece,
/ i f
i
k i
ECM C l l ti
ECMCalculations
(b) 3.260
(c) 3.15 x 103
Page 154 of 240
While removing material from iron (atomic weight = 56,

valency = 2 and density = 7.8 g/cc) by electrochemical
machining, a metal removal rate of 2 cc/min is desired.
The current (in A) required for achieving this material
removal rate is
(a) 896.07
(b) 14.93
( ) 448.03
(c)
8
(d) 53764.29
6
(d) 3.15 x 105
Rev.0
E
l
Example
Calculate the material removal rate and the
electrode feed rate in the electrochemical
machining of an iron surface that is 25 mm 25 mm
in crosssection using NaCl in water as electrolyte.
The gap between the tool and the workpiece is 0.25
mm. The supply voltage is 12 V DC. The specific
resistance of the electrolyte is 3 c m
For iron, Valency, Z = 2
At
Atomic
i weight,
i ht A = 55.85
8
Density, = 7860 kg / m3
E
l (GATE 2009)
Example(GATE2009)
Electrochemicalmachiningisperformedtoremove
materialfromanironsurfaceof20mmx20mmunder
thefollowingconditions:
Interelectrodegap
=
0.2mm
S
SupplyVoltage(DC)
l V lt (DC) =
12V
V
Specificresistanceofelectrolyte
=2cm
AtomicweightofIron =
55.85
ValencyofIron =
2
Faraday'sconstant
=
96540Coulombs
Th t i l
Thematerialremovalrate(ing/s)is
l t (i / )i
E
l
Example
p
p
y is as follows:
Composition
of a Nickel superalloy
Ni = 70.0%, Cr = 20.0%, Fe = 5.0% and rest Titanium
Calculate rate of dissolution if the area of the tool is 1500
mm2 and a current of 1000 A is being passed through the
cell Assume dissolution to take place at lowest valancy
cell.
of the elements.
GATE 2013
GATE2013
During the electrochemical machining (ECM) of
iron (atomic weight = 56, valency = 2) at current of
1000 A with 90% current efficiency, the material
removal rate was observed to be 0.26 gm/s. If
Titanium (atomic weight = 48, valency = 3) is
machined by the ECM process at the current of 2000
A with 90% current efficiency, the expected material
removal rate in gm/s will be
(a) 0.1
0 1 1 (b) 0.23
0 23
(c) 0.30
0 30
(d) 0.52
0 52
GATE 2008
GATE
Fl
l i
Flowanalysis
A researcher
h conducts
d t electrochemical
l t
h i l machining
hi i
((ECM)) on a binary
y alloy
y ((density
y 6000 kg/m
g/ 3) of iron
y To calculate the fluid flow required, match the heat
generated to the heat absorbed by the electrolyte.
(atomic weight 56, valency 2) and metal P (atomic

weight 24, valency 4). Faraday's constant = 96500
coulomb/mole.
l
b/
l Volumetric
V l
t i material
t i l removall rate
t off
the alloy
y is 550 mm3/s at a current of 2000 A. The
y Neglecting all the heat losses
percentage of the metal P in the alloy is closest to

(a) 40
(b) 25
E
l
Example
The electrochemical machining of an iron surface that is
25 mm 25 mm in crosssection using NaCl in water as
electrolyte. The gap between the tool and the workpiece
is 0.25 mm. The supply voltage is 12 V DC. The specific
resistance of the electrolyte is 3 cm.
Estimate the electrolyte flow rate. Specific heat of the
electrolyte is given as 0.997
0 997 cal/g
cal/gC
C. The ambient
temperature is 35C and the electrolyte boiling
temperature is 95
temperature,
95C
C.
Density, = 7860 kg/m3
(c) 15
l2R = q e ce (B o )
(d) 79
g
Overvoltage
DynamicsofElectrochemicalMachining
y If the total over voltage at the anode and the cathode is
V and the applied voltage is V,

V the current I is given
by,
I=
V V
R
y Schematic representation of the ECM process with no
feed to the tool

Page 155 of 240
Rev.0
E
l
Example
In
an equilibrium
gap off 2
I ECM operation
ti off pure iron
i
ilib i
mm is to be kept.
p Determine supply
pp y voltage,
g , if the total
overvoltage is 2.5 V. The resistivity of the electrolyte is 50
mm and the set feed rate is 0.25 mm/min.
In an EDM process using RC relaxation circuit,
circuit a 12 mm
diameter through hole is made in a steel plate of 50 mm
thickness using a graphite tool and kerosene as
dielectric. Assume discharge time to be negligible.
Machining is carried out under the following conditions:
Resistance
40
Capacitance
20 F
Supply
pp y voltage
g
220 V
Discharge voltage
110 V
Averagepowerinput(inkW)is
(a)0.373
(b)0.137
(c)0.218 (d)0.500
El t h i l G i di (ECG)
ElectrochemicalGrinding(ECG)
p g and sharpening
p
g
y The p
process is used for shaping
carbide cutting tools, which cause high wear rates on
expensive diamond wheels in normal grinding.
Electrochemical grinding greatly reduces this wheel
wear.
y Fragile parts (honeycomb structures), surgical needles,
and tips of assembled turbine blades have been ECG
processed
d successfully.
f ll
y The lack of heat damage, burrs, and residual stresses is
very beneficial,
b
f
l particularly
l l when
h coupled
l d with
h MRRs
that are competitive with conventional grinding but
with
ith far
f less
l wheel
h l wear.
GATE 2007(PI)
2007 (PI)
GATE
Which one of the following process conditions
leads to higher MRR in ECM process?
( ) higher
(a)
hi h current,
t larger
l
atomic
t i weight
i ht
((b)) higher
g
valency,
y, lower current
(c) lower atomic weight, lower valency
(d) higher
hi h valency,
l
l
lower
atomic
i weight
i h
In an EDM process using RC relaxation circuit,
circuit a 12 mm
diameter through hole is made in a steel plate of 50 mm
thickness using a graphite tool and kerosene as
dielectric. Assume discharge time to be negligible.
Machining is carried out under the following conditions:
Resistance
40
Capacitance
20 F
Supply
pp y voltage
g
220 V
Discharge voltage
110 V
The time for one cycle,
cycle in milliseconds,
milliseconds is
(a) 0.55 (b) 0.32
(c) 0.89
(d) 0.24
l
h i l G i di ( CG)
ElectrochemicalGrinding(ECG)
g, metal bonded,,
y In ECG,, the tool electrode is a rotating,
diamond grit grinding wheel.
y As the electric current flows between the workpiece and the
wheel, through the electrolyte, the surface metal is changed

to a metal oxide, which is ground away by the abrasives. As
the oxide film is removed,
removed new surface metal is oxidized and
removed.
y ECG is a low
lowvoltage
voltage high
highcurrent
current electrical process.
process
y The purpose of the abrasive is to increase the efficiency of the
process and p
permit the continuance of the p
process.
ECG p
y The abrasive particles are always nonconductive material
such as aluminum oxide, diamond, or borazon (CBN). Thus
they act as an insulating spacer maintaining a separation of
from 0.012 to 0.050 mm between the electrodes.
IES 2000
IES
C
g statements:
In electrochemical grinding,
1 A rubber bonded alumina grinding wheel acts as the
1.
cathode and the workplace as the anode.
2 A copper bonded alumina grinding wheel acts as the
2.
cathode and the work piece as the anode.
3 Metal removal takes place due to the pressure
3.
applied by the grinding wheel.
4 Metal removal takes place due to electrolysis.
4.
electrolysis
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 4
156 of 240
(c) 2 and 3
(d) Page
1 and3
Equipmentsetupandelectricalcircuitforelectrochemicalgrinding.
p
OtherElectrochemicalprocesses
y Electrochemicalpolishing
p
g
y Electrochemicalholedrilling
g
y ElectrochemicalDeburring
g
Rev.0
GATE 2001
GATE
In ECM, the material removal is due to
(a) Corrosion
(b) Erosion
E i
(c) Fusion
(d) Ion displacement
GATE 1997
GATE
Selection electrolyte for ECM is as follows:
(a) Nonpassivating electrolyte for stock removal and
passivating electrolyte for finish control
(b) Passivating electrolyte for stock removal and non
passivating
i ti electrolyte
l t l t for
f finish
fi i h control
t l
(c) Selection of electrolyte is dependent on current
density
((d)) Electrolyte
y
selection is based on tool work
electrodes
GATE 1997
GATE
Inter electrode gap in ECG is controlled by
(a) Controlling the pressure of electrolyte flow
(b) Controlling
C t lli the
th applied
li d static
t ti load
l d
(c) Controlling the size of diamond particle in the wheel
(d) Controlling the texture of the work piece
GATE 1992
GATE
The two main criteria for selecting the electrolyte in
Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is that the
electrolyte should
(a) Be chemically stable
(b) Not
N t allow
ll dissolution
di l ti off cathode
th d material
t i l
(c) Not allow dissolution of anode material
(d) Have high electrical conductivity
IES 2002
IES
Assertion (A): In ECM, the shape of the cavity is the
mirror image of the tool, but unlike EDM, the tool
wear in ECM is less.
Reason (R): The tool in ECM is a cathode.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
IES 1997
IES
Which one of the following processes does not
cause tool wear?
(a) Ultrasonic machining
(b) Electrochemical machining
(c) Electric discharge machining
((d)) Anode mechanical machining
g
Ph i l P i i l
PhysicalPrinciple
y Basic process
Ph i l P i i l
PhysicalPrinciple
y An arc jumps between two points along the path of least
resistance.
Page 157 of 240
Rev.0
Ph i l P i i l
PhysicalPrinciple
Ph i l P i i l
PhysicalPrinciple
Ph i l P i i l
PhysicalPrinciple
y The energy of the arc is so concentrated that it causes the
y The metal and dielectric fluid is partly vaporized,
y The blast from the expanding vapors knocks some
electrode, and the work to melt. But the electrode

material is chosen so that it melts less.
causing sudden expansion.
molten particles loose, and the remaining molten metal

hardens.
Ch
t i ti
f EDM
CharacteristicsofEDM
Ch
t i ti
f EDM
CharacteristicsofEDM
y Mechanics of material removal melting and
y Uses Voltage of 60 to 300 V to give a transient arc lasting
evaporation aided by cavitation.

y The process is based on melting temperature,
temperature not
hardness, so some very hard materials can be machined
this way.
way
y The arc that jumps heats the metal, and about 1 to 10% of
th molten
the
lt metal
t l goes into
i t the
th fluid.
fl id The
Th melted
lt d metal
t l
then recast layer is about 1 to 30 m thick, and is
generally
ll hard
h d and
d rough.
h
y The electrode workpiece gap is in the range of 10 m to
100 m.
from 0.1 s to 8 ms.

y Typical cycle time is 20 ms or less,
less up to millions of
cycles may be required for completion of the part.
y Rotating
R t ti the
th wire
i in
i an orbital
bit l direction
di ti will,
ill
Increase accuracy in form and surface finish
Decrease electrode wear
EDMTool
W
R ti
WearRatio
S
M h i
ServoMechanism
y One major drawback of EDM is the wear that occurs on
y The
the
a critical
Th gap between
b t
th tool
t l and
d work
k has
h
iti l
Theusualchoicesfortool(electrode)materialsare
y Copper,
y brass,
b
y alloysofzincandtin,
y hardenedplaincarbonsteel,
y coppertungsten,
y silvertungsten,
y tungstencarbide,
t
t bid
y coppergraphite,andgraphite.
y Surface finish obtained 0.25

0 25 m
the electrode at each spark. Tool wear is given in terms of

wear ratio which is defined as,
W
Wear
ratio
ti =
Volume of metal removed work

Volume of metal removed tool
y Wear ratio for brass electrode is 1: 1. For most other
4: 1.
metallic electrodes, it is about 33: 1 or 4
y With graphite (with the highest melting point, 3500C),
the wear ratio may range from 5: 1 up to 50: 1.
Page 158 of 240
EDM T l
EDMTool
Prime requirements EDM tool Material
1. It should be electrically conductive.
2. It should
h ld have
h
good
d machinability,
hi bilit thus
th
allowing
ll i
easy manufacture of complex shapes.
3. It should have low erosion rate or good work to tool
wear ratio.
4. It should have low electrical resistance.
5. It should have high melting point.
6. It should have high electron emission.
importance.
p
As the workpiece
p
is machined,, this g
gap
p
tends to increase. For optimum machining efficiency,
this gap should be maintained constant. This is done by
servo mechanism
h i
which
hi h controls
t l the
th movementt off the
th
electrode.
Rev.0
Di l t i Fl id
DielectricFluid
p carryy awayy
y Fluid is used to act as a dielectric,, and to help
Discuss
the
Di
th effects
ff t off insufficient
i
ffi i t dielectric
di l t i and
d
debris.
y If the fluid is p
pumped
p through
g and out the end of the
electrode, particles will push out, and mainly collect at
the edges. They will lower the dielectric resistance,
resulting in more arcs. As a result the holes will be
conical.
y If fluid is vacuum pumped into the electrode tip, straight
holes will result.
y Quite often kerosenebased oil.
y The dielectric fluid is circulated through the tool at a
pressure of 0.35 N/m2 or less. To free it from eroded
metal particles, it is circulated through a filter.
electrolyte
y circulation in the interelectrode g
gap
p on the
Electric Discharge machining and Electro Chemical
Machining process respectively.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
g
Hardness,, toughness
or brittleness of the material p
poses no
problems. Due to this EDM can be used for machining
materials that are too hard or brittle to be machined by
conventional
ti
l methods.
th d
The method does not leave any chips or burrs on the work
piece.
piece
Cutting forces are virtually zero, so very delicate and fine
work can be done.
done
The process dimension repeatability and surface finish
g are extremelyy g
good.
obtained in finishing
The characteristic surface obtained, which is made up of
p in better oil retention. This improves
p
die life.
craters, helps
Because the forces between the tool and the workpiece and
virtually zero, very delicate work can be done.
1. O
Onlyy electricallyy conductive materials can be machined
2.
33.
4.
5.
6.
by EDM. Thus non metallic, such as plastics, ceramics

or glass, cannot be machined by EDM.
Electrode wear and overcut are serious problems.
A rehardened,, highly
g y stressed zone is p
produced on the
work surface by the heat generated during machining.
This brittle layer can cause serious problems when the
part is put into service.
Perfectly square corners cannot be made by EDM.
High specific energy consumption (about 50 times that
in conventional machining)
MRR is quite low
A li ti
Applications
A li ti
Applications
y EDM is
with
i particularly
ti l l useful
f l when
h dealing
d li
ith internal
i t
l
y The method is also employed for blanking parts from sheets,

sheets
cuts that are hard to g

get tools into. Machining
g tends to
cutting off rods of materials, flat or form grinding and
work best with external cuts.

y Almost any geometry (negative of tool geometry) can be
sharpening of tools, cutters and broaches.

y In EDM method,
method small holes,
holes about 0.13
0 13 mm,
mm in
A li ti
Applications
y EDM can be
any material
b used
d for
f machining
hi i
t i l that
th t is
i
electricallyy conductive,, thus including

g metals,, alloys
y and
most carbides.
y EDM is widely used for machining burr free intricate
shapes,
h
narrow slots
l
and
d blind
bl d cavities etc., for
f example,
l
sinking of dies for moulding,
moulding die casting,
casting plastic
moulding, wire drawing, compacting, cold heading,
forging, extrusion and press tools.
IES2009Conventional
What is the principle of metal removal in EDM
process??
ii. Describe the process with the help of sketch.
iii. List advantages and limitations of the system.
i.
diameter and as deep as 20mm diameters can be drilled
generated
d on a workpiece
k
iff a suitable
bl tooll can be
b
with virtually no bending or drifting of hole. Due to this,
fabricated (the use of punch as a tool to machine its own
EDM is particularly useful for machining of small holes,

holes
mating die is commonly employed in EDM method).
orifices or slots in dieselfuel injection nozzles, or in aircraft
Fig Relaxation circuit used for generating the pulses in EDM process
Fig-Relaxation
[5 Marks]
Disadvantages
Ad t
Advantages
1.
R l ti
i it
Relaxationcircuit
S 20 C
i
l
IES2011Conventional
engines, air brake valves and so on.

Page 159 of 240
[ 5
[15marks]
]
Rev.0
GATE 1994
GATE
Electric discharge machining is more efficient
process than Electrochemical machining for
producing large non
noncircular
circular holes.
( ) True
(a)
T
(b) False
(c) Cant say
Wi EDM
WireEDM
y Wire EDM is a special form of EDM wherein the
electrode is a continuously moving conductive wire.

y A thin wire of brass, tungsten, or copper is used as an
electrode.
y The electrode wire is typically made with a 0.05 to 0.25
mm diameter,
diameter which is wire electrode wound between
the two spools.
y Deionized water is used as the dielectric.
GATE 2014 (PI)

GATE2014(PI)
Wi EDM
WireEDM
Find the correct combination of manufacturing processes to

produce
the
in
from
a blank
d
th part,
t shown
h
i figure,
fi
f
bl k (holes
(h l shown
h
are with square and circular crosssections)
y This
Thi process is
i much
h faster
f t than
th electrode
l t d EDM.
EDM
y This process is widely used for the manufacture of
punches, dies, and stripper plates, with modern

machines capable of cutting die relief, intricate
openings, tight
h radius
d contours, and
d corners routinely.
l
y Geometrically accurate but moderately finished straight
toothed metallic spur gears,

gears both external and internal
type, can be produced by wire type Electro discharge
Machining (EDM).
(EDM)
El t i Di h
G i di (EDG)
ElectricDischargeGrinding(EDG)
(a) Drilling and milling on column and knee type universal

milling
g machine
(b) Diesinking and CNC Wirecut EDM process
(c) Die
Diesinking
sinking and CNC drilling
(d) CNC Wirecut EDM process only
El t i Di h
G i di (EDG)
ElectricDischargeGrinding(EDG)
y EDG is similar to EDM except that the electrode is a
y The spark gap is normally held at 0.013

0 013 to 0.076
0 076 mm
rotating wheel (usually graphite).

y Positively charged work pieces are immersed in or
flooded by a dielectric fluid and fed past the negatively
charged wheel by servocontrolled
servo controlled machine table.
table
y Metal is removed by intermittent high frequency
electrical
l t i l discharges
di h
passing
i
th
through
h the
th gap between
b t
wheel and workpiece.
y Each spark discharge melts or vaporizes a small amount
of metal from the workpiece surface, producing a small
crate at the discharge sit, as in EDM.
y The graphite wheel is rotated at 0.5 to 3 m/s
Fig- Electric Discharge

Page 160Grinding
of 240 (EDG)
The method
Th
th d can be
b used
d for
f
1. External cylindrical grinding, internal grinding and
surface grinding.
2. Grinding
g carbide and steel at the same time without
wheel loading.
3. Grinding thin sections where abrasive wheel pressures
might cause distortion.
4 Grinding brittle materials or fragile parts where
4.
abrasive materials might cause fracturing.
Rev.0
IES 2012
IES
Statement (I): In Electro Discharge Machining (EDM)
process, tool is made cathode and work piece anode
Statement (II): In this process if both electrodes are made of
same material, greatest erosion takes place upon anode
Statement (I)
()
p
of
Statement (I)
GATE 1999
GATE
In Electro
Discharge Machining (EDM), the tool is
ElectroDischarge
made of
(a) Copper
(b) High Speed Steel
(c) Cast Iron
(d) Plain Carbon Steel
GATE 2004
GATE
The mechanism of material removal in EDM
process is
(a) Melting and Evaporation
(b) Melting and Corrosion
(c) Erosion and Cavitation
((d)) Cavitation and Evaporation
p
G
20 0 ( )
GATE2010(PI)
Keeping all other parameters unchanged,
unchanged the tool
wear in electrical discharge machining (EDM) would
be less if the tool material has
(a) high thermal conductivity and high specific heat
( ) high thermal conductivity and low specific heat
(b)
GATE 2003
GATE
As tool and work are not in contact in EDM process
(a) No relative motion occurs between them
(b) No
N wear off tool
t l occurs
(c) No power is consumed during metal cutting
(d) No force between tool and work occurs
GATE 2007
GATE
In electro discharge machining (EDM), if the
thermal conductivity of tool is high and the specific
heat of work piece is low, then the tool wear rate
and material removal rate are expected to be
respectively
(a) High and high
(b) Low and low
( ) High
(c)
Hi h and
d low
l
(d) Low
L and
d high
hi h
(c) low thermal conductivity and low specific heat

(d) low thermal conductivity and high specific heat
GATE 2005
GATE
A zigzag cavity in a block of
high strength alloy is to be
finish machined. This can be
carried out by using
(a) Electricdischargemachining
(b) Electrochemicalmachining
(c) Laserbeammachining
((d)) Abrasiveflowmachining
g
IES 2005
IES
Which of the following is/are used as low wearing
tool material(s) in electric discharge machining?
(a) Copper and brass
(b) Aluminium and graphite
(c) Silver tungsten and copper tungsten
((d)) Cast iron
Page 161 of 240
GATE 2000
GATE
Deep hole drilling of small diameter, say 0.2 mm is
done with EDM by selecting the tool material as
(a) Copper wire
(b) Tungsten wire
(c) Brass wire
(d) Tungsten carbide
Rev.0
GATE 2009(PI)
Ult
i M hi i
UltrasonicMachining
UltrasonicMachining
A titanium sheet of 5.0 mm thickness is cut by wire

cut EDM process using a wire of 1.0
1 0 mm diameter.
diameter
A uniform spark gap of 0.5 mm on both sides of the
wire is maintained during cutting operation. If the
feed rate of the wire into the sheet is 20 mm/min,
the material removal rate (in mm3/min) will be
((a)) 150
5
((b)) 200
((c)) 3300
((d)) 4
400
BySKMondal
Ult
i M hi i
UltrasonicMachining
Ult
i M hi i
UltrasonicMachining
Ult
i M hi i
UltrasonicMachining
y In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an
y USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials
y At full indentation, the indentation depth in the work
ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of

around 155 550
m over the workpiece.
p
y Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F.
Between the tool and workpiece,
p
, the machining
g zone is
flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of
water based slurry.
y As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive particles
act as the indenters and indent both the work material and
the tool. The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work
material, would remove the same, particularly if the work
material is brittle, due to crack initiation, propagation and
brittle fracture of the material.
{which are poor conductors of electricity and thus

cannot be processed by Electrochemical and Electro
Electro
discharge machining (ECM and EDM)}.
material is characterized by w. Due to the indentation,

as the work material is brittle, brittle fracture takes place
leading to hemispherical fracture of diameter 2x under
the contact zone.
y If at any moment of time, there are an average n of grits
and the tool is vibrating at a frequency f
f then material
removal rate can be expressed as
P
P
t
ProcessParameters
y MRRw
EffectofmachiningparametersonMRR
2
( w db )3/2 nf
3
Ult
i M hi
UltrasonicMachine
Feedforce(F)
Amplitudeofvibration(ao)
averagegritdiameter,dg
Frequencyofvibration(f)
Page 162 of 240
Volumeconcentrationofabrasive
inwaterslurry C
Rev.0
Ult
i M hi
UltrasonicMachine
Ult
i M hi
UltrasonicMachine
y The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar
y Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on
to a drill press.
SubsystemsofUSM
Subsystemsof
USM
the tool during machining
y It has additional features to carry out USM of brittle
y The transducer,
transducer which generates the ultrasonic vibration
work material.
y The
Th workpiece
k i
i mounted
is
t d on a vice,
i
which
hi h can be
b
located at the desired position under the tool using a 2
axis
i table.
t bl
y The table can further be lowered or raised to
accommodate work of different thickness.
y Slurry
y deliveryy and return system
y
y The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies
T
d
Transducer
GATE2010(PI)
y The
ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the

transducer. The transducer is driven by suitable signal
generator followed by power amplifier. The transducer
for USM works on the following principle
Piezoelectric effect
Magnetostrictive effect
Electrostrictive effect
y Magnetostrictive
g
transducers are most p
popular
p
and
robust amongst all.
the vibration
th
ib ti to
t the
th required
i d amplitude
lit d off 15 50 m and
d
accommodates the tool at its tip.
Ultrasonic
used
l
i machines,
hi
d in
i material
i l removall processes,
q
ultrasonic transducers. The transducers works on
require
different working principles. One of the working principles
of such ultrasonic transducers is based on
(a) eddy current effect
(b) Seebeck effect
(c) p
piezoresistive effect
(d) p
piezoelectric effect
T l h ld
H
ToolholderorHorn
y Its
is
the
amplitude
It function
f
ti
i to
t increase
i
th tool
t l vibration
ib ti
lit d
and to match the vibrator to the acoustic load.

y It must be constructed of a material with good acoustic
properties and be highly resistant to fatigue cracking.

y Monel and titanium have good acoustic properties and
are often used together with stainless steel,

steel which is
cheaper.
Limitations
T l
Tool
y Tools
relatively
T l should
h ld be
b constructed
t t d from
f
l ti l ductile
d til
materials.
y LowMRR
y Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,
y Ratherhightoolwear
semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.

y Used for machining round,
round square,
square irregular shaped
holes and surface impressions.
y Machining,
M hi i
wire
i drawing,
d
i
punching
hi
or small
ll blanking
bl ki
dies.
y Lowdepthofhole
L d th fh l
y The harder the tool material, the faster its wear rate will
be.
A li ti
Applications
Page 163 of 240
Rev.0
Note
y The following material is generally machined by USM
(i)
Glass
(ii)
Sili
Silicon
(iii)
Germanium
y Tool in USM is generally made of Steel
GATE 1993
GATE
In ultrasonic machining process, the material
removal rate will be higher for materials with
(a) Higher toughness
(b) Higher ductility
(c) Lower toughness
(d) Higher fracture strain
IES 2006
IES
During ultrasonic machining, the metal removal is
achieved by
(a) High frequency eddy currents
(b) high frequency sound waves
(c) Hammering action of abrasive particles
((d)) Rubbing
g action between tool and workpiece
p
GATE 1994
GATE
Ultrasonic machining is about the best process for
making holes in glass which are comparable in size
with the thickness of the sheet.
( ) True
(a)
T
(b) False
(c) Cant say
IES2011
USM has good machining performance for :
(a) Al
(b) Steel
((c)) Super
p alloys
y
(d) Refractory material
GATE 1992
1992
GATE
In Ultrasonic Machining (USM) the material
removal rate would
(a) Increase
(b) Decrease
(c) Increase and then decrease
((d)) decrease and then increase
with increasing mean grain diameter of the abrasive
material.
IES 2009
IES
By which one of the following processes the
metering holes in injector nozzles of diesel engines
can be suitably made?
(a) Ultrasonic machining
(b) Abrasive
Ab i jet
j t machining
hi i
(c) Electron beam machining
(d) Chemical machining
Chemical Machining
ChemicalMachining
IAS 1996
IAS
During ultrasonic machining, the metal removal is
affected by the
(a) Hammering action of abrasive particles
(b) Rubbing action between tool and workpiece
(c) High frequency sound waves
((d)) High
g frequency
q
y eddyy currents
y Chemicals
Ch i l are used
d to
t dissolve
di l material
t i l
y Masks are used to control attack
y Most common use is circuit boards and p
plates for
printing.
y Cutting speed of 0.00250.1 mm/minute very slow
Page 164 of 240
Rev.0
Chemical Machining
ChemicalMachining
Photo Chemical Machining

PhotoChemicalMachining
Photo Chemical Machining

PhotoChemicalMachining
y PCM is a material removal process using chemicals
(etchants) to produce high precision parts.

y This process is also known as Photo Etching,
Etching Chemical
Blanking and Photo Chemical Milling.

b th sides
both
id
off the
th plate
l t with
ith photoresist.
h t
i t
(photoresist is a polymer that adheres to the metal when
exposed
d to
t UV light).
li ht)
y Spray metal with etchant or dip it in hot acidic solution
t etch
to
t h all
ll material
t i l other
th than
th
partt covered
d with
ith
photoresist (115 min.).
y Rinse
Ri
th plate
the
l t to
t ensure photoresist
h t
i t and
d etchant
t h t
removal.
y Coat
C t
L
B
M hi i
LaserBeamMachining
L
B
M hi i
LaserBeamMachining
y Direct laser beam against surface of workpiece, as in
LaserBeamMachining
y Produceslargeremelt zone
laser welding
y Canproduceholesassmallas0.0005mmdiameter
C d h l
ll
di
y Successive pulses from laser gun vaporize tiny bits of
y Canproducedeepholes
workpiece
k i
y Usedtoproducecoolingholesinblades/vanesforjet
y Location of laser beam controlled by computer
engines
y Workpiece
p
need not be conductive
y Cuts are tapered
y Gotta trap overshoot from laser beam
310
l
h
ElectronBeamMachining
311
ElectronBeamMachining
IFS2011
y Workpiece placed in vacuum

acuum chamber
y Highvoltage
g
g
electron
beam
directed
312
Writetheadvantages,limitationsandapplicationsof
toward
electronbeammachining.Whatisthesafetyproblem
workpiece
connectedwithEBM?
t d ithEBM?
y Energy of electron beam melts/ vaporizes selected
[5 Marks]
[5Marks]
region of workpiece
y Electron beam moved by
y deflection coils
y Similar process to EB welding
313
Page 165 of 240
314
Rev.0
l
PlasmaArcCutting
h
WaterJetMachining
WaterJetMachining
y Plasma is a stream of ionized gas
y Narrowjetofwaterdirected,athighpressureand
j f
di
d hi h
d
y Typical temperatures are very high
velocity,againstsurfaceofworkpiece
y, g
p
y Same process as plasma welding, without filler metal
y Jetofwatererodessurfaceofworkpiece,thereby
y Torch movement controlled by computer
cuttingworkpiece
y Power requirements depend on material being cut,

cut
y Computercontroltoachieveshape
C
t
t lt hi h
plus depth of cut

y Recast layer is deeper than with other processes
316
317
Abrasive Jet Machining (Dry)

AbrasiveJetMachining(Dry)
GATE 2013 (PI)

GATE2013(PI)
y It is similar to sand blasting, except that a very narrow jet of

y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
g
g
gas and abrasive p
particles achieves localized cutting.
It removes material through the eroding action of a high
velocity stream of abrasiveladen gas.
The gas is first compressed and mixed with the abrasive
powder in a mixing chamber and passed through outlet
nozzle.
l
Computer is used to position the jet.
G Pressure
Gas
P
about
b t 7 atm
t
Velocity of jet about 300 m/s
Jet Diameter 0.12
0 12 mm to 1.25
1 25 mm
Abrasive used: Al2O3 , SiC with particle size 10 to 50 m
Tool (nozzle) material tungsten carbide or sapphire
Tool(nozzle)Life about30hours
318
AbrasiveJetMachining
In
jet
the
jet
I water
t
j t machining,
hi i
th water
t
j t is
i issued
i
d
through
g a 0.33 mm diameter orifice at a p
pressure of
400 MPa. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3. The
coefficient of discharge is 1.0. Neglecting all losses
d i
during
water
t jet
j t formation
f
ti
th
through
h the
th orifice,
ifi
th
the
power of the water jjet in KW is
p
(a) 25.3
(b) 50.6
(c) 75.9
(d) 101.2
319
AdvantagesofAJM
y Can be used in any material, conductive, non
conductive ductile or brittle

conductive,
y Good dimensional accuracy (0.05 mm)
y Good Surface finish 0.25 to 1.25 m
321
DisadvantagesofAJM
y Cutting and drilling on metal foils and thin
y LowMRR
y Possibilityofstraycutting
P ibilit f t tti
y Embeddingofabrasiveparticlesinsoftworkpiece
y Dustcontrolneeded
y Due to cooling action of gas stream no thermal damage
sections of ceramics and glass

y Intricate holes in electronic components such as
resistor paths in insulation

y Engraving of characters on toughened glass
automobile windows
on the work surface
y Cleaning, polishing and deburring the surface
y Due to negligible
g g
force delicate workpiece
p
can be
machined. For-2015 (IES, GATE & PSUs)
ApplicationofAJM
Page 166 of 240
Rev.0
Q
( )
In abrasive jet machining, as the distance between
th nozzle
the
l tip
ti and
d the
th work
k surface
f
i
increases,
th
the
material removal rate
( ) increases continuously.
(a)
l
(b) decreases continuously.
(c) decreases, becomes stable and then increases.
(d) increases,
increases becomes stable and then decreases.
decreases
GATE2014(PI)
A hard
h d ceramic
i marble,
bl having
h i density
d it ()
( ) off 3000 kg/m
k / 3
and diameter (d) of 0.025 m, is dropped accidentally
f
from
a static
t ti weather
th balloon
b ll
att a height
h i ht off 1 km
k above
b
the roof of a greenhouse. The flow stress of roof material
( ) is
()
i 2.5 GPa.
GP
Th marble
The
bl hits
hit and
d creates
t
an
indentation on the roof. Assume that the principle of
creation
ti
off indentation
i d t ti
i the
is
th same as that
th t in
i case off
abrasive jet machining (AJM). The acceleration due to
gravity
it (g)
( ) is
i 10 m/s
/ 2. If V is
i the
th velocity,
l it in
i m/s,
/ off the
th
marble at the time it hits the greenhouse, the
indentation
d
d h = 1000 d V , in mm, is.........
depth
y Used to cut much harder materials
Whatarethedisadvantagesofabrasivejetmachining?
y Water is not used directly to cut material as in Pure,
instead water is used to accelerate abrasive particles which
Writesomeofitsapplications.
[5Marks]
g
do the cutting
y 80mesh garnet (sandpaper) is typically used though 50
and
d 120mesh
h is also
l used
d
y Standoff distance between mixing
g tube and workpart
p
is
typically 0.0100.200 important to keep to a minimum to

keep a good surface finish
GATE 1992
GATE
g components
p
pp p
Match the following
with the appropriate
machining processes:
p
Process
Component
(A) Square hole in a high strength alloy
(1)
Milling
((B)) Square
q
hole in a ceramic component
p
((2))
Drilling
g
(C) Blind holes in a die
(3)
ECM
((D)) Turbine blade p
profile on high
g strength
g alloy(4)
y(4) JJig
g boring
g
(5)
EDM
(6)
USM
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
1
2
3
(b)
5
6
1
3
(c) 4
2 For-2015
1
3
(d) &3 PSUs)
1
2
4
(IES,
GATE
GATE 2011
GATE2011
Match the following non traditional machining

processes with the corresponding material removal
mechanism:
Machiningprocess
gp
Mechanismofmaterialremoval
f
P.Chemicalmachining
1.Erosion
Q.Electro
Q
Electro chemical
machining
R Electro discharge
R.Electro
machining
2 Corrosivereaction
2.Corrosivereaction
S.Ultrasonicmachining
4.Fusionandvaporization
3 Iondisplacement
3.Iondisplacement
(a)P 2,Q 33,R 4,S 1(b)P 2,Q 4,R 33,S 1

