CHAPTER 8

HEAT TRANSFER IN TURBULENT FLOW

8.1. Introduction to Turbulence

Unlike laminar flow, the fluid particles do not move along a smooth path. All components of
the velocity field will undergo changes with time as depicted in Figure 8.1. In order to prepare
a mathematical model for analyzing the velocity field and transport of energy, it is customary to
define a mean velocity as

Velocity, u

1
u lim

t / 2

(8.1)

u dt

t / 2

u'

Time, t
Figure 8.1. A schematic of the temporal variation of velocity
In general, all three components of velocity at a point are time dependent. Therefore, the
other components of velocity also suffer similar changes. It is appropriate to let u u u ,
v v v , w w w , p p p , and T T T prior to substitution in the equations

u v w

x y z

2u 2u 2u
u
u
p
u

u
v
w
X

x
x 2 y 2 z 2
y
z
x

2
2
2
v

v
v
p
v v v
v
w Y

u
x 2 y 2 z 2
y
z
y
x

2
2
2

u w v w w w Z p w w w
x 2 y 2 z 2
y
z
z
x

2
2
2
T T T
T
T
T

c
u

x 2 y 2 z 2
x
y
z

(8.2)

After substation, the momentum equations take the form,

(u u ) (v v ) ( w w)

z
y
x

(u u ) (u u ) (v v ) (u u ) ( w w) (u u ) X ( p p ) 2 (u u )

x
x
y
z

(u u ) (v v ) (v v ) (v v ) ( w w) (v v ) Y ( p p ) 2 (v v )

y
z
y
x


( w w)
( w w)
( w w)
( p p )
(u u )
(v v )
( w w)
2 ( w w)
Z

x
y
z
z

(T T )
(T T )
(T T )
2

(v v )
( w w)
c p (u u )
k (T T )

x
y
z

(8.3)

Meanwhile, the substitution of u u u , v v v , w w w in the continuity equation

results in the relation
u v w u v w

0
x y z x y z

(8.4)

Now, the definition of averaging used in Eq. (1) can be extended to include any function or the
entire equation, e.g., in equation

1 t t / 2
dt
t t t t / 2

lim

(8.5)

where can stand for the entire left side of Eq. (8.4). Accordingly, one gets u v w 0,
and then Eq. (8.4) becomes

u v w

0
x y z

(8.6)

If Eq. (8.6) is subtracted from Eq. (8.4), the results

u v w

0
x y
z

(8.7)

Now, if from Eq. (8.5) is to represent the entire right side and left side of Eq. (8.3), the
momentum equations, following averaging and some algebra, reduces to
u 2 u v u w
u
u
u
p

X 2u
u
v
w

y
z
x
y
z
x
x

(8.8a)

u v v 2 vw
v
p
v
v

2 v

u
v
w Y
y
y
z
y
z
x
x

(8.8b)

u w vw w 2
w
p
w
w

Z
2 w

v
w
u
z
y
z
y
z
x
x

(8.8c)

During the algebraic steps leading to Eq. (8.8a), the following identities,
v

v (u w' )
w
u (u v )
u

u
u
w
z
y
y
z
y
z

v w
(u v ) (u w' )

u
y
z
y z

(u v ) (u w' )
u

u
x
z
y

(8.9a)

results in the relation

u

u
u (u v ) (u w' )
u
u
u

u
u
w
v
x
x
y
z
z
y
x
u 2 (u v ) (u w' )

y
z
x

(8.9b)

Similar relations were used in the derivation of Eqs. (8.8b-c) and the accumulated effect of this
procedure shows that the last terms on the right side of Eq. (8.8a-c) are related to the stress
tensor

yx
zx

xy
y
zy

2 u v u w
xz u

yz u v v 2 v w

z u w v w w2

(8.10)

These are called apparent or virtual stresses of turbulent flow. Also, they are called Reynolds
stresses. As an example, for a turbulent flow

x p 2

u
u
x p 2
u 2
x
x

(8.11a)

and
u v
xy
u v
y x

(8.11b)

Similar modifications apply to other stress components.