(c)P 3,Q 2,R 4,S 1(d)P 2,Q 3,R 1,S 4
Page 167 of 240
Statethemechanismofcuttingbyabrasivejet.
Whataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesof
AJM?Mentiontwoapplications.
[
[10Marks]
]
b
AbrasiveWJCutting
IFS2011
IAS2011Main
AbrasiveWJCutting
y Evolution
of mixing tube
technology
y Standard Tungsten Carbide
lasts 46
4 6 hours (not used much
anymore)
y Premium Composite Carbide
lasts 100150 hours
y Consumables
C
bl
i l d
include
water,
t
abrasive, orifice and mixing
tube
GATE 2007
GATE
gp
Matchthemostsuitablemanufacturingprocessesfor
thefollowingparts.
g
Parts
ManufacturingProcesses
P. Computerchip 1.
Q Metalformingdiesandmoulds
Q.
2.
UltrasonicMachining
R Turbineblade
R.
3
3.
Electro discharge
Electrodischarge
Machining
S Glass
S.
4
4.
PhotochemicalMachining
Codes:P Q
R
S
P
Q
R
S
( ) 4
(a)
3
1
2
(b) 4
3
2
1
(c) 3
1
4
2
(d) 1 Rev.0
2
4
3
GATE 1998
1998
GATE
IES 2008
IES
IES 1998,ISRO2009
1998 ISRO 2009
IES
Match List
II and select the correct answer
ListII with List
ListII
using the code given below the lists:
ListII
List
ListII
List
II
(Unconventional machining process) (Basic process)
A Electro polishing
A.
1
1.
Thermal
B. Electrochemical machining
2.
Mechanical
C Abrasive
C.
Ab i jet
j machining
hi i
3.
El
Electrochemical
h i l
D. Electrical discharge machining 4.
Chemical
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
3
2
1
(b) 2
1
4
3
(c) 4
1
2
3
(d) 2
3
4
1
Match List
II
ListII (Machining process) with List
ListII
(Associated medium) and select the correct answer
ListI
ListII
A Ultrasonic
A.
Ult
i machining
hi i
1.
K
Kerosene
B. EDM
2.
Abrasive slurry
C. ECM
3.
Vacuum
D. EBM
4.
Salt solution
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 2
(a)
3
4
1
(b) 2
1
4
3
(c) 4
1
2
3
(d) 4
3
2
1
IES 2005
2005
IES
IES 2003
IES
IES 2003
IES
g Process)) with List II

Match List I ((Machining
(Application) and select the correct answer using the
code given below the Lists:
List I
List II
A. EDM 1.
Holes & cavities in hard & brittle materials
B LBM 2.
B.
2
Microdrilling
Micro
drilling & micro
microwelding
welding of
materials
C. USM 3.
Shaping of hard metals or reshaping of
cemented
d carbide
bid tools
l
D. ECM 4.
Shaping of cemented carbide dies and
punches
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
1
2
3
(b) 3
2
1
4
(c) 4
2
1
3
(d) 3
1
2
4
(
) with List II ((Machining)
g) and
Match List I (Materials)
select the correct answer using the codes given below
the Lists:
List I
List II
(Materials)
(Machining)
A. Machining of conducting materials
1.
ECM
B. Ruby rod
2.
EDM
C. Electrolyte
3.
USM
D. Abrasive slurry
4.
LBM
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
2
1
3
(b) 4
2
3
1
(c) 2
4
3
1
(d) 2
4
1
3
IAS 2002
IAS
IAS 1999
IAS
IES 2004
IES
Match List I (Unconventional machining process) with

List II (Typical application) and select the correct
answer using
g the codes g
List I
List II
A Electro discharge machining 1.
A.
1 Drilling micro holes in
very hard metals
B Electro chemical machining 2.
B.
2 Drilling holes in glass
C. Ultrasonic machining
3.
Die sinking
D Laser beam machining 4.
D.
4
Machining contours
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 4
(a)
2
3
1
( ) 3
(b)
4
1
2
Page 168 of 240
(c) 4
3
2
1
(d) 3
4
2
1
(
g p
Match List I (Machining
processes)) with List II
(Operating media) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the Lists:
List I
List II
A. Abrasive jet machining
1.
Dielectric
B. Electron beam machining
2.
Electrolyte
C. Electrochemical machining
3.
Abrasive slurry
D. Electrodischarge machining 4.
Vacuum
5.
Air
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 5
4
2
1
(b) 4
5
2
1
(c) 4
2
3
5
(d) 2
5
3
4
Rev.0
List I
(A) ECM
(B) EDM
(C) USM
(D) LBM
Codes:A
C
d A
(a) 4
(c) 4
B
1
2
(1)
( )
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
C
2
1
List II
Plastic shear
E i /B ittl fracture
Erosion/Brittle
f t
Corrosive reaction
Melting and vaporization
Ion displacement
Plastic shear and ion displacement
D
A
B
C
D
3
(b) 5
4
2
4
3
(d) 3
1
2
4
Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly

matched?
(Unconventional
(Application)
machining method)
(a) Electric discharge : Machining of electrically
conductive materials
(b) Laser beam
: Micromachining
(c) Plasma arc
: Faster cutting of hard materials
(d) Electron beam : Faster metal removal rate
) Water jet
j
g uses high
g
Assertion ((A):
machining
pressure and high velocity water stream which acts
like a saw and cuts a narrow groove in the material.
Reason (R): The force required for cutting is
generated from sudden change in the momentum
of the water stream.
IES 1999
IES
Match ListI with ListII and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the Lists:
ListI
ListII
A. Die sinking
1. Abrasive jet machining
g
2. Laser beam machining
g
B. Debarring
C. Fine hole drilling (thin materials) 3. EDM
D. Cutting/sharpening
g
p
g hard materials
4. Ultrasonic machining
55. Electrochemical g
grinding
g
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
((a)) 3
5
4
1
((b)) 2
4
1
3
(c) 3
1
2
5
(d) 4
5
1
3
GATE 2004
GATE
yp
g operations
p
Typical
machining
are to be p
performed on hard
tomachine materials by using the processes listed below.
Choose the best set of OperationProcess combinations
O
Operation
ti
P
Process
P. Debarring (internal surface) 1.
Plasma Arc Machining
Q Die sinking
Q.
2
2.
Abrasive Flow Machining
R. Fine hole drilling in thin sheets 3. Electric Discharge
Machining
g
S. Tool sharpening
4.
Ultrasonic Machining
5.
Laser beam Machining
g
6.
Electrochemical Grinding
(a) P1 Q5 R3 S4
(b)
P1 Q4 R1 S2
(c) P5 Q1 R2 S6
(d)
P2 Q3 R5 S6
Page 169 of 240
Rev.0
C t l St t
f
t i l
CrystalStructureofmaterials
y FCC: Ni,Cu,Ag,Pt,Au,Pb,Al(soft)
y BCC: V,Mo,Ta,W(hardmaterial)
y HCP: Mg,Zn
g
y CobaltHCP<4200C,FCC>4200C
oC
y ChromiumHCP<20oC,BCC>20
,
GATE 2011
GATE2011
Thecrystalstructureofausteniteis
(a)bodycenteredcubic
(b)facecenteredcubic
(c)hexagonalclosedpacked
( )
(d)bodycenteredtetragonal
y
g
y Glass Amorphous
y BCC
BCCFerriteor
Ferriteor iron
ironferriteoriron
& ferriteor iron
y FCC Austeniteoriron
IES 2011
IES2011
ListI
ListII
A.Alphairon
p
1.FCC
B.Zinc
2.BCC
C Glass
C.Glass
3 HCP
3.HCP
D.Copper
4.Amorphous
Codes
A
(a) 1
(c) 1
B
4
3
C
3
4
D
2
2
(b)
(d)
A
2
2
B
4
3
C
3
4
D
1
1
IES2003
MatchList
I(CrystalStructure)withList II(Example)and
MatchListI(CrystalStructure)withListII(Example)and
selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowthe
Lists:
ListII
List
ListII
List
II
(CrystalStructure)
(Example)
A. SimpleCubic
1.Zinc
B
B.
B d
BodycenteredCubic
t dC bi
2.Copper
C
C. FacecenteredCubic
3.Alphaironatroom
temperature
D HexagonalClosePacked
D.
H
lCl P k d
4.Manganese
M
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
((a)
) 4
3
1
2
((b)
)
4
3
2
1
(c) 3
4
2
1
(d) 3
4
1
2
IES2001
IES2006
MatchListI(NameoftheElement)withListII
(CrystalStructure)andselectthecorrectanswerusing
thecodesgivenbelowthelists:
ListI
ListII
A. Fluorspar
1.Bodycenteredcubic
p
2.Hexagonalclosedpacked
g
p
B. AlphaIron
C. Silver
3.Simplecubic
D. Zinc
4.Facecenteredcubic
Codes A
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
2
4
1
(b) 4
1
3
2
((c)
) 4
4
2
33
1
((d)
) 33
1
4
4
2
MatchListI(Element)withListII(CrystalStructure)
andselectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegiven
belowtheLists:
List I
List
List II
List
A. AlphaIron
1.Hexagonalclosedpacked
pp
2.Bodycentredcubic
y
B. Copper
C. Zinc
3.Amorphous
D. Glass
4.Facecentredcubic
Codes A
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
3
1
4
(b) 1
4
2
3
((c)
) 2
4
4
1
33
((d)
) 1
33
2
4
Page 170 of 240
IES 1998
IES1998
h
d
b l
h l
ListI
ListII
(Material)
(Structure)
A. Charcoal
1.
F.C.C
B. Graphite
2.
H.C.P
C. Chromium
3.
Amorphous
D. Copper
4.
B.C.C
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
2
1
4
(b) 3
2
4
1
( ) 2
(c)
3
4
1
( ) 2
(d)
3
1
4
Pl ti d f
ti
Plasticdeformation
Following the elastic deformation, material undergoes
y Also characterized by relation between stress and
strain at constant strain rate and
d temperature.
y Microscopically, it involves breaking atomic bonds,
moving
i atoms, then
h restoration
i off bonds.
b d
y StressStrain relation here is complex because of
atomic
t i plane
l
movement,
t dislocation
di l ti
movement,
t and
d
the obstacles they encounter.
y Crystalline solids deform by processes slip and
twinning in particular directions.
Contd
Rev.0
y Amorphous solids deform by viscous flow mechanism
without any directionality.

y Because of the complexity involved, theory of plasticity
neglects the following effects:

y Anelastic strain, which is time dependent
recoverable strain.
y Hysteresis behavior resulting from loading and
unloading of material.
y Bauschinger
B
hi
effect
ff
dependence
d
d
off yield
i ld stress on
loading path and direction.
y Equations
E
ti
relating
l ti
stress
t
and
d strain
t i are called
ll d
constitutive equations.
y A true stressstrain curve is called flow curve as it gives
the stress required to cause the material to flow

plastically
l i ll to certain
i strain.
i
y Because of the complexity involved, there have been
many stressstrain relations proposed.
proposed
Slip
y Slip is the prominent mechanism of plastic deformation in
metals.
y It involves sliding of blocks of crystal over one other along
definite crystallographic planes, called slip planes.

y In physical words it is analogous to a deck of cards when it
is pushed from one end.

= fn( ,
, T,
T microstructure)
= K n
= K
.m
= K( 0 + )n
= 0 + K n
Strain hardening exponent, n = 0.1 - 0.5

Strain - rate sensitivity,
sensitivity m = 0
0.4
4-0
0.9
9
Strain from previous work - 0
Yield strength - 0
y Slip occurs when shear stress applied exceeds a critical
value.
y During slip each atom usually moves same integral
number
b off atomic distances
d
along
l
the
h slip
l plane
l
producing
d
a step, but the orientation of the crystal remains the same.
y Steps observable under microscope as straight lines are
called slip lines.
Contd
Twinning
y The second important mechanism of plastic deformation
y
is twinning.
It results when a portion of crystal takes up an orientation
that is related to the orientation of the rest of the untwined
l tti in
lattice
i a definite,
d fi it symmetrical
t i l way.
The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of the
parent crystal.
p
y
The p
plane of symmetry
y
y is called twinning
g
plane.
Each atom in the twinned region moves by a homogeneous
shear
h
a distance
di t
proportional
ti
l to
t its
it distance
di t
f
from
th twin
the
t i
plane.
The lattice strains involved in twinning
g are small,, usuallyy
in order of fraction of interatomic distance, thus resulting
in very small gross plastic deformation.
y The important role of twinning in plastic deformation is
y
y
y
that it causes changes in plane orientation so that further

slip can occur.
Twinning generally occurs when slip is restricted, because
the stress necessary for twinning is usually higher than that
for slip.
Thus some HCP metals with limited number of slip
Thus,
systems may preferably twin.
Also, BCC metals twin at low temperatures
p
because slip
p is
difficult.
Of course, twinning and slip may occur sequentially or
even concurrently
l in
i some cases.
IES2007
Whatisthemovementofblockofatomsalong
Wh ti th
t fbl k f t
l
certaincrystallographicplanesanddirections,
termedas?
(a) Glide
(b) Twinning
(c) Slip
(d) Jog
Contd
IES2005
TheB.C.C.andH.C.P.metalsundergoplastic
Th B C C dH C P t l d
l ti
deformationby:
(a) Slip
(b) Twinning
( ) Edgedislocation
(c)
Ed di l ti
(d) Twinningincombinationwithslip
IES1998
Assertion(A):Plasticdeformationinmetalsand
alloysisapermanentdeformationunderload.This
propertyisusefulinobtainingproductsbycold
rolling.
rolling
Reason(R):Plasticorpermanentdeformationin
metaloralloyiscausedbymovementordislocations.
( ) BothAandRareindividuallytrueandRisthecorrect
(a)
t
explanationofA
(b) BothAandRareindividuallytruebutRisnotthe
l
f
Page 171 of 240
At i St t
AtomicStructure
y Atoms consist of a relatively dense nucleus composed of
positively charged protons and neutral particles of nearly

identical mass, known as neutrons.
y Surrounding the nucleus are the negatively charged
electrons which have only 1/1839 times the mass of a
electrons,
neutron and appear in numbers equal to the protons, to
maintain a net charge balance.
y The
Th light
li h electrons
l
that
h surround
d the
h nucleus
l
play
l a far
f
more significant role in determining material properties.
y Again,
g
experiments
p
reveal that the electrons are arranged
g
in a characteristic structure consisting of shells and
subshells, each possessing a distinctive energy. Upon
absorbing a small amount of energy, an electron can jump
to a higherenergy
hi h
shell
h ll farther
f h from
f
the
h nucleus.
l
Rev.0
Contd
At i B d
AtomicBonds
y The reverse jump can also occur with the concurrent
release of a distinct amount, or quantum, of energy.

y The number of electrons surrounding the nucleus of a
neutral atom is called the atomic number.
y More
M
i
important,
h
however,
are those
h
electrons
l
i the
in
h
outermost shell or subshell, known as valence
electrons.
electrons
y These are influential in determining chemical
properties electrical conductivity,
properties,
conductivity some mechanical
properties, the nature of interatomic bonding, atom
size, and optical
p
characteristics.
y A third type of primary bond can form when a complete outer
y General characteristics of materials joined by ionic bonds

y
y
y
y
include moderate to high strength,

strength high hardness,
hardness brittleness,
brittleness
high melting point, and low electrical conductivity.
A second type of primary bond is the covalent type.
Like the ionic bond,
bond the covalent bond tends to produce
materials with high strength and high melting point.
Atom movement within the framework material (plastic
deformation) requires the breaking of discrete bonds,
bonds thereby
making the material characteristically brittle.
Electrical conductivity depends on bond strength, ranging from
conductive
tin
(weak
covalent
bonding)
bonding),
through
semiconducting silicon and germanium, to insulating diamond
(carbon).
Engineering materials possessing ionic or covalent bonds tend
to be ceramic (refractories or abrasives) or polymeric in nature.
y
y
shell cannot be formed by either electron transfer or electron

sharing.
sharing This bond is known as the metallic bond.
bond
If there are only a few valence electrons (one, two, or three) in
each of the atoms in an aggregate, these electrons can easily be
removed while the remainder are held firmly to the nucleus.
These highlymobile,"free" electrons account for the high
electrical and thermal conductivity values as well as the opaque
property (free electrons can absorb the discrete energies of light
radiation) observed in metals.
Moreover, they provide the "cement" required for the positive
negativepositive attractions that result in bonding.
Bond strength,
strength and therefore material strength,
strength varies over a
wide range.
Contd
y More significant, however, is the observation that the
p
positive ions can move within the structure without
the breaking of discrete bonds. Materials bonded by
metallic bonds can therefore be deformed by atom
movement mechanisms and produce a deformed
material that is every bit as strong as the original.
y This
h phenomenon
h
is the
h basis
b
off metall plasticity,
l
ductility, and many of the shaping processes used in
the fabrication of metal products.
products
IES 2011
IES2011
Solid material chemical bonds are :
(a) Ionic, molecular and fusion
(b) Covalent, fusion and fission
(c) Ionic, covalent and molecular
((d)) Fission,, molecular and ionic
IES2008
Contd
IES2003
Assertion(A):Elementsareclassifiedintometalsand
nonmetalsonthebasisoftheiratomicweights.
Reason(R):Thevalenceelectronstructures
contributetotheprimarybondingbetweentheatoms
toformaggregates.
(a) BothAandRaretrueandRisthecorrectexplanation
ofA
(b) BothAandRaretruebutRisNOTthecorrect
explanationofA
Ai f l b tRi t
Assertion(A):Unlikeinthecaseofionicbonds,the
Assertion(A):Unlikeinthecaseofionicbonds the
coordinationnumbersforcovalentlybondedatoms
arenotcontrolledbytheradiiratio.
Reason(R):Acovalentbondhasaspecificdirectionof
bondinginspace.
explanationofA
Ai f l b tRi t
D l
f
i
Developmentofagrainstructure
y The small, continuous volumes of solid are known as
y When a metal solidifies, a small particle of solid forms
cristals or grains, and the surfaces that divide them

(i.e.,
the
off crystalline
discontinuity)
(i
th surfaces
f
t lli
di
ti it ) are
known as grain boundaries.
y The process by which a grain structure is produced
Upon solidification is one of nucleation and growth.
y Grains are the smallest of the structural units in a
metal that are observable with ordinary light
microscopy.
py
y The atoms in the grain boundaries are more loosely
bonded and tend to react with the chemical more
readily than those that are part of the grain interior.
from
the
characteristic
f
th liquid
li id with
ith a lattice
l tti structure
t t
h
t i ti off the
th
given material.
y This p
particle then acts like a seed or nucleus and g
grows as
other atoms in the vicinity attach themselves. The basic
crystalline unit is repeated throughout space.
y In actual solidification,
solidification many nuclei form independently at
various locations throughout the liquid and have random
orientations with respect to one another. Each then grows
untill it begins
b
to interfere
f
with
h its neighbours.
hb
y Since adjacent lattice structures have different alignments
or orientations,
orientations growth cannot produce a single continuous
structure.
Page 172 of 240
Contd
Rev.0
Contd
Th number
b and
d size
i off the
h grains
i in
i a metall vary with
i h the
h
y The
rate of nucleation and the rate of growth.

g
y The g
greater the nucleation rate,, the smaller the resulting
grains. Conversely, the greater the rate of growth, the larger
the grain.
y Because the resulting grain structure will influence certain
mechanical and physical properties, it is an important
property for an engineer to both control and specify. One
p
is through
g the ASTM ((American
means of specification
Society for Testing and Materials) grain size number,
defined as:
Fracture of metals
Fractureofmetals
IES2002
y If the plastic deformation of a metal is extended too far, the
Chemicalsattackatomswithingrainboundaries
Ch i l tt k t
ithi i b
d i
preferentiallybecausetheyhave
(a) Lowerenergythanthoseinthegrains
(b) Higherenergythanthoseinthegrains
( ) Highernumberofatomsthaninthegrains
(c)
Hi h
b f t
th i th i
(d) Lowernumberofatomsthaninthegrains
where N is the number of grains per square inch

visible in a prepared specimen at lOOX and n is the ASTM
grainsize number.
number Low ASTM numbers mean a few
massive grains;high numbers refer to materials with many
small grains.
GATE2010
Thematerialpropertywhichdependsonlyonthe
Th t i l
t hi hd
d l th
basiccrystalstructureis
(a) Fatiguestrength
(b) Workhardening
(c) Fracturestrength
(d)
Elasticconstant
IES1992
Whichofthefollowingstatementistrueabout
Whi h fth f ll i t t
ti t
b t
brittlefracture?
(a) Hightemperatureandlowstrainratesfavour
brittlefracture
(b) ManymetalwithHCPcrystalstructurecommonly
showbrittlefracture
(c) Brittlefractureisalwaysprecededbynoise
(d) Cupandconeformationischaracteristicforbrittle
materials
metal mayy ultimatelyy fracture.
y These types of fractures are known as ductile fractures,
noting that the initial response to the applied load was one
of p
y Another possibility, however, is where fracture precedes
plastic deformation, occuring in a sudden, catastrophic
manner and propagating rapidly through the material.
manner,
material
These fractures, known as, brittle fractures, are most
common with metals having the bcc or hcp crystal
structures.
y Whether the fracture is ductile or brittle, however, often
depends on the specific conditions of material,
temperature state of stress,
temperature,state
stress and rate of loading.
loading
y Fracture strength depends only on the basic crystal
structure .
Cold working recrystallization and

and
Coldworking,recrystallization
hotworking
y Duringdeformation,aportionofthedeformationenergy
becomesstoredwithinthematerialintheformofadditional
dislocationsandincreasedgrainboundarysurfacearea.Ifa
deformedpolycrystallinemetalissubsequentlyheatedtoa
high enoughtemperature,thematerialwillseektolowerits
highenoughtemperature,thematerialwillseektolowerits
energy.New,equiaxed (sphericalshaped)crystalswillnucleate
andgrowoutoftheoriginalstructure.Thisprocessofreducing
theinternalenergythroughtheformationofnewcrystalsis
knownasrecrysrallization.
y The temperatureatwhichrecrystallization
p
y
takesplaceis
p
differentforeachmetalandalsovarieswiththeamountofprior
deformation.
Contd
y The greater the amount of prior deformation, the more
g and the lower the recrystallization

stored energy,
temperature. However, there is a lower limit below
which recrystallization will not take place in a
reasonable
bl amount off time.
i
y This temperature can often be estimated by taking 0.4
ti
times
th melting
the
lti point
i t off the
th metal
t l when
h the
th melting
lti
point is expressed in an absolute temperature scale.
y This is also the temperature at which atomic diffusion
(atom movement within the solid) becomes
significant, indicating that diffusion is an important
mechanism in recrystallization.
Contd
y When metals are plastically deformed below their
recrystallization temperature, the process is called

cold working.
working
y The metal strain hardens and the structure consists of
distorted grains. If the deformation is continued, the
metal may fracture. Therefore, we find it common
practice to recrystallize material after certain amounts
off cold
ld work.
k
y Ductility is restored, and the material is ready for
further deformation.
deformation
y The heating process is known as a recrystallization
anneal and enables deformation to be carried out to
great lengths without the danger of fracture.
Page 173 of 240
Contd
y Ifmetalsaredeformedattemperaturessufficiently
abovetherecrystallization,theprocessisknownas
hotworking.
y Deformationandrecrystallization cantakeplace
simultaneously,and
i l
l
d largedeformationsarepossible.
l
d f
i

ibl
y Sincearecrystallized grainstructureisconstantly
f
forming,thefinalproductwillnotexhibitstrain
i th fi l d t ill t hibit t i
hardening.
Rev.0
Contd
Plastic deformation in
Plasticdeformationin
polycrystallinemetals
y Slip in polycrystalline material involves generation,
y Gross plastic deformation of a polycrystalline specimen

Fig.Recrystallization
of7030brass:
(a)coldworked33%;
33
(b)heatedat580C
(1075F)for3seconds,
(c)4seconds,and
( )
(d)8seconds
corresponds to the comparable distortion of the individual

grains by means of slip.
slip Although some grains may be oriented
favourably for slip, yielding cannot occur unless the
unfavourably oriented neighbouring grains can also slip.
y Thus in a polycrystalline aggregate, individual grains provide a
mutual geometrical constraint on one other, and this precludes
plastic deformation at low applied stresses.
stresses
y That is to initiate plastic deformation, polycrystalline metals
require higher stresses than for equivalent single crystals, where
stress depends on orientation of the crystal.
y Much of this increase is attributed to geometrical reasons.
g
movement and (re)arrangement
of dislocations.
y The second important mechanism of plastic
deformation is twinning. It results when a portion of
crystal takes up an orientation that is related to the
orientation of the rest of the untwined lattice in a
d fi it symmetrical
definite,
t i l way.
y The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of
the parent crystal.
crystal The plane of symmetry is called
twinning plane.
Contd
Crystalline material and Crystal

CrystallinematerialandCrystal
Structures
Stable crystal structure satisfies
y The crystals are electrically neutral.
y The
Th ionion
i i repulsion
l i is
i minimized.
i i i d
y The ions or atoms in crystals
y
are p
packed as closelyy as
possible under the constrains of specific bonding.

y The free energy of the system becomes minimum
U i ll
Unitcell
Itischaracterizedby:
Mostcommonunitcells Facecenteredcubic,
g
BodycenteredcubicandHexagonal.
y Typeofatomandtheirradii,R
y Celldimensions(Latticespacinga,bandc)intermsof
Celldimensions(Latticespacinga bandc)intermsof
Randanglebetweentheaxis
ya
a*,b*,c*
,b ,c latticedistancesinreciprocallattice,
latticedistancesinreciprocallattice,*,*,
, ,
* anglesinreciprocallattice
y Numberofatomsperunitcell,n
p
,
y Coordinationnumber(CN) closestneighborstoan
atom
y Atomicpackingfactor,APF
Contd
Page 174 of 240
C
lS
CrystalStructures
/
,
y All solid materials are made of atoms/molecules,
which are arranged in specific order in some materials,
called crystalline solids. Otherwise noncrystalline or
amorphous solids.
solids
y Groups of atoms/molecules specifically arranged
crystal.
y Lattice is used to represent a threedimensional
periodic array of points coinciding with atom
positions.
y Unit cell is smallest repeatable entity that can be used
to completely represent a crystal structure.
structure It is the
building block of crystal structure
Common Crystal Structures

CommonCrystalStructures
Unit Cell
Simple
Cubic
BodyCentered
C bi
Cubic
FaceCentered
Cubic
Hexagonal
g
Close
Packed
N
1
CN
6
a/R
2
APF
0.52
4/3
0.68
12
4/2
0.74
12
0.74
Rev.0
C t l St t
f
t i l
CrystalStructureofmaterials
y FCC: Ni,Cu,Ag,Pt,Au,Pb,Al(soft)
IAS2009main
y BCC: V,Mo,Ta,W(hardmaterial)
y HCP: Mg,Zn
g
y CobaltHCP<4200C,FCC>4200C
oC
y ChromiumHCP<20oC,BCC>20
,
y Glass Amorphous
y BCC
BCCFerriteor
Ferriteor iron
ironferriteoriron
& ferriteor iron
y FCC Austeniteoriron
Fig.DifferentUnitCell
IES 2010
IES2010
Assertion(A):Mostofthematerialsexistinsingle
crystal.
crystal
Reason(R):Sugarisasinglecrystalmaterial.
( ) Both
(a)
B th A and
i di id ll true
t
and
d R is
i the
th
GATE2009
The
Th effective
ff ti number
b off lattice
l tti points
i t in
i the
th unit
it
cell of simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face
cantered cubic space lattices, respectively, are
(a) 1, 2, 2
(b) 1,
1 2,
2 4
(c) 2, 3, 4
(d) 2,
2 4,
4 4
IES2008
In
model
I the
th atomic
t i hardsphere
h d h
d l off the
th crystal
t l
structure of Copper, what is the edge length of unit
cell?
IES2004
Assuming
to
what
A
i atoms
t
t be
b perfect
f t spheres,
h
h t is
i the
th
value of the highest possible atomic packing
factor (APF) in metals?
(a) 0.95
(b) 0.74
0 74
(c) 0.66
(d) 0.5
05
Page 175 of 240
IES2003
The
coordination
Th
di ti
structure is
(a) 4
(b) 8
( ) 12
(c)
(d) 16
number
b
for
f
FCC
crystal
t l
IES2000
Atomicpackingfactor(APF)inthecaseofcopper
At
i
ki f t (APF)i th
f
crystalis
(a) 0.52
0 52
(b) 0.68
( ) 0.74
(c)
(d) 1.633
Rev.0
IES1999
MatchList
I(Crystalstructure)withList II(Atomic
MatchListI(Crystalstructure)withListII(Atomic
packingfactor)andselectthecorrectanswerusingthe
ListII
List
ListII
List
II
A. Simplecubic
1.
74%
B. Bodycenteredcubic
2.
74%
C Facecenteredcubic
C.
F
t d bi
3.
52%
%
D. Hexagonalclosepacked
4.
68%
Codes:
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
4
2
1
(b)
4
3
2
1
(c) 3
4
1
2
(d)
4
3
1
2
IES2007
Which one of the following is the correct ascending
order of packing density for the given crystal
structures of metals?
(a) Simple cubic Face centred cubic Body centred
cubic
(b) Body centred cubic Simple cubic Face centred cubic
(c) Simple cubic Body centred cubic Face centred cubic
(d) Body centred cubic Face centred cubic Simple cubic
F
l f
l i
Formulaforalatticeconstant
nM
a=
Consider the following statements about FCC and

HCP crystal structure:
1. Both have same coordination number and atomic
packing fraction.
2. Both represent closely packed crystal structures.
3. Both structures are generated by stacking of close
packed plants on top of one another, but only the
stacking sequence is different.
different
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
B i L i
d i ll
BravisLatticeandunitcell
IES2004
AmetalhasFCCstructure.Supposeitsatomic
A t lh FCC t
t
S
it t
i
weightandatomicradiusisAandrrespectively.
LetNdenotesAvogadro snumber.Whatisthe
LetNdenotesAvogadro'snumber.Whatisthe
densityofthematerial?
(a)
[Wheren=noofatomspercell,M=Atomicweight,
[Wheren
noofatomspercell M Atomicweight
N=Avogadrosnumber, =DensityofMetal]
IES2005
(c)
(b)
2 2r3 N
A
(d)
8 2r3 N
y Totalsixlatticeparameters a,b, c alongthethree

crystalaxes,and , , three,crystalangles.
c>
A
4 2r3 N
a>
>
y Therearesevenlatticesystems
16 2r 3 N
Note: Total7latticesystembuttotal14Bravice lattice
1 C bi
1.Cubic
2 T
l
2.Tetragonal
b c
y a
a=b=c
b c
y a
a=b
y . = = = 90
y = =
IES2001
1 SimpleCubic(SC)=1atom
1.
Whichoneofthefollowingpairsofaxislengths(a,b,
Whi h
fth f ll i i f i l
th ( b
c)andinteraxialangles(,,)representsthe
tetragonalcrystalsystem?
1.Simpletetragonal(ST)
2. Bodycenteredcubic(BCC)=2atom
c
2.Bodycenteredtetragonal(BCT)
3. Facecenteredcubic(FCC)=4atom
F t d bi (FCC) t
Page 176 of 240
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
a = b = c; = = = 900
a = b c; = = = 900
a b c; = = = 900
a = b = c; = = 900
Rev.0
3 O h h bi
3.Orthorhombic
IES2006
In
each
is
I Zinc
Zi Blende
Bl d structure,
t
t
h atom
t
i surrounded
d d
by four atoms of the opposite kind which are
located at the corners of which one of the
following?
(a) Tetrahedron
(b) Hexahedron
(c) Cube
(d) Orthorhombic
4 Rh b h d l
4.Rhombohedral
y abc
b c
y a
a=b=c
y = = =900
y = = 90o
1.Simpleorthorhombic(SO)
a
b
(i)SimpleRhombohedral (Sr)
2.Bodycenteredorthorhombic(BCO)
3
3.Facecenteredorthorhombic(FCO)
(
)
4.Endcenteredorthorhombic(ECO)
5 H
l
5.Hexagonal
IES2007
ForaRhombohedral
F Rh b h d l spacelattice,whichoneofthe
l tti hi h
fth
followingiscorrect?
6 M
li i
6.Monoclinic
bc
y a
a=bc
y abc
y = =900
y = =900
y =1200
1. SimpleMonoclinic(Sm)
()
(i)SimpleHexagonal(Sh)
p
g
( )
c
2. Endcenteredmonoclinic(ECM)
7 T i li i
7.Triclinic
IES 2011
IES2011
y abc
Inatriclinicunitcell:
(a ) = = = 90o (b) = = 90o , = 120o

(c) = = 90o
(d ) 90o
1.SimpleTriclinic(Stri)
c
a
Page 177 of 240
IES2006
Whichoneofthefollowingpairsisnotcorrectly
Whi h
fth f ll i i i t
tl
matched?
SpaceLatticeRelationbetweenAtomicradiusr and
Edgeelementa
(a) Simplecubicstructure:
a2 =4r2
(b) Bodycentred cubicstructure:3a2 =16r2
(c) Triclinic:
2a2 =3r
3r2
2
(d) Facecentred cubicstructure: a =8r2
Rev.0
Mill i di
Millerindices
Mill i di
Di
i
Millerindices
Direction
Mill i di
Pl
Millerindices
Plane
otat o iss required

equ ed to identify
de t y pa
t cu a
y A syste
system o
of notation
particular
y A vector of convenient length is placed parallel to the
y Determine the intercepts of the plane along the
direction(s) or plane(s) to characterize the arrangement of

atoms in a unit cell
y Formulas involving Miller indices are very similar to related
formulas from analytical geometry simple to use
y Use
U off reciprocals
i
l avoids
id the
th complication
li ti
off infinite
i fi it
intercepts
y Specifying dimensions in unit cell terms means that the
same label can be applied to any plane with a similar
stacking pattern, regardless of the crystal class of the
crystal. Plane (111) always steps the same way regardless of
crystal system.
required direction
y The length
g of the vector p
projection
j
on each of three
axes are measured in terms of unit cell dimensions
y These three numbers are made to smallest integer
g
values, known as indices, by multiplying or dividing by
a common factor
y The three indices are enclosed in square brackets,
[uvw]
y A family of directions is represented by <uvw>
crystallographic axes, in terms of unit cell dimensions.

If plane is passing through origin, there is a need to
construct a plane parallel to original plane
y Take the reciprocals of these intercept numbers
y Clear fractions
y Reduce to set of smallest integers
y The three indices are enclosed in parenthesis, (hkl).
y A family
y of p
planes is represented
p
byy {{hkl}}
Contd
Millerindices UsefulConventions
y If a plane is parallel to an axis, its intercept is at infinity
(
)
MillerIndices(hkl)
StepI:Findtheinterceptsofaplanealongthecrystalaxesa,
Step I:Findtheinterceptsofaplanealongthecrystalaxesa
b,candexpresstheinterceptsinunitsofcrystalparameter
a,b,crespectively.
StepII:Findthereciprocaloftheintercepts.
StepIII:Reduce thereciprocalstothethreesmallestinteger
(h k l)keepingtheratiossame
(h,k,l)keepingtheratiossame.
StepIV:Enclosetheseintegerintosameparameters(h,k,l)
b
b
a
y Multiplying or dividing a Miller index by constant has
no effect on the orientation of the plane
and its Miller index will be zero

y Never alter negative
g
numbers. This implies
p
symmetry
y
y
that the crystal may not have! Use bar over the number
to represent negative numbers.
y A plane or direction of family is not necessarily parallel
to other planes or directions in the same family
y The smaller the Miller index, more nearly parallel the
plane to that axis, and vice versa
y When the integers used in the Miller indices contain
Contd
Contd
Example: Find the miller indices of a plane that

makes intercepts in the units of lattice parameters
of 1 and 2 on a and b respectively.
respectively The plane is
parallel to c axis.
Solution:
a
Intercepts
Take reciprocals
Reduce to reciprocals
more than one digit, the indices must be separated by

commas. E.g.: (3,10,13)
y What is p
planer density:
y The number of lattice p
point
per unit area is defied as planer density.
IAS2009Main
Hence millers Indices are (210)
Page 178 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2010
IES2010
Miller indices (x, y,
z) for the hatched
plane in the above
abo e
unit
cell
are
represented as
(a) (100)
(b) (110)
(c) (111)
(d) (101)
IES1998
Aunitcellofacrystalisshowninthegivenfigure.
A it ll f
t li h
i th i
fi
TheMillerindicesofthedirection(arrow)shown
inthefigureis
(a) [012]
(b) [021]
(c) [210]
(d) [201]
IES2006
IES1999
Whatistheplanardensityof(100)planeinFCC(face
Whatistheplanardensityof(100)planeinFCC(face
centred cubic)crystalwithunitcellsideaequalto?
(a) 1.484
a2
(b)
a2
((c)
)
a2
((d)
)
ThesetofMillerindicesoftheplaneshowninthe
Th t fMill i di fth l
h
i th
givenfigureis
(a) (00)
(b) (100)
1
(c) (101)
(d) (110)
1
2
a2
Useful Conventions for a cubic

UsefulConventionsforacubic
crystal
y [uvw] is normal to (hkl) if u = h, v = k, w = l.
E.g.:(111) [111]
y [uvw] is parallel to (hkl) if hu + kv + lw = 0
y Two planes (h1k1l1) and (h2k2l2) are normal if
h1h2+k1k2+l1l2 = 0
y Two directions (u1v1w1) and (u2v2w2) are normal
u1u2+v1v2+w1w2 = 0
I
Pl
di
b
f il f l
{hkl}
InterPlanardistancebetweenfamilyofplanes{hkl}
d( hkl ) =
a
h2 + k 2 + l 2
Anglesbetweentwoplanesisgivenby
cos =
h1h2 + k1 k2 + l1l2
h12 + k12 + l12 h22 + k22 + l22
Contd
CrystalDefects
y The assumption of perfectly arranged atoms in a
solid may not valid i.e. atomic order must have

b
been
di
disturbed.
b d
y Disordered atomic region is called defect or
i
imperfection.
f ti
y Based on geometry, defects are: Point defects
(zero D) Line defects (1D)
(zeroD),
(1 D) or Dislocations,
Dislocations
Interfacial defects (2D) and Bulk or Volume
defects (3
(3D).
D).
P i d f
Pointdefects
y It is clear from the equation that there is an
y Pointdefectsareofzerodimensionali.e.atomicdisorderis
restrictedtopointlikeregions.
y Thermodynamicallystablecomparedwithotherkindof
defects.
y Fractionofvacancysitescanbegivenasfollows:
act o o vaca cy s tes ca be g ve as o ows:
Q
n
= e kT
N
[WherenisthenumberofvacantsitesinNlatticepositions,k
isgasorBoltzmannsconstant
isgasorBoltzmann
sconstant,Tisabsolutetemperaturein
Tisabsolutetemperaturein
kelvin,andQistheenergyrequiredtomoveanatomfromthe
interiorofacrystaltoitssurface.]
Contd
Page 179 of 240
exponential increase in number of vacancies with

temperature. When the density of vacancies becomes
relatively large, there is a possibility for them to cluster
together and form voids.
voids
y In ionic crystals, defects can form on the condition
of charge neutrality.
neutrality Two possibilities are:
Rev.0
IES1998;1999
IES1992
Assertion(A):Carbonformsinterstitialsolid
solutionwhenaddedtoiron.
Reason(R):Theatomicradiusofcarbonatomis
muchsmallerthanthatofiron.
Li d f
Linedefects
Whichofthefollowingisapointimperfection?
Whi h fth f ll i i i ti
f ti ?
1.Vacancy
2.Interstitialcy
3.Frenkelimperfection
F k li
f i
4.Schottkyimperfection
S h k i
f i
( ) 1and2only
(a)
( )
(b)
2and3only
( ) 2,3and4only
(c)
d l
(d)
1,2,3and4
d
Burgersvector
p change
g in atomic
y Line defects or Dislocations are abrupt
y
IES2009
order along a line.

They occur if an incomplete plane inserted between
perfect planes of atoms or when vacancies are aligned in a
line.
A dislocation is the defect responsible
p
for the
phenomenon of slip, by which most metals deform
plastically.
Dislocations occur in high densities (10810
1010 m22),
) and are
intimately connected to almost all mechanical properties
which are in fact structuresensitive.
Dislocation form during plastic deformation, solidification
or due to thermal stresses arising from rapid cooling.
Whichoneofthefollowingdefectsis
Schottky
Whi h
fth f ll i d f t i 'S
h ttk
defect?
(a) Vacancydefect
(b) Compositionaldefect
( ) Interstitialdefects
(c)
I t titi ld f t
(d) Surfacedefect
Li d f
Ed di l
i
Linedefects
Edgedislocation
y A dislocation is characterized by Burger

Burgerss vector, b.
Orowan dislocation.
y ItisalsocalledasTaylor
ItisalsocalledasTaylorOrowan
y It is unique to a dislocation, and usually have the
y Itwillhaveregionsofcompressiveandtensilestresses
direction of close p
pack lattice direction. It is also the
slip direction of a dislocation.
y It represents
p
the magnitude
g
and direction of distortion
associated with that particular dislocation.
y Two limiting cases of dislocations, edge and screw,
are characterized by Burgers vector perpendicular to
the dislocation line (t) and Burgers vector parallel to
th dislocation
the
di l ti line
li respectively.
ti l Ordinary
O di
di l ti
dislocation
is of mixed character of edge and screw type.
oneithersideoftheplanecontainingdislocation.
p
g
Contd
y A pure edge dislocation can glide or slip in a direction
perpendicular to its length i.e. along its Burgers vector in

the slip plane (made of b and t vectors),
vectors) on which
dislocation moves by slip while conserving number of
atoms in the incomplete plane.
y It may move vertically by a process known as climb, if
diffusion of atoms or vacancies can take place at
appropriate
i
rate.
y Atoms are added to the incomplete plane for negative
climb i.e.
i e the incomplete plane increases in extent
downwards, and vice versa.
y Thus climb motion is considered as nonconservative,, the
movement by climb is controlled by diffusion process.
Contd
Page 180 of 240
Rev.0
Contd
IES2009
Whichoneofthefollowingiscorrectfor
Climb
Whi h
fth f ll i i
tf 'Cli
b'??
(a) Dislocationmovesparalleltotheslipplane
(b) Dislocationmovesperpendiculartotheslipplane
Di l
i
di l h li l
(c) Slidingofoneplaneofatomsovertheotherplane
( ) Dislocationmovesfromaslipplanetoanotherslip
(d)
plane
Li d f
S
di l
i
Linedefects
Screwdislocation
y It is also called as Burger
Burgerss dislocation.
y It will have regions of shear stress around the
dislocation line
positive screw dislocation, dislocation line
direction is p
parallel to Burgers
g
vector, and vice versa.
y For
Contd
Li d f
Di l
i
i
Linedefects
Dislocationmotion
pp
y Dislocations move under applied
stresses,, and thus
causes plastic deformation in solids.
y Dislocations can move in three ways glide/slip, cross
slip
li and
d climb
li b depending
d
di on their
h i character.
h
Sli is
Slip
i
conservative in nature, while the climb is non
conservative, and is diffusion
diffusioncontrolled.
controlled.
y Any dislocation can slip, but in the direction of its
burgers vector.
y Edge dislocation moves by slip or climb.
y Screw dislocation moves by slip / crossslip. Possibility
f crossslip
for
li arises
i
as screw dislocation
di l
i does
d
not have
h
a preferred slip plane as edge dislocation have.
Contd
Linedefects Dislocationcharacteristics
y Dislocationshavedistortionalenergyassociatedwith
them.
y Storedelasticenergyperunitlengthofthedislocation
Gb 2
E=
2
[WhereG shearmodulusandb Burgersvector]
g
IES2003
Ascrewdislocation
1. LiesparalleltoitsBurger'svector
2. LiesperpendiculartoitsBurger
LiesperpendiculartoitsBurger'svector
svector
3. MovesinaperpendiculardirectiontotheBurger's
vector
4. MovesinaninclineddirectiontotheBurger'svector
Codes:
(a) 1and4
(b) 1and3
(c) 2and3
(d) 2and4
Page 181 of 240
IES2009
Whichoneofthefollowingiscorrectfor"Burger's
vector inscrewdislocation?
vector"inscrewdislocation?
(a) Perpendiculartothedislocationline
(b) Inclinedtothedislocationline
I li dt th di l ti li
(c) Paralleltothedislocationline
(d) Oppositetothedislocationline
O
i h di l
i li
Rev.0
IES2008
I
f i ld f
Interfacialdefect
IES2007
Whatistheapproximatestrainenergyexpression
Wh ti th
i t t i
i
foradislocationofunitlength,irrespectiveofits
edgeorscrewcharacter?
(a)
G 2b
2
(b)
(c)
G 2b
4
(d)
Gb2
2
Gb2
4
D imperfection in
y An interfacial defect is a 2
2D
crystalline solids and have different crystallographic
orientations on either side of it.
y They usually arise from clustering of line defects into a
plane..
y E.g.: External surface, Grain boundaries, Stacking
faults, Twin boundaries, Dislocations and Phase
b
boundaries.
d i
Contd
IES 2010
IES2010
Surface imperfections which separate two
orientations
that
image
off one
i
i
h are mirror
i
i
another is called
(a) Stacking fault
((b)) Grain boundaryy
(c) Tilt boundary
(d) Twinned boundary
IES2008
Whatisasurfaceimperfection,whichseparates
Wh ti
f
i
f ti
hi h
t
crystalsofdifferentorientationsinapoly
crystallineaggregate,called?
(a) Edgedislocation
(b) Stackingfault
(c) Grainboundary
(d) Screwdislocation
Stackingfaults
Th planner
l
i
f i produced
d d by
b the
h passage off a
y The
imperfection
partial dislocation is called stacking fault.
y They
planes.
Th are faults
f lt in
i stacking
t ki sequence off atom
t
l
y Stacking sequence in an FCC crystal is ABC ABC ABC
, and the sequence for HCP crystals is AB AB AB.
AB
y Two kinds of stacking faults in FCC crystals are:
y (a)
( ) ABC AC ABCwhere
ABC h
CA CA representt thin
thi HCP
region which is nothing but stacking fault in FCC,
y (b) ABC ACB CABC is called extrinsic
e trinsic or twin
t in stacking
fault. Three layers ACB constitute the twin. Thus
stacking faults in FCC crystal can also be considered as
submicroscopic twins.
Contd
y This is why no microscopic twins appear in FCC
y
g faults is energetically
g
y
crystals
as formation of stacking
favorable.
y The total energy
gy of a p
perfect lattice is lower than one
with a stacking fault. This difference is stacking fault
energy, and varies in range 0.010.1 J/m2.
y Lower the stacking fault energy, wider the stacking
fault, metal strain hardens rapidly and twin easily.
Oh
Otherwise,
i
metals
l off high
hi h stacking
ki
f l energy i.e.
fault
i
narrower stacking faults show a deformation structure
of banded,
banded linear arrays of dislocations.
dislocations
Page 182 of 240
B lk aVolumedefects
V l
d f
Bulkor
y Volume defects are threedimensional in nature.
y These defects are introduced, usually, during
processing and fabrication operations like casting,

f
forming
i etc.
E.g.: Pores, Cracks, Foreign particles
y These
Th
d f t actt like
defects
lik stress
t
raisers,
i
th deleterious
thus
d l t i
t
to
mechanical properties of parent solids.
y In some instances,
instances foreign particles are added to
strengthen the solid dispersion hardening. Particles
added are hindrances to movement of dislocations
which
hi h have
h
to cut through
h
h or bypass
b
the
h particles
i l thus
h
increasing the strength.
Rev.0
IES 2011
IES2011
Assertion (A): Excess defects are created by
hammering the crystalline materials.
Reason (R) : The thermal fluctuations create
the
h point defects
d f
in crystalline
ll
materials.
l
correct explanation
l
i off A
the
l
ti off A
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b R is
i true
IES 2010
IES2010
Assertion (A): Natural crystals always contain
defects.
defects
Reason (R): The defects may affect colour and can
make a crystal a valuable gem.
gem
IES2003
Whichoneofthefollowingpairsisnot
Whi h
fth f ll i i i t correctly
tl
matched?
(a) Pointdefectincrystallattice :Selfinterstitials
(b) Lineardefectincrystallattice:Grainboundary
( ) Planardefectincrystallattice:Externalsurface
(c)
Pl
d f ti
t ll tti E t
l f
(d) Volumedefectincrystallattice:otherphases
IES1997
Whichofthefollowingpropertiesofasolidare
dependentoncrystalimperfections?
1. Yieldstress
2.
Meltingpoint
3. Semiconductivity
4.
Ductility
g
g
(a) 1and3
(b) 1,3and4
3
(c) 2,3and4
(d) 2and4
Page 183 of 240
Rev.0
y Purpose of heat treatment:
H tT t
t
HeatTreatment
y Heating
1.To remove or relieve strains or stresses induced by cold
a metal or alloy to various definite
working
cooling
(for
example
ki or non uniform
if
li
(f
l welding):
ldi )
temperatures, holding these for various time durations
Annealing
and cooling at various rates.
2. To increase strength or hardness of the material for
y Combination of controlled heating and cooling
improved wear resistance: Hardening
determine not only the nature and distribution of
3.To improve machinability: Annealing
microconstituents (which determine the properties of
4.To soften the material: Annealing
a metal or alloy),
alloy) but also the grain size.
size
55. To decrease hardness and increase ductilityy and toughness.

g
(Tempering)
Contd...
Main Processes Include

MainProcessesInclude
6. To improve the cutting properties of tools.
7. To change or modify the physical properties of the
material such as electrical properties,
properties magnetic
IES 1992
IES1992
y Annealing
gg
y
Whichofthefollowinggenerallydecreasesinthe
steelafterquenchhardening?
1. Brittleness
2. Percentageelongation
33. Impactstrength
p
g
(a) 1and2only
(b) 2and3only
((c)) 1and3only
3
y
((d)) 1,2and3
,
3
y Stress
Relieving
S
R li i
y Quench Hardening
g
properties, corrosion resistance and heat resistance
y Tempering
etc.
y Carburizing
8 Elimination of H2 gas dissolved during pickling or

8.
y Carbon Nitriding
electroplating which causes brittleness.
y Age Hardening
Contd...
y Ion Nitriding
Contd...
Fig.TTTdiagramforeutectoidtransformationinFeC
Fig.TransformationsinvolvingausteniteforFeCsystem
Page 184 of 240
Rev.0
CCT di
f F C t
CCTdiagramforFeCsystem
y Critical Rate of Cooling: The minimum rate of cooling at
which the austenite is transformed into martensite alone.
g
y TTT diagram
is less practical since an alloy has to be cooled
y Spheroidite: If pearlite is heated just below the eutectoid
rapidly and then kept at a temperature to allow for

respective transformation to take place.
y Usually
U ll
materials
i l
are cooled
l d continuously,
i
l
thus
h
Continuous Cooling Transformation diagrams are
appropriate.
y For continuous cooling, the time required for a reaction to
begin and end is delayed, thus the isothermal curves are
shifted to longer times and lower temperatures.
y Main difference between TTT and CCT diagrams: no space
f bainite
for
b i i in
i CCT diagram
di
as continuous
i
cooling
li
always
l
results in formation of pearlite.
GATE 2003
GATE2003
Duringheattreatmentofsteel,thehardnessof
variousstructuresinincreasingorderis
(a) Martensite,finepearlite,coarsepearlite,
spherodite
(b) Finepearlite,coarsepearlite,spherodite,
martensite
(c) Martensite,coarsepearlite,finepearlite,
spherodite
(d) Spherodite,coarsepearlite,finepearlite,
martensite
IES 1998
IES1998
g curves A and B for a eutectoid iron
Two cooling
carbon alloy are superimposed on a continuous
cooling transformation diagram as shown in the
given
i
fi
figure.
Fine
i
pearlite
li
microstructure
i
i
is
represented by the points labelled
( ) I and
(a)
d III
(b) II
( ) IV
(c)
(d) I
temperature (say 700C) and held at this temperature for a

day or so,
so the cementite lamelle in pearlite get
transformed to spherical shape. The structure is called
"spheroidite".
y This structure is less conducive to stress concentration
because of spherical grains, as compared to cementite
(l
(lamelle
ll structure).
t t )
y This, spheroidite is more tough but less hard as compared
to pearlite.
pearlite
GATE 1996
GATE1996
g
The ironcarbon diagram
and the TTT curves are
determined under
(a) Equilibrium and nonequilibrium conditions
respectively
(b) Nonequilibrium and equilibrium conditions
respectively
(c) Equilibrium conditions for both
(d) Nonequilibrium conditions for both
IAS2002
Two plain carbon steel specimens having 08%
carbon content are welded. If we observe the
weldment under Metallurgical Microscope from
centre towards either side, the following
structures are observed at different zones:
1. Fine Pearlite
2. Coarse Pearlite
3. Martensite
Select the correct sequence using the codes given
b l
below:
Codes:
( ) 1, 2, 3
(a)
(b) 1, 3, 2
(c) 2, 1, 3
(d) 3, 1, 2
Page 185 of 240
IES 2002
IES2002
g
p
TTTdiagramindicatestimeandtemperature
transformationof
(a) Cementite
(b) Pearlite
(c) Ferrite
(d) Austenite
GATE 1997
GATE1997
p
,
g
Oncompletionofheattreatment,theresulting
structurewillhaveretainedAusteniteif
(a) Rateofcoolingisgreaterthanthecriticalcooling
rate
(b) Rateofcoolingislessthanthecriticalcoolingrate
(c) Martensite formationstartingtemperatureis
abovetheroomtemperature
(d) Martensite formationfinishtemperatureisbelow
theroomtemperature
Rev.0
A
li
Annealingprocesses
F ll
li
Fullannealing
y Annealing is a heat treatment process in which the
y Benefits of annealing are:
y Metal is heated above the upper critical temperature &
material is taken to a high temp. kept there for some
relieve stresses
held there until the temperature of the work piece is
time and then cooled in furnace.
increase softness, ductility and toughness
uniform throughout, and finally cooling the work
produce a specific microstructure
piece at a slowly controlled rate in furnace so that the
y Cooling is done slowly to avoid the distortion.

distortion
y Depending on the specific purpose, annealing is
classified into various types: process annealing, stress
temperature of the surface and that of the centre of the

workpiece is approximately the same.
relief full annealing and normalizing.

relief,
normalizing
Contd...
IES 2010
IES2010
Consider the following statements regarding annealing
process:
1. All structural imperfections are removed
2 The hypoeutectoid steel is heated to about 50 70
2.
70 C below
upper critical temperature.
33. Cooling
g can be done in heat treating
g furnace,, byy heating
g it,,
keeping the metal in it and turning off furnace till it cools to
room temperature.
4. Uniform
f
grain structure is resulted.
l d
( ) 1, 2 and
(a)
d 3 only
l
(b) 2, 3 and
d 4 only
l
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IES 1992
IES1992
p
q
g
yp
Temperaturerequiredforfullannealinginhyper
eutectoidsteelis
(a) 50Caboveuppercriticaltemperature(AC3)
(b) 50Cbelowuppercriticaltemperate(AC3)
((c)) 550Cabovelowercriticaltemperature(AC
p
( 1)
(d) 50Cbelowlowercriticaltemperature(AC1)
IES 1999
IES1999
g the hypoeutectoid
yp
Heating
steels to 330oC above
the upper critical temperature line, soaking at
that temperature and then cooling slowly to room
temperature to form
f
a pearlite
li
and
d ferrite
f i
structure, is known as
( ) Hardening
(a)
H d i
(b) Normalizing
N
li i
(c) Tempering
(d) Annealing
IES 1993
IES1993
Whichofthefollowingstatementsaretrueof
annealingofsteels?
1. Steelsareheatedto500to700C.
2. Coolingisdoneslowlyandsteadily.
C li i d
l l d
dil
3. Internalstressesarerelieved.
4. Ductilityofsteelisincreased.
D tilit f t li i
d
Codes:
Codes
(a) 2,3and4
(b) 1,3and4
(c) 1,2and4
1 2and4
(d) 1,2and3
1 2and3
IES 2003
IES
Primaryobjectoffullannealingisto
(a) Increasetoughnessandyieldpoint
(b) Reduceductilityandresilience
(c) Removeforeignimpuritiesandimprovesurface
finish
(d) Increaseductilityandmachinability
Page 186 of 240
P
li
Processannealing
y After cold working the metal can be softened by
process annealing or "recrystallization to reduce the

distortions of the crystal lattice produced by cold
working.
working
Rev.0
Contd...
Isothermalannealingg
IES 2005
IES2005
IES 2010
IES2010
y Increases the machinability.
The complete phase recrystallization and fine

grain structure is obtained in casting, forging and
rolled parts by:
y Heat above the upper critical point and held for some
time, then rapidly cool to a temp. 600 700

700C,
C, and is
held at this new temperature until the austenite is
(a) Recrystallization annealing
(b)
Normalizing
(c) Spheroidizing
(d)
Austenising
completely decomposed to form pearlite.
Isothermalannealingismainlyusedinalloy
steelstoimprove
l i
(a)Machinability
(b)Toughness
(c)Ductility
(d)Weldability
y Finally cooled in still air.

air
Contd...
Stressreliefannealingg
y Stress relief annealing process consists of three steps.
p is heating
g the cold worked steel to a
y The ffirst step
5000
550oC
temperature between
C and
C i.e. below its
recrystallization temperature.
y The
h second
d step involves
l
h ld
holding
the
h steell component at this
h
temperature for 12 hours.
y The final step is to cool the steel component to room
temperature in air.
y It partly relieves the internal stress in cold worked steels
without loss of strength and hardness i.e. without change in
the microstructure. Since only low carbon steels can be cold
worked,
k d the
h process is
i applicable
li bl to hypoeutectoid
h
id steels
l
containing less than 0.4% carbon.
GATE 2014
GATE2014
The process of reheating the reduce its brittleness
without any significant loss in its hardness is
(a) normalizing
(b) annealing
(c) quenching
(d) tempering
GATE2014(PI)
( )
For a metal alloy, which one of the following descriptions

relates to the stressrelief annealing process?
(a) Heating the workpiece material above its
recrystallization temperature, soaking and then cooling
in still air
(b) Heating the workpiece material below its
recrystallization temperature,
temperature holding for some time and
then furnace cooling
(c) Heating the workpiece material up to its
recrystallization temperature and then rapid cooling
(d) Heating the workpiece up to its recrystallization
temperature and cooling to room temperature
alternately for a few cycles
IES 2011
IES2011
Which one of the following statements is NOT
correct for normalizing?
(a) It is often applied to casting to relieve stresses
(b) It increases strength of medium carbon steel to
some extent
(c) Better surface finish can be obtained in
machining
(d) It increases grain size
Page 187 of 240
Normalizing
M i objective
bj ti
Main
1. Refine grain, improve machinability, tensile strength and
structure of weld.
weld
2. Remove cold worked stess.
3. Remove
R
di l ti
dislocations
d to
due
t hot
h t working.
ki
Process
y Heat the
h steell from
f
30C to 50C above
b
its upper criticall
temp, held about fifteen minutes and then allowed to cool

down in still air.
air
y Homogeneous structure provides a higher yield point,
ultimate tensile strength and impact strength with lower

ductility to steels.
Contd...
IES 2000
IES2000
Assertion (A): Normalized steel will have lower
hardness than annealed steel.
Reason (R): The pearlite of normalized steel is
finer and has lower intermolecular space.
space
Rev.0
S h idi i
Spheroidizing
y Heat them to slightly above the critical temperature,
temperature
hold them at this temp for a period of time, and then

letting them cool in the furnace.
y Spheroidizing produces a rounded or globular form of
GATE 2006
GATE2006
Themainpurposeofspheroidising treatmentisto
improve
(a)Hardenabilityoflowcarbonsteel
( )
(b)Machinabilityoflowcarbonsteels
(c)Hardenabilityofhighcarbonsteels
(d)Machinabilityofhighcarbonsteels
carbide.
IES 2003
IES2003
Globular form of cementite in the structure of
steel is obtained through
(a) Normalizing
(b) Malleabilising
((c)) Spheroidizing
p
g
(d) Carbonizing
y It improve abrasion resistance.
The difference between the different annealing processes is

made clear in Fig., a diagram between temperature and time.
Quenching
Tempering
y Quenching isheattreatmentprocesswherematerialis
cooledatarapidratefromelevatedtemperatureto
l d t id t f
l t dt
t t
p
g is the p
g martensitic steel at
y Tempering
process of heating
a temperature below the eutectoid transformation
produceMartensitephase.
temperature to make
k it
i softer
f and
d more ductile.
d il
Comparative coolingratesofQuenchMedia
Brine
Water
Water + NaOH
or KOH
Oil
Forced air
Still air
1.20 to 1.30
1
<1
0.40 to 0.50
0.03
0.02
y During
g the tempering
p
gp
process,, Martensite transforms to
a structure containing iron carbide particles in a matrix

of ferrite.
y Brinehasfastestcoolingrateofsteelquenchingandis
B i h f
li
f
l
hi di
alsousedassecondaryrefrigerant.
IES 2010
IES2010
answer using the code given below the lists:
List I
List II
(Q
(Quenching
hi media)
di )
(St
(Structure
t
produced)
d
d)
A. Water
1. Coarse pearlite
B Oil
B.
2. Martensite
M
i
C. Air
3. Very fine pearlite
D. Furnace cools
4. Fine pearlite
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
3
4
2
(b) 2
3
4
1
(c) 1
4For-2015
3
2
(d) 2& PSUs)
4
3
1
(IES,
GATE
IES 2001
IES2001
gq
g
Considerthefollowingquenchingmedia:
1. Oil
2.Water
33. Water+NaOH 4
4.Brine
Thecorrectsequenceofthesemediainorderof
increasinghardnessofsteelundergoingheat
g
g g
treatmentis
(a) 1,3,2,4
(b) 2,1,3,4
(c) 1,2,3,4
(d) 4,3,2,1
Page 188 of 240
IES 2009
IES2009
g
Whichoneofthefollowingmediumsisusedfor
thefastestcoolingrateofsteelquenching?
(a) Air
(b) Oil
(c) Water
(d) Brine
Rev.0
IES 2006
IES2006
MatchListI(EffectofCooling)withListII(Cooling
Medium)andselectthecorrectanswerusingthecode
d
) d l
h
h
d
givenbelow:
ListI
List
I
List II
List
A. Martensite
1.
Waterquenched
B. Veryfinepearlite
y
p
2.
Aircooled
C. Finepearlite
3.
Furnacecooled
D. Coarsepearlite
4.
Oilquenched
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
4
2
3
(b) 2
3
1
4
( ) 2
(c)
3
4
1
(d) 1
2
3
4
M t
i
Martempering
y Quench steel from the austenizing temperature to a
bath just above Ms.

y Since,
austenite
transforms
to
simultaneously throughout the steel,

steel the distortion in
quenching is minimized.
y This induces greater toughness in the steel.
A t
i
Austempering
GATE 2004
GATE2004
Fromthelistsgivenbelow,choosethemostappropriatesetof
heattreatmentprocessandthecorrespondingprocess
characteristics
Process
Characteristics
P
P.
Tempering
1
1.
Austeniteisconvertedinto
bainite
Q. Austempering
2.
Austeniteisconvertedinto
martensite
R. Martempering
3.
Cementite isconvertedinto
globularstructure
4.
Bothhardnessandbrittlenessare
reduced
d d
5.
Carbonisabsorbedintothemetal
(a) P3Q1R5
(b)
P4Q3R2
( ) P4Q1R2
(c)
P Q R
(d)
P Q R
P1Q5R4
y This hardening process is basically the same as the
martempering, but has a longer holding time above

the martensitic transformation temperature.
IES 1994
IES1994
g
Considerthefollowingtreatments:
1. Normalizing
2.
Hardening
33. Martempering
p
g
4.
4
Coldworking
g
Hardnessandtensilestrengthinausteniticstainless
steelcanbeincreasedbyy
(a) 1,2and3
(b) 1and3
((c)) 2and4
4
((d)) 4
4alone
martensite
IES 2006
IES2006
p
g
p
g
Temperingisaprocessofannealing
(a) Martensite atlowtemperatures
((b)) Martensite athighertemperatures
g
p
(c) Bainite atlowtemperatures
(d) Bainite athighertemperatures
Page 189 of 240
IES 2005
IES2005
p
g isemployedtoobtain:
p y
Austempering
(a) 100%martensitic structure
((b)) 100%bainitic structure
(c) 50%martensitic and50%bainitic structure
(d) 100%pearlitic structure
Rev.0
IES 2004
IES2004
IES 2001
IES2001
gp
Considerthefollowingpairs:
Heattreatment
Effectonmediumcarbonsteel
g
:Grainrefinement
1. Normalizing
2. Fullannealing
:Uniformgrainstructure
3. Martempering
:Decreasedductility
4. Spheroidizing
:Maximumsoftness
Whichofthepairsgivenabovearecorrectlymatched?
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and3
(c) 3and4
(d) 1,2,3and4
1 2 3and4
GATE2014
G
0
Match the heat treatment processes (Group A) and their

associated effects on properties (Group B) of medium
carbon
b steel
t l
GroupA
GroupB
P T
P:Tempering
i
I St
I.Strengtheningandgrainrefinement
th i d i fi
t
Q:Quenching II.Inducingtoughness
R A
R:Annealing
li
III H d i
III.Hardening
S:Normalizing IV.Softening
(a)
(c)
P
III
III
Q
IV
II
R
II
IV
S
I
I
(b)
(d)
P
II
II
Q
III
III
R
IV
I
p
g
q
'Tempering'ofquenchedmartensitic
steelis
necessarytoimprovethe
(a) Hardnessofthemetal
(b) Surfacetextureorthemetal
((c)) Corrosionresistanceofthemetal
(d) Ductilityorthemetal
A i
Aging
g ((solution heat treatment),