For two-dimensional boundary-layer flow with no body force, the x-component of the
momentum equation reduces
u 2 u v
u
p
2u
u

u
v

2

y
x
x
y
y

(8.12)

Furthermore, one can assume

u 2
u v

x
y
and neglect the term u 2 / x . However, for a better accuracy, this component of the Reynolds
stresses should be retained.
J. Boussinesq [1] in (1877) proposed a simplified relation for turbulent stress in the
boundary layer flow, that is,
t (u v ) m

u
y

(8.13)

where m is the turbulent diffusivity for momentum. This is a useful equation for heat transfer
calculations. Prandtl proposed a similar relation
t (u v ) 2
The factor

u u

y y

(8.14)

u
y

forces the turbulent shear stress to the same sign as the velocity gradient.
8.2. Universal Velocity Profile

In order to simplify the computation of velocity in a turbulent flow, von Krmn

subdivided the entire velocity profile into three regions,
1. Laminar sub-layer,
2. Buffer layer,
3. Turbulent core.
In the laminar sub-layer, flow is laminar and turbulent shear stress components have no direct
influence. In the turbulent core, where m , the flow is fully turbulent. In the buffer layer,
the flow changes gradually from laminar to turbulent.
For the flow in turbulent core, von Krmn [2] considered m to have the following form
m 2

(u / y ) 3
( 2 u / y 2 ) 2

(8.15)

where is a dimensionless constant to be determined. Furthermore, it is assumed that the local

shear stress = l t is independent of the y-coordinate, therefore,

u
u
m
w
y
y

(8.16)

where w is the shear stress at the wall. After neglecting the laminar component of shear stress
within the turbulent core and after replacing m , the following relation is obtained,
w 2

(u / y ) 4
( 2 u / y 2 ) 2

(8.17)

that can be rewritten as

2
2
u / y

(u / y )
Integration of this equation yields

w /

(8.18)

1
y

c1
u / y
w /

(8.19)

Neglecting the constant of integration c1 as being small, this equation can take the following
form
2 2 u

w y
y

(8.20a)

or

w /

du

dy
y

(8.20b)

Following integration,
u
w /

1
ln y c2

(8.21)

Defining the dimensionless parameters

u

u
w /

u
v

where v Shear Velocity

(8.22)

and

y y w /

(8.23a)

results in the relation

u

1
ln y c

(8.23b)

where c is a new constant. The experimental data under various conditions show that c 5.5
and 0.4 that yields the relation
u 5.5 2.5 ln y

(8.24)

for velocity profile in the turbulent core [2].

Within the laminar sub-layer, where velocity changes linearly with y, then w (u / y ) .
The velocity distribution is linear and has the form u w y / . The equation can be written in
the following form
/
y
1
w
y w

w /
w /
u

(8.25a)

or
u y

(8.25b)

Also, von Krmn suggests using equation

u 3.05 5.0 ln y

(8.26)

for flow in the buffer layer.

For the buffer layer, Deissler [3] developed a relation using the same parameters and
considered
w

u
u
u
m
(1 m / )
y
y
y

(8.27a)

that reduces to the following form

1 (1 m / )
where

(8.27b)

m / n 2 u y 1 exp( n 2 u y )

(8.27c)

The terms inside of square brackets are important for heat transfer calculation in fluids with
large Prandtl numbers. Deissler [3] suggests using n=0.125, for best results, when y 26 . He
derived a relation
u 3.8 2.78 ln y

(8.28)

A similar equation

m / 2 ( y ) 2 1 exp( y / A

2 uy

(8.29)

has been proposed by van Driest [4] with =0.4 and A 26 . The parameter u as a function
of y for the three regimes is plotted in the Fig. 8.2.

40

30

Laminar
Sub-Layer

Turbulent Core

Buffer
Layer

20

10

u =y
+
+
u = 3.8+2.78 ln(y )
+
+
u = 5.5+2.5 ln(y )

0
0 2 3

10

10

1 2 3

2 2 3

10
+

3 2 3

10

4 2

10

Figure 8.2. Three correlation functions for laminar the sub-layer, buffer layer,
and turbulent core.
8.3. Heat Transfer in Turbulent Flow

For heat transfer computation, one can introduce a dimensionless quantity

T

(Tw T )c p w /
qw

(8.30)

As for the shear stress, the heat flux is q= qw and it remains approximately a constant within
laminar sub-layer, buffer layer, and turbulent core. Then the equation
q ql qt
T
T
k
c p H
qw
y
y
is written in dimensionless form as
1
T
1 m

Pr Prt y

where Prt m / H . The integration of this equation over y from 0 to y is

(8.31)

(8.32)

dy
T

1
0
m
Pr Prt
and the integration must be performed numerically.