) where the
y Solutionizing
g g finelyy dispersed
p
p
p
p
y Aging
precipitate
particle will form.
alloy is heated to a temperature between solvus and
Aging the alloy at room temperature is called natural
solidus
lid temperatures and
d kept
k
there
h
till
ill a uniform
if
solid
lid
aging,
i
whereas
h
at elevated
l
d temperatures is
i called
ll d
solution structure is produced.
artificial aging. Most alloys require artificial aging, and

aging temperature is usually between 1525% of
t
temperature
t
diff
difference
b t
between
room temperature
t
t
and
d
solution heat treatment temperature.
Induction hardening
Inductionhardening
y Alternating current of high frequency passes for few
y In case hardening, the surface of the steel is made hard
and wear resistant,

resistant but the core remains soft and
tough.
p
ThepatternknownasWidmanstatten
structureis
encounteredin:
(a) Tempering
(b) Normalizing
(c) Spheroidizing
(d) Annealing
Solutionizing
S
I
IV
C
H d i
CaseHardening
IES 2006
IES2006
second through an induction coil enclosing the steel

part to be heat treated.
treated
GATE 2000
GATE2000
y
Caststeelcrankshaftsurfaceishardenedby
(a) Nitriding
(b) Normalising
((c)) Carburising
g
((d)) Inductionheating
g
y Immediately after heating, water jets are activated to
quench the surface.

y Martensite is produced at the surface, making it hard
and wear resistant.
Page 190 of 240
Rev.0
IES 1992
IES1992
g
y
Inductionhardeningisbasicallya
(a) Carburising process
((b)) Surfacehardeningprocess
gp
(c) Corehardeningprocess
(d) Noneoftheabove
Laser hardening
Laserhardening
y Laser beams are of high intensity, a lens is used to
reduce the intensity by producing a defocused spot of

si e ranging from 0.5
size
0 to 25
2 mm.
mm
Fl
h d i
Flamehardening
IES 1996 1997

IES1996;1997
y For large work pieces flame hardening is done by
means of an oxyacetylene torch.

y Heating should be done rapidly by the torch and the
surface quenched.
quenched
y oflathebedsarehardenedby
y
Guideways
(a) Carburising
((b)) Cyaniding
y
g
(c) Nitriding
(d) Flamehardening
C b ii
Carburizing
y Carburizing is the most widely used method of surface
hardening.
y Here,
Here the surface layers of low carbon steel are
enriched with carbon up to 0.81.0%. The source of
carbon mayy be a solid medium, a liquid
q
or a g
gas.
y In all cases, the carbon enters the steel at the surface
and diffuses into the steel as a function of time at an
elevated temperature.
y Carburizing is done at 920950oC.
y austenitic state is essential. If carburizing

g
y There is fully
is done in the ferritic region, the carbon, with very
limited solubility in ferrite, tends to form massive
cementite
i
particles
i l
near the
h surface,
f
making
ki
the
h
subsequent heat treatment difficult.
y For
F this
thi reason, carburizing
b i i
i always
is
l
d
done
i the
in
th
austenitic state, even though longer times are required
due to the diffusion rate of carbon in austenite being
less that in ferrite at such temperatures.
Contd...
IES 2011
IES2011
Assertion (A): Carburizing is used for machine
elements
which
to have
a wear resistant
l
hi h have
h
h
i
working surface.
Reason (R) : The composition of surface layers
are changed in carburizing.
( )
(a)BothAandRareindividuallytrueandRisthe
y
(b)BothAandRareindividuallytruebutRisNOT
thecorrectexplanationofA
h
l
i fA
(c)AistruebutRisfalse
(d)Ai f l b tRi t
(d)AisfalsebutRistrue
GATE 1992
GATE1992
p
g
Carburized machine components
have high
endurance limit because carburization
(a) Raises the yield point of the material
(b) Produces a better surface finish
((c)) Introduces a compressive
p
layer
y on the surface
(d) Suppresses any stresss, concentration produced in
the component.
Page 191 of 240
IES 1992
IES1992
g Carbon is introduced to form a
In case carburising
high carbon layer at the surface. The carbon is
introduce in the form of
(a) Graphite flakes
(b) Pearlite
(c) Cementite
(d) Free carbon
Rev.0
IES 2005
IES2005
p
y stressed
If the surface of a component
is heavily
while the stresses in the core are of comparative
small magnitude, which one of the following heat
treatment methods
h d is
i employed?
l
d
(a) Annealing
(b) Tempering
(c) Quenching
(d) Case hardening
C aniding
Cyaniding
GATE 2003
GATE2003
g
y p
Hardnessofsteelgreatlyimproveswith
(a) Annealing
(b) Cyaniding
((c)) Normalising
g
((d)) Tempering
p
g
y Cyaniding is done in a liquid bath of NaCN, with the
concentration varying between 30 and 97%.

y The temperature used for cyaniding is lower than that
for carburizing and is in the range of 800

800870
870oC.
C
y The time of cyaniding is 13 hr to produce a case depth
of 0.25 mm or less.
Nitriding
IES 1992
IES1992
IES 1995
IES1995
y During nitriding, pure ammonia decomposes to yield
Q
g
y
g
Quenchinginnotnecessarywhenhardeningis
doneby
(a) Casecarburizing
(b) Flamehardening
((c)) Nitriding
g
(d) Anyoftheaboveprocesses
i th d i
b l th li t
ListI(Heattreatment)
ListII(Effectonthe
properties)
A. Annealing
1.
Refinedgrainstructure
B. Nitriding
2.
Improvesthehardnessof
thewholemass
C. Martempering
3.
Increasessurfacehardness
D. Normalising
4.
Improvesductility
Codes:A
d
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
3
2
1
(b) 1
3
4
2
c) 4
2
1
3
(d) 2
1
3
4
nitrogen which enters the steel.

y The temperature of nitriding is 500590oC. The time
for a case depth of 0.02

0 02 mm is about 2 hr.
hr
y Most of the nitrogen, that enters the steel, forms hard
nitrides (e.g., Fe3N).

y No
N phase
h
change
h
occurs after
ft nitriding.
it idi
IES 2004
IES2004
Match List I (Name of treatment) with List II (Media
used)
the
d) and
d select
l t the
th correctt answer using
i
th codes
d
given below the Lists
List I
List II
A. Pack carburizing
1.
Ammonia gas
B. Gas carburizing
2.
Sodium cyanide
C Cyaniding
C.
3
3.
Carburizing
compound
D. Nitriding
4.
Ethane
Codes:A
d
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
4
2
1
(b) 2
1
3
4
(c) 3
1
2
4
(d) 2
4
3
1
IAS2009Main
Precipitation & Dispersion hardening

Precipitation&Dispersionhardening
y Foreign
y
y
y
y
y
y
Page 192 of 240
particles can also obstructs movement of

dislocations
i.e.
the
di l ti
i increases
i
th strength
t
th off the
th material.
t i l
Foreign particles can be introduced in two ways
precipitation
p
p
and mixingandconsolidation
g
technique.
q
Precipitation hardening is also called age hardening
because strength increases with time.
R
Requisite
i i for
f precipitation
i i i hardening
h d i is
i that
h second
d phase
h
must be soluble at an elevated temperature but precipitates
p q
quenching
g and aging
g g at a lower temperature.
p
upon
E.g.: Alalloys, CuBe alloys, MgAl alloys, CuSn alloys
If aging occurs at room temperature Natural aging
If material need to be heated during aging Artificial
aging.
Rev.0
Contd...
IES 2009
IES2009
y In dispersion hardening, fine second particles are
mixed with matrix powder, consolidated, and pressed

in powder metallurgy techniques.
techniques
y For dispersion hardening, second phase need to have
veryy low solubilityy at all temperatures.
p
y E.g.: oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides, etc.
y Dislocation moving through matrix embedded with
foreign particles can either cut through the particles or
bend around and bypass them.
y Cutting of particles is easier for small particles which
can be considered as segregated solute atoms. Effective
strengthening
g
g is achieved in the bending
g p
process,
when the particles are submicroscopic in size.
Contd...
IES 1994 2005

IES1994;2005
Assertion (A): Carburizing is done on nonferrous
alloys to increase the surface hardness.
Reason (R): Precipitation hardening of non
ferrous alloys involves solution heat treatment
followed by precipitation heat treatment.
(d) A is false
f l but
b R is true
Grain gro th
Graingrowth
y Grain growth follows complete crystallization if the
material
t i l is
i left
l ft att elevated
l t d temperatures.
t
t
y Grain growth does not need to be preceded by recovery
y
y
y
y
y
y
; it mayy occur in all p
polycrystalline
y y
and recrystallization;
materials.
In contrary to recovery and recrystallization, driving force
for this process is reduction in grain boundary energy.
energy
Tendency for larger grains to grow at the expense of smaller
grains is based on p
g
physics.
y
In practical applications, grain growth is not desirable.
Incorporation of impurity atoms and insoluble second
phase
h
particles
i l are effective
ff i in
i retarding
di grain
i growth.
h
Grain growth is very strongly dependent on temperature.
y Optimumstrengtheningoccursduringagingoncetheright
g materials can be
subjected to an age hardening process?
(a) HSS
(b) Aluminium
((c)) Pure iron
(d) Stellite
iinterspacingofparticlesisachieved.
t
i f ti l i hi d
y Smallertheparticles,dislocationscancutthroughthemat
y lowerstresses
y largertheparticlestheywillbedistributedatwider
distances.
IES 2007
IES2007
g the following
g is the most
Which one among
effective strengthening mechanism of non
ferrous metal?
(a) Solid solution hardening
(b) Strain hardening
(c) Grain size refinement
(d) Precipitation hardening
S
ki
t
i
Seasoncrackingorstresscorrosion
g
cracking.
y Brasses with more than 15% zinc often experience
season cracking or stresscorrosion cracking.
IES 2001
IES2001
Whichoneofthefollowingpairsiscorrectly
matched?
h d
(a) SolidsolutionstrengtheningIncreasingdensity
ofdislocations
(b) Dispersionhardening..Creatingstrained
regioninthecrystal
(c) Strainhardening....Creatingparticlesto
resistthemovement
ofdislocations
(d) Precipitationhardening..Creatingparticlesby
decreasingsolubilityofone
phaseinanother
h i
h
IES 2007
IES2007
g elements/ alloy
y
exhibits season cracking?
(a) Iron
(b) Brass
(c) Aluminium
(d) Steel
y Both stress and exposure to corrosive media are
required for this failure to occur (but

(
residual stresses
and atmospheric moisture may be sufficient!).
y As
A a result,
l coldworked
ld
k d brass
b
i usually
is
ll stress relieved
li d
(to remove the residual stresses) before being placed in
service.
service
Page 193 of 240
Rev.0
IAS 1994
IAS1994
IES 2011
IES2011
j
p
Majoroperationsinthemanufactureofsteelballs
usedforBallbearingsaregivenbelow
1. Oillapping
2.
Coldheading
3. Annealing
4.
Hardening
55. Roughgrinding
g g
g
Thecorrectsequenceoftheseoperationsis
(a) 3,2,4,1,5
((c)) 2,3,4,5,1
,3,4,5,
(b)
( )
(d)
3,2,1,4,5
2,3,5,4,1
,3,5,4,
Strengthening by Grain Size

StrengtheningbyGrainSize
Reduction
Assertion (A) : The steel when heated above a

certain
temperature and
i
d cooled
l d to room
temperature, structure adjustment stabilizes.
Reason (R) : The modification is mainly based
on cooling rate.
((a)) Both A and R are individuallyy true and R is the
the
l
i off A
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t
Strengthening mechanisms in
Strengtheningmechanismsin
Metals
y Ability of a metal to deform plastically depends on ease of
dislocation motion under applied external stresses.

y As
A strengthening
h i off a metall consist
i hindering
hi d i dislocation
di l
i
motion. Dislocation motion can be hindered in many

ways, thus are strengthening mechanisms in metals.
y Strengthening by methods of grainsize reduction, solid
solution alloying and strain hardening applies for single
phase metals.
y Precipitation hardening, dispersion hardening, fiber
strengthening
t
th i and
d Martensite
M t it strengthening
t
th i are applicable
li bl
to multiphase metallic materials.
IES1998
y Thisstrengtheningmechanismisbasedonthefact
thatcrystallographicorientationchangesabruptlyin
passingfromonegraintothenextacrossthegrain
boundary.
y Thusitisdifficultforadislocationmovingona
commonslipplaneinonecrystaltopassovertoa
similarslipplaneinanothergrain,especiallyifthe
orientationisverymisaligned.
i t ti i
i li
d
y Inaddition,thecrystalsareseparatedbyathinnon
crystallineregion whichisthecharacteristicstructure
crystallineregion,whichisthecharacteristicstructure
ofalargeanglegrainboundary.
y Withdecreaseingrainsize,themeandistanceofa
dislocationcantraveldecreases,andsoonstartspile
upofdislocationsatgrainboundaries.Thisleadsto
increaseinyieldstrengthofthematerial.
y Grainsizereductionimprovesnotonlystrength,but
alsothetoughnessofmanyalloys.
y Grainsizecanbecontrolledbyrateofcooling,andalso
b l i d f
byplasticdeformationfollowedbyappropriateheat
i f ll
db
i h
treatment.
Assertion(A):Refiningthegrainsizeofa
polycrystallinematerialrendersitharderand
stronger.
Reason(R):Grainboundariesprovideeasypathsto
dislocationmotion.
explanationofA
Ai f l b tRi t
Contd
GATE1998
Decreasing
D
i grain
i size
i in
i a polycrystalline
l
t lli material
t i l
(a) Increases yield strength and corrosion resistance.
(b) Decreases
D
yield
i ld strength
h and
d corrosion
i resistance
i
(c) Decreases yield strength but increases corrosion
resistance
i t
(d) Increases yield strength but decreases corrosion
resistance.
resistance
IES 2010
IES2010
Assertion(A):Polycrystallinematerialisstronger
thanordinaryone.
thanordinaryone
Reason(R):Crystalsinpolycrystallinematerial
havedifferentorientationswithrespecttoeach
other.
Page 194 of 240
Solid Solution
SolidSolution
y A solid solution is formed when two metals are
completely soluble in liquid state and also completely

soluble in solid state. In other words, when
homogeneous
g
mixtures of two or more kinds of atoms
(of metals) occur in the solid state, they are known as
solid solutions.
y The
Th more abundant
b d t atomic
t i form
f
i referred
is
f
d as solvent
l
t
and the less abundant atomic form is referred as
solute.
y Example is brass. Brass is a solid solution of copper (64
percent) and zinc (36 percent). In this case copper
atoms are solvent
l
atoms whereas
h
zinc
i atoms are solute
l
atoms.
Rev.0
TYPES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS

TYPESOFSOLIDSOLUTIONS
1 Substitutional SolidSolutions
Solid Solutions
1.Substitutional
y Solidsolutionsareoftwotypes.
y If the atoms of the solvent or parent metal are replaced
y Theyare:
in
metall then
i the
h crystall lattice
l i by
b atoms off the
h solute
l
h
the solid solution is known as substitutional solid
solution.
solution
y For example, copper atoms may substitute for nickel
atoms without disturbing the F.C.C.
F C C structure of
nickel.
y In the substitutional solid solutions, the substitution
can be either disordered or ordered.
y HumeRothery
y formulatedcertainruleswhichgovern
g
theformationofsubstitutional solidsolutions.
(a)Substitutional solidsolutions.
(b)Interstitialsolidsolutions.
2 Interstitial Solid Solutions

2.InterstitialSolidSolutions
y In interstitial solid solutions, the solute atom does not
displace
a solvent
atom, but
di l
l
b rather
h it
i enters one off the
h
holes or interstices between the solvent atoms.
y An
A excellent
ll t example
l is
i ironcarbon
i
b
system
t
which
hi h is
i
shown in Fig.
y In this system the carbon (solute atom) atom occupies
an interstitial position between iron (solvent atom)

atoms.
y Normally,
Normally atoms which have atomic radii less than one
angstrom are likely to form interstitial solid solutions.
y Examples are atoms of carbon (0.77
(0 77 A
A)), nitrogen (0.71
(0 71
A), hydrogen (0.46 A), Oxygen (0.60 A) etc.
S lid l bili
Solidsolubility
y in a two element system
y
y Extent of solid solubility
can be
predicted based on HumeRuthery conditions.
y If the system obeys these conditions, then complete solid
p
solubilityy can be expected.
HumeRuthery conditions:
y Crystal structure of each element of solid solution must be
the same.
same
y Size of atoms of each two elements must not differ by more
than 15%.
y Elements
l
should
h ld not form
f
compounds
d with
h each
h other
h i.e.
there should be no appreciable difference in the electro
negativities of the two elements.
y Elements should have the same valence.
IES 2011
IES2011
Assertion (A) : Solid solutions of metal are
crystall whose
properties
to those
off
h
i are close
l
h
the solvent.
Reason (R) : They retain the same crystal lattice
and type of bond.
the
l
i off A
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t
Contd
INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS
INTERMETALLICCOMPOUNDS
y Intermetallic compounds are generally formed when
one metall (for

(f example
l magnesium)
i ) has
h chemical
h i l
properties which are strongly metallic and the other
metal (for example antimony,
antimony tin or bismuth) has
chemical properties which are only weakly metallic.
y Examples of intermetallic compounds are Mg2Sn,
Mg2Sn
Mg2Pb, Mg3Sb2 and Mg3 Bi2.
y These intermetallic compounds have higher melting
point than either of the parent metal.
y This higher
g
melting
gp
point indicates the high
g strength
g
of the chemical bond in intermetallic compounds.
IES2001
Whichofthefollowingfactorsgovernsolubilityof
twononferrousmetalsbothinliquidstate,as
wellasinsolidstate?
1.Crystalstructure
2.Relativesizefactor
3.Chemicalaffinityfactor
4.Relativevalence
factor
C d
Codes:
(a) 1,2and3
(b) 2,3and4
( ) 1and4
(c)
d
(d) 1,2,3and4
d
Page 195 of 240
IES 2010
IES2010
Consider the following:
1. Crystal structure 2. Relative size
33. Chemical affinityy 4
4. Valencyy
Which of these factors govern relative
solubility of two metals in each other in the
solid state?
(a) 1,
1 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Rev.0
IES2006
Which
factors
is
Whi h one off the
th following
f ll i
f t
i more
relevant to represent complete solubility of two
metals in each other?
(a) Chemical affinity
(b) Valency factor
(c) Crystal structure factor (d) Relative size factor
Allotropictransformation
y When metals solidify,
solidify they assume a crystalline structure; that
is, the atoms arrange themselves in a geometric lattice.

y Many metals exist in only one lattice form. Some, however, can
exist
i t in
i the
th solid
lid state
t t in
i two
t or more lattice
l tti forms,
f
th particular
the
ti l
form depending on the conditions of temperature and pressure.
Such metals are said to be allotropic or polymorphic, and the
change
h
f
from
one lattice
l i form
f
to another
h is
i called
ll d an allotropic
ll
i
transformation.
y The most notable example
p of such a metal is iron, where the
allotropic change makes it possible for heattreating procedures
to produce a wide range of final properties.
y It is largely because of its allotropy that iron has become the
basis of our most important alloys.
IES 2010
IES2010
An allotropic material has
(a) Fixed structure at all temperatures
((b)) Atoms distributed in random p
pattern
(c)Different crystal structures at different
temperatures
(d) Fixed structure but random atom distribution
Plain Carbon steel

PlainCarbonsteel
y Duetolackoftensilestrengthandhardnesspureiron
isnotused.
i d
y Mostimportantalloyselementiscarbon.
y Maximumamountofcarbonthatcanbealloyedwith
ironis6.67%.
y Alloycontainingupto
All
i i
2%carbonissteelandabove2%
% b i
l d b %
arecausedcostIron.
BH
N
Hardness
Strength
0.02
Low carbonsteel:(lessthan0 3%C)

Lowcarbonsteel:(lessthan0.3%C)
y Goodformabilityandweldabilitybutlackhardenability
y Usedinhotforming,coldformingetc.
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
MediumcarbonsteelorMildsteel(0.3%to0.8%carbon)
hightoughness&ductility
Mostwidelyusedsteel
y
Heattreatable(austenitizing,quenchingandtempering).
Hardenability isincreasedbyaddingNi,Cr,Mo.
Usedinvarioustemperedconditions
Usedinvarioustemperedconditions.
Typicalapplications:gears,railwaytracks,machineparts.
Highcarbonsteel(morethe0.8%C)
Hardness&wearresistancearehighbutToughness&
formabilityisverylow
Note purestformofIroni.e.wroughtironhasleastcarbon
content.
%Carbon
1.4
Reduction area
IES 2005
IES2005
1. Strengthofsteelincreaseswithcarboncontent.
2 Young
2.
Young'sModulusofsteelincreaseswithcarbon
sModulusofsteelincreaseswithcarbon
content.
3. Young
Young'sModulusofsteelremainsunchangedwith
sModulusofsteelremainsunchangedwith
variationofcarboncontent.
g
/
(a) 1only
(b) 2only
(c) 1and2
(d) 1and3
0.02 %Carbon
IES 2005
IES2005
IES 1995
IES1995
g
Considerthefollowingstatementsaboutmedium
carbonsteel:
1. Itcanbequenchhardenedbutnotcasehardened.
2. Itcannotbequenchhardenedbutcasehardening
canbedone.
3. Itexhibitsdistinctyieldpointundertensiontest.
It hibit di ti t i ld i t d t i t t
Whichofthefollowingstatementsgivenaboveare
correct?
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and3
(c) 1and3
(d) 1,2and3
ListI(Alloy)
ListII(Use)
A Lowcarbonsteel
A.
L b
l
1.
B i
Bearing
B. Hadfieldmanganesesteel
2.
Thermocouple
C Constantan
C.
3
3.
Wirenails
Wirenails.
D. Babbittalloy
4.
Bulldozer
blades.
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b) 3
4
1
2
( ) 3
(c)
2
1
4
(d) 3
4
2
1
Page 196 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2005
IES2005
(
)
( pp
)
MatchListI(Steel)withListII(Application)and
selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegivenbelow
theLists:
ListI
ListII
A. MildSteel
1.
Ballbearing
B. ToolSteel
2.
Coldchisels
C. HighCarbonSteel
3.
Shaftandaxles
D. MediumCarbonSteel 4.
Rolledsteelsections
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
1
4
3
(b) 4
3
2
1
( ) 2
(c)
3
4
1
(d) 4
(d)
1
2
3
IES 2007
IES2007
Whichofthefollowingfactorsinfluenceinaplain
carbonsteel?
g
1. Percentagecarbon
2. Quenchingmedia
3. Worksize
Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegivenbelow
(a) 1and2only
(b) 2and3only
(c) 1and3only
(d) 1,2and3
IAS 2002
IAS2002
MatchListI(Percentageofcarboncontentinplaincarbonsteel)with
ListII(Application)andselectthecorrectanswerusingthecodes
givenbelowthelists:
ListI
ListII
((Percentageofcarboncontent
g
((Application)
pp
)
inplaincarbonsteel)
A.010 020
1.Drophammers
B.030 040
2.Razors
C.060 070
3.Structures
D.110 140
4.Cranehooks
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
( ) 3
(a)
4
2
1
(b)
4
3
1
2
(c) 3
4
1
2
(d)
4
3
2
1
GATE 1992
GATE1992
Thetruestrainforalowcarbonsteelbarwhichis
doubledinlengthbyforgingis
((a)) 0.307
3 7
(b) 0.5
(c) 0.693
(d) 1.0
FigIronCarbonEquilibriumDiagram
Fe C equilibrium diagram
FeCequilibriumdiagram
y The structural form of pure iron at room temperature
is
i called
ll d ferrite
f i or iron.
i
y Ferrite is soft and ductile.

y Since ferrite has a bodycentred cubic structure, the
interatomic spaces are small and pronouncedly

oblate, and cannot readily accommodate even a small
oblate
carbon atom. Therefore, solubility of carbon in ferrite
is very low, of the order of 0.006% at room
temperature.
y The maximum carbon content in ferrite is 0.05%
5 at 77233
C.
FigIronCarbonEquilibriumDiagram
For-2015
(IES, GATE & PSUs)
OrthorhombicFe
Page3C.Ironatomsareblue.
197 of 240
Rev.0
Contd
I addition
dditi
t carbon,
b
t i amountt off silicon,
ili
y In
to
a certain
manganese and phosphorous may be found in ferrite.
y The face
centred modification of iron is called
facecentred
austenite or iron. It is the stable form of pure iron at
temperatures between 910C and 1400C. At its stable
temperature austenite
i
i soft
is
f and
d ductile
d il and
d
consequently, is well suited for manufacturing
processes.
y The facecentred cubic structure of iron has larger
interatomic spacing than in ferrite. Even so, in FCC
structure the interstices are barely large enough to
accommodate carbon atoms, and lattice strains are
produced As a result,
produced.
result not all the interstitial sites can
be filled at any one time.
y The maximum solubility is only 2% of carbon at 11
30C.
y Above 1400C, austenite is no longer the most stable
form of iron, and the crystal structure changes back to
a bodycentred
b d
d cubic
bi phase
h
called
ll d delta
d l iron.
i
Thi is
This
i
iron except for its
the same phase as the
temperature range.
range
y The solubility of carbon in ferrite is small, but it is
appreciably larger than In ferrite
ferrite, because of higher
temperature. The maximum solubility of carbon in
&iron is 0.1% at 1490C.
49
Contd
y In the reaction, the simultaneous formation of ferrite
and cementite from austenite results at the

temperature of 723
C and composition of 0.80%
723C
0 80%
carbon.
y There are nearly
y 12% of iron carbide and slightly
g y more
than 88% of ferrite in the resulting mixture.
y Since the ferrite and cementite are formed
simultaneously,
i lt
l
th
they
are
i ti t l
intimately
mixed.
i d
Characteristically, the mixture is lamellar, i.e., it is
composed
p
of alternate layers
y of ferrite and cementite.
y This microstructure is called pearlite which is very
important in iron and steel technology, because it can
b formed
be
f
d in
i almost
l
all
ll steels
l by
b means off suitable
i bl
heat treatments.
y Thealloycontaining0.80%ofcarboniscalledthe
eutectoidsteel.
y Uponcoolingtheeutectoidsteelbelow723C,allof
theausteniteistransformedintopearlite.
y Alloyswithlessthan0.80%Carecalledhypo
All i hl h 8 %C ll dh
eutectoidsteelsandthosewithhighercompositionare
calledhyper eutectoidsteels
calledhypereutectoidsteels.
Contd
y FeFe3Cphasediagramischaracterizedbyfiveindividual
phases,:ferrite(BCC)FeCsolidsolution,austenite(FCC)
FeCsolidsolution,ferrite(BCC)FeCsolidsolution,Fe
F C lid l ti f it (BCC)F C lid l ti F 3C
(ironcarbide)orcementite anintermetalliccompoundand
liquidFeCsolutionandfourinvariantreactions:
y peritectic reaction at1495oC and0.16%C,ferrite+L
i (
iron(austenite)
i )
y monotectic reaction 1495oC and0.51%C,L L+iron
(austenite)
y eutecticreaction at1147oC and4.3%C,L iron+Fe3C
(cementite)[ledeburite]
y eutectoidreaction at723oC and0.8%C,iron ferrite+
Contd
IES2004
limit must form a second phase, which is called iron

carbide or cementite.
y Iron carbide has the chemical composition of Fe3C . This
does not mean that iron carbide forms molecules of
Fe3C but simply that the crystal lattice contains iron and
carbon atoms in a three to one ratio.
y The compound Fe3C has an orthorhombic unit cell with
twelve iron atoms and four carbon atoms per cell, and thus
has a carbon content of 6.67%.
y As compared to austenite and ferrite,
ferrite cementite being an
intermetallic compound, is very hard and brittle.
y The presence of iron carbide with ferrite in steel greatly
increases the
h strength
h off steel.
l
Contd
Contd
Three
Three phasereactions
y Suffix ic denotesatleastoneliquidphaseisthere
y Suffix
Suffix oid allphasesinvolvearesolid
I ironcarbon
i
b
ll
b
i excess off the
th solubility
l bilit
y In
alloys,
carbon
in
Considerthefollowingtemperatureranges:
C
id th f ll i t
t
1.Roomtemperature
2.0to910C
oC
oCtobelowmelting
3.910Cto1400
C
4.1400
C b l l i
point
I hi h fth b t
Inwhichoftheabovetemperaturerangesferritewith
t
f it ith
bodycenteredcubicstructureisindicatedin,theFe
Fe3Cphasediagram?
(a)1,2and4(b)2,3and4(c)1and3
(d)2and3
Page 198 of 240
Fe3C(cementite)[pearlite]
Contd
IES1992
Themicrostructurecompositionofpearlite fora
Fe3Cdiagramconsistsof
(a) Carbondissolvedinalphaironhavingabody
canteredcubicstructure.
(b) Carbondissolvedingama ironhavingaface
canteredcubicstructure.
(c) Amixtureofbodycanteredalphaironandface
enteredgammairon
(d) Carbondissolvedinbodycanteredalphaironand
anFe,Fe3C.
Rev.0
IES 2011
IES2011
Liquid + solid (1) on cooling converting solid (2)
reaction is known as:
(a) Eutectoid reaction
(b) Eutectic reaction
(c) Peritectic reaction
(d) Peritectioid reaction
IES 2010
IES2010
Ironcarbon equilibrium diagram
(a) Correlates the microstructure and properties of
steel and cast iron
(b) Indicates the phase changes occurring during
g and cooling
g
heating
(c) Is made by plotting carbon percentage along X
axis and temperature along Yaxis.
Yaxis
IES 1995
IES1995
IES 2004
IES2004

List I (Name of Material) List II (% Carbon Range)
A Hypoeutectoid
A.
id steell 1.
4.3 6.67
B. Hypereutectoid steel 2.
2.0 4.3
C Hypoeutectic
C.
H
t ti castt iron
i
3.
0.8
8 2.0
D. Hypereutectic cast iron 4. 0.008 0.8
Codes A B
Codes:A
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
3
2
1
(b) 1
3
2
4
(c) 4
1
2
3
(d) 1
2
3
4
y
y
5
y
g
Anironcarbonbinaryalloyhas0.5%Cbyweight.
Whatisthisalloycalled?
(a) Eutectoidalloy
(b) Eutecticalloy
((c)) Hypoeutectoidalloy
yp
y
(d) Hypereutectoidalloy
IES 2005
IES2005
The eutectoid of carbon in iron,, above lower
critical temperature, when cooled, results in:
(a) Ferrite and austenite
(b) Ferrite and cementite
((c)) Cementite and austenite
(d) Ferrite, cementite and austenite
IES 2010
IES2010
Pearlite phase in an ironcarbide phase
diagram
is
di
i
(a) Eutectic phase
(b) Hypoeutectic mixture
(c) Eutectoidal mixture
(d) Hypereutectic phase
IES 1995
IES1995
Eutectoidreactionoccursat
(a) 600C
((b)) 7723C
3
(c) 1147C
(d) 1493
1493C
C
GATE 1992
GATE1992
IES 2006
IES2006
Matchthetermsusedinconnectionwithheattreatmentofsteelwith
themicrostructural/physicalcharacteristics:
Terms
Characteristics
(A) Pearlite
(P)Extremelyhardandbrittlephase
(B) Martensite
(Q)Cementite isfinelydispersedinferrite
(C) Austenite
(R)Alternatelayersofcementite andferrite
(D) Eutectoid
(S)Canexistonlyabove723C
( )
(T)Pertainingtostateofequilibriumbetweenthree
g
q
solidphases
(U)Pertainingtostateofequilibriumbetweenone
liquidandtwosolidphase
Codes: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) R
P
S
T
(b)
R
S
P
T
(c) T
R
P
S
(d)
T
R
S
P
Match ListI (FeFe3C Phase Diagram Characteristic) with

ListII
the
Li II (Phase)
(Ph
) and
d select
l
h correct answer using
i the
h code
d
ListI
ListII
A. Alpha () iron
1. iron
B. Iron carbide having crystal lattice
2.Eutectic
with
t 3 iron
o aand
d 1 ca
carbon
bo ato
atom
C. BCC pure allotrope of iron is stable
3.Ferrite
between 1388 C and is melting
point at 1535
1535C
C
4 Cementite
4.Cementite
Codes:A
B
C
A
B
C
(a) 4
2
3
(b)
3
4
1
( ) 4
(c)
2
1
( )
(d)
3
1
2
Page 199 of 240
Rev.0
IES 2002
IES2002
IES 1999
IES1999
IES 1993
IES1993
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer:

List I (Phase diagram)
List II (Characteristic)
A. Isomorphous system
1.One liquid decomposes into another
liquid and solid
BE
B.Eutectic
i system
2.One
O liquid
li id and
d another
h solid
lid combine
bi to
form a new solid
C.Peritectic system
3.Two metals are completely soluble in
liquid state And completely insoluble in
solid state
D.Monotectic system
4.Two metals, soluble in solid and liquid
state
Codes: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
3
4
1
(b)
4
1
2
3
(c) 2
1
4
3
(d)
4
3
2
1
Inaeutecticsystem,twoelementsarecompletely
(a) Insolubleinsolidandliquidstates
(b) Solubleinliquidstate
(c) Solubleinsolidstate
(d) Insolubleinliquidstate
Eutecticreactionforiron
carbonsystemoccursat
Eutecticreactionforironcarbonsystemoccursat
(a) 600C
(b) 723
723C
C
(c) 1147C
(d) 1493
1493C
C
IES 2000
IES2000
IES 2007
IES2007
IES 2005
IES2005
Duringperitectic solidification,oneliquid
(a) Combineswithonesolidtoformasecondnew
solid
(b) Solidifiesintotwodifferentsolids
(c) Formsonesolid
(d) Formsonesolidandanotherliquid
IES 2005
IES2005
A60C
plaincarbonsteelhas,approximately:
A60Cplaincarbonsteelhas,approximately:
(a) 75%ofpearlite and25%offerrite
(b) 25%ofpearlite and75%offerrite
(c) 75%ofcementite and25%offerrite
(d) 75%ofpearlite and25%ofcementite
g is the correct
statement?
Pearlite in ironcarbon system is a
(a) Phase consisting of ferrite and cementite at room
temperature
(b) Mechanical
M h i l mixture
i t
off ferrite
f it and
d cementite
tit att
room temperature
(c) Eutectic mixture ferrite and cementite at room
temperature
((d)) All the above three are correct
IES 2000
IES2000
Pearlite consistsof
(a) 6.67%Cand93.33%ferrite
(b) 13%Feand87%cementite
(c) 13%Cand87%ferrite
(d) 13%cementite and87%ferrite
Page 200 of 240
Increaseofferritephaseinsteelincreases:
(a) Strength
(b) Hardness
(c) Ductility
(d) Brittleness
IES 1997
IES1997
A given steel test specimen is studied under
metallurgical microscope. Magnification used is
100 X. In that different phases are observed. One
of them is Fe3C. The observed phase Fe3C is also
known as
(a) Ferrite
(b) Cementite
(c) Austenite
(d) Martensite
Rev.0
IES 1995
IES1995
IES 2001
IES2001
Which one of the following sets of constituents is

expected
in
equilibrium
cooling
of
a
hypereutectoid steel from austenitic state?
(a) Ferrite and pearlite
((b)) Cementite and p
pearlite
(c) Ferrite and bainite
((d)) Cementite and martensite
1 E
i ( F C)
1.Eutectic(FeC)
Martensite is a super
saturated solution of carbon
supersaturated
in
((a)) Alpha
p iron
(b) Beta iron
(c) Gamma iron
(d) Delta iron
2 P i
i (FeC)
( F C)
2.Peritectic
3 M
i FeO
F O2SiO
SiO2
3.Monotectic
y (L+S1S2)
y (L1S1+L2)
y One Liquid and another solid combine to form a new
y One Liquid decomposes into another liquid and solid.
y (L1S1+S2)
y Two materials are completely soluble in liquid state
and completely
p
y insoluble in solid state.
+ L
+L
4 S
i NaZn
N Z
4.Syntectic
y (L1+L2S1)
solid.
L
L+
+L
L
+
L1
L1
L 1+L 2
L2
L2
+ L2
L1
L2
L1 L 2
L+
L1+ L2+
5 E
id F C
5.EutectoidFeC
y (S1S2+S3)
6 P i
id CuAl
C Al
6.Peritectoid
y S1 +S2S3
+r
+
complete intersolubility between components in all

phases,
phases the system is isomorphus.
isomorphus
Ex: CuNi, Al2O3Cr2O3, NiOMgO
y Azeotropic system: Some of isomorphus binary
system, the liquidus touches, the solid tangentially at a
minimum temperature which is lower then milting
temperature of either of the two components.
AuCu,AuNi
r
+
I
h system: In
I a binary
bi
h there
h
i
y Isomorphus
system when
is
Page 201 of 240
L
+L
+L
+p
A
B
CompositionBw/o
Rev.0
IES 2007
IES2007
IES 2004
IES2004
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswerusingthe
codegivenbelowtheLists:
d i
b l th Li t
ListI
ListII
(NameoftheInvariant
(InvariantReactionduring
Reaction)
cooling)
A. Monotectic
1.LIQUID.SOLID1+SOLID2
B. Eutectic
2.LIQUID1..LIQUID2+SOLID
C
C.
E t t id
Eutectoid
3.SOLID1..SOLID1+SOLID2
SOLID
SOLID SOLID
D. Peritectic
4.LIQUID+SOLID1..SOLID2
Consider the following lead

tin phase diagram
leadtin
given below:
g alloy
y compositions,
p
,
For which one of the following
the alloy will have the lowest melting point at 185oC
((a)) 20% Sn and 80% Pb byy weight
g
(b) 60% Sn and 40% Pb by weight
((c)) 97
97% Sn and 33% Pb byy weight
g
(d) 40% Sn and 60% Pb byweight
Code: A
(a) 3
(c) 3
B
1
4
C
2
2
D
4
1
(b)
(d)
A
2
2
B
4
1
C
3
3
D
1
4
IES 2008
IES2008
Assertion (A): Lever Rule can be applied to determine
relative
amounts off phases
present at any
l
h
temperature.
Reason (R): Lever Rule is restricted to estimate
relative phases, only if they are solid phases.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
off A
explanation of A
)
g
p
(
)
p
method)alongwithrelativefractionofphases(leverrule)canbecomputed.
y Relativeamountofliquidandsolidphasesisgivenrespectivelyby:
CL =
cV
UV
CS =
Uc
UV
CL + CS = 1
y Thereforeitisnotrestrictedtosolidphasesonly.
Example
a pe
y In a binary system of A and B, if a liquid of 35% A (65%
B) is coexists with a solid of 75% A (25% B), for an

overall composition of 40% A, the fraction of the liquid
is given by
CL =
75 40
= 0.875
75 35
F C ll
l ifi i
FeCalloyclassification
IES 2003
IES2003
Calloysareclassifiedaccordingtowt.%Cpresent
y Fe
FeCalloysareclassifiedaccordingtowt.%Cpresent
According to Gibbs
Gibbs' phase rule, the number of
degrees of freedom of an eutectic point in a binary
system is
(a) 1
((b)) 2
(c) 0
((d)) 3
inthealloyfortechnologicalconvenienceasfollows:
y Commercialpureirons
p
%C<0.008
y Lowcarbon/mildsteels
0.008 %C 0.3
y Mediumcarbonsteels
0.3 %C
0.3
%C 0.8
y Highcarbonsteels
0.8 %C 2.11
y Castirons
2 11<%C
2.11<%C
L
R l
LeverRule
y Atapointinaphasediagram,phasespresentandtheircomposition(tieline
Page 202 of 240
Rev.0
Cast Iron
CastIron
y remelting
gp
g iron with
y The cast iron is obtained by
pig
coke and limestone in a furnace known as cupola.
y It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon.
y The properties of cast iron which make it a valuable
material for engineering purposes are its low cost,

good
g
y The carbon content in cast iron varies from more than
2 per cent to 4.5 per cent.

y The carbon in a cast iron is present in either of the
following two forms:
1. Free carbon or graphite, and
2. Combined carbon or cementite.
casting
g
characteristics,
high
g
compressive
p
strength, wear resistance and excellent machinability.

y The
Th compressive
i strength
t
th off castt iron
i
i much
is
h greater
t
than the tensile strength.
Contd
IES 2010
IES2010
Assertion (A): A cast iron specimen shall fail due to
shear when subjected to a compressive load.
load
Reason (R): Shear strength of cast iron in
compression is more than half its compressive
strength.
IES 1998
IES1998
g
y
Assertion(A):Castironisgenerallyhard,brittleand
wearresistant.
Reason(R):Castironcontainsmorethan2%carbon
andassuchthepercentagecementite
d
h h
i initishigher.
i i i hi h
explanationofA
p
IES 2005
IES2005
g
1. CastIronhaspoorabilitytodampvibrations.
g
p
g
2. CastIronhashighercompressivestrength
comparedtothatofsteel.
33. CastIronpartsaresuitablewherepermanent
p
p
deformationispreferredoverfracture.
(a) 1,2and3
(b) 1and3
((c)) 33only
y
((d)) 2onlyy
IES 1997
IES1997
( )
y
Assertion(A):Thenotchsensitivityofcastiron
componentiszero.
Reason(R):Castirondoesnothaveayieldpoint.
Page 203 of 240
IES 1999
IES1999
Castironisusedformachinebedsbecauseofits
high
(a) Tensilestrength
(b) Endurancestrength
((c)) Dampingcapacity
p g p
y
(d) Compressivestrength
IAS 2003
IAS2003
1. Fromdesignconsiderations,itisalways
advantageoustoplacecastironribsonthetension
sideratherthanonthecompressionside.
sideratherthanonthecompressionside
2. Castironisanexcellentchoiceformachinetool
guidesandframes.
3. Castironpartshavelownotchsensitivity.
(a) 1,2and3
(b) 2and3
((c)) 1and3
3
((d)) 1and2
Rev.0
IES 1992
IES1992
g
Whichofthefollowingmetalshrinksmostfrom
moltenstatetosolidstate?
(a) Castiron
(b) Caststeel
(c) Brass
(d) Admiraltymetal
T pes of Cast Iron

TypesofCastIron
1 Gre cast iron

1.Greycastiron
y Cast
irons that were slowlyy cooled to room

temperature consist of cementite, look whitish white
cast iron.
y If it contains graphite, look grayish gray cast iron.
y It is heat treated to have graphite in form of nodules
malleable cast iron.
y If inoculants are used in liquid state to have graphite
nodules
d l spheroidal
h
d l graphite
h (SG)
( ) cast iron.
5 ;
y Carbon = 3 to 33.5%;
y The grey colour is due to the fact that the carbon is
present in the form of free graphite.

y It has a low tensile strength, high compressive strength
and no ductility.
y It can be easily machined.
y A very good property of grey cast iron is that the free
graphite in its structure acts as a lubricant. Due to this
reason, it is very suitable for those parts where sliding
action
i is
i desired.
d i d
Contd
y The grey iron castings are widely used for machine tool
bodies,
bodies automotive cylinder blocks,
blocks heads,
heads housings,
housings
flywheels, pipes and pipe fittings and agricultural
implements.
y The grey cast iron is designated by the alphabets FG
followed byy a figure
g
indicating
g the minimum tensile
strength in MPa or N/mm2. For example, FG 150
means grey cast iron with 150 MPa or N/mm2 as
minimum tensile strength.
GATE 2004
GATE2004
p
g
g y
Thepercentageofcarboningraycastironisinthe
rangeof
(a) 0.25to0.75percent
(b) 1.25to1.75percent
((c)) 33to4percent
4p
(d) 8to10percent
IES 1994
IES1994
Assertion(A):Machinetoolbedsaregenerally
madeofgreycastiron.
Reason(R):Castironpossessesgoodself
lubricatingproperties.
lubricatingproperties
IES 2007
IES2007
p g
y
Vibrationdampinginmachineryisbestachieved
bymeansofbasestructuresmadeofwhichoneof
thefollowingmaterials?
(a) Lowcarbonsteel
(b) Nodulariron
(c) Greycastiron
(d) Whitecastiron
Page 204 of 240
Contd
IES 2005
IES2005
(DesignationofSteel/CastIron)
(Description)
(D i
ti fSt l/C tI
)
(D
i ti )
1.
FeE250
:Minimumtensile
strengthof250
N/mm2
2.
40C8
:Percentageof
Manganeseis0.7%
0.9%
3.
FG200
:Greycastironwith
ultimatetensilestrength
of200N/mm2
S l tth
t
i th d i b l
(a) 1and2
(b)
2and3
(c) 1and3
(d)
1,2and3
IES 2003
IES2003
Machinetoolmanufacturersprefergreycastiron
grade40forproducingmachinecolumnsand
tablesbecausegreycastironis
1 Heavy
1.
2
2.
Easilycastable
3. Easilyweldable
4.
Havinggood
dampingcapacity
C
Codes:
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and4
((c)) 1and33
((d)) 33and4
4
Rev.0
IES 1993
IES1993
Assertion(A):Fracturesurfaceofgreycastironis
dark.
Reason(R):Failuretakesplacealongtheweak
cementite plates.
plates
2 White cast iron

2.Whitecastiron
IES 2005
IES2005
75 to 2.3%.
3
y Carbon = 1.75
g
Whichofthefollowingmaterialsisusedinthe
manufactureofextrusionnozzles?
(a) Greycastiron
(b) Malleablecastiron
((c)) Whitecastiron
(d) Nodularcastiron
y The white colour is due to fact that it has no graphite
and whole of the carbon is in the form of carbide

(known as cementite) which is the hardest constituent
of iron.
y The white cast iron has a high tensile strength and a
low compressive strength.
3 Chilled cast iron

3.Chilledcastiron
4 Mottled cast iron

4.Mottledcastiron
5 Malleable cast iron

5.Malleablecastiron
g of
y It is a white cast iron p
produced byy q
quick cooling
y It is a p
product in between g
greyy and white cast iron in
y which
y The malleable iron is a cast ironcarbon alloy
molten iron.
y The quick cooling is generally called chilling and the
cast iron so produced is called chilled cast iron.
composition, colour and general properties.

y It is obtained in castings where certain wearing
surfaces have been chilled.
y Chills are used on any faces of a casting which are
required to be hard to withstand wear and friction.
solidifies in the ascast condition in a graphite free

structure, i.e. total carbon content is present in its
combined
bi d form
f
as cementite
i (Fe
( 3C).
C)
y It is ductile and may be bent without breaking or
f t i the
fracturing
th section.
ti
y The tensile strength of the malleable cast iron is
usuall higher than that of grey
usually
gre cast iron and has
excellent machining qualities.
Contd
y It is used for machine parts for which the steel forgings
would be too expensive and in which the metal should

have
a fair
off accuracy, e.g. hubs
h
f i degree
d
h b off wagon
wheels, small fittings for railway rolling stock, brake
supports, parts of agricultural machinery, pipe fittings,
door hinges, locks etc.
y In order to obtain malleable iron castings, it is first cast
into moulds
ld off white
h cast iron. Then
h by
b a suitable
bl heat
h
treatment (i.e. annealing), the combined carbon of the
white cast iron is separated into nodules of graphite.
graphite
y There are two process:
1. Black
Blackheart
heart process,
2. Whiteheart process
Contd
1 Blackheart process
1.Blackheartprocess
2 Whiteheart process
2.Whiteheartprocess
y In this process the white iron castings are heated in
y In this process the castings are packed into airtight boxes
airtight boxes out of contact with air at 850

950 deg C for
850950
50170 hours, depending upon the mass and thickness of
the castings.
y The effect of this prolonged heating is to break down the
iron carbide (cementite) of the white cast iron into small
rosettes of graphite.
graphite
y The name 'blackheart' comes from the darkened
appearance of the iron, when fractured, resulting from the
formation of free graphite.
y It is used in the wheel hubs, break drums, conduit fitting
control levers and pedals.
Page 205 of 240
g g
ore.
with iron oxide in the form of highgrade
y They are then heated to about 1000 deg C for between 70
y
y
and 100 hours, depending upon the mass and thickness of

the castings.
castings
The ore oxidises the carbon in the castings and draws it
out, leaving a ferritic structure near the surface and a
pearlitic structure near the centre of the casting.
There will also be some fine rosettes of graphite.
Whit h t castings
Whiteheart
ti
b h
behave
much
h as expected
t d off a mild
ild
steel casting, but with the advantage of a very much lower
melting point and higher fluidity at the time of casting.
It is used in the wheel hubs, bicycle and motor cycle frame
fittings, gas, water and steam pipe fittings.
Rev.0
IES 1992
IES1992
g
p yp p
Whichofthefollowingdisplaypropertiessimilar
tothatofsteel
1. Blackheartcastiron
2. Whiteheartcastiron
33. Graycastiron
y
4. Pigiron
((a)) 1and2onlyy
((b)
) 33and4only
4
y
(c) 2and4only
(d) 1and3only
IES 1992
IES1992
Forthepipefittinglikeelbow,tee,unionetc.
whichofthefollowingispreferred?
((a)) Pigiron
g
(b) Malleableiron
(c) Spheroidal graphitecastiron
(d) Highcarbonsteel
6 Nodular or spheroidal graphite

graphite
6.Nodularorspheroidal
castiron
y The nodular or spheroidal graphite cast iron is also
called ductile cast iron or high

g strength
g cast iron.
y This type of cast iron is obtained by adding small
amounts of magnesium (0.1 to 0.8%) to the molten

grey iron.
y The addition of magnesium causes the graphite to take
form of small nodules or spheroids instead of the
normal angular flakes.
Contd
IES 2001
IES2001
IES 2009
IES2009
g
, wear resistance,, p
g
,
toughness,
pressure tightness,
weldability and machinability.
y It is g
generallyy used for castings
g requiring
q
g shock and
impact resistance along with good machinability, such
as hydraulic cylinders, cylinder heads, rolls for rolling
mill
ll and
d centrifugally
f
ll cast products.
d
y SG 400/15 means spheroidal graphite cast iron with
400 MPa
MP as minimum
i i
tensile
il strength
h and
d 15 percent
elongation.
g y
g y
Nodulargreycastironisobtainedfromthegrey
castironbyaddingasmallamountof
(a) Manganese
(b) Phosphorus
((c)) Magnesium
g
(d) Chromium
g
Whichoneofthefollowingcastironsconsistsof
carboninrosetteform?
(a) Whitecastiron
(b) Graycastiron
((c)) Malleablecastiron
(d) Nodularcastiron
IES 1995
IES1995
Wro ght Iron

WroughtIron
Effect of Imp rities on Cast Iron

EffectofImpuritiesonCastIron
g
Additionofmagnesiumtocastironincreasesits
(a) Hardness
((b)) Ductilityandstrengthintension
y
g
(c) Corrosionresistance
(d) Creepstrength.
5 iron
y It is the p
purest iron which contains at least 99
99.5%
p 4
1. Silicon. It mayy be p
present in cast iron upto
4%. It
provides the formation of free graphite which makes
the iron soft and easily machinable. It also produces
sound
d castings
i
f
free
f
from
bl
blowholes,
h l
b
because
off its
i
high affinity for oxygen.
y It has high fluidity, castability, tensile strength,
but may contain upto 99.9% iron.

y The wrought iron is produced from pig iron by
remelting it in the puddling furnace of reverberatory
type.
y The wrought iron is a tough, malleable and ductile
material.
y It can be
b easily
l forged
f
d or welded.
ld d It is used
d for
f chains,
h
crane hooks, railway couplings, water and steam pipes.
Page 206 of 240
2. Sulphur. It makes the cast iron hard and brittle. Since

too much sulphur gives
gi es unsound casting,
casting therefore,
therefore it
should be kept well below 0.1% for most foundry
purposes.
purposes
Rev.0
Contd
3. Manganese. It makes the cast iron white and hard. It

p below 0.75%.
75
p to exert a
is often kept
It helps
controlling influence over the harmful effect of
sulphur.
4. Phosphorus. It aids fusibility and fluidity in cast
iron, but induces brittleness. It is rarely allowed to
exceed 1%. Phosphoric irons are useful for casting of
i i
intricate
d i
design
and
d for
f
many light
li h engineering
i
i
castings when cheapness is essential.
IES 1995
IES1995
g
Considerthefollowingworkmaterials:
1. Titanium
2.
Mildsteel
33. Stainlesssteel 4
4.
Greycastiron.
y
Thecorrectsequenceofthesematerialsintermsof
increasingorderofdifficultyinmachiningis
g
y
g
(a) 4,2,3,1
(b) 4,2,1,3
((c)) 2,4,3,1
,4,3,
((d)) 2,4,1,3.
, 4, , 3
IES 1995
IES1995
IES 2007
IES2007
g
Additionofsilicontocastiron
g p
1. Promotesgraphitemoduleformation.
2. Promotesgraphiteflakeformation.
3. Increasesthefluidityofthemoltenmetal.
4. Improvestheductilityofcastiron.
(a) 1and4
(b) 2and3
(c) 1and3
(d) 3and4
p
g
Pistoncompressionringsaremadeofwhichone
ofthefollowing
(a) Castiron
(b) Bronze
(c) Aluminium
(d) Whitemetal
IES 1994
IES1994
Whichofthefollowingpairsarecorrectly
matched?
1. LeadscrewnutPhosphorbronze
2. Piston..Castiron.
i
C i
3. Cam..EN31steel
4. Leadscrew..Wroughtiron.
L d
W
hti
Codes:
Codes
(a) 2,3and4
(b) 1,3and4
(c) 1,2and4
1 2and4
(d) 1,2and3
1 2and3
IAS 2002
IAS2002
p
g
Acastironspecimeninatorsiontestgivesa
(a) Cupandconefracture
((b)) Fracturealongaplanenormaltotheaxisofthe
g p
specimen
((c)) Fracturealongahelixofapproximately45
g
pp
y 45
(d) Fracturealongaplaneinclinedat60 totheaxis
Page 207 of 240
Rev.0
All St l
AlloySteel
y Definition:
A steell to which
f
h h one or more alloying
ll
elements other than carbon have been deliberately

added (e.g.
(e g chromium,
chromium nickel,
nickel molybdenum) to
achieve a particular physical property.
1 Ni k l
1.Nickel
y It has proved to be of advantage in the manufacture of
g and toughness
g
y It increases the strength
of the steel.
y These steels contain 2 to 5% nickel and from 0.1 to
0.5% carbon.
y In this range, nickel contributes great strength and
hardness with high elastic limit, good ductility and
good resistance to corrosion.
y An alloy containing 25% nickel possesses maximum
toughness
h
and
d offers
ff
the
h greatest resistance to rusting,
corrosion and burning at high temperature.
p
boiler tubes,, valves for use with superheated
steam,,
valves for I.C. engines and spark plugs for petrol
engines.
y A nickel steel alloy containing 36% of nickel is known
as invar. It has nearly zero coefficient of expansion. So
it is in great demand
d
d for
f measuring instruments and
d
standards of lengths for everyday use.
Contd
IES 1992
IES1992
g p p
y
Invarisusedormeasuringtapesprimarilytheto
its
(a) Nonmagneticproperties
(b) Highnickelcontent
((c)) Lowcoefficientofthermalexpansion
p
(d) Hardenability
IES 2008
IES2008
p
p
y
CoefficientofExpansionispracticallynilina
particularalloy.Whatisthisalloy?
(a) HadfieldManganeseSteel
(b) Invar
((c)) Vitallium
(d) Stellite
2 Ch
i
2.Chromium
3 T
t
3.Tungsten
y It is used in steels as an alloying element to combine
p
y It p
prohibits g
grain g
growth,, increases the depth
of
hardness with high strength and high elastic limit.

y It also imparts corrosionresisting properties to steel.
y The
h most common chrome
h
steels
l contains
i from
f
0.5 to
2% chromium and 0.1 to 1.5% carbon.

y The chrome steel is used for balls,
balls rollers and races for
bearings.
y A nickel chrome steel containing
g 33.25%
5% nickel,, 1.5%
5%
chromium and 0.25% carbon is much used for armour

plates. Chrome nickel steel is extensively used for
motor
t car crankshafts,
k h ft axles
l and
d gears requiring
i i greatt
strength and hardness.
hardening of quenched steel and confers the property

of remaining hard even when heated to red colour.
y It is usually used in conjunction with other elements.
y Steel containing 3 to 18% tungsten and 0.2 to 1.5%
carbon is used for cutting tools.
y The principal uses of tungsten steels are for cutting
tools,
l dies,
d
valves,
l
taps and
d permanent magnets.
Page 208 of 240
IES 2011
IES2011
Which one of the following is the major alloying element
in Invar?
(a) Aluminium
(b) Nickel
(c) Vanadium
(d) Copper
IES 2004
IES2004
p
g
g
Forimprovingthestrengthofsteelatelevated
temperatures,whichoneofthefollowingalloying
elementisused?
(a) Copper
(b) Tungsten
(c) Aluminium
(d) Zinc
Rev.0
4 V di
4.Vanadium
g a fine g
y It aids in obtaining
grain structure in tool steel.
y The addition of a very small amount of vanadium (less
than 0.2%) produces a marked increase in tensile

strength and elastic limit in low and medium carbon
steels without a loss of ductility.
y The chromevanadium steel containing about 0.5 to
1.5% chromium, 0.15 to 0.3% vanadium and 0.13 to 1.1%
carbon have
ha e extremely
e tremel good tensile strength,
strength elastic
limit, endurance limit and ductility.
y These steels are frequently used for parts such as
springs, shafts, gears, pins and many drop forged parts.
5 M
5.Manganese
p
g of the steel in both the hot
y It improves
the strength
rolled and heat treated condition.
y The manganese alloy steels containing over 1.5%
manganese with a carbon range of 0.40 to 0.55% are

used extensively in gears, axles, shafts and other parts
where
h
hi h strength
high
t
th combined
bi d with
ith fair
f i ductility
d tilit is
i
required.
y The principal uses of manganese steel is in machinery
machiner
parts subjected to severe wear. These steels are all cast
and ground to finish.
finish
7 C b lt
7.Cobalt
y It g
gives red hardness byy retention of hard carbides at
high temperatures.
y It tends to decarburise steel during heattreatment.
y It increases hardness and strength and also residual
magnetism and coercive magnetic force in steel for

magnets.
GATE 1997
GATE1997
y g
y
p
Thealloyingelementmainlyusedtoimprovethe
endurancestrengthofsteelmaterialsis
(a) Nickel
(b) Vanadium
((c)) Molybdenum
y
(d) Tungsten
IES
y
Alloysteelwhichisworkhardenable
andwhichis
usedtomakethebladesofbulldozers,bucket
wheelexcavatorsandotherearthmoving
equipmentcontainiron,carbonand
i
i i
b d
(a) Chromium
(b) Silicon
(c) Manganese
(d) Magnesium.
IES 2010
IES2010
Some high speed steels have cobalt (Co)
added
in
from
2%
dd d to them
h
i amounts ranging
i
f
%
to 15%, since this element improves the
(a)Cutting efficiency, especially at high
temperature
(b) Depth hardening ability of the HSS tool
(c) Red hardness of the HSS tool
(d) Grain structure of the HSS tool
Page 209 of 240
IES 2000
IES2000
Additionofvanadiumtosteelresultsin
improvementof
(a) Heattreatabilitybyquenching
(b) Hardenability
((c)) Fatiguestrength
g
g
(d) Resistancetooxidationatelevatedtemperature
6 Sili
6.Silicon
y The silicon steels behave like nickel steels.
y These steels have a high elastic limit as compared to
ordinary carbon steel.

y Silicon steels containing from 1 to 2% silicon and 0.1 to
0.4% carbon and other alloying elements are used for
electrical machinery, valves in I.C. engines, springs and
corrosion resisting materials.
8 M l bd
8.Molybdenum
y small q
3 ) of molybdenum
y
y A very
quantityy ((0.155 to 0.30%)
is generally used with chromium and manganese (0.5
to 0.8%) to make molybdenum steel.
y These steels possess extra tensile strength and are used
for airplane fuselage and automobile parts. It can
replace
l
t
tungsten
t in
i high
hi h speed
d steels.
t l
Rev.0
9 B
9.Boron
y Boron (not exceeding 0.003%) is a very powerful
hardenability
agent, being
from
250 to 750 times as
h d
bl
b
f
effective as nickel, 75 to 125 times as effective as
y
, and about 100 times as p
powerful as
molybdenum,
chromium.
y Only a few thousandths of a percent are sufficient to
produce the desired effect in lowcarbon
low carbon steels,
steels but the
results diminish rapidly with increasing carbon content.
y Since no carbide formation or ferrite strengthening
g
g is
produced, improved machinability and coldforming
capability often result from the use of boron in place of
other hardenability additions.
additions
y It has no effect on tensile strength of steel.
IES 1992
IES1992
for centuries, but only recently has it been used as an

5 ) to
addition to steel ((in amounts from 0.10 to 0.50%)
provide this property.
y Lowcarbon steel sheet and structural steels often contain
a copper addition to enhance corrosion resistance, but
surface quality and hotworking behavior tend to
deteriorate somewhat.
somewhat
p
y
y Itisanundesirableimpurityinsteelbecauseitsforms
p
g
Smallpercentageofboronisaddedtosteelto
(a) Increaseshardenability
((b)) Reducemachinabilityy
(c) Increaseswearresistance
(d) Increaseendurancestrength
ironsulphide,whichcanresultincracking.
y However,inthepresenceofproperamountofMn,it
formsMn Swhichimprovesthemachinability of
steels.
y Itscontentmayveryfrom0.06 0.30%.
All St l t l
AlloySteelataglance
11.Copper
y Copper has been known
kno n to resist atmospheric corrosion
10 l h
10.sulphur
(4)
,
,
Donotformcarbide: nickel,Silicon,Aluminium
Carbideformingorder:Manganese,chromium,
Tungsten,Molybdenum,vanadium,titanium,
niobium.
(1) Manganese:
Toughness&ductility
Machinability withsulphur
(2) Chromium:
Corrosionresistance
Wearresistance
(3) Nickel:
toughness
g
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Tungsten,Molybdenum,Vanadium: hothardness
Tungsten
wearresistance,
Vanadium:
endurancelimit
V di
d
li i
Molybdenum
creepproperty
Si&Al deoxidizer,restrictgraingrowth
deoxidizer restrictgraingrowth
Si Magneticpermissibility
Cobalt:
hardenability
Impactstrength
Phosphorus:
reducestrengthtoimpact
conductivityofcopper
Copper:
Raisesyieldpoint
Magnesium:
becauselightweightitisused
whereweightisimportant.
Contd
IES 2011
IES2011
Superalloy: Isforhightemperatureuse[jetengine,
gasturbinebladeetc]
Ex: Hastelloy X
C 0.1%
Mn 1%
Cr 21.8%
Si
Si
1%
%
Ni balance
C 2.5%
Co
%
Mo 9%
W 0.6%
W
0 6%
Fe 18.5%
ListI
ListII
A.Copper
pp
1.Corrosion
B.Nickel
2.Demagnetization
C M
C.Manganese
3.NonSparking
N S ki
D.Vanadium
4.Deformationrestriction
Codes
A
(a) 1
(c) 1
B
2
3
C
3
2
D
4
4
(b)
(d)
A
4
4
Page 210 of 240
B
3
2
C
2
3
D
1
1
IES 1996
IES
Whichofthefollowingpairsregardingtheeffectof
alloyingelementsinsteelarecorrectlymatched?
ll i l
t i t l
tl t h d?
1. Molybdenum:Formsabrasionresistingparticles.
2 Phosphorus:Improvesmachinability infreecutting
2.
steels.
3. Cobalt:Contributestoredhardnessbyhardening
ferrite.
4. SiliconReducesoxidationresistance
(a) 2,3and4 (b) 1,3and4
(c) 1,2and4
(d) 1,2and3
Rev.0
IES 1992
IES1992
g
Matchthefollowing:
ListI(Alloyingelementinsteel)
A. Lead
1.
B. Aluminium
2.
C. Copper
3.
D. Phosphorus
Codes:A
d
B
C
(a) 1
2
3
( ) 3
(c)
4
1
4.
D
4
2
(b)
(d)
IAS 1995
IAS1995
ListII(Effect)
Restrictsgraingrowth
Raisesyieldpoint
Reducesstrengthto
impact
Freemachining
A
B
C
D
2
3
4
1
4
1
2
3
St i l
St l
StainlessSteel
y typical
yp
g with other
y They
consists min.12% Cr along
alloying elements, thus highly corrosion resistant
owing to presence of chromium oxide.
y Three kinds ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic
and precipitation hardenable (martensitic, semi
austenitic)
t iti ) based
b d on presence off prominent
i
t micro
i
structural constituent.
y Typical
T pical applications cutlery,
cutler surgical knives,
kni es storage
tanks, domestic items.
y Ferritic steels are principally FeCrC
Fe Cr C alloys with 1214%
12 14%
Cr. And small additions of Mo, V, Nb, Ni.
WatchListI(Alloyingelementsfortoolsteel)withListII
(Improvedmechanicalproperty)andselectthecorrect
answerusingthecodesgivenbelowtheLists
ListI
ListII
(All i l
(Alloyingelementsfortoolsteel)
t f t l t l)
(I
(Improved
d
mechanicalproperty)
A. Carbon
1.
Hardness
B. Manganese
2.
HotHardness
d
C. Chromium
3.
LowerCritical
Temp
D. Vanadium
4.
Toughness
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
3
4
2
(b)
2
4
3
1
(c) 1
4
3
2
(d) 2
3
4
1
y Austenitic steels contain 18% Cr and 8% Ni plus minor
y Austenitic stainless steels are nonmagnetic and are
alloying elements. Ni stabilizes the austenitic phase

assisted by C and N.
y For, martensitic steels Ms is made to be above the
room temperature. These
Th
alloys
ll
are heat
h
treatable.
bl
Major alloying elements are: Cr, Mn and Mo.
y Ferritic
F iti and
d austenitic
t iti steels
t l are hardened
h d
d and
d
strengthened by cold work because they are not heat
treatable.
treatable
y Austenitic steels are nonmagnetic as against ferritic
and martensitic steels, which are magnetic.
Contd
IES 2002
IES2002
p
Thecorrectcompositionofausteniticstainless
steelusedfordomesticutensilsis
(a) 0.08%C,18%Cr,.8%Ni,2%Mn,1%Si
(b) 0.08%C,24%Cr,12%Ni,2%Mn,1%Si
((c)) 0.15%C,12%Cr,0.5%Ni,1%Mn,1%Si
5
,
, 5
,
,
(d) 0.30%C,12%Cr,0.4%Ni,1%Mn,1%Si
IAS 2002
IAS2002
Assertion(A):Inhighspeedsteels,alloyingelements
tungsten,chromiumandvanadiumareaddedto
t
t h
i
d
di
dd dt
makethemsuitabletoworkathigherspeedsthan
toolsteelorlowalloysteels.
R
Reason(R):Vanadiumaddstothepropertyofred
(R) V
di
dd h
f d
hardnessandtungstenandchromiumaddtohigh
wearresistance.
explanationofA
(b) BothAandRareindividuallytruebutRis not the
highly resistant to corrosion 304 alloy is 188 when 18%

chromium & 8% nickel used costly material.
material
y Austenitic stainless steels usually contain 18% Cr and
8% Ni in addition to other minor alloying elements. Ni
stabilizes the austenitic phase assisted by C and N.
Other alloying additions include Ti, Nb, Mo (prevent
weld
ld decay),
d
) Mn
M and
d Cu
C (helps
(h l
i stabilizing
in
t bili i
austenite).
y These steels are very tough and can be forged and
rolled but offer great difficulty in machining.
y These steels cannot be hardened by
yq
quenching,
g in fact
they are softened by rapid cooling from about 1000C.
Contd
IES 2008
IES2008
g
p
Considerthefollowingstatementsinrespectof
austeniticstainlesssteels:
1. Austeniticstainlesssteelsarehardenedand
strengthenedbycoldworking.
2. Austeniticstainlesssteelscannotbequenchedand
tempered.
(a) 1only
(b) 2only
(c) Both1and2
(d) Neither1nor2
Page 211 of 240
IES 1997
IES1997
Assertion(A):Austeniticstainlesssteelcontains18%
chromiumand8%nickel.Sinceitretainsitsaustenitic
h
i d8% i k l Si it t i it t iti
structureatroomtemperature,itiscalledaustenitic
stainlesssteel.
R
Reason(R):Chromiumpresentinthesteelimprovesits
(R) Ch
i
i h
li
i
corrosionresistancebyformingathinfilmofchromium
oxideonthesurface.
explanationofA
(b) BothAandRareindividuallytruebutRisnotthe
Rev.0
IES 2009
IES2009
g
Whichoneofthefollowingelementsisan
austeniticstabilizer?
(a) Chromium
(b) Tungsten
((c)) Nickel
(d) Molybdenum
IES 2005
IES2005
MatchListI(AlloyingElement)withListII(Effecton
Steel)andselectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegiven
S l) d l h
i h d i
belowtheLists:
ListII
ListI
A. Vanadium
1.
Increasesendurancestrength
B. Molybdenum
2.
Improvescreepproperties
C Silicon
C.
Sili
3.
I
Increaseshardness
h d
D. Chromium
4.
Increasesresistancetohigh
temperatureoxidation
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
1
3
4
(b) 1
3
2
4
( ) 2
(c)
1
4
3
(d) 1
2
3
4
IES 2010
IES2010
Alloying elements are added to
1. Improve hardness and toughness.
2. Corrosion and oxidation resistance improvement.
33. Improve
p
machinabilityy and hardenability.
y
4. Increase weight and volume.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
( ) 1, 2 and
(c)
d 4 only
l
(d) 1, 2, 3 and
d4
IES 2009
IES2009
IES 2004
IES2004
g
Whichoneofthefollowingelementsisaferritic
stabilizer?
(a) Nickel
(b) Manganese
((c)) Copper
pp
(d) Chromium
MatchListI(Nameofalloy)withListII(Major
alloyingelements)andselectthecorrectanswerusing
ll i l
t ) d l tth
t
i
thecodesgivenbelowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
A. Invar
1.
Manganese
B. Hadfieldsteel
2.
Chromium
C Stellite
C.
3
3.
Nickel
D. Stainlesssteel
4.
Tungsten
y
5.
Molybdenum
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 5
1
4
2
(b) 3
2
5
1
(c) 5
2
4
1
(d) 3
1
5
2
IES
IES 2008
IES2008
MatchListI(Alloyingelementinsteel)withListII
(Propertyconferredonsteelbytheelement)and
(P
t
f
d t lb th l
t) d
selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelow
thelists:
Li I
ListI
Li II
ListII
A.Nickel
1.
Corrosionresistance
B.Chromium
2.
Magneticpermeability
C.Tungsten
3.
Heatresistance
D.Silicon
4.
Hardenability
Codes:A
d
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
1
3
2
(b) 4
1
2
3
(c) 1
4
3
2
(d) 1
4
2
3
g
g
Whichofthefollowingelementsgivenbelow
determine(s)themaximumattainablehardness
insteel?
1. Chromium
2.
Manganese
3. Carbon
4.
Molybdenum
electthecorrectanswerusingthecodegivenbelow:
(b) 1and2
a) 1only
(c) 3only
(d) 2and4
DESIGNATION OF STEEL (INDIAN

DESIGNATIONOFSTEEL,(INDIAN
STANDARD)
y Two systems of notation are recommended by IS :
(a) Based on ultimate tensile strength.