(8.33)

8.4. Calculation of Heat Flux

One can use the computed values of u and T to compute heat transfer coefficient in
turbulent boundary layer. According to standard definitions, e.g., for flow in a pipe with
diameter D=2R, qw h(Tw Tb ) and Nu D hD / k and they can be combined to produce

2 qw R
k (Tw Tb )

Nu D
Furthermore, after defining

(8.34)

R R w /

(8.35)

and
Tb

(Tw Tb )c p w /
qw

(8.36)

one can get

2 R Pr

Nu D

(8.37)

Tb

Using the definition of bulk temperature,

R

Tw Tb

u (Tw T ) rdr
R

r u dr

u (Tw T )( R y )dy
R 2 u mean

(8.38)

the following relation is obtained

Tb

u mean
(R ) 2

u T ( R y )dy

(8.39)

According to Eq. (8.37), the Nusselt number is readily available once the value of Tb is

and subsequently Tb and then

known. An integration scheme can produce umean

Nu D 2 R Pr/ Tb . However, umean

is indirectly obtainable from the relation

Re D 2 R umean
. Deissler analytically performed the integration and provided the value of

Tb and subsequently a relation for the Nu D as

Nu D

2n

Re D Pr1 / 4

(8.40)

where n=0.109. This makes

St

2n

Pr 3 / 4

(8.41)

8.5. Comparison of Different Turbulence Models

Using estalished definition of turbulence parameters Gharaiban [6] used variational

method to calculate pressure drop and heat transfer for turbulent flow in ducts. He compared
Van Driest model with experimental data and incorporated the result in the numerical
simulations. The computed velocity profiles, pressure drop, and heat transfer coefficient are
compared with the experimental data of various investigators for fully developed turbulent flow
in parallel plate ducts, and pipes.
A wind-tunnel experiment was set up to compare the experimental velocity data with
selected turbulence models. In [6, 7], the Van Driest (1956), Reichardt, Spalding, and PrandtlTaylor models are chosen for comparison; except for the Prandtl-Taylor model, a single
equation describes the velocity field over the entire boundary layer. A hot-wire anemometer
was used to obtain experimental data for boundary-layer flow over a flat plate in x-direction.
Figure 8.3 compares the measured velocity with the turbulence models mentioned earlier. All
of these models are satisfactory; however, a continuous model is sought that provides good
agreement with the experimental data at the near-wall region. The Van Driest model was
selected because of good prediction of turbulence near the wall. The Van Driest model is solely
a function of y ; therefore, it considerably simplifies the numerical calculations and enhances
the accuracy of the results. According to the Van Driest model, the turbulent viscosity is given
as
t 2 y 2 1 exp( y / A )

u
y

(8.42)

where is the von Krmn constant that is defined later and A 28. Rearranging the above
equation, the effective viscosity can be written as
e

1/ 2
2
1

1 1 4 2 ( y ) 2 1 exp y / A
2

10

(8.43)

25
20

u+

15
Re = 1.5 x 106
Re = 1.0 x 106
Van Driest Model
Reichardt Model
Spalding Model
Prandtl-Taylor Model

10
5
0 0
10

3 4

101

3 4

y+

102

3 4

103

Figure 8.3. A comparison of experimental data and theoretical models for

Variation of u as a function of y .
8.6. The k- Model in Turbulent Flow

The parameter k is known as turbulence energy [8] defined by the relation

k

The parameter

1 2
2
2
u v w

(8.44)

k corresponds to mean speed scale and then m is modeled by the relation

m c k 1 / 2 L

(8.45)

where c is a dimensionless constant and L is an unknown length scale. The length L is

analogous to the mean free path in molecular gas theory where the kinematic viscosity is
computed from the relation

1
a
3

11

(8.46)

in which a is the mean speed of molecules and is the mean free path. The relation
m c k 1 / 2 L was proposed by Kolmogorov and Prandlt independently. A differential

equation to compute k is [9]

2

u
Dk
m k

Dt y k y
y

(8.47)

where k is a constant. The term Dk / Dt describes the contribution of convection,

[( m / k )k / y ] / y is due to diffusion, m (u / y ) 2 is a generation term, and represents
the rate of destruction of k and it takes a place of a sink term (a source with a negative sign).
For a small volume element of a fluid oscillating with velocity a k 1 / 2 in a turbulent flow
field, the drag force FD is
FD C D L2 (k 1 / 2 ) 2

(8.48)

where C D is the drag coefficient, C D ~1. The power dissipated per unit volume is the product
of force FD and velocity k 1 / 2 and, per unit mass, it becomes
~

CDL2 (k1 / 2 )2 k1 / 2 CD (k1 / 2 )3

L3

(8.49)

This is related to , that is

CDk 3 / 2

(8.50)

The following equation is proposed for the computation of ,

2

u
2
D m

c1 m
c2

Dt y y
k
y k

(8.51)

where , c1 , and c2 are dimensionless constants. Using the relations

m c k 1 / 2 L

C k 3/ 2
D

(8.52)

with C D 1 , one can eliminate L to get

m c

12

k2

(8.53)

Based on empirical observations, the following constants are suggested, c 0.09 , c1 1.44 ,
c2 1.92 , k 1 , and 1.3 . They are suggested for plane jet flow and for turbulent

boundary layer computations.

In summary, The momentum and energy equation in turbulent flow substantially differ
from those for laminar flow. Additional information as to other aspects of turbulence are
available in [10-12].
Exercise 1. When the Reynolds analogy is valid in turbulent flow, that is

h~

1
Cf
2

Show that the heat transfer coefficient h is related to friction factor C f .

Exercise 2. The estimation of eddy diffusivity for momentum, m , in turbulent flow over a flat

plate is desirable. Using von Krmns turbulence model, calculate m when y 40 and
100. In the buffer layer the value of m should be different from that in the turbulent core.
What would the value m be in the buffer layer, e.g., at y 15 .
Solution: The simple way to solve this problem is to use Eq. (8.27b),

1 (1 m / )

u
y

In turbulent core it becomes,

1 ( m / )

u
y

and using Eq. (8.24), u / y 2.5 / y . This results in m y / 2.5 16 when y 40

and m 100 / 2.5 40 when y 100 . There are different models for the buffer layer, e.g.,
using the Deissler Equation (8.28), u / y 2.78 / y and for y 15 , it gives
m ( y / 2.78 1) 4.4 while Eq. (8.26) yields m (16 / 5 1) 2 .

Exercise 3. For parallel flow over a flat plate, write the momentum and energy integral

equations in the dimensionless form; u , y , T , etc.

13

Exercise 4. Based on the Reynolds analogy between the coefficients of wall shear and heat

transfer, show that

cp
q

m d u
H dT

When the molecular and turbulent Prandtl numbers are having unit values and
du / dT cons tan t , show that

wc p

qw

T Tw u uw

and state your assumptions.

Exercise 5. Assuming the Stanton number is St=h/ ( u c p ) =0.5 C f where C f = w u2 2

and v is of the order of u , derive a relation for the heat transfer coefficient, h , as a function
of

u 2 u when u constant .

Exercise 6. It is common to use a von Krmn type analysis to determine the velocity and

temperature field in a turbulent flow. When a fluid that flowing over a flat plate is a liquid
metal with a very small Prandtl number, this leads to a significant simplification of the
temperature solution in the turbulent boundary layer. Find a relation for heat flux in a turbulent
flow of a liquid metal when Pr is very small.

References

1. J. Boussinesq, Theori de lecoulement toubrbillant, Mem. Pres. Acad. Sci., Vol. 23, Paris,
46, 1877.
2. T. von Krmn., The Analogy Between Fluid Friction and Heat and Heat Transfer, Trans.
ASME, Vol. 61, 1939, p. A-541.
3. R. G. Deissler, Transaction of ASME, Volume 73, Page 101 (1951) and Volume 76, 1954, P.
73.
4. E. R. Van Driest, J. Aero Sci, Vol. 23, 1956, p. 1007.
5. E. R. Van Driest, On Turbulent Flow Near a Wall, J. Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 23, 1956,
pp. 1007-1012.
6. N. Ghariban, Turbulent Flow and Heat Transfer in Ducts, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Arlington, 1994.

14

7. N. Ghariban, A. Haji-Sheikh, and S. M. You, Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer in Turbulent
Duct Flow: A Two-Parameter Variational Method, ASME JHT, Vol. 117, No. 2, 1995, pp. 289295.
8. G. D. Raithby and G. E. Schneider, Elliptic systems: finite Difference Method II, Chapter 7
in Handbook of Numerical Heat Transfer, First Edition, Wiley, 1988, P. 281.
9. A, Bejan, Convection Heat Transfer, Wiley, 1984.
10. E. R. G. Eckert and R. M. Drake, Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1972.
11. H. Schlichting, Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
12. L. C. Burmeister, Convective Heat Transfer, Wiley, 1993

15