(b) Based on chemical composition.
(a) Based on Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is
applicable
li bl to
t carbon
b and
d low
l alloy
ll steels.
t l
y The symbol consists of the letter St followed by the
number representing the ultimate tensile strength in
kgf/mm2 , for example, St 32. The new coding consists
of the letter Fe followed by the number representing
the
h ultimate
li
tensile
il strength
h in
i N/mm2
N/
, for
f example,
l
Fe 410.
Contd
Page 212 of 240
(b) Based on Chemical Composition: This type of

designation is preferred if subsequent heat treatment
is carried out.
1. Plain Carbon Steels: These are designated by letter
C followed
f ll
d by
b a number
b representing
i
the
h average
percentage carbon content, for example, C 14 carbon
steel with 0.14%,
0 14% C.
C
y Its new designation is 14 C4. Here, the first figure
indicates 100 times the average of Carbon content,
content
then letter C, and the last figure indicates 10 times the
average
g p
percentage
g of Mn content rounded off to the
next integer.
Rev.0
Contd
2. Alloy Steels: Here the letter C is omitted and the

numbers representing the carbon content are followed by
y
for one or more of the p
predominant
chemical symbols
alloying elements followed by numbers indicating their
average contents, for example, 15 Cr 65 chromium steel
with 0.15
0 15%
%,C
C and 0.65%
0 65% Cr.
Cr
y 20 Cr 18 Ni 2 Nickel chromium steel with 0.2% C, 18%
Cr and 2% Ni.
y The coding of the alloy steels is given below : The average
alloy content upto 1 per cent, Alloy index number will be :
Average alloy content upto two decimal places,
places underlined
by a bar. For average alloy content one per cent and above,
alloy index number will be : rounded to the nearest whole
number upto 0.5
0 5 rounded down and above
abo e rounded up.
up
IES 2001
IES2001
IES 1996
IES1996
y
g
4
y
Thealloysteeldesignatedas40Cr18Ni2by
BureauofIndianStandardscontains
(a) 0.4%C,18%Crand2%Ni
(b) 4.0%C,1.8%Crand0.2%Ni
((c)) 0.4%C,1.8%Crand2%Ni
4
,
(d) 0.4%C,1.8%Crand0.2%Ni
Plastics or pol mer

Plasticsorpolymer
y Definition:
group
of
engineered
18/8stainlesssteelcontains
(a) 18%stainless,8%chromium.
((b)) 18%chromium,8%nickel.
,
(c) 18%tungsten,8%nickel.
(d) 18%tungsten,8%chromium.
Properties of plastics
Propertiesofplastics
materials
characterized by large molecules that are built up by

the joining of smaller molecules.
y They are natural or synthetics resins.
resins
g
g
y Lightweight
y Goodresistancetocorrosion
y Easyoffabricationintocomplexshapes
y Lowelectricalandthermalconductivity
y Goodsurfacefinish
d
f
f
h
y Goodopticalproperties
p
p p
y Goodresistancetoshockandvibration.
IES 2010
IES2010
Consider the following properties for
plastics:
l i
1. Become hard on heating.
2. Increasing plasticity.
3 Ability to deform with rise in temperature.
3.
temperature
4. Long chain structure.
Whi h off these
Which
h
properties
i
f
for
plastics
l i
are
correct?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4For-2015
only (IES,
(d) 2,GATE
3 and&4PSUs)
only
IES 2010
IES2010
Plasticmaterialisusedforthecomponent
whichrequirescharacteristicsof
hi h
i h
i i f
(a)Lowdensity,machinability andhighstrength
(b)Machinability,highstrengthandlargeplastic
deformation
(c)Highstrength,largeplasticdeformationand
lowdensity
(d) Low density, machinability and large plastic
deformation
Page 213 of 240
IAS 2007
IAS2007
g
Considerthefollowing:
Whichofthefollowingpropertiesarepossessedby
plastics?
1. Goodresistancetocorrosiveatmosphere
2. Easeoffabricationintocomplexshapes.
p
p
3. Goodresistancetoshocksandvibrations.
g
g
(a) 1,2and3
(b) 2and3only
(c) 1and3only
(d) 1and2only
Rev.0
Classification Polymers
Pol mers
Classification
IES 2008
IES2008
p y
Structureofapolymeris:
(a) Longchain
(b) Rhombic
((c)) Cubic
((d)) Closedpackhexagonal
p
g
y Classification based on their industrial usage:

(a) plastics and
(b) elastomers.
elastomers
y Classification based on their temperature dependence:
((a)) thermoplasts
th
l t and
d
(b) thermosets
Thermoplasts
Thermoplastics
(
y Fluorocarbons (PTFE
or TFE,Teflon))
y Plastics which softens up on heating and hardens up
y Acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene (ABS):
on cooling where the softening and hardening are

totally reversible processes.
y Hence thermoplasts
h
l
can be
b recycled.
l d
y They consist of linear molecular chains bonded
together
h by
b weak
k secondary
d
b d or by
bonds
b interwinding.
i
i di
y Crosslinking between molecular chains is absent in
th
theromplasts.
l t
y E.g.: Acrylics, PVC, Nylons, Perspex glass, etc.
Characteristics: Outstanding strength and toughness,

resistance to heat distortion; good electrical properties;
flammable and soluble in some organic solvents.
solvents
Application: Refrigerator lining, lawn and garden
equipment, toys, highway safety devices.
y Acrylics (polymethylmethacrylate) PMMA
Characteristics:
C
a acte st cs: Outsta
Outstanding
d g light
g t ttransmission
a s ss o aand
d
resistance to weathering; only fair mechanical properties.
Application: Lenses, transparent aircraft enclosures,
drafting equipment, outdoor signs.
Characteristics: Chemically inert in almost all

environments,
excellent electrical properties; low
environments
coefficient of friction; may be used to 260ooC; relatively
weak and poor coldflow properties.
Application:
l
Anticorrosive seals,
l chemical
h
l pipes and
d
valves, bearings, anti adhesive coatings, high temperature
p
electronic parts.
y Polyamides (nylons)
Characteristics: Good mechanical strength, abrasion
resistance,
i
and
d toughness;
h
l
low
coefficient
ffi i
off friction;
fi i
absorbs water and some other liquids.
Application: Bearings, gears, cams, bushings, handles,
and jacketing for wires and cables.
Contd
Contd
y Polycarbonates
y Polypropylene
Characteristics: Dimensionally stable: low water

absorption; transparent; very good impact resistance
and ductility.
Application: Safety helmets, lenses light globes, base
for photographic film
y Polyethylene
Characteristics: Chemically resistant and electrically
insulating; tough and relatively low coefficient of
friction; low strength and poor resistance to
weathering.
Application: Flexible bottles, toys, tumblers, battery
parts, ice trays, film wrapping materials.
Characteristics: Resistant to heat distortion; excellent

electrical properties and fatigue strength; chemically
inert; relatively inexpensive; poor resistance to UV
light.
g
Application: Sterilizable bottles, packaging film, TV
cabinets, luggage
y Polystyrene
Characteristics: Excellent electrical properties and
optical clarity; good thermal and dimensional stability;
relatively inexpensive
Application: Wall tile, battery cases, toys, indoor
lighting panels, appliance housings.
Page 214 of 240
Contd
Contd
Rev.0
IES 2003
IES2003
IES 2011
IES2011
Windows of aeroplane are made of :
(a) PVC
(b) PTFE
(c) PMMA
((d)) PEEK
IES 1992
IES1992
y
y
Polyamidesarecharacterizedby
(a) Flexiblechain
((b)) Rigidchain
g
(c) Amorphousstructure
(d) Crystallinestructure
IES 2002
IES2002
Thermosets
p y
g
Thestructureofapolymerisshowninthegiven
y Plastics which are set under the application of heat
figure.Thispolymer
g
p y
Findsspecialapplicationin
(a) Packaging
(b) Adhesives
(c) Bearings
(d) Fertilizer
IAS 2000
IAS2000
Polytetrafluoroethene is
1. Athermoplasticmaterial
2 Havinghighfrictioncoefficient
2.
3. Athermosettingmaterial
4. Havinglowfrictioncoefficient
5. Anelectricinsulator
6. Nonstickingtosurfaces
Whichoftheabovestatementsarecorrect?
(a) 1,2and5
(b) 2,3and6
(c) 3,4and5
(d) 3,2and5
IES 1995
IES1995
F F
C C
F F
Teflonisa
(a) Thermosettingfluorocarbonpolymer
((b)) Thermoplasticfluorocarbonpolymer
p
p y
(c) Inorganiccompoundoffluorineandcarbon
(d) Laminatedphenolic material
and/or pressure.
y This process is not reversible, hence thermosets can
not be
b recycled.
l d
y They consist of 3D network structures based on
strong covalent
l
b d to form
bonds
f
rigid
i id solids.
lid linear
li
molecular chains bonded together by weak secondary
bonds or by interwinding.
interwinding
y Characterized by high modulus / rigidity /dimensional
stability when compared with thermoplasts.
thermoplasts
y E.g.: Epoxies, Amino resins, some polyester resins, etc.
Contd
Page 215 of 240
yp p
( )
( )
Weldable typeplastic(s)include(s)
(a) Thermosets alone
((b)) Thermoplasticsalone
p
(c) Boththermosets andthermoplastics
(d) Neitherthermosets andthermoplast
y Thermosets are strengthened by reinforcements .

y Different reinforcements are in use according to the
y
y
y
necessity.
fibers
are mostt commonly
it Glass
Gl
fib
l used
d to
t form
f
structural and molding plastic compounds.
Two most important types of glass fibers are E (electrical)
and
d S (high
(h h strength)
h) glasses.
l
Eglass (limealuminiumborosilicate glass with zero or
potassium levels)) is often used for
low sodium and p
continuous fibers.
Sglass (65%SiO2, 25%Al2O3 and 10% MgO) has higher
strengthtoweight
strength
to weight ratio and is more expansive thus
primary applications include military and aerospace
applications.
Carbon fiber reinforced plastics are also often used in
aerospace applications. However they are very expansive.
Rev.0
Contd
polyamide) fibers.
fibers
y They are popularly known as Kevlar.
Examples Thermosettingpolymers
Thermo setting polymers
Examples
IES 2011
IES2011
y The other classes of reinforcements include aramid (aromatic
KevlarEpoxycompositeiswidelyusedin:
(a)Automobiles
(b)Aerospace
(c)Navy
( )
(d)InteriorDecoration
y Epoxies
Characteristics: Excellent combination of mechanical

properties and corrosion resistance; dimensionally stable;
good adhesion; relatively inexpensive; good electrical
properties.
ti
Application: Electrical moldings, sinks, adhesives,
protective coatings,
p
g , used with fiberglass
g
laminates.
y Phenolics
Characteristics: Excellent thermal stability to over 150o C;
may be
b compounded
d d with
h a large
l
number
b off resins, fillers,
f ll
etc.; inexpensive.
Application:
Motor
housing
housing,
telephones
telephones,
auto
distributors, electrical fixtures.
Contd
y Polyester(PETorPETE)
Chemical
classification
Tradename
characteristics
Typical
application
Epoxy
Aralditeoxiron
Goodtoughness.
Resistantto;acids.
R i
id
alkalies and
solvents.
excellent
adhesiontometal,
glassandwood.
Adhesiveand
coatings,tools
i
l
and
dies,filament
woundvessels,,
laminatesfor
aircraft,patching
compoundfor
metaland
t l d
plastics.
Characteristics:Oneofthetoughestofplasticfilms;
Ch
i i O f h
h f l i fil
excellentfatigueandtearstrength,andresistanceto
humidityacids greases oilsandsolvents
humidityacids,greases,oilsandsolvents
Application:Magneticrecordingtapes,clothing,
automotivetirecords beveragecontainers
automotivetirecords,beveragecontainers.
Melamineformal
dehyde
IES 1997
IES1997
ListI
ListII
A. Neoprene
1.
Electricswitches
B. Bakelite
2.
Adhesive
C. Foamedpolyurethane
3.
Thermalinsulator
D. Araldite
4.
Oilseal
Code:A
d
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
a) 4
1
2
3
(b) 1
4
2
3
c)) 4
1
3
2
(d) 1
4
3
2
Goodfor
application
requiringcycling
betweenwetand
dryconditions.
Hardandabrasion
d d b
resistant.Good
dielectric.
Tablcware,electric
insulation
insulation,
automotIve Ignition
parts,cutlery
handles,jars and
b l
bowls.
IES 1992
IES1992
Assertion (A): Linear polymers are rigid at low
temperatures but soft and mouldable at elevated
temperatures.
Reason (R): Linear polymers are thermosetting.
thermo setting
Page 216 of 240
Phenol
Bakelite
formaldehy Marblette Durez
de
Cataljn
Gooddimensional
stabilityExcellent
insulatingqualities.
Inert
I
t
tomostsolventsand
weakacids.
g
Goodstrengtharound
inserts.
Industrialelectrical
parts.
automotiveelectrical
components,
t
paperimpregnated
battery
p
separators.
Electricalinsulation.
Phenol
Phenol
furfural
Durite
Similarto
Phenolfonnaldehyde.
Electricalinsulation.
Electricalinsulation
Mechanical
parts.Housingsand
containers.
Alkyd
(Modified
polyester)
Glyptal Duraplex
Beckosol Teglac
Rezly
Canbemadeflexible,
resilientorrigid.Can
resistacidsbutnot
alkalies,withglassfibre
reinforcementresistssalt
waterandfungusgrowth.
Boats,Tanks,Trailerand
Tractor
components.Ducts,
shrouds.
Vaultingpoles.
IES
g
Fibre ReinforcedPlasticsare
g
g
1. Madeofthermosettingresinsandglassfibre
2. Madeofthermoplasticresinsandglassfibre
3. Anisotropic
4. isotropic
(a) 1and4
(b) 1and3
(c) 2and3
(d) 2and4
Rev.0
IES 1994
IES1994
IES 2007
IES2007
MatchListI(materials)withListII(applications)and
l tth
t
i th d i
b l
theLists:
ListI
ListII
A. Engineeringceramics
1.
Bearings
B. Fibre reinforcedplastics 2.
Controlrodsin
nuclearreactors
C. Syntheticcarbon
3.
Aerospaceindustry
D. Boron
4.
Electricalinsulator
Codes:A
d
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b) 1
4
3
2
(c) 2
3
1
4
(d) 4
3
1
2
usingthecodegivenbelowtheLists:
h
d
b l
h
ListI
ListII
(Material)
(Application)
A. Fibre reinforcedplastics 1.
Automobiletyres
B. Acrylics
2.
Aircraft
C. Phenolics
3.
Lenses
D. Butadienerubber
4.
Electricswitchcover
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
4
3
2
(b) 2
3
4
1
( ) 1
(c)
3
4
2
( ) 2
(d)
4
3
1
IES
Thermosettingplasticsare
1. Formedbyadditionpolymerisation.
2. Formedbycondensationpolymerisation.
3. Softenedonheatingandhardenedoncoolingfor
anynumberoftimes
b fti
4. Moulded byheatingandcooling.
Selectthecorrectans erusingthecodesgi enbelo
(a) 1and3
(b) 2and4
(c) 1and4
(d) 2and3
IES 2006
IES2006
y
Phenolformaldehydeisa/an
(a) Thermoplasticpolymer (b)
((c)) Elastomer
((d))
IES 1999
IES1999
gp
p
Considerthefollowingpairsofplasticsandtheir
distinctcharacteristics:
1. Acrylics..............Verygoodtransparencytolight
2. Polycarbonate..Poorimpactresistance
33. PTFE....Lowcoefficientoffriction.
4. Polypropylene..Excellentfatiguestrength
Whichofthesepairsarecorrectlymatched?
p
y
(a) 2and3
(b) 1and3
(c) 1and4
(d) 2and4
Thermoset polymer
Rubber
IES
ListI(Material)
ListII(Natureofproduct)
A. Polyethylene
1.
Adhesive
B. Polyurethane
2.
Film
C. Cyanoacrylate
3.
Wire
D. Nylon
4.
Foam
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
4
3
1
(b) 4
2
3
1
(c) 2
4
1
3
(d) 4
2
1
3
Polymersynthesis
IAS 2003
IAS2003
Elastomers
g
1. Thermoplasticspossessastrongintermolecular
bondingcomparedtothatofthermosettingplastics.
2. Plasticshaveahighcreepundercontinuousloading.
33. Embrittlement occursinplasticsatlowtemperature.
p
p
((a)) 1and2
((b)) 2and33
(c) 1and3
(d) 1,2and3
y These polymers are known for their high elongations,
which are reversible upon release of applied loads.

y They consist of coillike molecular chains, which
straightens
h
up on application
l
off load.
l d
y Characterized by low modulus / rigidity / strength, but
hi h toughness.
high
h
y E.g.: natural and synthetic rubber.
y Processing of polymers primarily limits to synthesis
followed by forming.
y Polymers
are synthesized
by process known as
polymerization.
l
i ti
y Polymerization
y
is p
process in which multifunctional
monomers are attached to form linear/3D macro

molecular
l
l chains.
h
Page 217 of 240
Rev.0
AdditionPolymerization
y This polymerization process involves single kind of
monomers. Resultant macromolecules composition is an

p
p
exact multiplication
of composition
of individual
monomer.
y Process involves three stages
g
namelyy initiation,
propagation and termination.
y Initiation process will be started by an initiator (e.g.
benzoyl peroxide)) which forms an reactive site where
carbon atom of another monomer is attracted, upon which
reaction site transfers to different place leading to
molecular chain growth.
y As molecular chain grows longer, reaction rate decreases.
However the growth process is terminated either by the
combination or disproportionation process.
C d
i P l
i i
CondensationPolymerization
y Formation of a polyester from Ethylene glycol and Adipic
acid
AdditionPolymerization
d
i
l
i i
CondensationPolymerization
E.g.,
polyethylene
y It involves more then one monomer species.

species This process
is also known as step growth polymerization.

y In condensation polymerization,
polymerization smaller macromolecule
byproduct such as water is eliminated.

y No resultant product has the chemical formula of mere
Combination:
one monomer.
y Repeat
p
unit in condensation p
process itself is p
product of
polymerization involving basic constituents.

y Reaction times for condensation p
polymerization
y
is
usually longer than those for additional polymerization.
Disproportionation:
y Polyesters,
phenolformaldehyde,
nylons,
polycarbonates etc are produced by condensation
polymerization.
y Condensation polymerization reactions also occur in
solgel processing of ceramic materials.
y Polymers,
y
, unlike organic/inorganic
g
/
g
compounds,
p
, do
not have a fixed molecular weight. It is specified in
terms of degree of polymerization number of
repeat units in the chain or ratio of average molecular
weight of polymer to molecular weight of repeat unit.
y Average molecular weight is however defined in
y Weight
g
g molecular weight
g
two ways.
average
is
obtained by dividing the chains into size ranges
and determining the fraction of chains having
molecular weights within that range.
y Number average molecular weight is based on
the
h number
b
f
fraction,
rather
h
than
h
the
h weight
h
fraction, of the chains within each size range. It is
always smaller than the weight average molecular
weight.
Contd
IES 2001
IES2001
g
y chloride is 62.5.
5
The molecular weight
of vinyl
Thus the molecular weight of a polyvinyl chloride
with a degree of polymerization of 20000 is
(a)
62.5
20000
62 5
62.5
(b) 20000
(c) 62.5 20000
(d) 20000
C
li ki
Th crosslinking
li ki can occur due
d to
t the
th presence
y Cross
linking:
The
of some elements called vulcanizing agents, e.g. S, Se, Te, and
O2.
y In case of poly isoprene (natural rubber), the sulphur bridges
are formed between two macromolecules during vulcanization.
y In this vulcanization p
process sulphur
p
bridge
g are formed at the
point of opening of double bonds. If the number of crosslinks
is small; the find product is soft and flexible. The stiffness of the
polymeric
p
y
material increases with the densityy of crosslines.
When the sulphur content in rubber is as high as 32 weight
percent, the hard product is called ebonite.
Page 218 of 240
IES 2003
IES2003
,
Inthecaseofrubber,vulcanizationreferstothe
processofproducinga
(a) Linearpolymer
(b) Branchedpolymer
((c)) Crosslinkedpolymer
p y
(d) Networkpolymer
Rev.0
IES 2006
IES2006
IES 2000
IES2000
Assertion (A) In Addition Polymerization method,

polymer
is
l
i produced
d
d by
b adding
ddi a second
d monomer to
t
the first, then a third monomer to this dimmer and so
on.
R
Reason
(R) There
(R):
Th
must exist
i at least
l
one double
d bl bond
b d
in the monomer for Addition Polymerization
reaction.
explanation of A
y
y
Assertion(A):Additionpolymerizationisaprimary
summationofindividualmoleculesintolongchains,
Reason(R):Inadditionpolymerization,thereaction
producesasmallmoleculeasbyproduct.
d

ll
l
l b
d
explanationofA
p
IES 2008
IES2008
IES 2003
IES2003
y which two or more

What is the p
process by
chemically different monomers are polymerised
to form a cross link polymer together with a by
product
d
such
h as water or ammonia,
i known
k
as?
(a) Addition polymerization
(b) Copolymerisation
(c) Linear polymerisation
(d) Condensation polymerization
y
Polyesterscanbedefinedasthecondensation
productsof
(a) Dicarboxylic acidswithdihydroxy alcohols
(b) BisphenolAandepichlorohydrin
((c)) Phenolandformaldehyde
y
(d) Benzeneandtoluene
IES 1994
IES1994
g
Whichofthefollowingpairsofplasticsandtheir
modesofformationarecorrectlymatched?
1. Polythene..Condensationpolymerization.
2. Polycarbonate.............Additionpolymerisation.
3. Polystyrene...Additionpolymerisation.
4. Polyamide.Eitherbyadditionorby
condensationpolymerisation.
S l tth
t
i th d i b l
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and4
(c) 1and4
(d) 3and4
Additi es to Pol mers

AdditivestoPolymers
y The properties of polymers can be further modified by
the addition of agents which are basically of two types.

y Those that enter the molecular structure are usually
called "additives"
additives , whereas those that form a clearly
defined second phase are called "fillers".
Contd
1 Plastici ers
1.Plasticizers
y Plasticizers are liquids of high boiling point and low
molecular weight, which are added to improve the
2 Fillers
2.Fillers
y A filler is used to economize on the quantity of polymer
plastic behaviour of the polymer.

y
y They are essentially oily in nature.

nature Organic solvents,
solvents
resins and even water are used as plasticizers.
required and/or to vary the properties to some extent,

extent for
example, mechanical strength, electrical resistance etc.
A filler, whose function is to increase mechanical strength, is
termed a "reinforcing filler".
A filler is commonly fibrous in nature and is chemically inert
with respect to the polymer with which it is to be used.
used
Common fillers are wood flour, cellulose, cotton flock, and
paper (for improving mechanical strength); mica and asbestos
(for heat resistance); talc (for acid resistance).Other filler
materials are : fabric, chippedwood moulding compound,
wood veneer,, textile or g
glass fibres.
The commonly used "reinforcing filler agents" with plastics are :
fibres/filaments of glass, graphite or boron.
Page 219 of 240
3. Catalysts:
y These are usually added to promote faster and more
complete
polymerization
and
l
l
i i
d as such
h they
h are also
l
called 'accelerators' and 'hardeners' e.g., ester is used
as a catalyst for Urea Formaldehyde.
4. Initiators:
y As the name indicates,, the initiators are used to
initiate the reaction, that is, to allow polymerization to
begin. They stabilize the ends of the reaction sites of
the molecular chains.
chains H2O2 is a common initiator.
initiator
5. Dyes and Pigments:
y These are added,
added in many cases,
cases to impart a desired
colour to the material.
Rev.0
6. Lubricants:
y Lubricants are added to the polymers for the following
purposes : to reduce friction during processing,
processing to prevent
parts from sticking to mould walls, to prevent polymer
films from sticking to each other and to impart an elegant
fi i h to
finish
t the
th final
fi l product.
d t Commonly
C
l used
d lubricants
l bi
t
include : oils, soaps and waxes.
77. Flame retardants:
y Most plastics will ignite at sufficiently high temperatures.
The noninflammability of the plastics can be enhanced
either by producing them from less inflammable raw
materials or by adding "flame retardants". The common
flame retardants are : compounds of chlorine, bromine and
phosphorous.
h
h
8 Solvents:
8.
y Solvents are useful for dissolving certain fillers or
p
p in manufacturing
g byy allowing
g
plasticizers and help
processing in the fluid state, For example, alcohol is
added in cellulose nitrate plastics to dissolve Camphor.
H
However,
subsequently,
b
tl the
th solvents
l
t mustt be
b removed
d
by evaporation.
9. Stabilisers and anti
antioxidants
oxidants are added to retard
the degradation of polymers due to heat, light and
oxidation.
10. Elastomers are added to plastics to enhance their
elastic properties.
N t Above,
Note:
Ab
excepting
ti fillers,
fill
all
ll other
th materials
t i l used,
d
fall under the category of "Additives.
IAS 2007
IAS2007
thecodegivenbelowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
(AdditiveforPolymers)
(Purpose)
A. Plasticizer
1.
Allowspolymerization
tobegin
B. Filler
2.
Colours thematerial
C. Initiator
3.
Actsasinternal
lubricants
4.
4
Improvesstrength
p
g
Code:A
B
C
A
B
C
(a) 1
4
3
(b)
3
2
1
(c) 1
2
3
(d)
3
4
1
IAS 1998
IAS1998
(a)
( )
(c)
3
5
1
3
2
1
5
4
(b)
(d)
3
3
1
5
5
l
2
4
Plastic Process
PlasticProcess
Injection Mo lding
InjectionMoulding
y The common forms of raw materials for processing
y The polymer is melted and than forced into a mould.

y Thermoplastic pellets melted and melt injected under
plastics into products are : pellets, granules, powders,

sheet, plate, rod and tubing.
y Liquid
d plastics
l
are used
d especially
ll in the
h fabrication
f b
off
reinforced plastic parts.
y Thermoplastics
Th
l i can be
b processed
d to their
h i final
fi l shape
h
by moulding and extrusion processes.
y However,
H
extruding
t di
i often
is
ft used
d as an intermediate
i t
di t
process to be followed by other processes, for example,
vacuum forming or machining.
machining
p
Fillersareaddedtoplasticsto
(a) Improveflow
((b)) Reducebrittleness
(c) Facilitateprocessability
(d) Reducecost
IAS 1994
IAS1994
MatchList I(Nameofmoulding compositiontoprepareplastics)

withList
II(Propertyofmoulding composition)andselectthecorrect
withListII(Propertyofmoulding
List I
List II
A.
Binder
1.
Reducecost,shrinkage
B.
Filler
2.
Makethemoulding ofplasticeasier
C. Plasticizer
3.
Cellulosederivatives
D.
Lubricant
4.
Acceleratecondensationand
polymerization
5.
Toughnessandresistanceto
temperature.
Codes: A
IES 1992
IES1992
high pressure (70 MPa) into a mold. Molten plastic

takes the shape of the mold,
mold cools,
cools solidifies,
solidifies shrinks
and is ejected.
y Molds usually
y made in two p
parts ((internal and external
part).
y Use of injection molding machine mainly used for
thermoplastics
h
l i (gears,
(
cams, pistons,
i
rollers,
ll
valves,
l
fan blades, rotors, washing machine agitators, knobs,
handles, camera cases, battery cases, sports helmets
etc)
Page 220 of 240
Contd
p
y
To reduce the consumption
of synthetic
resins,,
the ingredient added is
(a) Accelerator
(b) Elastomer
((c)) Modifier
(d) Filler
Fig.Injectionmoulding
Rev.0
E tr sion
Extrusion
y The process is continuous and provides a cheap and
y Long plastic products with uniform cross sections are
readily
dil produced
d d by
b the
th extrusion
t i process.
y Thermoplastic pellets & powders are fed through a hopper
g
into the barrel chamber of a screw extruder. A rotating
screw propels the material through a preheating section,
where it is heated, homogenized, and compressed, and
then forces it through a heated die and onto a conveyor
belt.
y As the plastic passes onto the belt, it is cooled by jets of air
or sprays off water which
h h harden
h d it sufficiently
ff
l to preserve
its newly imparted shape.
y It continues to cool as it passes along the belt and is then
either cut into lengths or coiled.
Contd
rapid method of moulding.

y Common production shapes include a wide variety of
solid forms, as well as tubes, pipes, and even coated
wires
i and
d cables.
bl
Compression mo lding
Compressionmoulding
y A compression mould is made of two halves with one
each
off the
h being
b i connected
d to the
h platens
l
h press.
y The mould is electrically heated to maintain the
required temperature.
temperature
y Material is placed in the mould, and it is closed with a
hydraulic
y
cylinder,
y
, or toggle
gg clamp.
p
y The pressure maintained on the material is of the
order of 14 to 40 MPa of moulding area.

y As the material comes in contact with the heated
mould surface, it softens and fills the entire cavity and

at the same time initiates the chemical reaction which
cures the part.
Fig.Extrusion
Contd
Transfer Mo lding
TransferMoulding
C
i
i determined
d
i d by
b the
h thickest
hi k
i
y Cure
time
is
cross section,
mould temperature, material type and grade.
y After
the
Aft curing,
i
th mould
ld opens and
d the
th partt is
i ejected.
j t d
y The most widely used plastic is phenol formaldehyde,
commonly known as 'Bakelite
Bakelite.
y Transfer moulding is very similar to compression
moulding and is developed to avoid the disadvantages

found in that process.
y In this
h method,
h d thermosetting
h
charge
h
is heated
h
d and
d
compressed in a separate chamber and then injected
into the closed mould where it is allowed to cool and
solidify.
y Transfer moulding is capable of moulding part shapes
that are more intricate than compression moulding
but not as intricate as injection
j
moulding.
g
Contd
Blo mo lding
Blowmoulding
y Blow moulding is the process of inflating a hot,
hot hollow,
hollow
thermoplastic preform or parison inside a closed mould so

that its shape conforms to that of the mould cavity.
y Typical parts made are bottles, toys, air ducts of automobiles,
chemical and gasoline tanks, and a number of housholds
goods.
d
Page 221 of 240
Contd
Rev.0
Thermoforming
IES 2005
IES2005
p
p
y
Thermoplasticmaterialscannotbeproducedby:
(a) Injectionmoulding process
((b)) Extrusionprocess
p
(c) Blowmoulding process
(d) Both(a)and(b)above
y In this process, a thermoplastic sheet can be formed into a

y
y
y
y
three
three dimensional shape by the application of heat and
differential pressures.
First, the plastic sheet is clamped to a frame and uniformly
heated to make it soft and flowable.
flowable
Then a differential pressure (either vacuum or pressure or
both) is applied to make the sheet conform to the shape of
a mould
ld or die
di positioned
ii
d below
b l the
h frame.
f
It is possible to use most of the thermoplastic materials.
g material is a p
plastic sheet of uniform
The starting
thickness.
It is a relatively simple process and is used for making such
parts as covers,, displays,
p
p y , blister p
packaging,
g g, trays,
y , drinking
g
cups and food packaging.
Contd
Contd
IES 2004
IES2004
MatchListI(Typeofmoulding)ListII(Mechanisminvolved)and
selectthecollectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
A.
Compressionmoulding
1.
Mouldcavitymustbeheated
tocuretheplasticforced
i i
intoit.
B.
Injectedmoulding
2.
SimilartoHydraulic
extrusion
C
C.
Jetmoulding
3
3.
Analogoustothehot
pressingofpoweredmetals
D.
Extrusionmoulding
4.
Analogoustodiecastingof
metals
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
4
1
3
(b)
3
1
4
2
(c) 2
1
4
3
(d)
3
4
1
2
IAS 1999
IAS1999
g
p
Whichoneofthefollowingaretheprocessesfor
thermosettingmaterials?
1. Compression
2. Transfermoulding
33. Injectionmoulding
j
g
4. Extrusion
g
g
(a) 1and4
(b) 1and2
(c) 2and3
(d) 2,3and4
IES 2009
IES2009
usingthecodegivenbelowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
(Article)
(ProcessingMethod)
A. Disposablecoffeecups
1.
Rotomoulding
B. Largewatertanks2.
Expandablebead
moulding
C. Plasticsheets
3.
Thermoforming
D. Cushionpads
4.
Blowmoulding
5
5.
Calendering
Code: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
5
1
2
(b)
4
5
1
2
( ) 4
(c)
3
2
1
(d)
3
1
5
2
IAS 2007
IAS2007
Whichoneofthefollowingstatementsisnot
correct?
(a) Ininjectiondiemoulding,exactamountof
materialtofillthecylinderisdelivered
(b) Injectiondiemoulding isgenerallylimitedto
formingthermoplasticmaterial
(c) Thermosettingplasticsaremoresuitablefor
extrusionmoulding
(d) Extrusionmoulding processisusedforgiving
shapes,suchasrods,tubes,pipes,ropesetc.
Page 222 of 240
IAS 2004
IAS2004
Whichofthefollowingarethecharacteristicsofthe
injectionmoulding
ofplastics?
ld
f l
1. Itisthemosteconomicalmethodofmassproducinga
singleitem
2. Inmostcasesfinishedproductsareobtained
3.
Thereislotofwasteofthermoplasticsincethe
runnersandsprues cannotbereused.
Selectthecorrectanswerbyusingthefollowingcodes:
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and3
(c) 1and3
(d) 1,2and3
Rev.0
IAS 2003
IAS2003
IAS 1997
IAS1997
g
Considerthefollowingstatementsinrespectof
fabricationofplasticproducts:
1. Compressionmoulding isanalogoustohotpressingof
powderedmetals.
d d
l
2. Jetmoulding isamodificationofcompressionmoulding.
3. Injectionmoulding
I j ti
ldi isanalogoustodiecastingofmetals
i
l
t di ti f t l
4. Transfermoulding issimilartohydraulicextrusion.
Whi h fth t t
t
t?
(a) 1and2
(b) 1and3
(c) 1,2and4
1 2and4
(d) 2,3and4
2 3and4
IES 2004
IES2004
g
g
Whichofthefollowingarefabricatedusing
engineeringplastics?
1. Surfaceplate
2. Gears
33. Guidewaysformachinetools
y
4. Foundrypatterns
g
g
(a) 1,2and3
(b) 1
(c) 2,3and4
(d) 1,2,3and4
IES 2011
IES2011
MatchListI(Material)withListII(Typicaluse)and
thecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowthe
h
h
d
b l
h
Lists:
ListI
ListII
A. Branchedpolyethylene 1.
Bottles
B. Polyester
y
2.
Textilefibres
C. Polyvinylidene chloride 3.
Filmsforpackaging
D. LinearPolyethylene
4.
Transparentfilm
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
3
4
1
(b) 3
2
1
4
( ) 2
(c)
3
1
4
(d) 3
2
4
1
El t
Elastomers
y Elastomers are a special class, of linear polymers that
display an exceptionally large amount of elastic

deformation when a force is applied.
y Many can be stretched to several times their original
length. Upon release of the force, the deformation can
be completely
p
y recovered,, as the material q
quicklyy
returns to its original shape. In addition, the cycle can
be repeated numerous times with identical results, as
with the stretching of a rubber band.
band
y In the elastomeric polymers, the linear chaintype
molecules
o ecu es aaree ttwisted
sted o
or cu
curled,
ed, much
uc likee a co
coil
spring.
IES 2002
IES2002
Whichofthefollowingprocessescanbeusedfor
massproductionofplasticcontainers(withlid)of
5litercapacity?
1 Injectionmoulding
1.
2. Joltmoulding
3 Blowmoulding
3.
Codes:
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and3
(c) 1and3
(d) 1,2and3
Contd
Assertion (A) : The plastic organic materials

can be
b easily
il shaped
h
d or moulded
ld d by
b mechanical
h i l
action.
Reason (R): It is widely in use as it can be
permanently moulded.
the
l
i off A
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t
y When a force is applied, the polymer stretches by
y The elasticity or rigidity of the product can be determined
uncoiling. When the load is removed, the molecules recoil

and the material returns to its original size and shape.
shape
y The relationship between force and stretch does not,
however,, follow Hooke's Law.
y In reality, the behaviour of elastomers is a bit more
complex. While the chains indeed uncoil when placed
under load,
load they also tend to slide over one another to
produce a small degree of viscous deformation. When the
load is removed, the molecules recoil, but the viscous
d f
deformation
i
i not recovered
is
d and
d the
h elastomer
l
retains
i
some permanent change in shape.
y By cross
crosslinking
linking the coiled molecules, however, it is
possible to restrict the viscous deformation while retaining
the large elastic response.
Contd
by controlling the number of crosslinks within the

material.
t i l
Small amounts of crosslinking leave the elastomer soft
and flexible,
flexible as in a rubber band.
band
Additional crosslinking restricts some of the uncoiling,
and the material becomes harder,, stiffer,, and more brittle,,
like the rubber used in bowling balls.
If placed under constant strain, however, even highly cross
linked material will exhibit some viscous flow over time.
This phenomenon is known as stress relaxation.
The rate of this relaxation depends on the material,
material the
force, and the temperature.
Page 223 of 240
y
y
Rev.0
R bb
Rubber
IES 2011
IES2011
During tensile testing it has been observed that for
some material the deformation is fully recoverable
and timeindependent, but does not obey Hooks
l
law.
Th material
The
t i l is
i :
(a) Elastomer
(b) Rubber
R bb
(c) Polymer
(d) Aluminium
l
alloy
ll
y Natural rubber compounds are outstanding for their
y Natural rubber, the oldest commercial elastomer, is made
from
the
f
h processed
d sap off a tropicall tree.
y It could be vulcanized (crosslinked) by the addition of
about 30% sulphur followed by heating to a suitable
temperature. The crosslinking restricts the movement of
the molecular chains and imparts strength.
y Properties
P
i could
ld be
b further
f h improved
i
d by
b various
i
additives
ddi i
(e.g., carbon black) which act as stiffeners, tougheners, and
antioxidants.
y Accelerators have been found that speed up the
vulcanization process. These have enabled a reduction in
the amount of sulfur such that most rubber compounds
now contain less than 3% sulphur.
y g
flexibility,
good electrical insulation, low internal
friction, and resistance to most inorganic acids, salts,
and alkalies.
y However, they have poor resistance to petroleum
products, such as oil, gasoline, and naphtha.
y In addition,
dd
they
h
l
lose
their
h
strength
h at elevated
l
d
temperatures, so it is advisable that they not be used at
temperatures above 175
175F
F (80
(80C)
C).
y They also deteriorate fairly rapidly in direct sunlight
unless specially compounded.
compounded
Contd
y Rubber and similar synthetic materials such as
p
pp
y
Neoprene
have a varietyy of application
in machinery.
y Rubber should be protected from high temperature,
oil and sunlight.

g
y It is an excellent material for seats and diaphragms, for
water lubricated bearings, for parts subjected to

vibrations (such as vibration mountings, flexible
couplings and flexible bearing) and for tubes and
hose.
y In industry, hard rubber is used for electric insulation,
switch
it h handles,
h dl bearings,
b i
etc.
t
Contd
IES 1997
IES1997
g materials is used for
car tyres as a standard material?
(a) Styrenebutadiene rubber (SBR)
(b) Butyl rubber
((c)) Nitrile rubber
(d) Any of the above depending upon the need
Differenttypesofrubber
Applications
Naturalrubber
Tires,gaskets,hose
Polyacrylate
Oilhose, Orings
EDPM(ethylenepropylene)
Electricinsulation,footwear,hose,belts
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene
Tanklining,chemicalhose,polyethyleneshoe,
solesandheels
Polychloroprene (neoprene)
Wireinsulation,belts,hose,(neoprene)gaskets,
Wireinsulation
belts hose (neoprene)gaskets
seals,linings
Polybutadiene
Tires,solesandheels,gaskets,seals
Polyisoprene
Sameasnaturalrubber
Polysulfide
Seals,gaskets,diaphragms,valvedisks
SBR(styrenebutadiene)
Mouldedmechanicalgoods,disposable
pharmaceuticalitems tyres
pharmaceuticalitems,tyres
Silicone
Electricinsulation,seals,gaskets,Orings
Epichlorohydrin
Diaphragms,seals,mouldedgoods,low
ttemperatureparts
t t
Urethane
Casterwheels,heels,foampadding
Fluoroelastomers
Orings,seals,gaskets,rollcoverings
IES 2008
IES2008
C
i
Ceramic
Whichmaterialisusedforbushesinthebushed
pintypeofflexiblecoupling?
(a) Gunmetal
(b) Plastic
(c) Rubber
(d) Aluminium
y Most have crystalline structures, but unlike metals, the
y Ceramic materials are compounds of metallic and
nonmetallic elements (often in the form of oxides,

carbides, and nitrides) and exist in a wide variety of
compositions and forms.
forms
y The American Ceramic Society has defined ceramic
products as those manufactured" byy the action of heat
p
on raw materials, most of which are of an earthy
nature (as distinct from metallic, organic etc.) while of
the constituents of these raw materials,
materials the chemical
element silicon, together with its oxide and the
compounds thereof (the silicates), occupies a
predominant position."
Page 224 of 240
Contd
Contd
g electrons are g
g ionic
bonding
generally captive in strong
or covalent bonds. The absence of free electrons makes
the ceramic materials poor electrical conductors and
results
l in
i many being
b i transparent in
i thin
hi sections.
i
y Because of the strength of the primary bonds, most
ceramics
i have
h
hi h melting
high
lti temperatures.
t
t
y Ceramic articles of industry are : Dinner ware,
electrical and chemical porcelain,
porcelain refractory bricks and
tiles, glass, porcelain enamels, abrasives, cutting tools,
bricks and tiles, cements and concretes, whitewares,
mineral Ores, slags and fluxes and insulators etc.
Contd
Rev.0
y Ceramics can be natural or manufactured:
P
ti
fC
i
PropertiesofCeramics
y Ingeneral,ceramicsarehard,brittleandhigh
q
y used,
y Natural Ceramics : The most frequently
g of ceramic materials,, alongwith

g
y The covalent bonding
naturally occuring Ceramics we : Silica (SiO), Silicates

and Clay minerals.
y Manufactured Ceramics : Such ceramics include :
SiC, Al2O3, Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) and many varieties
off Oxides,
O id
C bid
Carbides,
Nit id
Nitrides,
B id
Borides
and
d more
complex ceramics.
their high melting point and relative resistance to

oxidation, make ceramics good candidates for high
temperature applications.
li i
y In addition, they are relatively cheap and abundant
and
d are nott dependent
d
d t on import
i
t for
f supply.
l
y Many ceramics retain strength to much higher
temperatures than metals.
metals
y There being virtual absence of ductility in ceramics, so,
in general,
general they can not be machined or built up from
stock.
meltingpointmaterialswith:
y desirableelectrical,magneticandoptical
desirableelectrical magneticandoptical
properties,i.e.,lowelectricalandthermal
conductivity.
y goodchemicalandthermalstability,thatis,high
hotstrengthandhighcorrosionresistance,and
freedomfromoxidation.
y goodcreepresistance,and
y Highcompressivestrengthandexcellent
g
p
g
resistancetowear.
y Theirlowdensityisalsoanattractivefeatureto
minimisecentrifugalstressesinpartsrotatingat
highspeed.
Contd
IES 2008
IES2008
Considerthefollowingstatementsrelatingto
mechanicalpropertiesofceramics:
h
l
f
1. Tensilestrengthistheoreticallyhighbutinpractice
quitelow.
quitelow
2. Compressivestrengthismanytimeslowerthantensile
strength.
3. Shearstrengthishigh.
4. Transversestrengthiseasytoascertain.
Whi h f h
i b
?
(a) 1and3
(b) 1and4
(c) 2and3
(d) 2and4
M hi i
fC
i
MachiningofCeramics
y Mostceramicsaresinteredtotheirfinish
dimensions.
y However,sometimes,theyaremachinedtogetbetter
dimensionalaccuracyandsurfacefinish.
y MachiningofceramicscanbedonewithDiamond
abrasives,LBM,EBMandCHM.
IES 2002
IES2002
g
Whichoneofthefollowingistrue?
(a) Structureofmetallicmaterialsconsistsofatoms
havingvalenceof5,6or7
(b) Ceramicmaterialshavelongrangeelectronmatrix
bond
(c) Polymersarecomposedoflongchainofrepeating
molecules
(d) Ceramicsareweakerthanmetalsbecauseofweak
electrostaticbond
P
i
fC
i
ProcessingofCeramics
The processing of ceramics,
ceramics except glass,
glass follows the
Powder Metallurgy route, that is, consists of the
following steps :
1 Preparation of powders
1.
2. Mixing and Blending of powders
3. Compacting of powders
4. Firing or Sintering.
PRODUCT APPLICATIONS
PRODUCTAPPLICATIONS
2 R f t i
2.Refractories
y p
1. Clay
products : Clayy bodyy ceramics include
whitewares and stoneware.
y Whitewares includes such families of products as
earthenwares, China and porcelain.
y Whitewares are largely used as tile, sanitary ware, low
and high voltage insulators, and high frequency
applications.
y Stoneware applications
l
are : Glazed
l d pipes, roofing
f
tiles
l
and tableware.
y Refractory ceramics are the materials which are capable of
Page 225 of 240
withstanding
in
situations.
The
ith t di high
hi h temperature
t
t
i various
i
it ti
Th
refractory materials are of three types.
y Acidic refractories are based on aluminasilica
composition,
ii
varying
i
f
from
pure silica
ili
to nearly
l pure
alumina, through a wide range of alumina silicates.
y The basic constituent of basic refractories is magnesia,
g
,
MgO. Basic refractories include chromemagnesite,
dolomite, limestone and magnesite.
y Neutral refractories include substances which do not
combine with either acidic or basic oxides. With increasing
alumina content, silicaalumina refractories may gradually
g from an acidic to neutral type.
yp A typical
yp
neutral
change
character is exhibited by such refractories as Carbon,
graphite, carbide, chromite, bauxite and forsterite.
Rev.0
Contd
y Refractories are used in the construction or lining of
furnaces,
furnaces boilers,
boilers flues,
flues regenerators,
regenerators convertors,
convertors
crucibles, dryers, pyrometer tubes and in many others,
primarly to withstand the high temperature.
Al2O3
y The most widely used oxide refractory ceramic is
alumina
. It is sintered into cutting tool bits,
spark
k plug
l insulators,
l
h h temperature tubes,
high
b melting
l
crucibles, wear components and substrates for
electronic circuits and resistors.
C bid
f t
Carbiderefractory
y Carbides have the highest melting point of all the
substances.
b t
y Silicon carbide, SiC, is difficult to sinter, but pressure
sintered or reactive sintered solid bodies of SiC are used as

hi h
hightemperature
resistanceheating
i
h i
elements,
l
rocket
k
nozzels and sand blast nozzles.
y Ceramics such as UO2,, UC and UC,, are used in nuclear
applications as fuel elements, fuel containers, moderators,
control rods and structural parts.
y Boron carbide, B4C, is extremely hard and is used as a
grinding grit.
y Other carbides (Tungsten Carbide, Tantalum Carbide and
Titanium carbide) are used in the sintered form as cutting
tool materials.
Contd
3 Electrical and Magnetic

3.ElectricalandMagnetic
Applications
y Ceramics find wide applications in electrical and
electronic industries.
y As
A
i
insulators,
l
semiconductors,
i
d
di l
dielectrics,
i
ferroelectrics, piezoelectric crystals.
y Ceramics such as glass,
glass porcelain,
porcelain alumina,
alumina quartz and
mica, are getting heavy demands.
y Ceramics,, such as SiC,, are used as resistors and
heating elements for furnaces.
y Ceramics, having semiconducting properties, are used
f thermistors
for
h
i
and
d rectifiers.
ifi
B i
Barium
titantate,
i
f
for
example, is used in capacitors and transducers.
and is used as cutting tool material.

material Silicon nitride,
nitride Si3N4,
Si3N4 is
used for ceramic engine components, turbine disks and rocket
nozzles.
Sialon (Si Al O N),
N) that is oxynitrides,
o nitrides have
ha e better
oxidation resistance and is used for cutting tools and welding
pins.
Borides
d (of
( f Chromium,
h
Zirconium and
d Titanium)) are used
d as
turbine blades, Rocket nozzles and Combustion chamber
liners.
Cermet is a composition of ceramic and metal. This material
shows better thermal shock resistance than ceramics, but at the
g refractoriness.
same time retains their high
It is used as cutting tool material, as crucibles and as jet engine
nozzles.
4 O ti l A li ti
4.OpticalApplications
5 Ph h
5.Phosphorescence
y useful as a p
g
, because it is
y Ceramics are notably
pigment,
p
g of a characteristic wave
y Ceramic p
phosphors
emit light
exceptionally durable. It is completely oxidised and not

subject to chemical attack and variation.
y Yttralox (a new ceramic material) is useful in optical
appIications, becuase it is as transparent as window
glass
l
and
d can resist
i t very high
hi h temperature.
t
t
Ytt l is
Yttralox
i
completely free from pores.
y Generally,
Generall Ceramics are opaque,
opaque because of the
presence of tiny pores within them that scatter light.
length when excited or pumped by some appropriate

energy source (an electric discharge or electron beam).
y Light tubes, VDT's and colour T.V. rely on this
phenomenon.
y Of increasing interest are Laser materials, The most
widely used Laser is ruby (an Al2O3 , crystal doped with
Cr ions).
ions)
y They are being used for machining, welding and
cutting etc.
etc
IES 2002
IES2002
Gl
Glass
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswer:
ListI(Material)
ListII(Application)
A. Ceramics
1.
Constructionof
chemicalplants
B. Refractory
2.
Columnsandpillars
C. Stones
3.
Liningoffurnaces
D. Highsilicaglass
4.
Tiles
Codes:A
d
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 4
3
2
1
(b) 2
1
4
3
( ) 4
(c)
1
2
3
(d) 2
3
4
1
y definition,, "Ceramics" because the

y Glasses are,, by
y Nitrides have only slightly lower melting points than carbides.

y Cubic boron nitride, CBN, is the hardest material after diamond
starting materials needed to produce glass are typical

of ceramic materials. However, they are produced by
the
h melt
l processing
i
route, instead
i
d off the
h powder
d
metallurgy route used for other ceramics.
y In
I ceramic
i science,
i
th word
the
d "glass"
" l " signifies
i ifi
any
amorphous component of ceramic mixture.
y However,
Ho e er in general terms,
terms glass is a transparent silica
product which may be amorphous or crystalline,
depending on heat treatment.
treatment
y Glasses may be either inorganic or organic.
Contd
Page 226 of 240
y Vitreous materials or inorganic glasses are the fusion
products which during solidification from a liquid state

failed to crystallise.
crystallise
y During the cooling process, the glasses exhibit no
g at anyy temperature
p
and onlyy a
discontinuous change
progressive increase in viscosity is noticed. In fact, glass is a
hard liquid.
y Glass Forming Constituents : Silica,
Silica which is obtained
from highpurity silica sand is the most widely used glass
forming constituent.
y Other glass forming constituents are the oxides of boron,
vanadium, germanium and phosphorous. Some other
elements and compounds such as tellurium, selenium and
BeF2 can also form glasses.
Rev.0
Contd
y Along with oxides, fluxes are also added to the charge
for a g
glass. Fluxes lower the fusion temperature of the
glass and render the molten glass workable at
reasonable temperature.
y However, fluxes may reduce the resistance of glass to
chemical attack, render it water soluble or make it
subject
bj t to
t partial
ti l or complete
l t devitrification
d it ifi ti
(th t is,
(that
i
crystallisation) uponcooling; Such a glass is
undesirable since the crystalline are extremely weak
and brittle.
y Stabilizers are therefore, added to the glass batch to
overcome these problems.
C
it
Composites
y
y
y
IES 2011
IES2011
What are composites?

Composites are the multiphase materials, which can be
defined as any multiphase material that is artificially made
and exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of
the
h constituent
i
phases.
h
The constituent phases of a composite are usually of macro
portions,, differ in form and chemical composition
p
sized p
and essentially insoluble in each other.
Why do we need composites?
Composites are the class of materials with special
properties.
Propertiesofthecompositecanbetailoredtomeetthe
requiredpurposesuchassuperiorpropertieslikehigher
strengthtoweightratio,highmodulusandhigh
temperaturestabilityalongwithgooddampingability.
TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

TYPESOFCOMPOSITEMATERIALS
y Composite materials may roughly be classified as :
1. Agglomerated materials or Particulate Composites

2. Reinforced materials
3. Laminates
4. SurfaceCoated materials.
y The particulate composites and reinforced composites
are constituted by just two phases, the matrix phase
and the dispersed phase.
phase
y The matrix phase is continuous and surrounds the
dispersed
p
phase. The aim is to improve
p
p
the strength
g
properties of the matrix material.
IES 2011
IES2011
Structure of common glass is
(a) Amorphous
(b) Partially crystalline
(c) Fully crystalline
Contd
Assertion (A) : A composite is a multiphase

material
t i l which
hi h is
i artificially
tifi i ll made
d as one that
th t
occurs naturally.
Reason ((R):
) Technology
gy of modern age
g requires
q
a
material with unusual combination of properties
that cannot be met by metal or alloys.
((b)) Both A and R are individuallyy true but R is NOT the
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b R is
i true
Th matrix
i material
i l should
h ld be
b : ductile
d il with
i h its
i
y The
modulus of elasticity much lower than that of the
dispersed phase.
phase Also,
Also the bonding forces between the
two phases must be very strong.
y Depending upon the nature of the reinforcing
materials (shape and size), the reinforced composites
can be classified as:
1. Particle reinforced composites or particulate
reinforced composites.
2. Fibre reinforced composites.
y In p
particle reinforced composites,
p
, the dispersed
p
phase
p
is in the form of exiaxed particles, whereas in fibre
reinforced composites,
is inofthe
form of fibres. Contd
Pageit227
240
IES 2008
IES2008
g
Whichoneofthefollowingiscorrect?
When"devitrification"ofinorganicglassesisdone,
((a)) Glasstransformsfromcrystallinetonon
y
crystallinestate
((b)) Glasstransformsintoafullytransparentmaterial
y
p
(c) Glasstransformsfromnoncrystallinestateto
polycrystallinestate
(d) Glassisrelievedofinternalstresses
IES 2009
IES2009
p
g yp
Nano compositematerialsarehighlypreferablein
designconsiderationfortheir
(a) Highresistancetocrackpropagation
(b) Vibrationresistance
((c)) Impactresistance
p
(d) Highresilience
A l
t dM t i l
AgglomeratedMaterials
y Agglomerated materials or particulate composites
consist of discrete particles of one material,

surrounded by a matrix of another material. The
materials are bonded together into an integrated mass.
mass
y Two classic examples of such a composite material are :
Concrete formed byy mixing
gg
gravel,, sand,, cement and
water and agglomeration of asphalt and stone
particles, that is used for paving the highway surfaces.
Other examples of particulate composite materials
include :
1.. G
Grinding
d g aand
d cutt
cutting
g wheels,
ee s, in which
c ab
abrasive
as e
particles ( Al2O3 , SiC, CBN or diamond) are held
together by a vitreous or a resin bond.
Contd
Rev.0
IES 2009
IES2009
C
d carbides,
bid
i which
hi h particles
i l off ceramic
i
2. Cemented
in
materials, such as WC, TaC, TiC and of Cobalt and nickle,
are bonded together via Powder Metallurgy process, to
produce
cutting
d
i tooll materials.
i l Cobalt
C b l acts as the
h binder
bi d for
f
ceramic particles. During sintering, the binder melts and
forms a continuous matrix between the ceramic particles.
Thi method
This
th d is
i called
ll d as "Vitreous
"Vit
sintering",
i t i " that
th t is,
i
sintering with the formation of liquid phase.
3. Cermets (Ceramics + metals). Metals (W, Mo, Ni, Co
act as binders
bi d
and
d the
h product
d
i made
is
d by
b Powder
P d
Metallurgy method.
y The sintering
g temperature
p
is the melting
gp
point of the metal.
y In the resulting composite material, the metal contributes
high toughness and thermal shock resistance, while the
ceramic
ce
a c co
contributes
t butes higher
g e refractoriness
e acto ess aand
d ccreep
eep
resistance, superior chemical stability and abrasion
resistance.
y The toughness of the composite material increases,
g will be needed to break or pull

because extra energy
out a fibre.
y Also, when any crack appears on the surface of a fibre,
only that fibre will fail and the crack will not
propagate catastrophically as in bulk material.
y Woodandbambooaretwonaturallyoccurringfiber
d db b
ll
fb
composites,consistingofcellulosefibers inalignin
matrix.
matrix
y Thecommonlyusedmatrixmaterialsare:Metalsand
polymers suchas Al Cu Nietc andcommercial
polymers,suchas,Al,Cu,Nietc.andcommercial
polymers.
g
p
Whichofthefollowingcompositesare
dispersionstrengthenedcomposites?
((a)) Particulatecomposites
p
(b) Laminarcomposites
(c) Fiberreinforcedcomposites
(d) Shortfiberdiscontinuouscomposites
Reinforced Materials
ReinforcedMaterials
y Reinforced materials form the biggest and most
important group of composite materials.

materials
y The purpose of reinforcing is always to improve the
strength properties.
properties
y Reinforcement may involve the use of a dispersed phase
or strong fibre,
fibre thread or rod.
rod
y The matrix material provides ductility and toughness
and supports and binds the fibres together and

transmits the loads to the fibres.
y The fibres carry
y most of the load.
Contd
y Reinforcing Fibres :A good reinforcing fibre should have :
y
y
high elastic modulus, high strength, low density, reasonable

ductility and should be easily wetted by the matrix.
matrix
Metallic fibres such as patented steel, stainless steel,
tungsten and molybdenum wires are used in a metal matrix
such
h as aluminium
l
and
d titanium.
Carbon fibres and whiskers are also used to produce ultra
high strength composites.
composites
Fibres need not be limited to metals. Glass, ceramic and
polymer fibres are used to produce variety of composites
h i wide
having
id range off properties.
i
The ductile matrix material can be aluminium, magnesium,
nickle or titanium and the reinforcing fibres may be of
boron, graphite, alumina or SiC.
Contd
IES 2007
IES2007
IES 2002
IES2002
p
g
Woodisanaturalcompositeconsistingofwhich
ofthefollowing?
(a) Ligninfibres incollagenmatrix
(b) Ligninfibres inapatitematrix
((c)) Cellulosefibres inapatitematrix
p
(d) Cellulosefibres inligninmatrix
g
Whichofthefollowingfibre
materialsareused
forreinforcementincompositematerials?
1. Glass
2. Boroncarbide
33. Graphite
p
((a)) 1and2
((b)) 1and3
3
(c) 2and3
(d) 1,2and3
Page 228 of 240
IES 2010
IES2010
composite materials:
1. Material is termed as advanced composite, if fibers are
directionally oriented and continuous.
continuous
2. Reinforced fiber glass products are strong and light
weight.
g
3. Concrete is reinforced with steel rebar, the rebar becomes
matrix.
4. Pearlitic steels are composite materials.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
IES 1999
IES1999
g
Thestrengthofthefibre reinforcedplasticproduct
p
p
g
alone
1. Dependsuponthestrengthofthefibre
2. Dependsuponthefibre andplastic
3. Isisotropic
4. Isanisotropic
(a) 1and3
(b) 1and4
(c) 2and3
(d) 2and4
Rev.0
Whi k
Whiskers
g crystals in the form of fine filaments, a
y Whiskers are single
y
y
y
y
few microns in diameter (2050 nm dia.) and short in

length (a few mm).
Th
These
single
i l crystall whiskers
hi k
are the
h strongest known
k
fibres.
Their high strength is due to the high degree of perfection
and the absence of dislocation in their structure.
Their strength
g is manyy times g
greater than that of the
normal metals.
Theyareintroducedintoresinormetallicmatrixforthe
purposeofhighstrengthandhighstiffnessathigh
temperatures.
3. Graphite fibrereinforced epoxy : (Organic or Resin

p
) : This material is being
g used to
matrix composites)
make m y parts of a fighter plane.
4. Automative uses : Bodyy p
4
panels,, drive shafts,, springs
p g
and bumpers, Cab shells and bodies, oil pans, fan
shrouds, instrument panels and engine covers.
5. Sports equipment : Golf club shafts, baseball parts,
fishing rods, tennis rackets, bicycle frames, skis and
pole
l vaults.
l
IES 2011
IES2011
Whiskers are
(a) Very thin metallic particles
g crystals
(b) Very thin single
(c) Very thin polycrystals
((d)) Fiber p
particles of aspect
p ratio less than 10
Hardness
Hardness is the resistance offered by a material
to indentation.
1. Glassfibre reinforced p
plastics : Here,, we have g
glass
fibres in a matrix of unsaturated polyester.
y Glass fibrereinforced plastics are used to make : boat
hulls, Car bodies, truck, cabins and aircraft fittings.
2. CC Composites : These composites have graphite
fibres in a carbon matrix.
y This material is being used to make : Nose cone and
l d
leading
edge
d off the
h missiles
l and
d space shuttles,
h l racing
car disk brakes, aerospace turbine and jet engine
components rocket nozzles and surgical implants.
components,
implants
Contd
IES 2009
IES2009
g
Whichoneofthefollowingmaterialsisnota
composite?
(a) Wood
(b) Concrete
((c)) Plywood
y
(d) Sialon
H d
T
HardnessTest
Definition: Hardness is a very important but hard to
define property of materials.
A li i
f i f
d
i l
Applicationsofreinforcedmaterials
IES 1992
IES1992
Hardnessasafunctionofcarboncontentisshown
in
( ) g
(a)FigA
(b)Fig B
(b)FigB
IAS 2001
IAS2001
With the
off percentage
off carbon
in
th increase
i
t
b
i the
th
steel, which one of the following properties does
increase?
(a) Modulus of elasticity (b) Ductility
(c) Toughness
(d) Hardness
(c)Fig C
(c)FigC
(d)Fig D
(d)FigD
Page 229 of 240
Rev.0
M h ScaleofHardness
S l fH d
Mohs
Material
Talc
Gypsum
Calcite
Fluorite
A tit
Apatite
Orthoclase
Quartz
Topaz
Corundum
Diamond
Mohs hardness
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Brinell Hardnesstest
y A 10 mm tungsten carbide or hardened steel ball
intended.
y Gradually applied load.
load
y Load applied at right angle to the specimen surface
y Indentation diameter made on the specimen is
measured.
BHN =
Load
oad
=
Surface Areaof Indentation
(D
D d
y Itisbestifthethicknessofthematerialisatleast10
timesthedepth.
y Tensilestrength=kBHN MPa
k =3.296foralloysteel
3 34
=3.342forPlainCarbonsteel.
y Forsteel,flexuralendurancelimit e
e = 1.75 BHN
k f / mm2
kgf
MPa
VHN BHN
P Kgf ; D and d in mm
IES 2010
IES2010
Thehardnessoflathebedmaterialshouldbe
measuredby
db
(a)Rockwelltester
(b)Brinell hardnesstester
(c)ShoreScleroscope
(d)Vickershardnesstester
y Itcannotbeusedonveryhardorverysoftmaterial.
y Most commonly used tests.
Rc
Contd
IES 1992
IES1992
A carbon steel having Brinell Hardness
number 100 should ultimate tensile
strength closer it
(a) 100 N/mm2
(b) 200 N/mm2
2
2
( ) 350 N/mm
(c)
N/
(d) 1000 N/mm
N/
BHN
10
R k ll H d
RockwellHardnesstest
y A sphere conical diamond cone of 120
120 angle and a
spherical apex of radius 0.2 mm is used

y Depth
p of indentation t is measured.
y Gradually applied load,
y Load is applied at right angle to the specimen surface.
y R = 100 500 t
y Depending on the load used a scale A,
A B,
B C,
C etc.
etc used.
used
y Rockwell test should not be used on thin materials
(generally less than 0.16 mm, on rough surface or on

materials that are not homogeneous).
IAS 1999
IAS1999
AmeasureofRockwellhardnessisthe
(a) Depthofpenetrationofindenter
(b) Surfaceareaofindentation
(c) Projectedareaofindentation
(d) Heightofrebound
Vi k h d
Vickershardnesstest
(i) A square based diamond pyramid having 136
136
between the opposite faces is used.
((ii)) Average
g Diagonal
g
of the indention
((D)) is
measured.
VHN =
1.854
1
854 p
,
D2
p in kgf
D in mm.
Th S l
TheScleroscope
(i) Based on the rebound height of a ball from the
specimen.
((ii)) Harder the material,, higher
g
is the height
g to which
the ball rebounds.
((iii)) Scleroscope
p hardness numbers are comparable
p
only among similar materials. A comparison between
steel and rubber would not be valid.
(iii) Even
E
a light
li ht load
l d will
ill produce
d
plastic
l ti deformation
d f
ti
that so why we may use VHT on very hard material
likes Tungsten Carbide.
Carbide
Page 230 of 240
Rev.0
Knoop Test(MicroHardnessTest)
y Various micro hardness tests have been developed for
application where it is necessary to determine the

hardness of a very precise area of material, or where
the material or surface layer is exceptionally thin.
y Special machine have been developed for this purpose.
The location for this test is select in the high
magnification.
y A small
ll diamond
di
d penetrator is
i then
h
l d d with
loaded
ih a
predetermined load ranging fm 25g to 3000g.
IES 1992
IES1992
Herbert cloudburst Hardness test is conducted to
know
((a)) Uniformityy of hardness over a surface
(b) Softness of nonmetallic components
(c) Hardness of non
nonmetallic
metallic components
(d) Hardness at specified depth inside the surface.
Sh
F
bili T
SheetFormabilityTests
y During the various sheet metal forming processes, the
stresses and strains developed in the material are quite

complex. So, any measure of the formability of the
sheet metal on the basis of material properties derived
from a simple tension test( for example, % elongation
as an index
i d off ductility
d tilit off the
th material)
t i l) is
i nott very
accurate.
y So cupping tests have been developed to evaluate the
formability of the sheet metals.
IES 1992
IES1992
Whichofthefollowingwouldyoupreferfor
checkingthehardnessofverythinsections?
((a)) Hebertcloudbursttest
(b) Shore'sScleroscope
(c) Knoop hardnesstest
(d) Vickershardnesstest
Durometer
y When
testing
soft,
Wh
i
f elastic
l i materials,
i l such
h as
rubbers and non rigid plastics, a durometer is
use
Herbert Cloudburst hardness test:
y It is used to know the uniformity of hardness
over a surface.
Charpy andIzod test

y Toughness of a material is measured by means of impact
tests.
y Notched bar prepared as per standard from the test
material, is held in a vice and a weight is allowed to swing
from a known height in such a way that it hits the notched
bar in its path and breaks it.
y Since the material has absorbed some amount of energy
gy
during its fracture, the swinging mass loses part of its
energy and therefore will not be able to reach the same
h i ht from
height
f
where
h
it started.
t t d
y The loss in height (h) multiplied by the weight represents
the energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture,
fracture
which can be directly measured from the indicator on the
Contd
tester.
GATE 2006
GATE2006
MatchtheitemsinColumnIandColumnII.
ColumnI
ColumnII
P. Charpy test
1.
Fluidity
Q. Knoop test
2.
Microhardness
R. Spiraltest
3.
Formability
S Cuppingtest
S.
C
i t t
4.
T
Toughness
h
5.
Permeability
(a) P 4,Q 5,R 3,S 2
((c)) P 2,Q
, Q 4,
4,R 3,
3,S 5
(b)
((d))
P 3,Q 5,R 1,S 4

P 4,
4,Q
Q 2,R
,
1,S
,
3
Page 231 of 240
y In the Charpy impact test, the specimen is held between
two grips whereas in the Izod impact test the specimen is

held at one end like a cantilever .
y The standard test specimens used in the izod and Charpy
impact tests are made of bars with a square cross section of
10 mm.
y The impact resistance is dependent upon the material
composition as well as the heat treatment process given to
it.
y The annealed materials normally would have better
toughness
h
than
h
the
h
corresponding
di
normalized
li d or
quenched specimens. Coarsegrained structure would tend
g
ductilityy compared
p
to fine g
grain structure
to have higher
and consequently better toughness.
IES 2002
IES2002
) The hardness test is a slow,, expensive
p
Assertion ((A):
method of assessing the mechanical properties of
materials.
Reason (R): The hardness is a function of yield stress
and the work hardening rate of material.
explanation of A
Rev.0
Duralumin
IES 1993
IES1993
y It is an important and interesting wrought alloy.

y Its composition is as follows:
y Copper = 3.5 4.5%; Manganese = 0.4 0.7%;
y
pp
DuraluminAlloycontainsaluminium
andcopper
intheratioof
%Al
%Cu
(a) 94
4
((b)) 9
90
8
(c) 88
10
((d)) 86
12
M
Magnesium
i
= 0.4 0.7%,
% and
d the
th remainder
i d
i
is
aluminium.
y This alloy possesses maximum tensile strength (upto
400 MPa) after heat treatment and age hardening.
After working, if the metal is allowed to age for 3 or 4
d
days,
i will
it
ill be
b hardened.
h d
d This
Thi phenomenon
h
i known
is
k
as age hardening.
y It is widely used in wrought conditions for forging,
forging
stamping, bars, sheets, tubes and rivets.
Magnalium
IES 1992
IES1992
g
Whichofthefollowingstatementisincorrect
aboutduralumin?
(a) Itispronetoagehardening
(b) Itcanbeforged
((c)) Ithasgoodmachiningproperties
g
gp p
(d) Itislighterthanpurealuminium
y It is made by melting the aluminium with 2 to 10%
magnesium in a vacuum and then cooling it in a

vacuum or under a p
pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres.
p
y It also contains about 1.75% copper. Due to its light
weight
g and g
good mechanical p
properties,
p
it is mainlyy
used for aircraft and automobile components.
Copper zinc alloys (Brass)

Copperzincalloys(Brass)
y The addition of zinc strengthens the material and
zinc alloy is brass.

y The most widely used copper
copperzinc
y There are various types of brasses, depending upon the
proportions
p
p
of copper
pp and zinc.
y This is fundamentally a binary alloy of copper with
zinc each 50%.

5
y By adding small quantities of other elements, the
properties of brass may be greatly changed.

y ApplicationsofCualloysinclude:costumejewellery,
coins,musicalinstruments,electronics,springs,
bushes,surgicalanddentalinstruments,radiators,etc.
Contd
incidentally changes the colour to a yellow or gold

effect.
ff
y The ratio of copper and zinc can be varied for
advantages and the addition of other elements gives
still more variety of combinations of properties such as
machinability, strength, hardness, ductility (hot or
cold),
ld) conductivity
d
and
d corrosion resistance as well
ll as
many others.
y Leadadditionsareusedtoimprovemachinability.The
Leadadditionsareusedtoimprovemachinability The
leadisinsolubleinthesolidbrassandsegregatesas
smallglobulesthathelptheswarftobreakupinto
g
p
p
smallpiecesandmayalsohelptolubricatethecutting
toolaction.
Page 232 of 240
Hindalium
y Itisanalloyofaluminium andmagnesiumwitha
smallquantityofchromium.
IES 1992
IES1992
g
p
Additionofwhichofthefollowingimproves
machiningofcopper?
(a) Sulphur
(b) Vanadium
((c)) Tin
(d) Zinc
Rev.0
IES 1992
IES1992
g
Cartridgebrasscanbe
(a) Coldrolledintosheets
((b)) Drawnintowires
(c) Formedintotubes
(d) Anyoftheabove.
Copper tin alloys (Bronze)

Coppertinalloys(Bronze)
y The hardness and strength of bronze increase with an
y The alloys of copper and tin are usually termed as
bronzes.
y The useful range of composition is 75 to 95% copper
and
d 5 to 25%
% tin.
y The metal is comparatively hard, resists surface wear
and
d can be
b shaped
h
d or rolled
ll d into
i
wires,
i
rods
d and
d sheets
h
very easily.
y In
I corrosion
i resistant
i t t properties,
ti bronzes
b
are superior
i
to brasses.
increase in tin content.

y The ductility is also reduced with the increase in tin
percentage above 5.
y When aluminium is also added (4 to 11%), the
resulting alloy is termed aluminium bronze, which
h a considerably
has
d bl higher
h h corrosion resistance.
y Bronzes are comparatively costly compared to brasses
d to the
due
h presence off tin
i which
hi h is
i an expensive
i metal.
l
y The colour of aluminium bronze is similar to that of
22 caratt gold
ld and
d it is
i frequently
f
tl called
ll d imitation
i it ti
gold.
Contd
Phosphor bronze
Phosphorbronze
IES 2011
IES2011
Aluminium Bronze is also known as :
(a) Muntz metal
(b) White metal
(c) Duraluminium
((d)) Imitation g
gold
y When bronze contains phosphorus, it is called
phosphor bronze.
y Phosphorus increases the strength, ductility and
soundness
d
off castings.
y This alloy possesses good wearing qualities and high
elasticity.
l i i
y A common type of phosphor bronze has the following
composition
iti
according
di to
t Indian
I di standards
t d d Copper
C
=
8790%, Tin = 910%, and Phosphorus = 0.13%.
y The material is specified for pump parts,
parts gears,
gears
springs, power screw nuts and bearings.
Gun Metal
GunMetal
IES 1992
IES1992
p
g
p
p
p
p
Thepercentageofphosphorousinphosphorbronze
is
(a) 0.1
(b) 1
(c) 11.1
(d) 98
y It is an alloy of copper, tin and zinc.

y It usually contains 88% copper, 10% tin and 2% zinc.
y This metal is also known as Admiralty g
gun metal.
y The zinc is added to clean the metal and to increase its
fluidity.
y It is not suitable for being worked in the cold state but
may be forged when at about 600C.
IES 2006
IES2006
Incaseofpowerscrews,whatisthecombination
ofmaterialsusedforthescrewandthenut?
((a)) Castironscrewandmildsteelnut
(b) Carbonsteelscrewandphosphorbronzenut
(c) Castironscrewandcastironnut
(d) Aluminium screwandalloysteelnut
IES 2003
IES2003
,
j
g ,
Gunmetal,whichisusedinjournalbearings,
contains
(a) 88%Cu,10%Sn,2%Zn
(b) 80%Cu,10%Zn,10%Al
((c)) 85%Cu,5%Mg,10%Al
5
,5
g,
(d) 85%Cu,5%Sn,10%Pb
y It is extensively used for casting boiler fittings, bushes,
bearings, glands, etc.
Page 233 of 240
Rev.0
IES 1994
IES1994
gp
y
Whichofthefollowingpairsarecorrectly
matched?
1. SiliconsteelsTransformerstampings
2. DuraluminCookingutensils.
33. Gunmetal.................Bearings
g
Selectthecorrectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelow.
C
Codes:
(a) 1,2and3
(b) 1and2
(c) 1and3
(d) 2and3
IES 2011
IES2011
ListI
1 Wormwheel
1.Wormwheel
B.Phosphorbronze
2.Cylinderblock
C.Graycastiron
3.Piston
D Alallo
D.Alalloy
4 Bushings
4.Bushings
Codes
A
(a) 3
(c) 3
B
1
2
C
2
1
D
4
4
(b)
(d)
A
4
4
B
1
2
y It is an important alloy of nickel and copper.

y It contains 68% nickel, 29% copper and 3% other
ListII
A GunMetal
A.GunMetal
Monel metal
C
2
1
D
3
3
constituents like iron, manganese, silicon and carbon.

It is superior to brass
b
and
d bronze
b
in corrosion resisting
properties.
y It
I is
i used
d for
f
making
ki
propellers,
ll
pump fittings,
fi i
condenser tubes, steam turbine blades, sea water
exposed parts,
parts tanks and chemical and food handling
plants.
IES 2011
IES2011
Admirality Brass is used for
(a) Condenser Tubes
(b) Rivets
(c) Piston rods
((d)) Utensils
IES 2006
IES2006
MatchListI(Composition)withListII(Application)andselect
thecorrectanswerusingthecodegivenbelowtheLists:
List I
ListII
A. Commercialbronze(10%Zn)
1.Radiator
B
B.
Redbrass(15%Zn)
2 Springmetal
2.Springmetal
C. Aluminiumbrass(22%Zn,2%Al)
3.Forgingand
stamping
D
D.
Pbronze(11%tin)smallamountofP)
4 Powerplant
4.Powerplant
andchemical
equipment
Codes: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
4
1
3
(b)
3
1
4
2
(c) 2
1
4
3
(d)
3
4
1
2
IES 2003
IES2003
y
Monel metalisanalloyof
(a) Ironandcarbon
((b)) Copperandzinc
pp
(c) Aluminium andcopper
(d) Copperandnickel
Page 234 of 240
IES 2004
IES2004
y
pp
MatchListI(Alloy)withListII(Application)andselect
ListI
ListII
A Siliconsteel
A.
1
1.
Marinebearings
B. Highcarbonsteel
2.
Cuttingtools
C. Highspeedsteel
3.
Springs
D. Monel metal
4.
Transformer
laminations
Codes:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 1
2
3
4
(b) 4
3
2
1
(c) 4
2
3
1
(d) 1
3
2
4
Rev.0
Inconel
y It consists of 80% nickel, 14% chromium, and 6% iron.
y This alloy has excellent mechanical properties at
ordinary and elevated temperatures.

y It can be cast, rolled and cold drawn.
y It is used for making springs which have to withstand
high temperatures and are exposed to corrosive action.
y It is also used for exhaust manifolds of aircraft engines.
Babbit metal
y The tin base and lead base babbits are widely used as a
bearing material, because they satisfy most

requirements for general applications.
y The
h babbit
b bb is generally
ll used
d as a thin
h layer,
l
0.05 mm to
0.15 mm thick, bonded to an insert or steel shell. The
composition of the babbit metals is as follows:
y Tin base babbits : Tin 90% ; Copper 4.5% ; Antimony
5% ; Lead 0.5%.
0 5%
y Lead base babbits : Lead 84% ; Tin 6% ; Anitmony
9 5% ; Copper 0.5%.
9.5%
0 5%
IES 2009
IES2009
y
y
g
Whyarebabbit
alloysusedforbearingmaterial?
(a) Theyhaveexcellentembeddability
((b)) Theyarerelativelystrongerthanotherbearing
y
y
g
g
materials
((c)) Theydonotlosestrengthwithincreasein
y
g
temperature
(d) Theyhavehighfatiguestrength
Nichrome
y It consists of 65% nickel,
nickel 15% chromium and 20% iron.
iron
y It has high heat and oxidation resistance.
y It is used in making electrical resistance wire for
electric furnaces and heating elements.
IES 2011
IES2011
Babbit is an alloy of
(a) Sn, Cu, Sb and Pb
(b) Sn and Cu
(c) Sn, Cu and Pb
((d)) Sn,, Cu and Sb
IES 2008
IES2008
g
Whichoneofthefollowingiscorrect?
Babbittareusedfor
((a)) Gears
((b)) Bearings
g
(c) Bolts
(d) Clutchliners
Page 235 of 240
Nimonic
y It consists of 80% nickel and 20% chromium.
y It has high strength and ability to operate under
intermittent heating and cooling conditions.

y It is widely used in gas turbine engines.
IES 1995
IES1995
g
g
Babbit liningisusedonbrass/bronzebearingsto
(a) Increasebearingresistance
((b)) Increasecompressivestrength
p
g
(c) Provideantifrictionproperties
(d) Increasewearresistance.
IES
g
Tinbasewhitemetalsareusedwherethebearings
aresubjectedto
(a) Largesurfacewear
(b) Elevatedtemperatures.
((c)) Lightloadandpressure
g
p
(d) Highpressureandload.
Rev.0
IES 1998
IES1998
IES 2005
IES2005
MatchListI(Alloys)withListII(Applications)and
l
h
h
d
b l
thelists:
ListII
List
ListII
List
II
A. Chromel
1.
Journalbearing
B. Babbit alloyy
2.
Millingcutter
g
C. Nimonic alloy
3.
Thermocouplewire
D. Highspeedsteel
4.
Gasturbineblades
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
1
4
2
(b) 3
4
1
2
( ) 2
(c)
4
1
3
(d) 2
1
4
3
MatchListI(Alloy)withListII(MajorConstituent)
andselectthecorrectanswerusingthecodegiven
d l
h
h
d
belowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
A. Babbitt
1.
Nickel
B. Invar
2.
Tinandlead
C. GunMetal
3.
Aluminium
D. Duralumin
4.
Copper
Code:A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 2
4
1
3
(b) 3
1
4
2
( ) 2
(c)
1
4
3
(d) 3
4
1
2
Col mbi m/Niobi m

Columbium/Niobium
IES 2011
IES2011
y Columbium finds much use in largescale applications,
such
The
h as steel
t l for
f automobile
t
bil bodies
b di and
d pipelines.
i li
Th use
that probably will consume most of the columbium is
microalloying.
y Relatively small amount of columbium lend high strength
to steel. The microalloyed, or highstrenght, lowalloy
(HSLA) steels,
steels are used for automobile bodies,
bodies structures
of all kinds, and highpressure pipe, particulary in the oil
and gas industry.
y Columbium
l b
with
h oxygen as dominant
d
substiutitional
b
l
alloying atoms is used in the nuclear fusion reactor.
y Nuclear material refers to the metals uranium,
uranium plutonium,
plutonium
and thorium, in any form, according to the IAEA
Columbiumisa:
(a)Nuclearmaterial
(b)Automobilematerial
(c)Filmmaterial
( )
(d)Foammaterial
y
y
Ferro electricity
Ferroelectricity
Piezo electricity
Piezoelectricity
y Piezoelectricity, or pressure electricity, is defined as
Nimonic 90
y A precipitation hardenable nickelchromiumcobalt alloy,
y Ferroelectricity is defined as the spontaneous alignment
off electric
by
in
l t i dipoles
di l
b their
th i mutual
t l interaction
i t
ti
i the
th
absence of an applied electric field.
y This arises from the fact that the local field increases in
proportion to the polarization. Thus, ferroelectric
materials must posses permanent dipoles. Ex.: BaTiO3,
Rochelle salt (NaKC4H4O6.4H2O), potassium dihydrogen
phosphate (KH2PO4), potassium niobate (KNbO3).
y These
Th
materials
t i l have
h
extremely
t
l high
hi h dielectric
di l t i constants
t t att
relatively low applied field frequencies.
y Thus,
Thus capacitors made from ferro
ferroelectric
electric materials are
smaller than capacitors made of other dielectric materials.
IES 2007
IES2007
MatchListIwithListIIandselectthecorrectanswerusingthecode
givenbelowtheLists:
ListI
ListII
(Component)
(RequiredProperty)
A.
Bladesofbulldozer
1.
Highwearresistanceand
g
hightoughness
B.
Gasturbineblades
2.
LowYoungsmodulusand
highfatiguestrength
C
C.
Drillbit
3
3.
Highwearandabrasion
resistance
D.
Springsofautomobiles
4.
Highcreepstrengthand
goodcorrosionresistance
Code: A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 3
2
1
4
(b)
1
4
3
2
(b) 3
4
1
2
(d)
1
2
3
4
polarization induced by the application of external force.
y Hence, by reversing the direction of external force, direction
of the field can be reversed i.e. the application of an

external electric field alters the net dipole length and causes
a dimensional change.
y This property is characteristic of materials having
complicated structures with a low degree of symmetry.
symmetry
y Thus, piezoelectric materials can be used as transducers
devices that convert mechanical stress into electrical energy
and
d vice
i versa.
y Application for these materials includes microphones,
ultrasonic generators, sonar detectors, and mechanical
strain
i gauges. Ex.:
E
B i
Barium
titanate,
i
l d titanate,
lead
i
l d
lead
zirconate (PbZrO3), ammoinium dihydrogen phosphate
(NH4H2PO4), and quartz.
Page 236 of 240
having
strength
att
h i high
hi h stressrupture
t
t
t
th and
d creep resistance
i t
elevated temperatures up to about 950 C.
For springs exposed to lower loads,
loads the material can be used
up to 700 C.
Nimonic 9
90 offers g
good resistance to corrosion and is non
magnetic.
Applications include the aircraft industry, gas turbines,
vehicle
h l components and
d springs in high
h h temperature
environments, and thermal.
Operating temperature: 100
100 + 550 C
IES 1993
IES1993
Q
Quartzisa
(a) Ferroelectricmaterial
((b)) Ferromagneticmaterial
g
(c) Piezoelectricmaterial
(d) Diamagneticmaterial
Rev.0
Welding cracks
Weldingcracks
y Cracksmayoccuratthefollowinglocations:
(i)Intheweld(Fuse)MetalZone
(ii)IntheBasemetalzone
(iii)S
(iii)Sometimes,thecracksoriginateinoneZoneand
ti
th
k i i t i
Z
d
thenspreadtotheotherZone.
y Cracksinthebasemetalusuallyoccuratlow
y Coldcrackingcanoccurdueanytothefollowing
temperatures(around200C)andareknownasCold
cracks.
y Ontheotherhand,thecracksintheweldmetalzone
occurwhilethemetalisstillveryhot.Suchcracksare
hil h
li ill
h S h
k
calledHotcracks.
y Cracksintheweldmaybeduetostructuralstressesin
C k i th ld
b d t t t l t
i
themetal(forexample,theformationofmartensite),
heavyshrinkage extrahighamountofsulphur
heavyshrinkage,extrahighamountofsulphur,
phosphorousorcarboninthemetal,excessivelyrigid
clampingofthepartsbeingweldedorthepresenceof
p g
p
g
p
gasesintheweldmetal.
severalfactors: improperweldingconditions,the
presenceofgasandotherimpuritiesintheweld,
f d h i
i i i h ld
wrongchoiceoffillerrodandmetallurgicalfactors
suchasexcessivecoolingrateresultinginthe
formationofmartensiteandformationofbrittle
phasesintheweldwhencoldortheformationof
phaseswhicharebrittleathightemperatures
h
hi h b ittl thi ht
t
[Allotropictransformations].
y Cracksinthebasemetalcanoccurduetothe
followingreasons: Corrosion,Basemetaldefects,
Basemetalcompositionvariations,hydrogen
embrittlement
bi l
andinternalstressessetupdueto
di
l
d
restrainedshrinkingafterwelding.
Contd
IES 2005
IES2005
ot c ac s occu
t e e d a d us o o e as t e
Hotcracksoccurintheweldandfusionzoneasthe
metalsolidifies.Whichofthefollowingarethecauses
forhotcracks?
1. Presenceofsulphur andphosphorusinthebasemetal
2. Highcarbonoralloycontentofthebasemetal
3. Moistureinthejointorelectrode
4. Jointrestraint
l
h
h
d
b l
(a) 1,2and4
(b) 1,2and3
( ) 3and4
(c)
d
(d) 1,2,3and4
d
Contd
H
bi l
dP i i
Hembrittlement
andPassivity
yd oge e b tt e e t isformoffailurethan
s o o a u et a
y Hydrogenembrittlement
corrosion,but occursasaresultofhydrogenproduced
duringcorrosion.Atomichydrogendiffusesintocrystals
andinhibitsdislocationmotion,causingfailure.
di hibi di l
i
i
i f il
y Countermeasures:heattreatment;removalofhydrogen
source.
source
y Passivity:Itisformprotectionagainstcorrosion.Itresults
,
g
y
fromthin,strongadherentoxidelayerformedoverthe
surface.UsuallyobservedinAl,Cr,Fe,Ni,Tiandtheir
alloys.Passivelayersmaygetdamagedduringmechanical
vibrations,andsothesemetalsarepronetoerosion
ib i
d h
l

i
corrosion.
IES 2006
IES2006
Otherquestions
Incaseofpowerscrews,whatisthecombination
ofmaterialsusedforthescrewandthenut?
((a)) Castironscrewandmildsteelnut
(b) Carbonsteelscrewandphosphorbronzenut
(c) Castironscrewandcastironnut
(d) Aluminium screwandalloysteelnut
Page 237 of 240
IES 1992
IES1992
Presenceofhydrogeninsteelcauses
(a) Reducedneutronabsorptioncrosssection
(b)improvedweldability
(c) Embrittlement
(d)corrosionresistance
IES 1992
IES1992
Forthepipefittinglikeelbow,tee,unionetc.
whichofthefollowingispreferred?
((a)) Pigiron
g
(b) Malleableiron
(c) Spheroidal graphitecastiron
(d) Highcarbonsteel
Rev.0
IES 1992
IES1992
g
p yp p
Whichofthefollowingdisplaypropertiessimilar
tothatofsteel
1. Blackheartcastiron
2. Whiteheartcastiron
33. Graycastiron
y
4. Pigiron
((a)) 1and2onlyy
((b)
) 33and4only
4
y
(c) 2and4only
(d) 1and3only
IES 1992
IES1992
g
p
Additionofwhichofthefollowingimproves
machiningofcopper?
(a) Sulphur
(b) Vanadium
((c)) Tin
(d) Zinc
IES 2006
IES2006
p
g
g
Disruptivestrengthisthemaximumstrengthofa
metal,when
(a) Subjectedto3principaltensilestressesatright
anglestooneanotherandofequalmagnitude
(b) Loadedintension
(c) Loadedincompression
(d) Loadedinshear
IAS 1996
IAS1996
IAS 1998
IAS1998
IES 1996
IES1996
h
d
b l
h l
ListI(Cuttingtools)
ListII(Majorconstituent)
A Stellite
A.
l
l.
Tungsten
B. H.S.S.
2.
Cobalt
C. Ceramic
3.
Alumina
D. DCON
4.
Columbium
5.
Titanium
Codes:A B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a) 5
1
3
4
(b)
2
1
4
3
( ) 2
(c)
1
3
4
( )
(d)
2
5
3
4
Whichofthefollowingmethodsaresuitablefor
theproductionofsuperalloys?
1. Atomizationfrommoltenstateusinginertgas.
2. Atomizationusingplasmaarcandrotating
A
i i i l
d
i
electrode.
3 Reductionandcrushing.
3.
Reductionandcrushing
Codes:
(a) 1and2
(b) 2and3
(c) 1and3
(d) 1,2and3
Thelimittothemaximumhardnessofawork
materialwhichcanbemachinedwithHSStools
evenatlowspeedsissetbywhichoneofthe
f ll i
followingtoolfailuremechanisms?
lf il
h i
(a) Attrition
(b) Abrasion
(c) Diffusion
(d) Plasticdeformationundercompression.
GATE 2002
GATE2002
y
g
Theductilityofamaterialwithworkhardening
(a) Increases
(b) Decreases
((c)) Remainsunaffected
((d)) Unpredictable
p
IES 2009
IES2009
p
g yp
Nano compositematerialsarehighlypreferablein
designconsiderationfortheir
(a) Highresistancetocrackpropagation
(b) Vibrationresistance
((c)) Impactresistance
p
(d) Highresilience
Page 238 of 240
IES 1992
IES1992
Machinetoolframeshouldhave
(a) Highrigiditytoweightratio
((b)) Graphiteintheformofnodules
p
(c) Lowhardness
(d) Highworkhardness
Rev.0
GATE 1995
GATE1995
g
Machinetoolstructuresaremade..forhigh
processcapability.(tough/strong/rigid)
IES 2011
IES2011
Materialswhichshowdirectiondependentpropertiesare
called:
(a)Homogeneous
(b)Viscoelastic
(c)Isotropic
(d)Anisotropic
IES 2009
IES2009
gp
p p y
Whichoneofthefollowingpossessestheproperty
ofnonsparking character?
(a) Hadfield'smanganesesteel (b) Springsteel
(c) Stellite
(d) Invar
IES 2011
IES2011
Lead is widely used in:
(a) Transformers
g
(b) Switch gear
(c) Galvanized pipes
((d)) Batteries
JWM 2010
JWM2010
Considerthefollowingpropertiesofengineering
materials
1.Density
2.Conductivity
C d ti it
3.Elasticity
4.Hardness
H d
5.Ductility
Whichofthesearemechanicalpropertiesofa
material?
( ) d l (b) d
(a)1,2and4only(b)1,2,3and4
(c)3,4and5(d)2,4and5
IES 2011
IES2011
ListI
A.System
y
1.Freeenergyisaminimum
gy
B.Phase
2.Chemicalelementsorchemical
compounds
3.Consistsofsolids,liquidsorgassesortheir
combination
4.Homogeneousportionofasystemthat
hasuniformphysicalcharacteristics
C
D
A
B
C
D
C.Phase
equilibrium
D.Components
Codes
A
(a) 2
(c) 2
GATE2005
When
off a solid
Wh the
th temperature
t
t
lid metal
t l increases
i
(a) Strength of the metal decreases but ductility
increases
(b) Both strength and ductility of the metal decrease
( ) Both
(c)
B th strength
t
th and
d ductility
d tilit off the
th metal
t l increase
i
(d) Strength of the metal increases but ductility
decreases
ListII
IAS1998
Magnesiumisextrudedandnotrolledbecause
M
i
i t d d d t ll db
(a) Ithasalowmeltingpoint
(b) Ithasalowdensity
I h l d i
(c) Itsreactivitywithrollmaterialishigh
( ) Ithasadosepackedhexagonalstructure
(d)
Page 239 of 240
B
1
4
4
1
3
3
(b)
(d)
3
3
1
4
4
1
2
2
IES 2011
IES2011
ListI
ListII
A.Elasticityy
1.Deformnonelasticallywithoutfracture
y
B.Malleability
2.Undergoplasticdeformationundertensile
load
3.Undergoplasticdeformationunder
compressiveload
4.Returntoitsoriginalshapeonunloading
C.Ductility
D.Plasticity
Codes
A
B
(a) 1
2
(c) 1
3
C
3
2
D
4
4
(b)
(d)
A
4
4
B
2
3
Rev.0
C
3
2
D
1
1
IES 2011
IES2011
Injection moulding process used to produce
thermoplastic matrix composites with fibre
reinforcement normally gives:
( ) Short
(a)
h fibre
f b composites
(b) Two layer structure composites
(c) Continuous fibre composites
(d) Single layer composites
IES 2011
IES2011
Assertion (A) : Solid solutions of metal are
crystall whose
properties
to those
off
h
i are close
l
h
the solvent.
Reason (R) : They retain the same crystal lattice
and type of bond.
the
l
i off A
(d) A is
i false
f l but
b t R is
i true
t
JWM 2010
JWM2010
IES 2010
IES2010
Assertion(A):Electricarcfurnacecanbeusedfor
acidandbasicmethodofsteelmaking.
acidandbasicmethodofsteelmaking
Reason(R):Impuritiesareeliminatedextensively
inacidareprocess.
inacidareprocess
Consider the following:

1. Water
2. Ice
3. Brine solution
4 Oil
4.
Which of these is/are used as quenching
media
di in
i case off Alloy
All steels?
l ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4 only
(d) Only
Page 240 of 240
IES 2010
IES2010
The correct statement is
(a) Characteristic of any series of alloys cannot be
found by phase diagram.
(b) Phase diagram does not give amount of
phases which are a function of composition,
p
p
,
temperature and pressure.
(c) The phase may be liquid or vapour with
ordered crystal structure.
(d) Phase diagram provides the information on
how rapidly equilibrium is reached.
The End
TheEnd
Rev.0

Conventional All To Read For IES

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conventional All To Read For IES

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

4/1/2015

Three types of flames can be obtained by varying

Oxy-acetylene gas welding neutral flame

IES 2009 Conventional

applications of each type of flame.

A higher ratio, such as 1.5 : 1, produces an oxidizing

Oxy-acetylene gas welding Oxidising flame

Excess fuel, on the other hand, produces a carburizing

Oxy-acetylene gas welding Carburizing flame

Always use the special wrench or key provided by the

supplier to open and close acetylene cylinder valves

Five gases used for gas welding

Acetelyne (C2H2) gives 50 MJ/Kg

Hydrogen (H2) 11 MJ/m3

4. Propylene (THERMOLENE) C3H6

Combustion of oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) in a

For thicker plates with specified contour, shearing

Oxygen Torch Cutting (Gas Cutting)

For complete oxidation 0.287 m3 oxygen/kg of iron is

The drag lines shows the characteristics of the movement

of the oxygen stream.

Due to unoxidized metal blown away the actual

Drag is the amount by which the lower edge of the drag

line trails from the top edge.

If torch moved too rapidly, the bottom does not get

Gas cutting is more useful with thick plates.

Fig. Recommended torch position for cutting thin steel

Low Hydrogen Electrode

What is meant by low -hydrogen electrode ?

The basic coatings contain large amount of

Required duty cycle, Ta T

The overall resistance in the welding circuits can be

quite low, high currents are generally required to

may utilize single-phase circuitry. Time for a cycle will

condition must be maintained

Fig. The arrangement of the electrodes and the work in spot

Dimples are embossed on work pieces at the weld

Projections are press-formed in any shape.

platen and other with is fixed platen.

Two pieces are brought together and the power supply is

For Butt joint only

Heat is generated from the are as the ends of the two

members begin to make contact. An axial force is

Current and Voltage

Current very low (1 to 10 A)

2. Voltage very high ( 10 kV to 1500 kV)

IES 2007 Conventional

Machine is similar to a centre lathe.

Heat is obtained by the friction between the ends of

the two parts to be joined.

Power requirements 25 kVA to 175 kVA.

One part is rotated at a high speed and other part is

axially aligned and pressed tightly against it.

hardness of the metals being joined.

Friction raises the temperature of both the ends. Then

MPa for alloy steels.

rotation is stopped abruptly and the pressure is

Fig- friction welding process

Plasma Arc Weld (PAW)

constricted by a water-cooled orifice

molecules, and ionize them.

the metal, and blasts the molten metal away.

Welding design and defect